SKELETAL SYSTEM c.

Bone substance – EM and cells

§ It consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons and
ligaments. Histology of Bone
§ Skeleton; dried (Greek) Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and remodeling
of bone
Functions (S2PMB)
1. Support Osteocytes – bone cells located between the lamellae
2. Protection (thins sheets of EM)
3. Movement
4. Storage Lacunae – spaces within the lamellae
5. Blood cell production
Canaliculi – tiny canals within the lamellae
Extracellular Matrix
§ Composed of connective tissues Types of Bone Tissue
a. Compact bone
Collagen – tough ropelike protein § Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones
§ Central Canal / Haversian Canal – concentric
Proteoglycans – large molecules consisting of rings that contains blood vessels; ‘bull’s eye’
polysaccharides attached to core proteins § Osteon / Haversian System – central canal +
lamellae + osteocytes
Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of collagen fiber
b. Spongy bone
Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans § Located mainly in the epiphyses of long bones
§ Forms the interior of all other bones
Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium & § Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting rods,
Phosphate) plates of bone) without central canals

Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals Bone Ossification

Ossification – formation of bone by osteoblasts
General Features of Bone
§ Long bones; upper and lower limbs Types of Ossification
§ Short bones; wrist and ankle a. Intramembranous ossification – osteoblasts
§ begin to produce bone in connective tissue
§ Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial bones Ø Ossification centers – where
intramembranous ossification begins
Long Bones
a) Diaphysis – central shaft b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation
b) Epiphysis – ends occurs inside the cartilage; bones at the base of
c) Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where the the skull and remaining skeletal system are
bone grows in length formed
Ø Chondrocytes – cartilage cells; increase
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the epiphyses in no., enlarge, and die

Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and the epiphyseal Primary ossification center – where bone first begins to
plate is replaced by bone appear

Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the diaphysis;
contains the marrow
Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity
Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue (fat)
Red Marrow – consists of bone forming cells; site of
blood formation
Layers of a Bone
a. Periosteum – outermost layer; surround the
diaphysis; contain blood vessels, nerves,
osteoblasts
b. Endosteum – innermost layer; lines the
medullary cavity (thinner connective tissue)
Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified cartilage matrix
Secondary ossification center – form in the epiphyses
Bone Growth
§ Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone
§ Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate;
leads to increase in height (endochondral
ossification)
§ Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die, and are
replaced by bone
Appositional growth – increase in bone width or
diameter

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Bone Remodeling AXIAL SKELETON
§ Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts § Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and
§ Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts thoracic cage
§ Responsible for change in bone shape, bone § Form the longitudinal axis of the body
adjustment, repair, and calcium ion regulation
I. Skull
Bone Repair § 22 bones
§ Clot is formed in the damaged area
§ Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and form Braincase
a callus (network of fibers and islets of cartilage) § 8 bones
§ Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a spongy § Covers and protects the fragile brain tissue
bone
§ Bone is slowly remodeled to compact bone 1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony projections
under the eyebrow, part of the eye’s orbit
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis  
§ Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood calcium 2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the superior and
levels increases lateral walls of the cranium; coronal suture
§ Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood calcium
levels decrease 4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies inferior to
the parietal bone; squamous suture
Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis Ø External Auditory Meatus (EAM) – a
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) canal that leads to the eardrum and the
§ Parathyroid gland; middle ear
§ Increase bone breakdown & increase blood Ø Styloid process – a sharp, needlelike
calcium levels; structure located inferior to the EAM
§ Stimulates the kidneys to from active vitamin D Ø Zygomatic process – a bridge of bone
that joins with the cheekbone anteriorly
2. Calcitonin Ø Mastoid Process – a rough projection
§ Thyroid gland posterior and inferior to the EAM
§ Decrease bone breakdown and decrease blood
calcium levels 6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone
of the cranium; lambdoid suture
General Considerations of Bone Anatomy Ø Foramen magnum – where the spinal
§ 206 bones = adult cord joins the brain
§ 276 bones = newborn baby Ø Occipital condyles –rests on the first
vertebra of the vertebral column
Foramen – hole in a bone Ø Foramen ovale – allows the fiber of
cranial nerve 5 to pass
Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a tunnel like body
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped bone that
Fossa – depression in a bone spans the width of the skull
Ø Sella Turtica – saddle-shaped structure
Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a bone at the central region; contains the
pituitary gand
Process – projection from a bone
8. Ethmoid Bone –   irregularly shaped bone that
Condyle – end of a bine that forms a joint with another lies anterior to the sphenoid bone
bone
Facial bones
Facet – small flattened articular surface § 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1 movable
(mandible)
Crest – prominent ridge § Holds the facial muscles in place
§ Joined together by sutures (interlocking,
Trochanter – tuberosity found only on proximal femur immovable)
Fissure – cleft 1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face; carries
the upper teeth
Sinus – cavity
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the
Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the skull palatine processes of the maxilla

5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones

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 7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming part of the Ø Vertebral canal – where the spinal cord is
medial wall of each orbit located; protects the spinal cord from injury

9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the bridge Ø Intervertebral foramina – where spnal nerves
of the bone exit the spinal cord

11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin curved Ø Articular process – where the vertebra articulate
bones projecting from the lateral wall of the with each other
nasal cavity
Ø Articular facet – smooth ‘little face’
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the median of
the nasal cavity Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae – very small bodies,
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely movable dislocation and fractures are common int his
joint of the face area
Ø Atlas – 1st CV; holds up the head; ‘yes’ shaking
Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; provides attachment to Ø Axis – 2nd CV; considerable amount of rotation;
tongue muscles; elevates the larynx during speech and ‘no’ shaking
swallowing
v Dens – where the rotation occurs
II. Vertebral Column
2. Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin spinous
§
Central axis of the skeleton processes; articulate the ribs
§
26 individual bones;
Ø 7 cervical vertebrae 3. Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick bodies; heavy,
Ø 12 thoracic vertebrae rectangular transverse + spinous processes;
Ø 5 lumbar vertebrae carry large amount of weight; ruptured
Ø 1 sacral bone intervertebral disks are common
Ø 1 coccyx bone
Functions 4. Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in one
1. Supports the weight of the head and the trunk. Ø Median Sacral Crest – spinous process of the 1st
2. Protects the spinal cord. four SV
3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord. Ø Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the sacrum; the
4. Site for muscle attachment. 5th process of the SV that does not form;
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk. common side of caudal anesthetic injections
Ø Sacral Promontory – anterior edge of the 1sy SV
Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback that bulges; landmark felt during vaginal
examination; reference point in vaginal delivery
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback condition of a baby
Scoliosis – lateral curvature 5. Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or more/less
fused vertebrae; easily broken
General Plan of the Vertebral Column
Body – weight-bearing portion III. Rib Cage
Ø Intervertebral disks body – separates the § Also called the thoracic cage
vertebral bodies § Protects the vital organs
§ Prevents thorax collapse during respiration
Ø Vertebral arch – surrounds the vertebral
foramen 1. Rib Cage
v 2 Pedicles – extends from the body to § 12 pair of ribs
the transverse process Ø 1 – 7 true ribs (attached directly to the sternum)
v 2 Laminae – extends from the transverse Ø 8 – 12 false ribs (do not attach directly to the
to the spinous process sternum)
v Provides attachment sites for the muscles v 11 – 12 floating ribs (do not attach to
that move the vertebral column; the sternum)
• Transverse process – extends
laterally bet. the lamina and 2. Sternum
pedicle § Also called the breastbone
• Spinous process – projects Ø Jugular notch – a depression bet. the ends of the
dorsally where the two laminae clavicles where they articulate with the sternum
meet Ø Sternal angle – a slight elevation felt at the
junction of the manubrium and the sternum;
Ø Vertebral foramen – a large opening important landmark bcos it identifies the 2nd rib

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Ø Xiphoid process – important landmark of the 4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to the
sternum during CPR carpal bones
Ø Phalanges – 3 small bones on each finger
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
§ 126 bones III. Pelvic Girdle
§ Consists of the bones of the upper and lower § Where lower limbs attach to the body
limbs, as well as the girdles
Coxal bones – hip bones; join each other anteriorly and
I. Pectoral Girdle the sacrum posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the
§ Also called the shoulder girdle pelvic girdle
§ Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2 clavicles Ø Ilium – most superior
Ø Ischium – inferior and posterior; sit down bone
1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where muscles Ø Pubis – inferior and anterior
extending to the arm are attached
Iliac crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilim
2. Glenoid cavity – 4th fossa; where the head of the Ø Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – important hip
humerus connects to the scapula landmark; anterior end of the iliac crest
Ø Spine – a ridge that runs across the posterior
surface fo the scapula Pubic symphysis – where coxal bones join anteriorly
Ø Sacroiliac joints – joins the sacrum posteriorly
3. Acromion process – extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the shoulder Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint

4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the Obturator foramen – large hole in each coxal bone
scapula art the acromion process
Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim and the sacral
5. Coracoid process – provides for the attachment promontory
of arm and chest muscles
Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial spines, pubic
II. Upper Limb symphysis, and coccyx
1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the elbow;
contains the humerus; has two tubercles: greater Male pelvis: larger and massive; Female pelvis; broader
tubercle and lesser tubercle
Ø Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid muscle IV. Lower Limbs
attaches 1. Thigh – region bet. the hip and the knee;
Ø Epicondyles – provide attachment sites for contains the femur
forearm muscles Ø Head of the femur – articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal bone
2. Forearm Ø Condyles – articulates with the tibia
Ø Radius – lateral to the thumb Ø Epidondyles – points of ligaments attachments
v Radial tuberosity – where the arm Ø Trochanters – lateral to the head after the neck
muscles (biceps brachii) attaches Ø Patella – knee cap; enables the tendon to bend
Ø Ulna – medial to the little finger over the knee
v Trochlear notch – forms most of the
elbow joint 2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the ankle
v Coronoid process – helps complete the Ø Tibia – shinbone; larger; major weight-bearing
grip of the ulna bone of the leg; medial malleolus
v Olecranon process – extension of the Ø Fibula – thin and sticklike that forms the lateral
ulna side of the leg; lateral malleolus
v Styloid process – articulates with the
bones of the wrist 3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones
Ø Talus – ankle bone
3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the Ø Calcaneus – heel bone
hand; 8 carpal bones (SLTPHCTT) Ø Cuboid
Ø Scaphiod Ø Navicular
Ø Lunate Ø Cuneiforms; medial, intermediate, lateral
Ø Triquetrum
Ø Pisiform 4. Foot
Ø Hamate Ø Metatarsal bones and phalanges – arranged
Ø Capitate and numbered in a similar manner to the hand
Ø Trapezoi Ø Has 3 primary arches
Ø Trapezium

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JOINTS Types
§ Also called an articulation 1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat
§ Where two bones come together surfaces that glide over each other

a. Synarthrosis joints – non-movable 2. Saddle Joints – two saddle shaped articulating

surfaces oriented at right angles; joint bet. the
b. Amphiarthrosis joints – slight movable metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the
thumb
c. Diarthrosis – freely movable
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane
I. Fibrous Joints only; elbow and knee joints
§ 2 bones that are united by fibrous tissue Ø Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
§ Exhibit little or no movement
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull; squamous, around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the
lambdoid, coronal axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and
Ø Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in a radius
newborn
5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball (head)
2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by some and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
distance and held together by ligaments; FB
connecting the radius and ulna 6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball and
socket joints; joint bet. the occipital condyles
3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into sockets (skull) and the atlas (vertebral column); joints
and held in place by ligaments; joint bet. a tooth bet. the metacarpals and phalanges
and its socket
Types of Movement
II. Cartilaginous Joints 1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
§ Unites two bones by means of cartilage frontal/coronal plane
§ Slight movement can occur Ø Plantar flexion – when standing on the toes
§ Epiphyseal plates of growing long bones Ø Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the
§ Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in a
§ Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the
posterior direction
intervertebral disks
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane
III. Synovial Joints
4. Abduction – movement away from the median
§ Freely movable joints plane
§ Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends 5. Adduction – movement toward the median
of articulating bones plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the
Articulating cartilage – thin layer that covers the palm is down
articular surfaces of bones w/in the synovial joints 7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm faces up
Joint cavity – filled with fluid 8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so
that the sole faces in a lateral direction
Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps hold the 9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that the
bones together and allows for movement sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity everywhere around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in sequence of
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers the the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
surfaces of the joint 12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Structures that rub 14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced extension of
together a joint beyond its normal range of motion
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often results to
abrasion

Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some tendons

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