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by H. Moyses Nussenzveig
s
contribute to the rainbow. but there are such droplets would be uniformly bright Theodoric and Descartes.
infinitely many other paths that direct at all angles. In a sky filled with real
the light elsewhere. Why. then. is the water droplets the same total illumina o far we have ignored one of the most
scattered intensity enhanced in the vi tion is available. but it is redistributed. conspicuous features of the rain
cinity of the rainbow angle? It is a ques Most parts of the sky are dimmer than bow: its colors. They were explained. of
tion Theodoric did not consider; an an they would be with uniform scattering. course. by Newton. in his prism experi
swer was first provided by Descartes. but in the vicinity of the rainbow angle ments of 1666. Those experiments dem
By applying the laws of reflection and there is a bright arc. tapering off gradu onstrated not only that white light is a
refraction at each point where a ray ally on the lighted side and more sharply mixture of colors but also that the re
strikes an air-water boundary. Des on the dark side. The secondary bow is a fractive index is different for each color.
cartes painstakingly computed the paths similar intensity highlight. except that it the effect called dispersion. It follows
of many rays incident at many impact is narrower and all its features are dim that each color or wavelength of light
parameters. The rays of Class 3 are of mer. In the Cartesian theory the region must have its own rainbow angle; what
predominating importance. When the between the bows is distinctly darker we observe in nature is a collection of
impact parameter is zero. these rays are than the sky elsewhere; if only rays of monochromatic rainbows. each one
scattered through an angle of 180 de Class 3 and Class 4 existed. it would be slightly displaced from the next.
grees. that is. they are backscattered quite black. From his measurements of the refrac
toward the sun. having passed through The Cartesian rainbow is a remark- tive index Newton calculated that the
the center of the droplet and been re
flected from the far wall. As the impact
parameter increases and the incident
rays are displaced from the center of the
droplet. the scattering angle decreases.
Descartes found. however. that this
trend does not continue as the impact
parameter is increased to its maximum
value. where the incident ray grazes the
droplet at a tangent to its surface. In
stead the scattering angle passes through
a minimum when the impact parameter
is about seven-eighths of the radius of
the droplet. and thereafter it increases
again. The scattering angle at the mini
mum is 138 degrees.
For rays of Class 4 the scattering an
----
gle is zero when the impact parameter
is zero; in other words. the central ray
is reflected twice. then continues in its
T
original direction. As the impact param
eter increases so does the scattering an
gle. but again the trend is eventually re
versed. this time at 130 degrees. The IMPACT
PARAMETER
Class 4 rays have a maximum scattering
angle of 130 degrees. and as the impact
parameter is further increased they bend
back toward the forward scattering di
rection again.
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121
© 1977 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
Airy's calculations were for a mono
chromatic rainbow. In order to apply his
method to a rainbow produced in sun
light one must superpose the Airy pat
terns generated by the various mono
chromatic components. To proceed fur
ther and describe the perceived image of
i
l-
the rainbow requires a theory of color
vision.
I
(!)DWCC:J The purity of the rainbow colors is
woJ(!)Z determined by the extent to which the
��
component monochromatic rainbows
w « overlap; that in turn is determined by
1=« the droplet size. Uniformly large drops
0
en
CO (with diameters on the order of a few
z
u. millimeters) generally give bright rain
0iizWi
�
CC bows with pure colors; with very small
droplets (diameters of .01 millimeter or
so) the overlap of colors is so great that
I-� the resulting light appears to be almost
white.
f-
metrical optics are particle trajectories,
and the bending of a light ray on enter
ing a medium with a different refractive
index corresponds to the deflection of a
;;i=()-' 40
w
LL
W W
moving particle under the action of a
force. Particle-scattering analogues ex
ist for many effects in optics, including
the rainbow.
0:
30 ClCr:-'Z<I:
(/)
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PARALLEL
gle; it is the rainbow angle for the inter can be resolved into two components polarized parallel to and perpendicular to the plane of
reflection. For a ray approaching an air-water bouudary from inside a droplet the reflectivity
acting atoms.
of the surface depends ou the angle of incidence. Beyond a critical angle both parallel and per
A wave-mechanical treatment of the pendicular components are totally reflected, although some light travels parallel to the surface
atomic and nuclear rainbows was for as an "evanescent wave." At lesser angles the perpendicular component is reflected more effi
mulated in 1959 by Kenneth W. Ford of ciently than the parallel one, and at one augle in particular, Brewster's angle, parallel-polarized
Brandeis University and John A. Whee light is completely transmitted. The angle of internal reflection for the rainbow ray falls near
ler of Princeton University. Interference Brewster's angle. As a result light from the rainbow has a strong perpendicular polarization.
123
© 1977 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
bow angle depends solely on the refrac
tive index, so the atomic rainbow angle
is determined by the strength of the at
tractive part of the interaction. Similar
ly, the positions of the supernumerary
peaks are size-dependent, and they pro
vide information about the range of the
interaction. Observations of the same
kind have now been made in the scatter
ing of atomic nuclei.
RAINBOW
TRAJECTORY
T had
he Airy theory of the rainbow has
many satisfying successes, but it
contains one disturbing uncertainty: the
need to guess the amplitude distribution
along the chosen initial wave front. The
assumptions employed in making that
guess are plausible only for rather large
raindrops. In this context size is best ex
pressed in terms of a "size parameter,"
defined as the ratio of a droplet's cir
cumference to the wavelength of the
light. The size parameter varies from
about 1 00 in fog or mist to several thou
sand for large raindrops. Airy's approxi
mation is plausible only for drops with a
size parameter greater than about 5,000.
It is ironic that a problem as intracta
ble as the rainbow actually has an exact
solution, and one that has been known
for many years. As soon as the electro
magnetic theory of light was proposed
SCATTERING OF ATOMS BY ATOMS creates a particulate rainbow. The role played in
optical scattering by the refractive index is played here by interatomic forces. The principal dif
by James Clerk Maxwell about a centu
ference is that the forces vary smoothly and continuously, so that the atoms follow curved
ry ago, it became possible to give a pre
As
trajectories. one atom approaches another the force between them is initially a steadily cise mathematical formulation of the
(gray optical rainbow problem. Wh at is need
shading). (colored shading),
growing attraction but at close range it becomes strongly repulsive
A local maximum in the scattering angle corresponds to the optical rainbow angle. It
is the angle made by the trajectory most effective in using the attractive part of the potential.
ed is a computation of the scattering of
an electromagnetic plane wave by a ho
mogeneous sphere. The solution to a
similar but slightly easier problem, the
scattering of sound waves by a sphere,
was discussed by several investigators,
notably Lord Rayleigh, in the 1 9th cen
tury. The solution they obtained consist
ed of an infinite series of terms, called
/
partial waves. A solution of the same
t
PRIMARY
RAINBOW form was found for the electromagnetic
�
(f) problem in 1 908 by Gustav Mie and Pe
::2:
ter J. W. Debye.
Given the existence of an exact solu
o
UJ
tion to the scattering problem, it might
a: seem an easy matter to determine all its
UJ
1=« features, including the precise character
u
of the rainbow. The problem, of course.
(f) is the need to sum the series of partial
LL
o waves, each term of which is a rather
a:
UJ
complicated function. The series can be
co truncated to give an approximate solu
::2:
::. tion, but this procedure is practical only
z
in some cases. The number of terms that
must be retained is of the same order of
magnitude as the size parameter. The
partial-wave series is therefore eminent
ly suited to the treatment of Rayleigh
scattering, which is responsible for the
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 SCATTERING ANGLE (DEGREES)
ATOMIC RAINBOW was detected by E. Hundhausen and H. Pauly of the University of Bonn
blue of the sky; in that case the scatter
ing particles are molecules and are
much smaller than the wavelength, so
in the scattering of sodium atoms by mercury atoms. The oscillations in the number of scattered that one term of the series is enough. For
atoms detected correspond to a primary rainbow and to two supernumerary peaks. A rainbow the rainbow problem size parameters up
of this kind embodies information about the strength and range of the interatomic forces. to several thousand must be considered.
124
© 1977 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
A good approximation to the solution plane defined by these two components light wave does go "through the looking
by the partial-wave method would re is referred to as the complex-angular glass." Its amplitude is rapidly damped.
quire evaluating the sum of several momentum plane. however. so that the intensity becomes
thousand complicated terms. Comput Much is gained in return for the math negligible within a depth on the order of
ers have been applied to the task. but the ematical abstractions of the complex a single wavelength. Such a wave does
results are rapidly varying functions of angular-momentum method. In particu not propagate into the air; instead it be
the size parameter and the scattering an lar. after going over to the complex comes attached to the interface between
gIe. so that the labor and cost quickly angular-momentum plane through the the water and the air. traveling along the
become prohibitive. Besides. a comput Watson transformation. the contribu surface; it is called an evanescent wave.
er can only calculate numerical solu tions to the partial-wave series can be The mathematical description of the ev
tions; it offers no insight into the physics redistributed. Instead of a great many anescent wave involves the imaginary
of the rainbow. We are thus in the tanta terms. one can work with just a few components of a solution. The effect
lizing situation of knowing a form of the points called poles and saddle points in called quantum-mechanical tunneling.
exact solution and yet being unable to the complex-angular-momentum plane. in which a particle passes through a po
extract from it an understanding of the In recent years the poles have attracted tential barrier without climbing over it.
phenomena it describes. great theoretical interest in the physics has a similar mathematical basis. "Com
of elementary particles. In that context plex rays" also appear on the shadow
T ofhe this
first steps toward the resolution
paradox were taken in the
they are usually called Regge poles. af
ter the Italian physicist Tullio Regge.
side of a caustic. where they describe the
damped amplitude of the diffracted
B
early years of the 20th century by the light waves.
mathematicians Henri Poincare and G. oth poles and saddle points have Regge-pole contributions to the trans
N. Watson. They found a method for physical interpretations in the rain formed partial-wave series are associat
transforming the partial, wave series. bow problem. Contributions from real ed with surface waves of another kind.
which converges only very slowly onto a saddle points are associated with the or These waves are excited by incident rays
stable value. into a rapidly convergent dinary. real light rays we have been con that strike the sphere tangentially. Once
expression. The technique has come to sidering throughout this article. What such a wave is launched. it travels
be known as the Watson transformation about complex saddle points? Imagi around the sphere. but it is continually
or as the complex-angular-momentum nary or complex numbers are ordinarily damped because it sheds radiation tan
method. regarded as being unphysical solutions gentially. like a garden sprinkler. At
It is not particularly hard to see why to an equation. but they are not mean each point along the wave's circumfer
angular momentum is involved in the ingless solutions. In descriptions of ential path it also penetrates the sphere
rainbow problem. although it is less ob wave propagation imaginary compo at the critical angle for total internal re
vious why "complex" values of the an nents are usually associated with the flection. reemerging as a surface wave
gular momentum need to be considered. damping of the wave amplitude. For ex after taking one or more such shortcuts.
The explanation is simplest in a corpus ample. in the total internal reflection of It is interesting to note that Johannes
cular theory of light. in which a beam of a light ray at a water-air boundary a Kepler conjectured in 1 584 that "pin-
light is regarded as a stream of the parti
cles called photons. Even though the
photon has no mass. it does transport SURFACE
energy and momentum in inverse pro INCIDENT RAY WAVE
I
n the simple Cartesian analysis we saw
that on the lighted side of the rain
bow there are two rays emerging in the
Descartes's explanation of the primary
bow as the ray of minimum deflection is
by no means invalid, and the supernu
merary arcs can still be regarded as a
proximation fails badly. For the super
numerary arcs the exact solution shows
minima where the Airy theory has maxi
mum intensity, and vice versa. This seri
same direction; at the rainbow angle product of interference, as Young pro ous failure is an indirect result of the
these coalesce into the single Descartes posed. The complex-angular-momen near coincidence between the angle of
ray of minimum deflection and on the tum method simply gives a more com internal reflection for the rainbow rays
shadow side they vanish. In the com prehensive accounting of the paths and Brewster's angle. At Brewster's an
plex-angular-momentum plane, as I available to a photon in the rainbow re gie the amplitude of the reflected ray
have mentioned, each geometric ray gion of the sky, and it thereby achieves changes sign, a change the Airy theory
corresponds to a real saddle point. more accurate results. does not take into account. As a result of
Hence in mathematical terms a rainbow In 1 975 Vijay Khare of the University the change in sign the interference along
is merely the collision of two saddle of Rochester made a detailed compari- directions corresponding to the peaks in
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result agrees quite closely with the exact TI·30 . . $21 .95 S R·51 · 1 1 . $54.50
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E�:�:oT il�f:frEKARDs:!��
tion, for a typical size parameter of _ (No credit cards)
1 ,500, requires the summation of more
than 1 .500 complicated terms; the com
plex-angular-momentum curve is ob
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teorological display: the glory [see "The how to arrange
"th��[@,�= II
l i ca t i o n .
son Jarmie;
1 974].
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, July,
tral colors surrounding the shadow an VANTAGE PRESS, Inc. Dept. F-53 \
observer casts on clouds or fog; it is
most commonly seen from an airplane
flying above clouds. It can also be ex
516 W. 34 S t . , New Y o r k , N . Y . 10 01 (2 3) 370·5795 (80 ) 421-0367 0260
1 6 1 H a wt h o r n e B l v d . aw n d a l e , C a . 9
read less
plained through the complex-angular
momentum theory, but the explanation
is more complicated than that for the
rainbow. One set of contributions to the
kRal
ke p upwith al newmare
glory comes from the surface waves de
scribed by Regge poles that are associat
ed with the tangential rays of Kepler's
pinwheel type. Multiple internal reflec
tions that happen to produce closed,
star-shaped polygons play an important
role, leading to resonances, or enhance
advances I n
technol gy with only 30 minutes a we k
200 paragraph size digests Qulk-Sean newsleHer Ionnat
of ,ltal a�lcles from 350 lets roo plclc out lust what
ments in intensity. Such geometric coin
Pllbllcatlons wort�Ide"". you need to know.",.!a."
cidences are very much in the spirit of
Kepler's theories. SPECIAL
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Predicasls
A second important set of contribu
tions, demonstrated by Khare, is from $12 for 12 weeks
the shadow side of higher-order rain
A PU B L I CATI O N
bows that appear near the backward di . - - - - - - -
rection. These contributions represent -
-
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-- - -
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the effect of complex rays. The l Oth -
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grees away from the backward direc - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - --
tion, is particularly effective. - - - -
-- -
-- -
-
-
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-
-
-
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For the higher-order rainbows Airy's
-- - -
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_
. -
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-
_ ... _ - - - -
- - - - - -
- - -
theory would give incorrect results for -
- -
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I
the elegant but seemingly abstract theo
ry of complex angular momentum an I Company
I Address
L£.ity
explanation for these two natural phe
nomena, and to find there an unexpected
link between them.
I
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