Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALs OF
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Ricardo G. Sigua
THE UNIVESITY OF THE PHILIPPINES PRESS
E. de los Santos St., UP Campus, Diliman, Quezon City 1101
Tel. No.: 9253243, 926-6642/ Telefax No.: 9282558
e-mail: press@up.edu.ph
Recommended entry:
Sigua, Ricardo G.
Fundamentals of traffic engineering / Ricardo
G. Sigua. – Quezon City: The University of the
Philippines Press, c2008.
346 p.; 23 cm.
2. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
2.1. Introduction
2.2.Traffic Regulations
2.2.1. Effective Traffic Regulation
2.2.2. Three Elements of the Road System
3.2.Types of Flow
3.2.1. Major Traffic Variables
3.2.2. Other Traffic Variables
3.6.Queuing Theory
3.6.1. D/D/1 Queuing
3.6.2. M/D/1 Queuing
3.6.3. M/M/1 Queuing
3.6.4. M/M/N Queuing
3.7.Shock Wave
Problems
References
4. TRAFFIC STUDIES
4.1. Introduction
4.2.Volume Studies
4.2.1. Types of Volume
4.2.2. Types of Data Collected
4.2.3. Tome of Study
4.2.4. Methods
4.2.5. Presentation of Traffic Volumes
4.2.6. AADT and ADT
Problems
References
Problems
References
Problems
References
Problems
References
Problems
References
References
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
INDEX
THE AUTHOR
This work is dedicated to . . .
“And I will make all My mountains a road, and My highways will be raised up. Behold, these
shall come forth from afar; and lo, these will come from the north and from the west . . .”
(Isaiah 49: 11-12)
PREFACE
The University of the Philippines Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs, for the
textbook writing grant;
The UP College of Engineering (COE) and the UP National Center for Transportation
Studies (NCTS), formerly the Transport Training Center, for having been the venue all
throughout this years for my teaching and honing the substance of the basic concepts;
Colleagues in the UP COE and NCTS, for their encouragement and full support as I wrote
the detail of each chapter;
Civil engineering professors in other universities, for stressing the need for a local book in
transportation engineering;
Partners in national agencies and the private sector, for providing statistics, photos and other
reference materials; and
The UP Press editorial staff, for the painstaking work of editing and layouting the manuscript.
R. G. Sigua
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Some 80 percent of domestic passenger traffic and 60 percent of freight traffic currently
use the road, and 75 percent of government expenditures on transport infrastructure goes to
road systems 9Abueva 2004). The Philippines has a total road length of about 161,000 km,
with an average road density of 0.53 km/sq. km or 2.35 km per 1,000 people. Philippine roads
are mostly made of concrete pavement. Due to heavy, overloaded trucks, pavements are often
damaged, a factor that contributes to traffic accidents. Due to a long rainy season, floods occur
throughout the Philippines, Floodwaters often cause damage to road pavements due to
inadequate drainage. There are about 11,500 bridges in the national network (measuring about
335,500 lineal meters), of which 1,700 bridges are temporary (DPWH 2004).
Metro Manila has a total road length of about 4,800 km. The major arterial roads form
circumferential and radial patterns, although road expansion is seen toward the north and south
Figure 1.1
The Philippines (Metro Manila inset)
directions, following the development of
Metro Manila. Figure 1.2 shows the major
road network of Metro Manila with daily
traffic.
Many of the roads have reached their
capacity. Due to traffic congestion, the
average travel speed is estimated to be as low
as 14 kph, with roughly one-third of the travel
time wasted as idle time (Sigua 1997). A
typical urban travel in Metro Manila is shown
in figure 1.3. According to the 2000 study of
the University of the Philippines National
Center for Transportation Studies, traffic
congestion in Metro Manila has caused more
than P101 billion in losses.
The condition of the roads in Metro
Manila is generally good while it is poorer
outside the metropolis.
Figure 1.3
Typical urban travel in Metro Manila
Traffic control devices such as traffic signs and markings generally follow the international
standard, the Philippines being a signatory to the Vienna Convention in 1968. However, many
of the signs installed conform neither to color nor shape as provided for in the standard. The
number of traffic signs installed is generally insufficient. In highly urbanized areas, these signs
can hardly be recognized, much less read, as they compete with giant billboards in terms of
visibility and craftsmanship.
Traffic signals are commonly installed at major intersections in many cities and towns in
the Philippines although the number is still inadequate. Oftentimes, these signals do not
provide display phase exclusive for pedestrians. In Metro Manila, there is a growing concern
about the safety of pedestrians due to the closure of intersections and with the U-turn slot
scheme replacing the control of traffic signals. Pedestrians have practically no opportunity to
cross the road because of the “uninterrupted” flow of traffic. Without traffic signals controlling
the traffic flow at intersections, driving has become riskier because of frequent
swerving/weaving. There is an urgent need to evaluate the effectiveness of the scheme, which
has the sole purpose of improving speed along the arterials without consideration of safety.
Figure 1.4
Major bus and jeepney routes
1.1.4 Pedestrian Facilities
Sidewalks are in relatively good condition; however, many obstructions can be found on
them such as illegal vendors, electrical posts, police outpost, etc. With the sidewalk occupied,
pedestrians have to walk on the carriageway. There are still very few overhead pedestrian
bridges even in Metro Manila and at places where these have been constructed, pedestrians
still prefer to risk their lives or limbs by crossing the road at grade level. Moreover, pedestrian
overpasses are often inaccessible to the elderly and the handicapped.
Figure 1.5
A pedestrian overpass in Metro Manila
(Photo taken by the author)
1.1.5 Vehicle Registration
The registration of vehicles in the Philippines is handled by the Land Transportation Office
(LTO), a line agency of the Department Transportation and Communication (DOTC). Table
1.1 shows the number of registered motor vehicles in the Philippines in 2002. The number of
utility vehicles or jeepneys has a share of 37 percent. The number of motorcycles has increased
tremendously in the last three years due to the influx of cheaper models into the country. It
reached the 1.5 million mark in 2002. However, this number accounts for both the motorcycles
(MCs) for private use and tricycles (TCs) for public transport use. There is therefore a need to
separate the categories since they serve completely different purposes.
Table 1.1
Total registration of motor vehicles for 2002
Type Number %
Cars 749,553 18.00
UV 1,554,619 37.34
SUV 97,695 2.35
Trucks 257,774 6.19
Buses 33,915 0.81
MC/TC 1,470,383 35.31
TOTAL 4,163,939 100.00
Source: LTO 2005
About 40 percent of the total numbers of vehicles are registered in Metro Manila.
Motor vehicles are classified as follows:
Private vehicles – refers to motor vehicles owned by private individuals or companies
and are not intended to be used for hire.
For hire vehicles – refers to motor vehicles authorized to be used as public vehicles by
virtue of a franchise granted by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory
Board (LTFRB).
1.1.6 Insurance
Motor vehicle owners are required to obtain insurance covering third-party liabilities. The
minimum insurance to be paid to victims of traffic accidents (fatal) was P50, 000 in 2002.
The Insurance Surely Association of the Philippines under the Office of the Insurance
Commissioner accredited 112 insurance companies all over the Philippines by 2002. It
regulates the industry to prevent the proliferation of fly-by-night insurance companies.
1.1.7 Driving License
The issuing procedure of driving license in provided for under Republic Act (RA) 4136.
The LTO has the full responsibility for issuance of driving licenses.
There are three types of driving licenses: student driver’s permit, nonprofessional driver’s
license, and professional driver’s license.
a. Student driver’s permit
The applicant must be at least sixteen years old and must be physically and mentally fit to
operate a motor vehicle. He or she must be able to read and write in Filipino or English.
b. Nonprofessional driver’s license
New applicant must be at least seventeen years old and must be a holder of a valid student
permit for at least one month. He or she must be physically and mentally fit to operate a
motor vehicle, and must not be a drug user or an alcoholic.
c. Professional driver’s license
New applicant for professional driver’s license must be at least eighteen years old and is
required to submit a valid nonprofessional driver’s license or a valid student driver’s permit
that is used for at least five months. He or she must not be a drug user or an alcoholic.
The requirement of having a medical examination and drug test was introduced only very
recently.
Figure 1.6
Breakdown of driver licenses and permits issued in 2002
There seems to be an increasing trend in the number of drivers apprehended (table 1.2).
This could be attributed to the concerted efforts of the different agencies (the Land
Transportation Office, the Metro Manila Development Authority [MMDA], and the Philippine
National Police – Traffic Management Group [PNP-TMG]) in apprehending violators over the
past years.
Table 1.2
Number of apprehended drivers
Year Total
1999 480,122
2000 475,626
2001 570,748
2002 612,477
Source: LTO 2005
As to the type of apprehensions, most of these are fines for violating traffic rules and
regulations (table 1.3)
Table 1.3
Breakdown of types of driver apprehension (1999-2002)
Type Number %
Fined 594,126 92.89
Suspended license 345 0.05
Revoked license 4,447 0.70
Impounded vehicle 5,771 0.90
Others 34,933 5.46
Source: LTO 2005
1.1.9 Driving Schools
Driving schools and driving instructors must have accreditation from the LTO. In 1980,
the then Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC) issued an order covering
the rules and regulations governing the supervision and control over driving schools. Standard
requirements were set fourth for driving site, school building, classrooms, library facilities,
motor vehicles, instructors, and course of instruction.
In 2002, about 170 LTO-accredited driving schools were in operation all over the country.
1.1.10 Traffic enforcement
Traffic laws are enforced by the Traffic Management Group (TMG), the traffic division of
each district police, and the LTO. In 1978, Presidential Decree (PD) 1605 was issued to
centralize enforcement matters in Metro Manila to the Metro Manila Commission (MMC),
now the Metro Manila Development Authority.
The TMG, being a national support unit of the PNP, has traffic management offices
scattered in the different regions and provinces nationwide. In selected areas or provinces,
especially in highly urbanized cities/municipalities, the TMG has traffic management teams
(TMTs) that are also capable of performing the functions of the TMG operational support units
that are likewise based in Metro Manila. In coordination and cooperation with the MMDA for
Metro Manila and the local police units in the different regions, the TMG has at its disposal
the traffic enforcement units. Each Regional Traffic Management Office (RTMO) can dispatch
personnel to strategic choke points and major thoroughfares to conduct traffic direction and
control to ensure the smooth flow of traffic.
In Metro Manila, the TMG and the MMDA assist each other in traffic management,
especially when on-going infrastructure projects cause heavy congestion. Alongside this
function, the personnel of TMG render the following tasks: traffic accident investigation, and
the traffic safety education through seminars and conferences, etc.
1.1.11 Legislative Framework
This section discusses some of the legislations pertinent to road safety (Santiago 1980).
Republic Act 4136, otherwise known as the Land Transportation and Traffic Code,
provides for the system of registration of motor vehicles, checks on accessories of vehicles,
and defines road traffic rules and regulations.
Commonwealth Act 146, otherwise known as Pubic Service Act, rests on the regulatory
body (LTFRB) the power to compel any public service provider to furnish safe, adequate, and
proper service as regards the manner of furnishing the same as well as the maintenance of
necessary materials and equipment.
Executive Order (EO) 125 reorganized the then Ministry of Transportation and
Communications into a Department and defined its powers and functions, including the
establishment of the Land Transportation Office as the sectoral agency responsible for
implementing and carrying out policies, rules, and regulations governing the land
transportation system of the country.
Executive Order (EO) 202 created the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory
Board with the main function of regulating the land transport industry pursuant to the Public
Service Act.
Republic Act 6975 established the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG),
including the creation of the PNP under which the Traffic Management Group has been
reorganized as the traffic enforcement arm of the PNP covering national roads.
Transportation engineering is a filed or branch of civil engineering that deals with the
application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation, and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for
the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods.
On the other hand, traffic engineering is that phases of transportation engineering that deals
with the planning, geometric design, and traffic operations of roads, streets and highways, their
networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation
(Evans 1950).
In the United States, it was in 1921 when the title “traffic engineer” was first recognized,
although a number of traffic engineering-related activities were already going on. Table 1.4
shows some of these activities:
Table 1.4
Milestones in the developing profession of traffic engineering
Year Activity
1904 Traffic survey methods were being employed.
1907 Pedestrian islands were used in San Francisco.
1908 The first driver’s license law was adopted.
1911 White-painted pavement center lines were first applied.
1915 Origin-destination studies and accident spot maps were first used.
1916 Speed and delay study was first made by observing traffic from a high
building; pedestrian regulation and “no left turns” were prescribed; curb
parking was prohibited to facilitate traffic movement.
Source: Evans 1950
The use of traffic signals for controlling traffic came much earlier. The first recorded use
of traffic signals was in 1868 in Great Britain. The signals were illuminated by town gas.
However, the use of gas was discontinued after an explosion incident. The development of
traffic signal technology is shown in table 1.5.
Table 1.5
Development of traffic signal control
Year Activity
1868 First traffic signal in Great Britain (illuminated by gas)
1910 Manually operated semaphore signals
1922 Idea of timing signals for progressive movement
1926 First automatic traffic signals in Great Britain
1927 Earliest known application of time-space diagram for
coordination
1928 First traffic-actuated signals
Source: Evans 1950.
In 1930, the Institute of Traffic Engineers (ITE) was founded, and traffic engineering as a
profession was finally officially established and defined. The society played a key role in
promoting the profession through advanced training, research studies, standardization, laws,
and application of traffic engineering techniques (Evans 1950).
1.2.2 Traffic Engineering in the Philippines
The traffic engineering practice in the Philippines is still new. Most intersections were
previously controlled by traffic police officers or by manually operated traffic signals. Outside
Metro Manila, manually operated semaphore signals displaying STOP or GO message were
installed on top of police outposts located at the center of the intersection. In 1977, the Traffic
Engineering and Management (TEAM) Project first implemented an area traffic control system
in Metro Manila. It was almost at the same period when the Traffic Control Center, later
renamed as the Traffic Engineering Center (TEC), was established. The center was responsible
for the implementation of various traffic engineering and management measures such as traffic
signalization, geometric improvement of intersections, etc. In 1976, the Transport Training
Center (TTC) was established in the University of the Philippines with assistance from Japan
through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). TTC started its training program
in 1978 in the fields of traffic engineering, transportation planning, and traffic management for
traffic law enforcers. TTC was renamed as the National Center for Transportation Studies and
became a regular unit of UP Diliman in 1993, with research and support to graduate programs
in the fields of transportation engineering and transportation planning as additional functions.
REFERENCES
Abueva, Jose V., ed, 2004. The Macapagal-Arroyo presidency and administration: Record
and legacy (2001-2004). Vol. 1. Quezon City: UP Press.
ALMEC Corporation. 1999. Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study
(MMUTIS) final report.
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). 2004. Infrastructure atlas 2004.
Evans, Henry K., ed. 1950. Traffic engineering handbook, Second ed, New Haven,
Connecticut: Institute of Traffic Engineers.
Land Transportation Office, 2005. Statistics, Unpublished.
National Center for Transportation Studies (NCTS). 2000. A study on cost of traffic
congestion in Metro Manila, Quezon City: NCTS.
National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). 2007. NSCB website.
http://www.nscb.gov.ph.
Santiago,Mariano R., ed. 1980. A compilation of edicts related to the land transportation
system of the Philippines. Quezon City: Bureau of Land Transportation.
Sigua, Ricardo G. 1997. Development of driving cycle for Metro Manila. Journal of the
eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies 2, no 4. Seoul: Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies (EASTS).
2
Traffic management
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway
transportation agency to improved roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both
providers and consumers of transportation services. There are two distinct types of traffic
management. The first one utilizes traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to
regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on advanced technology through the use of
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) advanced of ITS has been primary goal of many
developed countries. However, it is not uncommon in both developed and developing countries to
have a combination of conventional methods and ITS applications. An introduction to ITS is
provided in chapter 9.
Many individuals feel that traffic control measures are an encroachment on their individual
driving right. It must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right but a privilege. It is therefore
necessary to show that restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must be demonstrated that
regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration,
ownership, mechanical fitness, accessories, size, weight) and driver (age, ability to operate specific
types of vehicles, financial responsibility).
Traffic regulation must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through
careful study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis,
keeping driver record and other data.
All traffic regulation are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind that
unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.
Figure 2.1 suggests a balance among the three elements, i.e., a breakdown or deficiency
in one can lead to the failure of the entire system.
Road/
Environment
Human/
Vehicle
Driver
Figure 2.1
Interaction of the three elements of the road system
The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and improvement. However, in a
given period of time, they may be considered inflexible. The major portion of existing regulations
are therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has become the most effective way of
controlling the number of drivers on the road. It should be used, therefore, to influence drivers to
become familiar with the rules of the road. This is especially true for the Filipino drivers,
considering the most accidents have been attribute to them.
For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which is vehicle registration.
Others are checks on equipment and accessories (lights, bells, mirrors, helmets, etc.), and vehicle’s
dimensions and weight. Currently, the Motor Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS) is being
revitalized and expanded to cover the whole country.
Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The
effectiveness of a sign or marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple,
regular shapes), relative position, and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear
meaning, the shape, color, and message must be well understood. The message should be kept
as short as practicable because not more than three familiar words can be conveyed at a glance.
After capturing the clear meaning of the device, it should provide adequate time for response.
Simpler message like STOP or YIELD requires only a second, while multiple choice (as in
destination or guide sign) may require three to four seconds. Finally, all these requirements –
the design features of size and brightness, position allowing time for response, properly
maintained control device – should command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, ill-kept
sign must be discarded and replaced.
Shapes
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a. Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger
warning signs.
b. Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c. Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d. Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e. Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.
Color
Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols
and red borders.
Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black
symbols and red border.
Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue
background and white symbols.
STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols.
YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border.
Informative sign shall have a white or light-colored symbols on a dark-colored
(blue or black) background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored
background.
Size
The minimum dimension of signs depends upon the intended applications. Large
sizes are necessary at wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section
2.5 of the DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement
Markings Manual, regulatory signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as
follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads
b. B for rural roads with speed limit between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressway
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table 2.1 below should be followed:
Table 2.2
Shapes and colors of warning signs
Table 2.3
Examples of Warning signs
2.5.2 Priority sign
Priority sign have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP
and Yield sign (table 2.4).
Table 2.4
Example of priority signs
Table 2.5
Examples of prohibition signs
Table 2.5 (continued)
2.5.4 Obligatory Signs
The obligatory signs are round and in blue color. Examples are shown in table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Examples of obligatory signs
Table 2.6 (continued)
Table 2.7
Examples of prescription signs
Table 2.7 (continued)
Table 2.10
Examples of supplemental signs
2.6.3 Standardization
As is the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative that markings be uniform
so that they may be recognized and understood instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from
the DPWH, and on request, it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material
suppliers/manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of the standard
designs and locations.
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center line,
Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line,
Continuity Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line,
Yield (Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus
& PUJ Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands and Obstruction,
Chevron Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb
Markings for Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages and
Symbols and Pavement Arrows.
Object Markings
2.6.5 Materials
Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm
above the level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15
mm above the level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used material for road
markings:
Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by
hand or with lie marking machines. For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass
beads used should be no less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter mixed paint.
Thermoplastic materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is
recommended at location subject to extreme traffic wear. The average service life of
thermoplastic materials has been experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded
traffic paints.
Precut sheeting
Precut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in
adhesive tape form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and
adhesive on the other side.
Raised pavement markers
These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embedded into
the carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or
nonreflective.
2.6.6 Color
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow
in the following cases:
a. Double yellow “no-passing” lines
b. Unbroken portion of “no-parking” lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On islands in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers
at locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other permanent
objects – on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard
color for pavement marking.
2.6.9 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three.
They shall only be used to supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words
is variable, depending on the message and location at which it is based. (Usually twice the length
of the word if achievable).
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. In urban low-
speed areas, the order is optional.
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used in roads in urban areas shall measure
at least 2.5 m; on high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL, PED XING, RAILROD
XING, SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.
2.6.10 Symbols
a. Give way (yield) symbol
The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consist of an isosceles
triangle having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450
mm at the base and 150 m for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding
line is between 5 m and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on the
road.
b. Pavement arrows
Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are
generally 5 m in length on urban roads and 7.5 m on high-speed roads.
For half-turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the
particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15 m from the stop bar, and
the subsequent sets should be placed at 45 m apart.
c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits
at location to supplement speed limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by
drivers.
Figure 2.3
Object markings (Courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil)
In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the roadway, warning of
approach to the hazard shall be given by line markings on the pavement.
Reflectorized yellow should be used on curbs of all islands located in the line of traffic
flows especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at T and offset intersections.
Figure 2.4
Raised pavement markers (The one on the right has built-in lightning.) (Left photo courtesy of R.
Rellosa of 3M Phil.; right photo courtesy of Solamarkers Inc.)
Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night and under wet conditions.
The reflective type are more brilliant than reflectorized paint markings.
Because of the high cost of installation and maintenance, use of raised pavement markings
may be considered only in accident prone areas, e.g., on hilly areas where there is frequent fog and
rain,. Figure 2.5 shows the visual effect of raised pavement markers.
Figure 2.5
Visual effect of raised pavement markers in between reflectorized pavement markings
Hazard markers
Hazard markers are rectangular and generally consist of a series of alternating black and
white bands (figure 2.6). The white portion is always reflectorized, but the reflectorized material
may cover only the central portion of each white band in order to achieve a balance between the
areas of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands may consist of either diagonal
strips where only a target is required, or of chevrons where directional as well as target properties
are desirable.
Delineators
Delineators are small reflective panels or button mounted on guide posts or guard fences
as an effective aid for night driving (figure 2.7). Delineators are made of reflective material capable
of reflecting light clearly visible under normal atmospheric condition from a distance of 300-500
m when illuminated by the upper beam of a standard automobile head lamp.
Placement of delineators at the roadside of a circular curve is shown in figure 2.8.
Figure 2.6
Chevron markers (Photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
Figure 2.8
Placement of permanent delineators along a roadway
Problems
1. Drive along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) or along any major roads in your
locality. Note if traffic sign are visible or if they are obscured because of too many
advertisement or billboard signs. Must there be regulations on putting up advertisement
signs?
2. Nowadays, many local government units have been able to get support from private
companies in fabricating and installing traffic signs at location under their jurisdiction,
provided that the company’s logo or identification is indicated in a certain area of the sign
(one-eighth to one-fifth of the total surface area). Would you agree to this? Why or why
not?
3. In the town or city you are residing, identify the different traffic signs and see if they
conform to the Vienna Convention as to color or shape. Would you agree if the signs do
not conform to the national standards because they were fabricated at lower cost in your
locality?
4. Most international signs consist mainly of symbols with minimum or almost no words in
them. Would you suggest putting words in Tagalog or in any dialects in order to convey
their meaning? Why or why not?
REFERENCES
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). 2004. Highway safety design
standards. Road Safety Design Manual. Manila: DPWH.
Planning and Project Development Office, Ministry of Public Highways. 1980 Manual on
pavement markings.
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