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Building in Extraterrestrial Environments: T-Brick Shell

Article  in  Journal of Architectural Engineering · March 2018

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000293

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 Building in Extraterrestrial Environments: T-Brick Shell
Sevil Yazici1

Abstract: Space exploration focuses on new technologies to search the unknown. It has been used to investigate possibilities for the creation
of human colonies in extraterrestrial environments. Current projects concerning space architecture reflect two perspectives that differ from
highly rationalized engineering solutions in that they are highly conceptual and abstract approaches. Although implemented for extraterrestrial
environments, new technologies do not offer a comprehensive approach from an architecture perspective that can be implemented for different
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design and programmatic purposes by the use of in situ materials on Mars. This paper aims to propose a comprehensive approach in which the
form generation process is driven by environmental conditions, specifically the dune fields on Mars. A set of architectural geometry, described
computationally, can respond to different spatial conditions, such as shell structures, from fully enclosed to semiopen surfaces. In this
approach, in situ materials are used with robotic fabrication; more specifically, three-dimensional (3D) printing is used on Martian land. A ma-
terial system, which creates a titanium-dioxide-based shielding layer, was developed against high radiation levels on the Martian surface. The
interconnected structural modules were considered similar to the brick material called T-brick. The system was assessed structurally by select-
ing an enclosed geometry: a dome structure. Hence, the efficiency factor was calculated. The results proved that the proposed T-brick shell is
an efficient solution considering the payload constraints of the system. The method can be potentially implemented on Earth and extraterres-
trial environments in addition to Mars. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000293. © 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Computational design; Extraterrestrial environments; Space architecture; Form generation; Architectural geometry;
Performance assessment.

Introduction degree program in space architecture at SISCA at the University of

Human colonization of other planets and satellites, such as Mars or
the moon, is crucial for the future of the world. Finding alternatives
that can supplement the resources of Earth is imperative. Through
the exploration of space, new architectural design systems must be
developed in response to harsh and challenging extraterrestrial envi-
ronments. Space architecture brings a different emphasis to design
research and a unique opportunity to extend the perspectives of
humanity. Although different design projects have been developed
for space, it is possible to classify space architecture into two
approaches. Although one of the approaches obtains forms based
on utopian dreaming, the other aims to respond to the constraints of
extraterrestrial environments with precision to create highly con-
trolled projects and mechanisms (Leach 2014b). New models of
gravity were produced by using differential gravities and not by
reducing a structure and space to a vertical load path to the ground
(Lynn 2014). Lynn’s project, the new outer atmospheric habitat,
offered planets as unique forms, which are porous and cellular
structures, by containing a variety of spaces and microclimates
(eVolo 2010). The intent of some other projects, such as that of the
Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA), is
to accommodate precisely the constraints within the space environ-
ment mostly from an engineering perspective (SICSA 2016). The
artificial-gravity spacecraft science excursion vehicle is an example
of a functional design developed as part of a master-of-science
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Çekmeköy
Campus, Özyegin Univ., Nis antepe District, Orman St., Istanbul 34794,
Turkey. E-mail: sevil.yazici@ozyegin.edu.tr
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 19, 2017; approved
on August 29, 2017; published online on December 7, 2017. Discussion
period open until May 7, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Architectural
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1076-0431.
Houston. The design is based on offsetting crew musculature, cardi-
ovascular, and skeletal deconditioning during long-term space mis-
sions. A hard, central connecting module is the major design ele-
ment, which is surrounded by a set of inflatable modules that
provide spacious living accommodations (Leach 2014b).
Space architecture pushes the boundaries of technology and
material science. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA)
are currently focusing on the creation of systems that are based on
3D printing for structures, such as dwelling or landing pods, by
mainly using local resources to reduce material payloads while still
providing materials that protect against high temperature fluctua-
tions and radiation. Further emphasis is being placed on robotic
space exploration because robotic systems offer numerous advan-
tages in the extraterrestrial environment by lasting longer, being
stronger, and posing fewer ethical issues than human exploration.
New ecosystems need to be created for the generation of livable
spaces, not just by constructing closed living quarters of sealed hab-
itats and closed ecosystems but also by creating infrastructures of
life (Armstrong 2014). Although some work and research are
undertaken for missions related to space exploration, there is a
necessity to generate highly flexible systems that can be adapted to
various design scenarios. The issue of setting up design systems
that can accommodate complex spatial and programmatic require-
ments for the extreme environmental conditions of space needs to
be assessed and investigated further from the architectural design
point of view.
Modularity is a fundamental modernist design principle that is
seen as an influential architectural approach for design projects.
The first modernist manifesto of the Congrès Internationaux
d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) was focused on International
Style with the emphasis of rationalized standardization of building
structures into modules. Modules were considered efficient, eco-
nomical, easily transportable, and demountable. The principles of

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 modularity were explored in the design of the International Space
Station (ISS), launched in 1998. Composed of numerous modular
components, the ISS provides flexibility of form, allowing multiple
layouts from the same set of components and adaptability to change
(Adams and Jones 2014). Under today’s conditions, it is possible to
reinterpret the concept of modularity in architectural design by the
use of advanced computational design (CD) and digital fabrication
technologies.
CD enables the assessment of design and fabrication tools within
integrated design systems by which the design is informed by vari-
ous design, performance, and fabrication criteria. Highly articu-
lated, complex formal and spatial organizations, consisting of mod-
ules that can be differentiated, can be designed and fabricated
seamlessly. Despite the significant contributions of the field of CD,
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the research of and application to developing systems for extrater-
restrial environments have not been fully considered. How can cur-
rent research on Earth be translated to generate livable systems in
extraterrestrial environments, accommodate the requirements of
extreme environmental conditions and local resources, and main-
tain flexibility in design with a new understanding of modularity?
This paper aims to introduce a methodology for an architectural
design system that responds to the environmental conditions, har-
nesses alien resources, and meets performance criteria of an envi-
ronment beyond Earth, such as Mars. The task includes offering a
system to produce structural elements that can be modular and inter-
connected. The proposed system includes a solution toward con-
verting in situ materials on Mars into useful components and struc-
tures developed in response to a challenge described by NASA in
2015 (Nine Sigma 2015).
Some background information is given in the following sections
to provide a better understanding of the methodology, including the
critical role of CD along with the algorithmic approach in the design
process, and the environmental conditions on Mars.
Computational Design and Algorithmic Approach
CD has started to dominate architectural design from concept to
fabrication. CD enables a comprehensive approach to adapt multi-
faceted problems in the design process by expanding the formal and
organizational capabilities of architects and designers, techniques,
and methods. By varying parameters in the CD, iterations of an
algorithm are created (Frazer 2016). Many design alternatives can
be created through iterations by changing the variables or parame-
ters defining the geometry or assembly in parametric design (Kvan
et al. 2004).
Architectural geometry needs to incorporate many requirements
of the aesthetic, programmatic, functional, technical, and environ-
mental aspects (Holzer and Downing 2008). An integral computa-
tional model enables the understanding that material, form, and per-
formance are not separate elements; rather, they have rather
complex interrelations (Hensel and Menges 2008). The possibilities
and limitations of robotically manufactured systems can be inte-
grated with the design process seamlessly (Brugnaro et al. 2016;
Yunis et al. 2014; Correa et al. 2013; Krieg et al. 2012).
Environmental Conditions on Mars
Because it has similar environmental conditions to those of Earth,
Mars is considered the most suitable planet for human colonization.
Mars is abundant with resources that offer numerous raw materials
required for human civilization. The geologic history of Mars is
considered similar to that of the African continent in terms of min-
eral wealth (Zubrin 2014). Like Earth, Mars has seasons, a similar
length of day, and an effective gravity; it also maintains an
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atmosphere. Although Mars has an atmosphere, it consists of 95%
carbon dioxide, which is unsuitable for human physiology. There
are also great issues on Martian land related to solar radiation and
extremely cold weather conditions: Temperatures range between 20
and –153°C, and dust storms have winds that reach up to 30 m/s
(Leach 2014a).
The colonization of Mars requires in situ resource utilization
(ISRU) to harness locally derived materials, such as iron from the
Martian regolith, and produce other materials on site. The transpor-
tation of materials from Earth to Mars is not feasible considering
the transportation costs (Leach 2014a); however, there are possibil-
ities to generate energy on Mars. For instance, solar panels can be
produced by using the in situ resources of carbon and hydrogen,
which are needed to produce silicon, a primary material used in the
construction of photovoltaic panels. In addition, wind-generated
and geothermal energy resources can be harnessed to supplement
potential energy needs on Mars. Through the harnessing of these
resources, the potential to establish an agricultural system on the
Martian surface in constructed greenhouses becomes evermore pos-
sible (Zubrin 2014).
Methodology
The methodology was developed in response to a design challenge
from NASA and is based on in situ materials on Mars (Nine Sigma
2015). The intent is to search for efficient systems in which in situ
materials are converted into interlocking structural elements as
modular design solutions that can create and apply various design
possibilities. The proposed system offers a flexible design solution
by reinterpreting the issue of modularity for use in the construction
of necessary structures. It is applicable for extraterrestrial explora-
tions on Mars by meeting the payload package constraints, which is
critical in terms of the transportation of parts. The methodology
consists of four parts: generative formal and organizational princi-
ples, T-brick as a material, shell structure, and 3D printing. The
relationships and computational tools used in the process are pre-
sented in Fig. 1.
Generative Formal and Organizational Principles
Generative formal and organizational principles are specified and
implemented in the design process, which can be investigated in
three parts: dune fields, architectural geometry, and the new modu-
larity and subdivisions of the geometry.
Dune Fields
According to the local characteristics of Martian topography, a
strategy for a generative formal exploration was developed. In
response to the severe environmental conditions and heavy wind
storms on Mars, sand dunes are formed on the Martian topography
(Fig. 2.). Transverse eolian ridges with dune-like features stand up
to 6 m tall. They are often found in channels and crater interiors and
run perpendicular or at right angles to the direction of the wind
(NASA 2014). Sand dune formations represent fluidity and com-
plexity with a high level of articulation and coherence from a sys-
tematic perspective, which is investigated initially in the design
process.
Wind flow above the surface of Mars created land forms repre-
sentative of self-organized patterns. Mathematical models are used
to understand natural phenomena. Complex, nonlinear, dynamic
systems are used to simulate landscape phenomena in geomorphol-
ogy. Concepts such as chaos, fractals, and self-organization, origi-
nated from research into nonlinear dynamics, enables one to
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Fig. 1. Relationships and computational tools used in the process
Fig. 2. Transverse aeolian ridges on Mars, taken by NASA Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter (image courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech/
University of Arizona)
understand and model the behavior of a variety of landscapes and
bedforms (Baas 2002). The research field of eolian geomorphology
investigates formations such as sand dunes shaped by the wind.
In terms of the morphology of dune growth, some important fac-
tors need to be taken into consideration. By determining wind pat-
terns, sand transport can be estimated along with other physical fac-
tors (Momiji et al. 2000). The basic mathematical model for the
dune field was developed by Werner (1995). Through computer
simulations related to the transport of sand by wind, different forms
are produced, including Barchan, crescentic ridge, linear, and star
natural dune classes. Sand, which consists of grains, moves as a
slab. The slabs are selected randomly, transported in a specified
direction, and deposited within a probability. The dune fields are
considered complex systems (Werner 1995). The main principle of
the algorithm is that the sand batches are transported in a stochastic
procedure through which erosion, transport, and deposition proc-
esses are determined by chance (Baas 2002). Abstract models are
able to describe the dune field evolution. Although the mathemati-
cal formulations of fields and slabs differ, dune fields are considered
as accumulations of sand slabs. In the model, each slab was piled in
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J. Archit. Eng., 2018, 24(1): 04017037
a two-dimensional (2D) lattice in which the edges were connected
with periodic boundary conditions. One sand slab from all the slabs
was randomly chosen for transport. The transport length and the
probability of the deposition at a site were introduced. According to
the movement of these slabs, sand transport by wind direction and
deformational shaping by gravity were simulated. Through algo-
rithms, different types of dunes, including Barchan, transverse, and
linear dunes can be simulated (Momiji et al. 2000). In addition to
the main sand transport process, two transport mechanisms were
simulated in the model: shadow zones and avalanching. The
shadow zone represents the area where the flow of the wind slows
down to prevent further transport of sand. Through avalanching,
enforcement of the angle of repose occurs; the deposition sinks into
the shelter of the relief through the shadow zones (Baas 2002).
Software for dune field simulation was used for the sand dune
formations. The dune field simulator, Dunefield Simulator, was
designed to run various models, including those of Werner (1995)
and Momiji et al. (2000). Various other models can be implemented
into the system by using existing model structures. Each model can
be run with several methods for finding steep slopes, such as the
Moore, deterministic Von Neumann, or stochastic. After setting the
dune field dimensions and a sand height, an initialization method is
specified as random or uniform. By running the simulation, the
dune field elevation is displayed. Through the magnified view of the
dune field, the simulation values are extracted according to the cells.
The color code in the simulation is reflected in the table of cells.
The color represents the height differentiations. By changing the
selected point in the simulation, the focus of the magnifier is moved
so that the table is updated accordingly. Each cell shows the coordi-
nates as the width and length and the sand elevation, shadow height,
and hop distance. A circle appears in the lower right corner when
the cell is in a wind shadow (Fig. 3.).
Two dune field simulations were conducted for comparison. The
length and width of the area was defined as 256
256, and the sand
height value was 2. The algorithm was based on the Werner model
with the selection of “no erosion in shadow.” The neighborhood
method was specified as Von Neumann deterministic. The two sim-
ulations only differ in their hop value, L, which was assigned as 1
and 3, respectively. By running the simulations for the same periods
of time, the results can be compared. By altering L, the
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Fig. 3. Dunefield Simulator interface and the magnifier for a specific point on the dune field

Fig. 4. Dune field simulation comparisons for L values of 1 and 3

configuration of the self-organized pattern changed along with the
maximum height that the system can reach. With an L of 1, the
height of the dunes reached up to 14; with an L of 3, it reached a
maximum of 24. On the basis of the top view and elevation, the ge-
ometry is modeled three-dimensionally in the geometric modeling
software (Fig. 4.).
Every structure is influenced by many environmental issues
throughout the lifecycle. The Dunefield Simulator enables one to
understand the dynamic characteristics of the geomorphology of
Martian land caused by the extreme wind conditions. The idea is to
design a system that can respond to the dynamic formation on the
topography by increasing the resistance of the structure against
the wind while building structures suitable to the wind motion. The
dynamic characteristics of the formations enable the creation of
highly differentiated and complex spatial organizations for which
geometrical configurations obtain rules, by responding to the

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 behavioral pattern of the wind, to merge seamlessly with the
Martian topography.
Architectural Geometry
A set of architectural geometries was generated consisting of a se-
ries of nonuniform rational bispline (NURBS) surfaces, which is a
standard form of surface description in computational geometry
(Piegl and Tiller 1997). On the basis of the dune field simulation
results, the base plan and the overall height of the dune field were
taken into consideration in the arrangement of the cluster; thus, the
cluster offered a variety of surfaces of highly rational geometries,
such as domes, and free-form geometries with greater differentia-
tion and complexity. The morphological variation enables the flexi-
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them at the conceptual design stage. For this reason, customized
solutions can be generated. The set is created to select the most suit-
able option in the solution space, with differing formal and spatial
organization, and within the programmatic capabilities. A series of
surface operation tools are used in the Rhino 5 3D geometric model-
ing software, including sweep 1 & 2, loft, revolve, and network sur-
face. These tools require an initial curve setup, called a primitive
curve, for the surface generation. The dimensions and spatial status
of the geometries are also indicated (Fig. 5).
New Modularity and Subdivision of the Geometry
Following the generation of the architectural geometry through the
surface operation, the paneling algorithm was used for the creation

ble interpretations of the functional use of the proposed geometries.
According to the need, new geometries can be introduced to accom-
modate different spatial, modularity, or constructability require-
ments. The aim is to let the designer and architect choose an effi-
cient solution that is based on their design intent without limiting
of interlocking panels and modules of the system. The paneling
algorithm operated by Rhino needs the U and V values of the
NURBS geometry with the surface divisions in the x- and y-axes.
The panels are assigned to the control points of the NURBS geome-
try. First, a paneling grid is created according to the surface domain.

Fig. 5. Set of architectural geometries

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Fig. 6. Interlocking system of modules

The surfaces are divided by numbers, such as 10*10 or 20*20, Table 1. Regolith Composition on Martian Land (Mass%) (Data from
on the basis of the size of the surface. Following this division, the Nine Sigma 2015)
custom paneling 3D option was selected to generate a 3D surface. Oxide JSC Mars-1 Martian Simulant
For the custom 3D option, the grid must be offset by a predefined
spacing to define the first- and second-bounding grids. Thus, the SiO2 43.7
custom panels, which create an interlocking mechanism, were TiO2 3.8
assigned to the surface. The toothed flat modules were designed to Al2O3 23.4
be interconnected with larger surfaces, which are multiples of trian- Fe2O3/FeO 15.3
MnO 0.3
gular forms, including squares, rectangles, or large triangles.
MgO 3.4
Although the dimensions of the initial module were 98
117 cm,
CaO 6.2
their sizes were adjusted to fit to the regions on the surface specified
Na2O 2.4
by the U and V values (Fig. 6).
K2O 0.6
P2O5 0.9
T-Brick as a Material Total 100.0
In situ materials need to be used to create interlocking structural ele-
ments. Martian regolith and basalt are in situ materials that are pro-
vided in an unlimited amount on Mars. The ingredients in the
Johnson Space Center (JSC) Mars-1 Martian Simulant was used as
a reference for the design of the material system, for which the typi-
cal regolith is characterized in Table 1, as specified in the challenge
document (Nine Sigma 2015). Because there are high levels of solar
radiation on Martian land, the intent is to deliver a solution that
reduces the harmful transmission of the radiation.
The ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation on Mars consists of three
ranges: UVA (320–400 nm), UVB (290–320 nm), and UVC (100–
290 nm). Although they differ in wavelengths, all three are known
to cause various diseases, including skin cancer, in humans (Popov Fig. 7. Configuration of the T-brick material consisting of the TiO2
et al. 2005). One element known to mitigate the harmful transmis- shielding layer against radiation and the load-bearing structure layer
sion of solar radiation is titanium dioxide (TiO2). TiO2 is known to
have a high refractive index (n = 2.6142), making it an excellent need for additional connection elements. Voids within the elements
material to block the UVB and UVA radiation for skin protection. reduce volume and weight, thereby increasing structural efficiency.
Sphere-shaped TiO2 nanoparticles are used effectively against UVB This new TiO2-based brick (or T-brick) is simply a reinterpretation
radiation (Popov et al. 2005). In addition, TiO2 used as a photocata- of traditional masonry brick (Fig. 7).
lytic coating has the ability of self-cleaning through a chemical reac- There is a necessity to meet the payload package constraints as
tion when it meets with UV radiation (Fujishima et al. 2000). On the described by the NASA challenge (Table 2) with an assumption of
basis of the findings, a shielding layer by TiO2 is already known to an unlimited supply of in situ regolith or basalt found on Martian
exist on the Martian regolith. To reduce the effect of radiation on land, which provides a significant advantage in reducing the mate-
Mars, TiO2 is to be integrated into the material system. Regolith ma- rial mass over the payload described from Earth. The maximum
terial can be processed by sintering, melting, or binding with added payload is indicated as 700 kg for a volume of 2
1
1 m. For ev-
agents. Furthermore, extraction of metals or other materials from the ery kilogram of native materials used, 11 kg of transportation pro-
regolith are possible for future use. pellant and spacecraft mass is saved (Nine Sigma 2015). The refer-
There are two layers in the composition of the custom designed ence material for T-brick has the density of 2,410 kg/m3. The size
modules: one is composed of a TiO2-based radiation shield, and the of the T-brick module is restricted to meet the payload package con-
other is a load-bearing structure made out of the regolith. Structural straints, and one side of a module cannot be larger than 2 m, as
modules were designed as interlocking elements, eliminating the determined by the U and V values of the initial geometry.

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 Shell Structure technologies for space-structure construction, spare-part fabrica-
tion, and food preparation. As an alternative to the high cost of
Shell structures are considered suitable structural systems that can
material transportation from Earth, 3D printing is a viable option.
fully enclose space while mitigating the high levels of radiation
Per the policy developed according to ISRU, this methodology also
found on Mars. Materials such as brick and other types of building
offers advantages regarding the health and safety surrounding direct
blocks are suitable for shell structures because they are effective
construction by human resources. Robotic systems designed to con-
under compressive loading. Because of the various spatial and pro-
struct space structures and infrastructural elements greatly reduce
grammatic needs, a variety of shell structures that blend rational
the risk of radiation exposure for human workers (Leach 2014a).
and free-form geometries were proposed. The LEGO-like interlock-
Although ESA is exploring the potential of D-shape, NASA sup-
ing mechanism of the T-brick can generate compositions on the ba-
ports the consortium for research on contour crafting (CC). Large
sis of the properties of rational architectural geometries. The sys-
scale 3D printers use stereolithography, comprising either an inor-
tems also can implement structural elements according to free-form
ganic binder to bind sand or a layered concrete printing technology,
components, devoid of repetition, and feasible through the use of
in which the material is extruded through a computer-controlled
digital fabrication technologies. Considering the existing topogra-
nozzle. CC favors gravitation construction, despite the fact that
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phy on Mars, the initial cluster was proposed consisting of the geo-
costly formwork is not required (Leach 2014a; Contour Crafting
metries of G7, G8, and G9 (Fig. 5.), so that different programmatic
2016). For the T-brick shell, the TiO2-based layer and the load-
and spatial requirements can be accommodated in response to the
bearing layer are to be printed together in a multiprinting task.
sand dune formations on Martian land.
Robots and humans may share the tasks in the assembling process
G7, which has a dome configuration, was assessed further for
of the interlocking structural elements as determined mainly by the
structural performance simulation and details. FEM by the Rhino
complexity of the task.
scan-and-solve feature was undertaken for static structural perform-
ance to assess the displacements and stresses on the geometry. The
structural modules with interlocking mechanisms were omitted to Results and Discussion
simplify the simulation and reduce the computation time. A scalar
force of 1,500 kN was applied, and a material referencing T-brick The method includes analysis for converting granular regolith on
was used in the simulation (Fig. 8.). According to the simulation Mars into useful structural modules. A geometry cluster was gener-
results, the minimum and maximum displacements ranged between ated by selecting the geometries G7, G8, and G9 (Fig. 9.). Rational
3.55709
10−10 and 7.58634
10−5 m (Table 3). geometry as a dome, G7, was assessed further. The technical out-
puts are presented in Table 4.
The material production system configuration met the con-
Robotic Fabrication
straints summarized in the payload package constraints. Currently,
It is imperative to integrate robotic infrastructure with the design
and fabrication process of the T-brick shell. Currently, there are two Table 3. Results of the FEM Simulation: Displacements and Stresses on
consortia conducting research on 3D printed structures on the Moon the Geometry
and Mars. NASA and ESA are developing 3D-printing fabrication
Results extrema Minimum Maximum
−5
Table 2. Payload Package Constraints (Data from Nine Sigma 2015) x-displacement (m) −2.90731
10 1.83117
10−5
y-displacement (m) −2.98874
10−5 3.56451
10−5
Parameter Value z-displacement (m) −7.17405
10−5 3.265
10−7
Maximum payload mass [mpmax (kg)] 700 Total displacement (m) 3.55709
10−10 7.58634
10−5
Payload dimension [length (m)] 2 von Mises stress (Pa) 1,797.24 789,926
Payload dimension [height (m)] 1 Max principal stress (Pa) −208,469 315,395
Payload dimension [width (m)] 1 Mean principal stress (Pa) −244,371 78,033.8
Maximum payload volume [Vmax (m3)] 2 Min principal stress (Pa) −1.01573
106 51,035.7

Fig. 8. FEM results of the total displacements and active forces on G7

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Fig. 9. Geometry cluster consisting of G7, G8, and G9 and a section of the selected module, G7
Table 4. Technical Outputs of the System
Outputs Value
Number of structural modules 1,801
Plan area (m2) 257
Surface area (m2) 353.58
Maximum payload mass [mp (kg)] 659.42
Mass [mout (kg)] 329,710 kg
Production time of each useful product [Ti (s)] 35
Production time [Tprod (h)] 17.5
Operation time (min/m2) 2.97
Approximate size of one structural module (m2) 0.2
Energy (kJ) 27,735.4
Production rate 18,840.57
Efficiency factor 0.679
the system consists of 1,801 structural modules that are intercon-
nected with a surface area that reached 353.58 m2. The usable plan
area is calculated as 257 m2 that can be accommodated in two lev-
els, one on the ground floor and one on the mezzanine level, because
of the height of the dome structure, which is 6.04 m. The mass, mout,
was 329 710 kg, of which the payload mass, mp, was 659.42 kg, that
can fit into 500 payload volumes of 2
1
1 m. The production
time of each useful product, Ti, was taken as the average value of
35 s, which was based on the 3D printing process. Because there are
1,801 objects as structural modules, the estimated time for produc-
tion, Tprod, was 1,050.58 min, which is 63,035 s or 17.5h. Although
the modules were differentiated, the average size of one module
was 0.2 m2. The approximate operation time through 3D printing
was 2.97 min/m2. The energy, Eout, required for the system was
27,735.4 kJ at 220 volts and 2 A. The production rate, R, of
18,840.57, was calculated as a ratio of mout to tprod. The efficiency
factor was defined as the ratio of mout to the product of the Eout mul-
tiplied by tprod. Values smaller than 1 were considered indications
of efficiency. The efficiency factor was calculated as 0.679.
Therefore, the proposed system is efficient.
In addition to the two existing approaches in space architecture
defined as utopian dreaming or highly controlled projects and
© ASCE 04017037-8
J. Archit. Eng., 2018, 24(1): 04017037
Calculation
659.42 kg
500 units = 329,710
Ti
1,801 objects = 63,035 s = 1,050.58 min = 17.5 h
1,050.58 min/353.58 m2 = 2.97 min/m2
Eout = 220 Volts
2 A
63,035 s = 27,735,400 J = 27,735.4 kJ
R = mout/tprod= 329,710 kg/17.5 h = 18,840.57
mout/(Eout
tprod) 329,710 kg/(27,735.4 kJ
17.5 h) = 0.679
mechanisms (Leach 2014b), the T-brick shell scheme proposes a
new and systematized approach that offers flexible and efficient
design solutions by using the local resources on Mars. Although the
system is comprehensive and integrates various design parameters,
the main challenge encountered in the process remains the integra-
tion of the structural load of the strong wind affecting the Martian
land into the FEM computation. In addition, the set of geometries is
currently limited to 10 geometries, with a possibility to extend the
list to accommodate different spatial, modularity, or constructabil-
ity requirements.
Concluding Remarks
The exploration of human colonization options located in extrater-
restrial environments is imperative. Exploration beyond Earth pro-
vides alternatives to diminishing resources and ever-increasing dis-
asters occurring on this planet. For decades, modularity has been
considered a fundamental design approach for successful space ex-
ploration because it is efficient, economical, transportable, and
demountable. In today’s field of architecture, which is embracing
CD processes, the opportunity to reinterpret the concept of
J. Archit. Eng.
 modularity exists. Digital fabrication techniques are becoming more
sophisticated and are enabling the seamless production of highly dif-
ferentiated parts. Although much research remains to be undertaken,
these systems offer tremendous potential as the author seeks to con-
struct in extraterrestrial environments. Therefore, in response to the
in situ materials challenge on Mars described by the NASA, a
T-brick shell scheme was developed with the following features:
• With the proposed methodology, it is possible to translate cur-
rent research on Earth to generate livable systems in extrater-
restrial environments;
• The T-brick shell reflects flexibility in design with a new
understanding of modularity;
• The T-brick shell responds to the environmental conditions,
harnesses alien resources, and meets performance criteria of
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Ozyegin Universitesi on 05/14/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
an environment beyond Earth, such as Mars;
• The proposed system is able to generate highly flexible outputs
that can be adapted into various design scenarios with the abil-
ity to accommodate various spatial and programmatic require-
ments; and
• The methodology developed has the potential to be used on
both Earth and extraterrestrial environments.
For future studies, the physical and chemical properties of the T-
brick material should be assessed. Extracting TiO2 and increasing
the strength of the T-brick and the composition of the actual load-
bearing structure of the brick need to be further developed through
computer simulations and physical models. The material system
needs to be tested with an actual prototype. In addition, robotic fab-
rication technology to be used for the T-brick shell should be inves-
tigated further.
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