Task of Abstract Algebra (I)

By Riza Agustiani (IMPoME 2010)

1. Relation (domain, codomain)

Definition:
 “A realation is a rule that describes how elements of a set (domain) relate, or interact,
with elements of another set. “
 “An oredered relation R from domain A to codomain B is subset of the Cartesian product
A x B.”
 “A relation is a set whose elements are ordered pairs.”
Note:
- Domain is the set of all the first elements (abscissae) of the ordered pairs.
- Codomain is the set of all the second elements (ordinates) of the ordered pairs.
- A relation from a set A to the same set A is called a relation in A.
- The notaion of a relation R from a set of A to a set of B: aRb or (a,b), where a A and b B.

Examples:
 Order, symbolized by “<”, or equivalently, the sentence “ x is less then y”, is a relation in
any set of real numbers. For, given any oredered pair (a,b) of real numbers, either a <
or a ≮ b.
 Perpendicularity is a relation in the set of lines in the plane. For, given any pair of lines
a and b, either a is perpendicular to b or a is not perpendicular to b.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Let R be the relation from E = {2,3,4,5} to F = {3,6,7,10} defined by “x and y are relatively
prime”. Write R as a set of oredered pairs!
2). Informal Problem
Let R be the relation from to U = {Makasar State University, Nusa Cendana University,
Lambung Makurat University, Sriwijaya University, Surabaya State University}
P = {Palembang, Banjarmasin, Surabaya, Makasar, Kupang} defined by “x is sited in y”.
Write as a set of ordered pairs!

2. Ordered Relation
Definition:
“ Let O be a binary relation defined on a set A. O is an order relation if and only if, O is
satisfied the following two conditions:
(i) (a,a)∉ O, for every element a of A (irreflexive),
(ii) If (a,b) O and (b,c) O, then(a,c) O, for every three elements a,b, and c of A
(transitive).”

Example:
Let O be a binary relation defined on a set E = {7,9,11} defined by “x is smaller than y”, for
every two elements x and y of E. Prove that O is an order relation.
 Proof:
We get O = {(7,9), (9,11),(7,11)} that,
 O is irreflexive, since for every a A, we have (a,a) ∉ O.
 O is transitive, since for every three elements a, b, and c of E, If (a,b) O and (b,c) O,
then(a,c) O.
So, O is an ordered relation.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Determine which of the following relations are ordered in S!
a. x A y is defined by “x divides y”
b. x G y is defined by “x more than”
2). Informal Problem
Determine if each relation is ordered relation:
a. Let S be a relation in a set of human in the world defined by “x is waiting for y”.
b. Let A be a relation in a set of words defined by “x is antonym of y”.

3. Partial Ordered Relation

Definition:
“ Let P be a binary relation defined on a set A. P is a partial order relation if and only if, P is
satisfied the following three conditions:
(i) (a,a) P, for every element a of A (reflexive),
(ii) If (a,b) P and (b,a) P, then a = b, for every two elements a and b of A (antisymmetric),
(iii) If (a,b) P and (b,c) P, then(a,c) P, for every three elements a,b, and c of A
(transitive).”

Example:
Let P be a binary relation defined on a set Z = {3,5,8} defined by “x is smaller than or equal to
y”, for every two elements x and y of Z. Prove that P is a partial order relation.
Proof:
We get P = {(3,3), (3,5), (3,8), (5,5),(5,8),(8,8)} that,
 P is reflexive, since for every a Z, we have (a,a) P.
 P is antisymmetric, since for every two elements a and b of Z, If (a,b) P and (b,a) P,
then a = b.
 P is transitive, since for every three elements a, b, and c of Z, If (a,b) P and (b,c) P,
then(a,c) P.
So, P is a partial ordered relation.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Let Y be the relation from L = {2,3,4,5} to M = {3,6,7,10} defined by “x and y are relatively
prime”. Prove that Y is a partial ordered relation!
2). Informal Problem
Let S be a relation in a set of words in the world defined by “x is synonim of y”.
Determine wheter it is a partial ordered relation!
4. Equivalence Relation, Class Equivalence
Definition:
“ Let E be a binary relation defined on a set X. E is an equivalence Relation, if and only if, E is
satisfied the following three conditions:
(i) (a,a) E, for every element a of X (reflexive),
(ii) If (a,b) E, then (b,a) X, for every two elements a and b of X (symmetric),
(iii) If (a,b) E and (b,c) E, then(a,c) E, for every three elements a,b, and c of X
(transitive).”

An equivalence relation partitions a set into several disjoint subsets, called equivalence
classes. All the elements in a given equivalence class are equivalent among themselves, and
no element is equivalent with any element from a different class.

The equivalence class of an element a in X is the subset of all elements in X which are
equivalent to a:

Examples:
 Let E be the relation ∥ (paralel) in the set of lines in the plane. Determine wheter R is an
equivalence relations. (Assume that every line is paralel to itself)
Proof:
 E is reflexive since, by assumption, ∥ for every line .
 E is symmetric, since if ∥ then ∥ for every two different lines.
 E is transitive, since if ∥ then ∥ for every three different lines.
So, E is an equivalence relation.
 If X is the set of all cars, and ~ is the equivalence relation "has the same color as", then
one particular equivalence class consists of all green cars. X / ~ could be naturally
identified with the set of all car colors.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Let E be the relation in integers defined by “x is congruent to modulo n”. Prove that E is
an equivalence relation!
2). Informal Problem
Let S be a relation in a set of words in the world defined by “x is connected to y”.
Determine wheter it is a partial ordered relation!

5. Function (domain, codomain, range)

Definition:
 “A function is that it consists of an ordered triple of sets, which may be written as (X, Y,
F). X is the domain of the function, Y is the codomain, and F is a set of ordered pairs. In
each of these ordered pairs (a, b), the first element a is from the domain, the second
element b is from the codomain, and every element in the domain is the first element in
one and only one ordered pair. The set of all b is known as image of the function or
range.”
  “A function is a realtion whose dictinct elements have distinct first coordinates.”
Note:
The notation ƒ:X→Y indicates that ƒ is a function with domain X and codomain Y.
The number of different function from set A into set of B is n(B)n(A), where n(B) is the
cardinallity of set B and n(a) is the cardinality of set A.

Example:
Let f assign to each real number its square, that is, for every real number x let f(x) = x2. Then
the image of -3 is 9 and so we may write f(-3) = 9 or f: -3 → 9.
Each real number only has one square, so f is a function.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Determine and list the number of different functions from X: {a,b} into {1,2,3}.
2). Informal Problem
State whether or not each relationis a function!
a. Let C be a relation from set of capital city A: {Jakarta, Amsterdam, Tokyo, Lima, Paris}
to set of country B: {France, Indonesia, Netherland, Peru, England} defined by “x is the
capital city of y”.
b. Let D be a relation from set of the island in Indonesia I:{Sumatera, Sulawesi, Jawa} to
set of province in Indonesia P:{Lampung, Gorontalo, Banten, DI Yogyakarta} defined by
“x is the location of y”.
c. Let E be a relation from set of the animals A:{Dolphin,Carp,Eagle, Crocodile} to set of
classis :{Aves, Mammal, Fish, Reptile, } defined by “x is included in class y”.

6. Onto Function
Definition:
 “A function is said to be surjective or onto if its image is equal to its codomain. A
function f: X → Y is surjective if and only if for every y in the codomain Y there is at least
one x in the domain X such that f(x) = y.”
Note:
To show a function is onto, show for every y codomain, domain f(x) = y.

Examples:
 The function f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 is onto (and even bijective), because for
every real number y we have an x such that f(x) = y: an appropriate x is (y − 1)/2.
 The function f: Z → {0,1} defined by f(n) = n mod 2 and mapping even integers to 0 and
odd integers to 1 is onto (surjective).
 The diagrams below arethe examples of the onto function:
 Problems:
1). Formal Problem
a. How many ONTO functions are there from the set {3,2,1} into the set {0,1}?
b. Is the function h: R to R by h(x) =x3 onto?
2). Informal Problem
Determine if each function is onto:
a. To each boy on the world assign a mother on the world.
b. To each country in the world which has a prime minister assign its prime minister.
c. To each Putri Indonesia 2010 candidate assign her province.

7. Into Function
Definition:
“Let f be a function whose domain is a set A. The function f is injective if for all a and b in A,
if f(a) = f(b), then a = b; that is, f(a) = f(b) implies a = b. Equivalently, if a ≠ b, then f(a) ≠ f(b).”

To show a function is injective, show that if f(x1) = f(x2), then x1 = x2.

Example:
 The diagram below is the examples of into function:

 The function f : R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 is into.

 The function g : R → R defined by g(x) = x2 is not injective, because (for example) g(1) =
1 = g(−1). However, if g is redefined so that its domain is the non-negative real numbers
[0,+∞), then g is injective.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Are the function
a. f: R to R by f(x) = -5x + 1,
b. f: R to R by f(x) = x2 + 2
into? Show why.

2). Informal Problem

Determine if each function is into:
a. Let D be a function from set of the island in Indonesia I:{Sumatera, Sulawesi, Jawa}
into set of province in Indonesia P:{Lampung, Gorontalo, Banten, DI Yogyakarta}
defined by “x is the location of y”.
 b. Let E be a function from set of the animals A:{Dolphin,Duck, Carp,Eagle, Crocodile}
into set of classis :{Aves, Mammal, Fish, Reptile, } defined by “x is included in class y”.

8. Bijective Function
Definition:
 “A bijection, or a bijective function, is a function f from a set X to a set Y with the
property that, for every y in Y, there is exactly one x in X such that f(x) = y. It follows
from this definition that no unmapped element exists in either X or Y.”
 “A function is called a bijection , if it is onto and one-to-one.”
Note:
Every bijective function has an inverse function.

Examples:
 T he diagram below is the examples of into function:

 The function f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers N to the set of non-negative even
numbers E is one-to-one and onto. Thus it is a bijection.

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
a. How many Bijective functions are there from the set {1,2,4,5,7,8,9} into the set
{a,l,g,e,b,r,a}?
b. Is the function f: R to R by f(x) = 5x + 1 bijective?
2). Informal Problem
Determine if each function is bejective:
a. To each boy on the world assign a mother on the world.
b. To each country in the world which has a prime minister assign its prime minister.
c. To each Putri Indonesia 2010 candidate assign her province.
d. To each capital city assign to a country.

9. Binary Operation
Definition:
 “A binary operation is a calculation involving two operands or an operation whose arity
is two."
 “A binary operation in a set S is a ternary relation that maps elements of the Cartesian
product S x S to S.
Note:
The notation of a binary operation of a and b is a*b or a + b or a.b or ab.
Example:
An example is the "divides" operation between the set of prime numbers P and the set of
integers Z, in which every prime p is associated with every integer z that is a multiple of p
(and not with any integer that is not a multiple of p).

Problems:
1). Formal Problem
Give 3 examples of binary operation that satisfy:
a. commutative
b. associative and commutative
c. associative, but not commutative
2). Informal Problem
Rani has 42 candies and the candies will be shared equally to her friends. If she has 8
friends how many remainder candies are? What kind of binary operation is used? Is it
commutative or associative?