Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

10/1/2016 Chapter 9.
Forced Convection Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 8. Numerical Methods in Heat Conduction Chapter 10. Natural (or Free) Convection
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Chapter 9
Forced Convection
9.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, we studied about conduction heat transfer, where heat transfer was a molecular phenomenon and was
considered mainly in solids; convection was mentioned only in passing and was considered only as a boundary condition while
analysing conduction heat transfer.
In convection heat transfer, there is a flow of fluid associated with heat transfer and the energy transfer is mainly due to bulk motion of
the fluid. When the flow of fluid is caused by an external agency such as a fan or pump or due to atmospheric disturbances, the
resulting heat transfer is known as ‘Forced convection heat transfer’; when the flow of fluid is due to density differences caused by
temperature differences, the heat transfer is said to be by ‘Natural (or free) convection’. For example, if air is blown on a hot plate by a
blower, heat transfer occurs by forced convection, whereas, a hot plate simply hung in air will lose heat by natural convection.
In this chapter, we shall study about forced convection heat transfer. Since there is a flow of fluid involved in convection heat transfer,
it is clear that the flow field will influence the heat transfer greatly. Mathematical solution of convection heat transfer will, therefore,
require the simultaneous solution of differential equations resulting by the application of conservation of mass, conservation of
momentum and conservation of energy, under the constraints of given boundary conditions. For a threedimensional fluid flow,
mathematical solution of the resulting differential equations is a formidable task and it is usual to make many simplifying
assumptions to get a mathematical solution. Still, it must be stated that exact mathematical solutions, even for simple convection heat
transfer cases, are rather complicated and it is common practice to resort to empirical relations for solutions of problems involving
convection heat transfer. These empirical relations are obtained by researchers after performing large number of experiments for
several practically important situations and are presented in terms of nondimensional numbers.
In this chapter, we shall first describe the physical mechanism of forced convection and then mention about the convective heat
transfer coefficient and various factors affecting the same. Then, we shall discuss about velocity and thermal boundary layers.
Application of conservation of mass, momentum and energy in respect of the boundary layer will be demonstrated next. We shall not
rigorously solve these equations, but will only mention the methods of solution, since our emphasis will be on practical solutions with
the use of empirical relations. Then, we present several empirical relations to determine friction and heat transfer coefficients for flow
over different geometries such as a flat plate, cylinder and sphere for flow under laminar and turbulent conditions. Finally, flow inside
tubes will be considered and determination of heat transfer coefficient by analogy with the mechanism of fluid flow will be explained.
9.2 Physical Mechanism of Forced Convection

Consider a hot iron block whose surface is at a temperature Ts. Let this surface be cooled by a fluid at a temperature Ta, flowing over
its surface at a velocity U, as shown in Fig. 9.1.
We know that heat will be carried away from the hot iron block by the flowing fluid and the block will cool. We also know that if the
velocity of the fluid is increased, more heat is carried away and the block will be cooled faster. For the purpose of analysis, we quantify
the preceding statement by a dimensionless number called, ‘Reynolds Number’, in honour of Osborne Reynolds, an English scientist.
Reynolds number is defined as follows:
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10/1/2016 Chapter 9. Forced Convection Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
FIGURE 9.1 Temperature and velocity distribution in laminar, forced convection over a hot block
where U = mean velocity of flow, m/s
3
ρ = densiy of fluid, kg/m
μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/(ms),
and
x = a characteristic dimension of the flow passage, equal to the linear distance along the flow direction in the case of a flat plate or the
pipe diameter in the case of a flow through a pipe. For noncircular passages (such as a square or rectangular passage), the
characteristic dimension in Eq. 9.1 is the ‘equivalent diameter’, defined as:
where de = equivalent diameter, m
2
Ac = area of crosssection, m , and
P = wetted perimeter, m
For a rectangular crosssection of breadth ‘a’ and height ‘b’, we get from Eq. 9.2:
And, for an annulus formed by a tube of outer diameter d1 placed within a tube of inner diameter d2 , equivalent diameter is calculated
as:
Note that Eq. 9.2 is used in connection with the calculation of pressure drop for flow through an annulus; but, for the case of heat
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transfer, say from a hot fluid flowing through the inner tube to a cold fluid flowing through the outer tube, since the heat transfer 
occurs only through the surface of the inner tube, we use for the equivalent diameter:
If the Reynolds number is below a certain value, as determined by experiments, the flow is laminar; i.e. the fluid layers move parallel
to each other in an orderly manner. As the velocity of flow increases, i.e. as the value of Reynolds number increases, there is more
disorder in the fluid and the fluid flow becomes ‘turbulent’; fluid ‘chunks’ move at random and obviously the heat transfer increases,
since these chunks of fluid carry the heat with them. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs not at a fixed value of Reynolds
number, but occurs in a range called ‘transition range of Reynolds numbers’. For example, for flow through a pipe, at values of
Reynolds number below 2300 the flow is laminar, for values above 4000 the flow is turbulent and in between is the transition range.
Value of Reynolds number is affected by fluid properties, dimension of flow passage and also by surface conditions.
Fig. 9.1 also shows the velocity profile and the temperature profile for laminar flow. The velocity profile is parabolic. As the flowing
fluid comes in contact with the surface of the block, a thin layer adheres to the surface and essentially remains stationary with zero
velocity; this phenomenon is known as ‘no slip condition’ in the terminology of fluid mechanics. The fluid layer adjacent to this layer
has its velocity retarded as compared to the free stream velocity due to the effect of viscosity of the fluid, and the next layer has slightly
higher velocity, etc. till the free stream velocity is attained at a layer farther away from the surface. The point we are trying to make
here is that immediately next to the solid surface, there is essentially a stationary layer of fluid and the heat transfer through this fluid
layer is by ‘pure conduction’; subsequently, since the next layers of fluid are in motion convection heat transfer occurs.
For this stationary fluid layer, the heat flux is given by Fourier’s law:
qcond = −kf (dT/dy)|y = 0 …(9.3)
where kf is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and (dT/dy)| y = 0 is the temperature gradient at y = 0 i.e. at the surface.
9.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling and Heat Transfer Coe icient

Governing rate equation for convection heat transfer is given by ‘Newton’s Law of Cooling’ (also known as ‘NewtonRikhman Law’).
According to this law, the heat flux in convection heat transfer is given by:
qconv = h·(Ts − Ta) …(9.4)
where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient and (Ts – Ta) is the temperature difference between the hot surface and the flowing
2 2
fluid. Unit of h is: W/(m C) so that the heat flux has units of W/m .
Though Eq. 9.4 looks very simple, it is very subtle. The reason is: heat transfer coefficient, h, depends on several factors such as:
1. the fluid properties like density, viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat,
2. type of flow (laminar or turbulent),
3. shape of fluid passage (circular, rectangle or a flat surface),
4. nature of the surface (rough/smooth) and
5. orientation of the surface
In fact, entire thrust in determining the heat transfer rate in convection is to find out this value of ‘h’ in a reliable manner.
9.4 Nusselt Number

Since we know that adjacent to the solid surface the fluid layer is stationary and the heat transfer in this fluid layer is by conduction,
and the heat transferred by convection subsequently must be equal to this fluid layer, we can equate Eqs. 9.3 and 9.4:
We can write:
h = {−kf (dT/dy)|y = 0}/(Ts − Ta) …(9.5)
i.e. the problem of finding out the value of ‘h’ reduces to the task of finding out the temperature gradient (dT/ dy) at y = 0 i.e. at the
surface.
Since the heat transfer coefficient depends on flow conditions, its value on a surface varies from point to point. However, we generally
take an average value of ‘h’ by properly averaging the local value of heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface.
It is also common practice to nondimensionalise the heat transfer coefficient with ‘Nusselt number’. Nusselt number is defined as:
where δ is a characteristic dimension and kf is the fluid thermal conductivity.
To get a physical interpretation of the Nusselt number, consider a thin layer of fluid with thickness δ and with a temperature
difference of ∆T between the two surfaces. Then, we have:
In other words, Nusselt number tells us how much the heat transfer is enhanced due to convection as compared to only conduction.
Or, higher the Nusselt number, larger the heat transfer by convection. If Nu = 1, it means that heat transfer is by conduction alone.
Example 9.1. Air at 25°C flows over a flat surface maintained at 65°C. Temperature measured at a location of 0.3 mm from the
surface is 45°C. Find out the value of the local heat transfer coefficient. Thermal conductivity of air at the average temperature may be
assumed as 0.027 W/(mC).
Solution.
Data:
Ta = 25°C Ts = 65°C δ = 0.0003 m ∆T = 45 – 65 = – 20°C kf = 0.027 W/(mC)
Now, to find out heat transfer coefficient, apply Eq. 9.5:
h = {−kf (dT/dy)|y = 0}/(Ts − Ta) …(9.5)
Now,
(Note that temperature gradient is negative since, starting from the plate surface, as we proceed in the y direction, T decreases as y
increases.)
Therefore,
9.5 Velocity Boundary Layer

Concept of ‘boundary layer’ was introduced by Ludwig Prandtl in the year 1904. According to this concept, when a fluid flows over a
surface, the flow field can be considered to be divided into two regions: one, a thin layer adjacent to the solid surface, called the
‘boundary layer’, where the viscosity effects are predominant and velocity and temperature gradients are very large, and second, a layer
beyond the boundary layer where the velocity and temperature gradients are equal to their free stream values. The boundary layer
thickness (δ) is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the surface in the ydirection at which the velocity reaches 99% of the free
stream velocity, U. Boundary layer concept helps in simplification of momentum equations and, in particular, solution of viscous flow
problems was greatly facilitated by this concept.
Let us first study the development of boundary layer for a flow over a flat plate. Flow over a flat plate is important from a practical
point of view, since flow over turbine blades and aerofoil sections of air plane wings can be approximated as flow over a flat plate. See
Fig. 9.2.
Consider a thin, flat plate. The leading edge and the trailing edge of the plate are shown in the Fig. 9.2. Let a fluid approach the flat
plate at a free stream velocity of U. The fluid layer immediately in contact with the plate surface adheres to the surface and remains
stationary, and in fluid mechanics, this phenomenon is known as ‘no slip’ condition. Then, the fluid layer next to this stationary layer
has its velocity retarded because of the viscosity effects i.e. due to the frictional force or ‘drag’ exerted between the stationary and the
moving layers. This effect continues with subsequent layers upto some distance in the ydirection till the velocity equals the free 
stream velocity U. This region of fluid layer in which the viscosity effects are predominant is known as the ‘velocity (or hydrodynamic)
boundary layer’, or simply the ‘boundary layer’. Thickness of the boundary layer is arbitrarily defined as that distance in the y
direction from the plate surface at which the velocity is 99% of the free stream velocity. Note the following points in connection with
the boundary layer:
FIGURE 9.2 Development of boundary layer over a flat plate
1. The boundary layer divides the flow field into two regions: one, ‘the boundary layer region’ where the viscosity effects are
predominant and the velocity gradients are very steep, and, second, ‘the inviscid region’ where the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant at the free stream value.
2. Since the fluid layers in the boundary layer travel at different velocities, the faster layer exerts a drag force (or frictional force)
on the slower layer below it; the drag force per unit area is known as ‘shear stress (τ)’. Shear stress is proportional to the
velocity gradient at the surface. This is the reason why, in fluid mechanics, the velocity profile has to be found out to determine
the frictional force exerted by a fluid on the surface. Shear stress is given by:
2
where μ is ‘dynamic viscosity’ of the fluid; its unit is kg/(ms) or N.s/m . Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow. For
liquids, viscosity decreases as temperature increases, whereas for gases, viscosity increases as the temperature increases.
Viscosities of a few fluids at 20°C are given in Table 9.1. It may be observed that viscosity varies by several orders of magnitude
for different fluids.
3. Use of Eq. 9.7 to determine the surface shear stress is not very convenient, since it requires a mathematical expression for the
velocity profile; so, in practice, surface shear stress is determined in terms of the free stream velocity from the following
relation:
TABLE 9.1 Dynamic viscosity of a few fluids at 20°C
Fluid µ (kg/(m.s)
Glycerin 1.49
Engine oil 0.80
Ethyl alcohol 0.00120
Water 0.00106
Freon12 0.000262
Air 0.0000182
where Cf is a ‘friction coefficient’ or ‘drag coefficient’. ρ is the density of the fluid. Cf is determined experimentally in most
cases. Drag coefficient varies along the length of the flat plate. Average value of drag coefficient (Cfa) is calculated by suitably
integrating the local value over the whole length of the plate and then the drag force over the entire plate surface is determined
from:
2
where A = surface area, m .
4. Starting from the leading edge of the plate, for some distance along the length of the plate, the flow in the boundary layer is
‘laminar’ i.e. the layers of fluid are parallel to each other and the flow proceeds in a systematic, orderly manner. However, after
some distance, disturbances appear in the flow and beyond this ‘transition region’, flow becomes completely chaotic and there
is complete mixing of ‘chunks’ of fluid moving in a random manner i.e. the flow becomes ‘turbulent’.
5. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends primarily on the free stream velocity, fluid properties, surface temperature
and surface roughness, and is characterized by ‘Reynolds number’. Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, defined as:
Re = (Inertia forces/Viscous forces)
Or,
where U = free stream velocity, m/s
x = characteristic length i.e. for a flat plate it is the length along the plate in the flow direction,
from the leading edge, and
2
v = kinematic viscosity of fluid = μ/ ρ, m /s, where ρ is the density of fluid.
When the Reynolds number is low, i.e. when the flow is laminar, inertia forces are small compared to viscous forces and the
velocity fluctuations are ‘damped out’ by the viscosity effects and the layers of fluid flow systematically, parallel to each other.
When the Reynolds number is large, i.e. when the flow is turbulent, inertia forces are large compared to the viscous forces and
the flow becomes chaotic. For a flat plate, in general, for practical purposes, the ‘critical Reynolds number, Rec ’ at which the
5
flow changes from laminar to turbulent is taken as 5 × 10 . It should be understood clearly that this is not a fixed value but
depends on many parameters including the surface roughness.
6. There is intense mixing of fluid particles in turbulent region; therefore, heat transfer is more in turbulent flow as compared in
laminar flow. This is the reason why special efforts are made in the design of heat exchangers to increase turbulence. However,
one has to pay a premium of increased pressure drop i.e. increased power to pump the fluid through the heat exchanger.
7. Velocity profile in the laminar flow is approximately parabolic.
8. Turbulent region of boundary layer is preceded by transition region as shown in Fig. 9.2.
9. Turbulent boundary layer itself is made of three layers: a very thin layer called ‘laminar sublayer’, then, a ‘buffer layer’ and,
finally, the ‘turbulent layer’.
10. Velocity profile in the laminar sublayer is approximately linear, whereas in the turbulent layer the velocity profile is somewhat
flat, as shown.
11. Thickness of the boundary layer, δ, increases along the flow direction; as we shall see later, δ is related to the Reynolds number
as follows: in the laminar flow region:
and for turbulent flow region:
where Rex is the Reynolds number at position x from the leading edge.
9.6 Thermal Boundary Layer

When the temperature of a fluid flowing on a surface is different from that of the surface, a ‘thermal boundary layer’ develops on the
surface, in a manner similar to the development of the velocity boundary layer. Let us illustrate the development of the thermal
boundary layer with reference to a flat plate. See Fig. 9.3.
Consider a fluid at an uniform velocity of U and a uniform temperature of Ta approach the leading edge of a thin, flat plate as shown.
Let the flat plate be at a uniform temperature of Ts. Let Ta > Ts. Then, the first layer that comes in contact with the surface will adhere
to the surface (no slip condition) and reach thermal equilibrium with the surface and attain a temperature of Ts. Then, the fluid
particles in this layer will exchange energy with the particles in the adjoining layer, which in turn will exchange energy with the
subsequent layer, and so on. Thus a temperature profile will develop in the flow field and the temperature will vary from Ts at the
surface to Ta at the free stream. In Fig. 9.3, the term (T – Ts) is plotted against y as shown. Thus at the surface, (T – Ts) = 0 and at the
free stream condition, (T – Ts) = (Ta – Ts). The region in which the temperature variation in the ydirection is significant is known as
‘thermal boundary layer’. Thickness of the thermal boundary layer (δt) at any location is defined as that distance from the plate surface
in the ydirection where (T – Ts) = 0.99 × (Ta – Ts). i.e where the temperature difference between the fluid and the surface has
reached 99% of the maximum possible temperature difference of (Ta – Ts). In other words, at the outer edge of the thermal boundary
layer, the dimensionless temperature ratio, (T – Ts)/(Ta – Ts) is equal to 99%.
Thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases with increasing distance along the plate; this is due to the fact that effects of heat
transfer are felt more, further downstream.
If the approaching fluid stream temperature Ta is less than the plate surface temperature, then the temperature profile in the thermal
boundary layer will be as shown below, in Fig. 9.4:
FIGURE 9.3 Development of thermal boundary layer over a flat plate
FIGURE 9.4 Thermal boundary layer over a flat plate when Ta < Ts
Temperature of the fluid changes from a maximum at the plate surface to the free stream temperature, as we proceed from the surface
upwards in the ydirection. Vertical distance from the plate surface where the ratio (Ts – T)/(Ts – Ta) is equal to 99% represents the
thickness of the thermal boundary layer.
Velocity profile in the hydrodynamic boundary layer depends on the viscosity of the fluid, whereas temperature profile in the thermal
boundary layer depends on the viscosity, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the fluid, in addition to the velocity.
Relative magnitudes of the thicknesses of the hydrodynamic boundary layer (δ) and thermal boundary layer (dδt) depend on the
dimensionless parameter ‘Prandtl number’ defined as:
Pr = (Molecular diffusivity of momentum)/(Molecular diffusivity of heat)
Or,
where μ is dynamic viscosity, Cp is the specific heat and k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
Also, v is kinematic viscosity = μ/ρ, and α is the thermal diffusivity.
Prandtl number is of the order of 1 for gases, less than 0.01 for liquid metals and more than 100,000 for heavy oils. See Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 Range of Prandtl numbers for fluids
Fluid Pr
Liquid metals 0.004 – 0.030
Gases 0.7 – 1.0
Water 1.7 – 13.7
Light organic fluids 5 – 50
Oils 50 – 100,000
Glycerin 2000 – 100,000
Regarding the relative growth of velocity and thermal boundary layers in a fluid, we may note the following:
1. For gases, where Pr = (v/ α) is of the order of 1, we see that the momentum and heat dissipate almost at the same rate i.e.
thicknesses of the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are of the same order;
2. for liquid metals since Pr << 1, it means that heat diffuses at a much higher rate than the momentum for liquid metals i.e. the
thermal boundary layer is much thicker than hydrodynamic boundary layer for liquid metals (See Fig 9.5, a), and,
3. for heavy oils (Pr >> 1), momentum diffuses at a faster rate than heat through the medium and this is evident from Fig. (9.5, b);
thus, the thermal boundary layer is much thinner than hydrodynamic boundary layer.
For laminar conditions, thickness of thermal boundary layer is related to hydrodynamic boundary layer, approximately as follows:
FIGURE 9.5 Thermal and velocity boundary layers over a flat plate for liquid metals and oils
where Pr is the Prandtl number.
9.7 Di erential Equations for the Boundary Layer

In convection studies, since there is a fluid flow, we are interested in the shear stress and the friction coefficient; to determine these we
need the velocity gradient at the surface. Similarly, to determine the convection coefficient, we need the temperature gradient at the
surface. To determine the velocity gradient at the surface, we apply the equation of conservation of momentum (in conjunction with
the equation of conservation of mass) to a differential volume element in the boundary layer. And, to determine the temperature 
gradient at the surface, we apply the equation of conservation of energy to a differential volume element in the boundary layer. We
start with the application of equation for conservation of mass:
9.7.1 Conservation of Mass–The Continuity Equation for The Boundary Layer

Consider a differential control volume, of section (dx.dy) and unit depth, within the boundary layer, as shown in Fig. 9.6.
FIGURE 9.6 Elemental control volume in the boundary layer over a flat plate for conservation of mass
Assumptions:
1. Flow is steady, incompressible
2. Constant fluid properties
3. Pressure variation is only in the Xdirection
4. Shear in Ydirection is negligible
5. Continuity in space and time
Let u and v be the velocity components in the X and Ydirections. Then, remembering that the mass flow rate is given by (density x
velocity x area) and that the depth is unity in the Zdirection, we can write:
Mass flow into the control volume in Xdirection = ρ.u.(dy.1)
Mass flow out of the control volume in Xdirection = ρ.[u + (∂u/∂ x).dx].(dy.1)
Therefore, net mass flow into the element in the Xdirection = –ρ.(∂u/∂x).dx.dy
Similarly, net mass flow into the control volume in the Ydirection is = –ρ.(∂v/∂y).dy.dx
Since the net mass flow into control volume, in steady state, must be equal to zero, we write:
–ρ.{(∂u/∂x) + (∂ v/∂y)}.dx.dy = 0
i.e. for a twodimensional flow in the boundary layer, equation of conservation of mass is given by:
(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y) = 0 ….(9.15)
Eq. 9.15 is known as ’continuity equation’ for twodimensional, steady flow of an incompressible fluid.
9.7.2 Conservation of Momentum Equation for The Boundary Layer

This is obtained by the application of Newton’s second law of motion to the differential element, which states that the net force on the
element in the Xdirection is equal to the net momentum efflux from the control volume in the Xdirection. Fig. 9.7 shows the
momentum fluxes and forces acting on the differential control volume.
FIGURE 9.7 Conservation of momentum in a twodimensional, incompressible boundary layer
For no pressure gradients in the Ydirection and with the assumption that viscous shear in the Ydirection is negligible,
2
Momentum flow in Xdirection into left face = ρ.u .dy
2
Momentum flow in Xdirection out of right face = ρ.[u + (∂u/∂x).dx] .dy
2
= ρ.u .dy + 2.ρ.u. (∂u/∂x). dx.dy
xmomentum flow entering bottom face = ρ.u.v.dx
xmomentum flow leaving upper face = ρ.[v + (∂ v/∂ y).dy].[u + (∂u/∂y).dy].dx
= ρ.u.v.dx + ρ.u.(∂v/∂y).dx.dy + ρ.v.(∂u/∂y).dx.dy
Therefore, net momentum change in the Xdirection =
[momentum flux out of the right and top faces] – [momentum flux into the left and bottom faces]

2 2
= [ρ.u .dy + 2.ρ.u.(∂u/∂x). dx.dy] + [ρ.u.v.dx + ρ.u.(∂v/∂y).dx.dy + ρ.v.(∂ u/∂y). dx.dy] – ρ.u .dy – ρ.u.v.dx
= 2.ρ.u.(∂u/∂x).dx.dy + ρ.u.(∂v/∂y).dx.dy + ρ.v.(∂u/∂y).dx.dy
= ρ.{u.(∂u/∂x) + v.(∂u/∂ y)}.dx.dy + ρ.u.{(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y)}.dx.dy
Now, from continuity Eq. 9.15, we have: (∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y) = 0; Therefore, net momentum transfer in the Xdirection = ρ.{u.(∂u/∂x)
+ v.(∂ u/∂ y)}.dx.dy …(a)
Now, let us calculate the forces acting on the control volume in the Xdirection:
Pressure forces:
Pressure force on the left face is p.(dy.1) and over the right face is
–[p + (∂p/∂ x).dx].(dy.1)
Therefore, net pressure force in the direction of motion is: –(∂p/∂x).dx.dy
And,
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Viscous shear force at the bottom face is: μ(∂u/∂y).(dx.1)
2 2
Viscous shear force at the top face is: [μ(∂u/∂y) + μ(∂ u /∂ y ).dy].(dx.1)
Therefore, net viscous force in the direction of motion =
2 2 2 2
[μ(∂u/∂y) + μ(∂ u/∂y ).dy].(dx.1) – μ(∂u/∂y).(dx.1) = μ(∂ u/∂y ).dx.dy
Therefore,
F x = Resultant applied force in the Xdirection =
Net pressure force in the Xdirection + net viscous force in the Xdirection
i.e.

2 2
F x = −(∂p/∂x).dx.dy + π(∂ u/∂y ).dx.dy …(b)
Equating Eqs. a and b as per Newton’s second law, and neglecting second order differentials, we get:

2 2
ρ.{u.(∂u/∂x) + v.(∂u/∂y)} = π(∂ u/∂y ) − (∂p/∂x). …(9.16)
Eq. 9.16 is known as ’conservation of momentum equation’ for twodimensional, steady flow of an incompressible fluid.
If the pressure variation in the Xdirection is negligible, (which is true for flow over a flat plate since (∂ U/∂x) = 0), Eq. 9.16 reduces
to:

2 2
u.(∂u/∂x) + v.(∂u/∂y) = n.(∂ u/∂y ). …(9.17)
where v = μ/ ρ = kinematic viscosity
9.7.3 Conservation of Energy Equation for The Boundary Layer

Assumptions:
1. steady, incompressible flow
2. conduction is only in the Ydirection
3. temperature change in the Xdirection is small i.e. negligible conduction in flow direction
4. specific heat (Cp) of the fluid is constant
5. negligible viscous heating
6. negligible body forces
Fig. 9.8 shows the rate at which energy is conducted and convected into and out of the differential control volume.
Note that in addition to the conductive terms, there are four convective terms.
Let us write the different energy terms and apply the energy balance which states that net rate of conduction and convection should be
equal to zero:
Convective terms:
For the Xdirection:
Energy into the control volume = ρ. Cp.u.T.dy
Energy out of the control volume = ρ. Cp.{u + (∂u/∂x).dx}.{T + (∂T/∂x) dx}.dy
Therefore, neglecting the product of differentials, net energy convected into the control volume in the Xdirection is given by: –ρ. Cp.
{u.(∂T/∂x) + T.(∂u/∂x)}.dx.dy
Similarly, net energy convected into the control volume in the Ydirection is given by:
–ρ.Cp.{v. (∂ T/∂y) + T.(∂v/∂y)}.dx.dy
Conductive terms:
Conduction in Ydirection.
FIGURE 9.8 Conservation of energy in a twodimensional, incompressible boundary layer
Net conduction into the control volume in the Ydirection is given by:

2 2 2 2
– k.dx.(∂T/∂y) – [k.dx.{(∂T/∂y) + (∂ T/∂y ).dy} = k. (∂ T/∂y ).dx.dy
Similarly, for completeness, net conduction into the control volume in the Xdirection is given by:

2 2
k. (∂ T/∂x ).dx.dy
When the viscous work is neglected, making an energy balance, we have:
Algebraic sum total of heat flow to the control volume due to conduction and convection must be equal to zero.
i.e.
2 2 2 2
−ρ.Cp.{u.(∂T/∂x) + T.(∂u/∂x)}.dx.dy − ρ.Cp.{v.(∂T/∂y) + T.(∂v/∂y)}.dx.dy + k.(∂ T/∂x ).dx.dy + k. (∂ T/∂y ).dx.dy = 0
i.e.
2 2 2 2
−ρ.Cp.{u. (∂T/∂x) + T.(∂u/∂x) + v.(∂T/∂y) + T.(∂v/∂y)}.dx.dy + k.{(∂ T/∂x ) + (∂ T/∂y )}.dx.dy = 0
i.e.
2 2 2 2
−ρ.Cp.{u. (∂T/∂x) + v.(∂T/∂y) + T.[(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y)]}+ k.{(∂ T/∂x ) + (∂ T/∂y )} = 0
Now, from continuity equation, (∂u/ ∂x) + (∂v/∂y) = 0; also, since the boundary layer is very thin, (∂T/∂y) >> (∂T/∂x). (i.e.
conduction in Xdirection is negligible).
Therefore, energy balance equation becomes:

2 2
u. (∂T/∂x) + v.(∂T/∂y) = (ρ/r.Cp). (∂ T/∂y )
or,
This is the energy equation for a twodimensional, steady incompressible flow, when the viscous dissipation is neglected, i.e. for
very low velocities of flow.
Observe the similarity between Eq. 9.17 for momentum balance and the Eq. 9.18 for energy balance.
In Eq. 9.17, v = μ/ ρ = kinematic viscosity, also known as momentum diffusivity. In Eq. 9.18, α is the diffusivity of heat. Their ratio is
known as Prandtl number and is equal to:
Pr = v/α = (μ/ρ)/(k/ρ.Cp) = Cp.π/k …(9.19)
If v = α, then Pr = 1 and the momentum and energy equations are identical; thus, Prandtl number controls the relation between the
velocity and temperature distributions.
When the viscous dissipation cannot be neglected, as in the case of very viscous fluids (e.g. in journal bearings), or when the fluid
shear rate is extremely high, an additional term for ‘viscous dissipation, φ ‘ appears on the LHS of the energy balance. φ is given by:
2 2 2 2
φ = μ.{[(∂u/∂y) + (∂v/∂x)] + 2.[(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y) ] − (2/3).[(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y)] …(9.20)
We shall not consider viscous dissipation in our discussions.
9.8 Methods to Determine Convective Heat Transfer Coe icient

As stated earlier, in convection heat transfer analysis, the primary problem is to determine the heat transfer coefficient. Once this
quantity is determined, heat transfer rate from the surface is easily determined by applying Newton’s law.
There are generally, five methods available to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient:
1. dimensional analysis in conjunction with experimental data
2. exact mathematical solutions of boundary layer equations
3. approximate solutions of boundary layer equations by integral methods
4. analogy between heat and momentum transfer, and
5. numerical analysis
Of course, none of them can by itself, solve all the problems we come across in practice, since each method has its own limitation.
Of the above mentioned methods, ‘dimensional analysis’ is mathematically simple, but has the disadvantage that it does not give any
insight into the phenomenon occurring; also, it does not give any equation that can be solved, but requires experimental data to get the
coefficients in the equations. However, this method helps in the interpretation of the experimental data and extends the range of
applicability by expressing the data in terms of dimensionless groups.
‘Exact solutions of boundary layer equations’ involve simultaneous solutions of differential equations derived for the boundary layer.
These are rather complicated and solutions are available for a few simple flow situations, such as flow over a flat plate, an airfoil, or a
circular cylinder, in laminar flow. Describing the turbulent flow mathematically is rather difficult. We shall only give an outline of this
method, since our emphasis is on practical solutions to convection heat transfer problems by using empirical relations.
‘Approximate solutions for boundary layer equations’ consider a finite control volume for analysis, rather than an infinitesimal
control volume, and integral equations are derived; however, solution requires assuming equations to describe the velocity and
temperature profiles satisfying the boundary conditions. This method is relatively simple, and it is possible to get solutions to
problems that cannot be treated by exact method of analysis. This method can be applied to turbulent flow also.
‘Analogy between heat and momentum transfer’ is a very useful tool to deduce the convective heat transfer coefficient by the
knowledge of flow friction data only, particularly for turbulent flows, without actually conducting heat transfer experiments. This
method utilizes the fact that the momentum and energy equations have the same form, under certain conditions, and therefore, the
solutions also must have the same form. Further, it is simple to conduct flow (friction) experiments, as compared to heat transfer
experiments.
‘Numerical methods’ involves discretizing the differential equations and are therefore approximate. Solutions are obtained at discrete
points in time and space rather than continuously; however, accuracy can be improved to acceptable levels by taking sufficiently close
grids. Main advantage of numerical methods is that variation in fluid properties and boundary conditions can be easily handled.
9.8.1 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis considers the various quantities that contribute to the phenomenon and reduces these variables into
dimensionless groups; however, dimensional analysis alone is not of much use, and this method must always be supplemented by
experimental data since to determine the coefficients in the functional relationships between the dimensionless groups we need actual,
practical data. Also, it is necessary to have some insight into the problem before we start the analysis, since we have to first list the
pertinent variables that influence the phenomenon. Once this is done, mathematics involved is minimum, and the method can be
applied routinely to most of the problems.
9.8.1.1 Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulas.
Fundamental axiom of dimensional analysis is that equations describing a physical phenomenon must be dimensionally
homogeneous (i.e. dimensions of the two sides of the equation are identical) and units therein must be consistent.
‘Dimension’ is a qualitative expression whereas unit is quantitative. For example, when the distance between two points is spoken of as
‘length’ it is qualitative; instead, if we say that the distance is so many metres or kilometres or miles, we are speaking in terms of
‘Units’. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
In S.I. system, there are four ‘primary dimensions’ viz. Length (L), Mass (M), Time (t) and Temperature (T). Other derived quantities
can be expressed in terms of these primary dimensions. Dimensional formula for a physical quantity is obtained from its definition or
from physical laws involved. For example,
Dimension of length of a bar: [L]
−1
Dimension of velocity: Distance/time: [L/t] = L.t
2 −2
Dimension of Force: Mass x acceleration = [M.L/t ] = [M. L. t ]
−2 2 −2
Dimension of Work : Force x distance : [M. L. t ]. L = [M. L . t ]
2 −3
Dimension of Power : Work/time : = [M. L .t ], …, etc.
Table 9.3 shows a few physical quantities, their symbols, units and dimensional formulas.
9.8.1.2 Buckingham π Theorem.
This theorem is used to determine the number of independent dimensionless groups that can be obtained from a set of physical
quantities that govern a given phenomenon.
According to this rule, if the number of pertinent physical variables governing a phenomenon is ‘n’, and the number of primary
dimensions to express the dimensional formulas of these n quantities is ‘m’, then, the number of independent dimensionless groups
that can be formed by combining these physical quantities is given by (n – m). If these dimensionless groups are designated by π 1, π 2 ,
…, etc. then, relation between them can be expressed as:
F(π 1, π 2 , π 3 , …) = 0 …(9.21)
TABLE 9.3 Some physical quantities of importance in heat transfer and their dimensions
For example, if in a problem, there are 5 physical quantities which are described by 3 primary dimensions only, then there are (5 – 3)
= 2 dimensionless groups and the solution is of the form:
F(π 1, π 2 ) = 0. …(9.22)
Or,
π 1 = f (π 2 ) …(9.23)

Then experimental data can be presented by plotting π 1 against π 2 .
1 2

If there are 3 dimensionless groups in another problem, the solution is of the form:
F(π 1, π 2 , π 3 ) = 0. …(9.24)
Or,
π 1 = f (π 2 , π 3 ) …(9.25)
Now, experimental data can be presented by plotting π 1 against π 2 for different values of π 3 .
While applying the Buckingham method, after determining the number of p terms that can be formed, further procedure is as follows:
Of the total of ‘n’ number of variables, select a ‘core group’ of ‘m’ number of variables, which repeat for each π term; these are known
as ‘repeated variables’; then, each π term is formed by the core group plus one of the remaining (n – m) variables. Each of the
variables in the core group is raised to a suitable power to maintain dimensional homogeneity. Selection of the core group should be
done as per the following thumb rules:
1. variables in the core group must contain among themselves all the fundamental dimensions involved in the phenomenon.
2. the repeating variables must not form dimensionless groups among themselves
3. invariably, dependent variable should not be incuded in the core group
4. no two variables in the core group should have the same dimensions
5. in general, repeating variables should be chosen such that one variable contains a geometric property (e.g. length ‘l’, diameter
‘D’ or height ‘h’), other variable contains a flow property (e.g. velocity ‘V’, acceleration ‘a’ etc.), and the other variable contains a
fluid property (e.g. density ‘ρ’, dynamic viscosity ‘μ’ etc.). In most of the cases, repeated variables or the core group consist of :
(l, V, ρ), (d, V, ρ), (l, V, μ), or (d, V, μ).
Procedure of applying the Buckingham method is illustrated below:
9.8.1.3 Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection.
Now let us illustrate the application of Buckigham’s π theorem to the case of convection heat transfer for a fluid flowing across a
heated tube; of course, same approach is applicable for heat transfer for a fluid flowing inside a tube or flowing over a plate.
First, it is necessary to list the pertinent parameters influencing the physical phenomenon. From the description of the problem, it
appears reasonable to assume that the physical quantities listed below (along with their dimensional formulas) are relevant to this
problem:
1. Tube diameter (D)…[L]
−3
2. Fluid density (ρ)…[ML ]
−1
3. Fluid velocity (V)…[Lt ]
−1 −1
4. Fluid viscosity (μ)…[ML t ]
2 −2 −1
5. Specific heat (Cp)…[L t T ]
−3 −1
6. Thermal conductivity (k)…[MLt T ], and
−3 −1
7. Heat transfer coefficient (h)…[Mt T ]
Thus, we see that there are 7 pertinent variables affecting the physical phenomenon and they contain 4 fundamental dimensions L, M, t
and T.
Then, from Buckingham’s π theorem, we deduce that (7 – 4) = 3 independent dimensionless groups would be formed to correlate
experimental data.
Now, let us form the ‘core group’ of 4 variables, keeping in mind the principles enumerated above. Let us choose d, V, ρ, and h for the
core group. They contain among themselves all the primary dimensions; they do not form dimensionless groups among themselves;
no two variables have same dimensions; and, one variable(D) is a geometric property, one variable(V) is a flow property, and ρ is a
fluid property. Then, the different π terms are obtained by combining the core group with each one of the remaining (7 – 4)
properties:

a b c d
π 1 = h .ρ .D .V .μ
m n p q p
π 2 = h .ρ .D .V .C
w x y z
π 3 = h .ρ .D .V .k
Exponents of terms in πterms are chosen so as to make the π terms dimensionless. So, we start with π 1 and write the dimensional
formulas of each quantity and apply the requirement of dimensional homogeneity:
For π 1:
Equating the exponents of M, L, t and T on either side, for dimensional homogeneity:
Exponents of M: 0 = a + b + 1
Exponents of L: 0 = –3b + c + d – 1
Exponents of t: 0 = –3a – d – 1
Exponents of T: 0 = –a
Solving the above equations, we get:
a = 0; b = –1; c = –1; d = –1
Therefore,
−1 −1
π 1 = ρ .D .V
−1
.μ
i.e. π 1 = μ/(ρ.V.D)
Since π 1 is dimensionless anyway,
we shall choose: π 1 = ρ. V.D/ μ
Recognize that π 1 is the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re).
For π2:
Exponents of M: 0 = m + n
Exponents of L: 0 = –3 n + p + q + 2
Exponents of t: 0 = – 3 m – q – 2
Exponents of T: 0 = – m – 1
m = –1; n = 1; p = 0; q = 1
Therefore,
−1
π 2 = h .ρ.V.Cp
i.e. π 2 = (Cp.ρ.V)/h
Since the dimensions of h and k/D are same, we write:
π 2 = (Cp.ρ.V.D)/ k
Dividing this by another dimensionless number, i.e. Reynolds number gives again another dimensionless number; so, we get:
π 2 = {(Cp.ρ.V.D)/k}/{ρ.V.D/μ} = μ.Cp/k
Recognise that π 2 is the dimensionless Prandtl number (Pr).
For π3:
Exponents of M: 0 = w + x + 1
Exponents of L: 0 = –3 x + y + z + 1
Exponents of t: 0 = –3 w – z – 3
Exponents of T: 0 = –w – 1
w = –1; x = 0; y = –1; z = 0
Therefore,

1 1
π 3 = h” .D” .k = k/(h.D)
Since k/(h.D) is dimensionless, (h.D)/k is also dimensionless. So, we choose:
π 3 = (h.D)/k
Recognize that π 3 is the dimensionless Nusselt number (Nu).
Then, according to the Buckingham p theorem,
π 3 = F(π 1, π 2 )
Or,

m n
Nu = C. Re .Pr . …(9.26)
where C, m and n are constants evaluated experimentally.
Eq. 9.26 is the desired relation among the various physical quantities affecting forced convection across a tube, expressed in terms of
dimensionless numbers Nu, Re and Pr.
Note:
(a) If we had taken (D, ρ, μ, k) for the core group (or, repeating variables), then combining the core group with V, cp and h in turn, we
would have got, respectively:
π 1 = (ρ V D)/μ = Re
π 2 = μCp/k = Pr, and
π 3 = h D/k = Nu
i.e. the same result as obtained earlier.
(b) If, instead, we choose (V, μ, ρ, Cp) as the core group, then the dimensionless terms obtained are:
Re = (ρ V D)/m
Pr = μCp/k, and
St = h/(ρ V Cp) = h/(G Cp) = Stanton number,
where G = ρ. V = mass velocity
In fact, another way of expressing heat transfer correlations is:
St = F(Re, Pr). …(9.27)
9.8.1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
Advantages:
1. It is mathematically quite simple.
2. When a given physical phenomenon depends on a large number of variables, dimensional analysis reduces the number of
variables for experimentation by getting the dimensionless numbers with suitable combination of those variables. Advantage of
having lesser number of variables for experimentation is obvious.
3. Dimensional analysis helps in interpretation of experimental data and in deriving suitable empirical, design equations.
4. It also helps in planning the experimental work for a particular problem.
5. It helps to extend the range of experimental results; for example, if a particular set of results for air in forced convection is
expressed in terms of Nusselts number, Reynolds number and Prandtl numbers, then the same results can be applied to another
fluid, say, water, if the corresponding dimensionless numbers are the same.
6. It helps in getting a partial solution to problems, when the mathematical solution is too complicated.
Limitations:
1. It does not give any insight into the physical phenomenon occurring.
2. Selection of variables has to be done with care; if it is wrongly done, results will be erroneous.
3. It does not give an exact functional relation which can be solved; dimensional analysis requires experimental data to get the
coefficients in the functional relationship.
4. If it is required to get the effect of one particular variable on the rest of the variables in a particular problem, it is difficult to get
this information by dimensional analysis.
Application of dimensional analysis to the case of heat transfer by natural convection will be described in the next chapter.
9.8.1.5 Dimensionless Numbers and their Physical Significance.
There are many dimensionless numbers that we come across in heat transfer studies. Their physical significance must be clearly
understood and this is is facilitated by expressing these dimensionless numbers as the ratios of two forces. This requires a little
explanation:
Many times, in fluid mechanics and heat transfer studies, it becomes impossible or impracticable to conduct experiments on the
actual prototype size of the system. Then, studies are done on a model of reduced size. Then, the question arises as to how to relate the
results of the experiments done on the model to the actual prototype. To be able to do so, certain criteria have to be satisfied. These
criteria, known as ‘criteria for similitude’ are the following:
1. Geometrical similarity Two objects are geometrically similar if the ratios of corresponding linear dimensions are equal.
2. Kinematic similarity This represents similarity of motion , i.e. if the ratios of velocities of corresponding particles are
equal, there is said to be kinematic similarity.
3. Dynamic similarity This represents similarity of forces. If there is kinematic similarity and in addition, the ratios of
homologous forces in the systems are also the same, there is said to be dynamic similarity.
If all the above criteria are satisfied, then there is complete correspondence or similarity between the model and the prototype.
Further, in an incompressible flow, if the conditions of geometrical similarity and dynamic similarity are satisfied, then kinematic
similarity is automatically achieved.
Geometric similarity can be easily achieved by constructing the model of the actual system to a certain reduced scale. One way of
ensuring dynamic similarity is by making sure that some relevant dimensionless numbers are the same for both the model and the
prototype, since these dimensionless numbers can be expressed as ratios of certain forces. Let us illustrate this by considering different
forces that are relevant to fluid mechanics and heat transfer:
(1) Inertia force (Fi):
F i = mass x acceleration , i.e.
(2) Viscous force (Fv):
F v = shear stress x area, i.e.
(3) Gravity force (Fg):
F g = mass x gravitational acceleration, i.e.

3
F g = ρ·L ·g …(c)
(4) Surface tension (Ft):
F t = σ·L …(d)
where σ is the coefficient of surface tension (units: Force/unit length) 
(5) Elasticity force (Fe ):

2
F e = Ev·L …(e)
where Ev is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid.
(6) Pressure force (Fp):
F p = pressure x area, i.e.

2
F p = Δp·L …(f)
Now, let us form the ratios of inertia force with other forces:
Ratios of forces:
1.
2.
Here, Fr is known as ‘Froude number’.
3.
4.
5.
Dimensionless numbers mentioned above occur frequently in fluid mechanics.
Some of the dimensionless numbers occurring in heat transfer are:
Reynolds number:
We have:
i.e. Reynolds number is a measure of relative magnitudes of inertial and viscous forces occurring in a given flow situation. At low
velocities, Reynolds number is low, i.e. viscous effects are large and any flow disturbances are easily damped by viscous effects and the
different layers in the flow move systematically, parallel to each other; this is called laminar flow. If, on the other hand, the Reynolds
number is large, effect of inertial forces are predominant and the flow pattern is completely random, with the chunks of particles 
moving in all directions; this is called turbulent flow. Thus, Reynolds number denotes the type of flow i.e. if the flow is laminar or
turbulent.
Prandtl number:
We have:
i.e. Prandtl number is the ratio of kinematic viscosity of the fluid to its thermal diffusivity. v represents the diffusion of momentum
through the fluid whereas α represents the diffusion of heat (energy) through the fluid. Therefore Pr is a measure of relative
effectiveness of momentum and energy transport in the medium by diffusion. For oils Pr >> 1, and this signifies that in oils,
momentum transport is more rapid than the transport of energy; for gases, Pr ~ 1 and this means that in gases, momentum and energy
are transported by diffusion at almost the same rate. For the case of liquid metals, where Pr << 1, the energy transport is many times
more rapid as compared to the transport of momentum.
Prandtl number is also the significant parameter which influences the relative growth of velocity and temperature profiles.
Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses are related by:
where ‘n’ is a positive exponent.
For gases (Pr ~ 1), δ ~ δt, for oils (Pr >> 1), δ >> δt, and for liquid metals (Pr <<1), δ << δt.
Nusselt number:
We have:
Consider a plate at a temperature Ts, over which a fluid at a temperature Ta is flowing; then, immediately adjacent to the surface there
will be a stationary layer of fluid. In this layer, heat transfer is, obviously by conduction and then the heat is transferred to the stream
by convection. Making an energy balance and equating these two quantities,
i.e. Nusselt number may be interpreted as a ratio of temperature gradient at the surface to an overall, reference temperature gradient.
Looking at it in another way, multiplying both the numerator and denominator of the expression for Nu by ∆T, we can write:
i.e. Nusselts number is an indication of the enhancement of heat transfer by convection.
Stanton number:
We have:
This can be written as:
Stanton number is expressed in terms of other three dimensionless numbers, namely Nusselts number, Reynolds number and Prandtl
number. Note that Stanton number comes into picture only in connection with the forced convection heat transfer, since the term for
velocity (V) is contained in the expression for Nu.
In another interpretation, if the temperature difference between the wall surface and the bulk of the fluid is ∆T,
convective heat flux = h. ∆T; and
energy transported by the bulk fluid flow per unit crosssection of flow area =
mass flow rate x Cp x ∆T = (V.ρ).Cp.∆T
Therefore, taking their ratio:
In other words, Nusselt number may also be interpreted as the ratio of convective heat flux to the rate of energy transport by the bulk
flow of the fluid per unit area of flow crosssection.
Peclet number:
We have:
i.e. Peclet number may be expressed as the product of Reynolds number and Prandtl numbers. Again, as we have shown above, energy
transported by the bulk fluid flow per unit crosssection of flow area =
mass flow rate x Cp x ∆T = (V.ρ).Cp.∆T, and
heat flux due to conduction across a distance L for the same ∆T = k∆T/L. Taking their ratio:
i.e. Peclet number may be interpreted as the ratio of rate of heat transfer by bulk flow to the rate of heat transfer by conduction.
Graetz number:
This dimensionless number is related to the heat transfer to a fluid flowing through a circular pipe. By definition, it is the ratio of heat
capacity of the fluid flowing per unit length of the pipe to the thermal conductivity of the pipe i.e.
where D is the diameter and L is the length of pipe. Therefore, Graetz number is similar to Peclet number, but is used in connection
with heat transfer analysis of laminar flow in pipes.
Grashoff number:
Grashoff number occurs only in connection with heat transfer in natural convection (we shall study this later). We have, by definition:
This can be written as:
In other words,
Role of Grashoff number in natural (free) convection is similar to that of Reynolds number in forced convection.
9.8.2 Exact Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations

Here, we shall illustrate the method in connection with the heat transfer for flow on a flat plate. However, we shall only give an outline
of the method, since, as we stated earlier, our focus is to enumerate the empirical relations useful for practical calculations.
Recollect that the equations of continuity, momentum and energy for the boundary layer on a flat plate are given, respectively, by:
(∂u/∂x) + (∂v/∂y) = 0 …(9.15)
2 2
u.(∂u/∂x) + v.(∂u/∂y) = n.(∂ u/∂y ) …(9.17)
2 2
u.(∂T/∂x) + v.(∂T/∂y) = α.(∂ T/∂y ) …(9.18)
Now, solving the momentum equation in conjunction with the continuity equation gives the velocity distribution, boundary layer
thickness and shear stress (or friction force) at the surface. Exact mathematical solution is rather complex; its outline is given below:
Since the velocity profiles at different distances from the leading edge of the plate are similar, they can be considered to differ from
each other only by a ‘stretching factor’ in the ydirection. So, the dimensionless velocity u/U can be expressed at any location x as a
function of dimensionless distance y/δ from the wall. Define:
Also, a stream function Ψ(x, y) is defined such that it satisfies the continuity equation, and letting
Substituting for the terms in the momentum equation in terms of η gives an ordinary, nonlinear, third order differential equation:
Solution of this differential equation was obtained numerically, by Blasius. The result is shown in Fig. 9.9.
0.5
In Fig. 9.9, abscissa is a dimensionless distance (y/x).Rex and the ordinate is a dimensionless velocity (u/ U), where u is the local
velocity in the xdirection and U is the free stream velocity. 
Two important observations are to be made from Fig. 9.9:
(a) first, when the xcoordinate reaches a value of 5 , the ycoordinate is 0.99 i.e. the local velocity reaches 99% of the stream velocity
0.5
value when (y/x).Rex reaches a value of 5. However, from the definition of the boundary layer thickness δ, we know that y = δ when
u/U = 99%. Therefore, we can write:
FIGURE 9.9 Velocity ratio in laminar boundary layer, as per Blasius
where local value of Reynolds number.
(b) second observation is that the slope at y = 0 is 0.332, i.e.
We get:
Then, the wall shear stress, τ is given by:
And, the friction coefficient (or drag coefficient), is by definition:
This is the local value of friction coefficient.
Average value of friction coefficient (Cfa) over a plate length of L is obtained by integrating Eq. 9.31 between x = 0 and x = L. i.e.
i.e.
Cfa = 2·CfL …(9.33)
Thus, for laminar flow over a flat plate, average friction coefficient is twice the value of local friction coefficient at x = L.
Solution of the energy Eq. 9.18 gives the value of convective heat transfer coefficient.
Observe the similarity between the equation of momentum 9.17 and equation of energy 9.18. This fact led Pohlhausen to follow Blasius
assumption of a similarity parameter and stream function as follows:
and, the following ordinary differential equation is obtained:
Observe that now the ratio, (v/ α), i.e. Prandtl number, enters the solution. If we draw a graph of excess temperature ratio (T – Ts)/(Ta
0,5
– Ts) against (y/x).Rex we get different curves for different Prandtl numbers; however if the excess temperature ratio is plotted
0.5 0..333
against (y/x).Rex Pr , we get a single curve for all Prandtl numbers and the plot is similar to that in Fig. 9.9. This plot is shown
in Fig. 9.10.
FIGURE 9.10 Dimensionless temperature ratio in laminar boundary layer, for flow over a flat plate
Again, there are two important observations to be made from Fig. 9.10:
(a) first, when the Xcoordinate reaches a value of 5 , the Ycoordinate is 0.99 i.e. the local excess temperature reaches 99% of the
value of total temperature difference between the free stream temperature and the plate surface temperature, when
0.5 0.333
(y/x).Rex .Pr reaches a value of 5. However, from the definition of the thermal boundary layer thickness δt, we know that y = δt
when (T – Ts)/(Ta – Ts = 99%. Therefore, we can write:
Therefore, immediately, using Eq. 9.28, we can write for the relationship between the thicknesses of hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers:
(b) second observation is that the slope at y = 0 is 0.332, i.e.
Therefore,
Then, local heat transfer flux (considering the stationary layer):
Then, we have for convective heat transfer coefficient:
and, we can write, using Eq. 9.37:
And the local heat transfer coefficient is:
Average value of heat transfer coefficient is obtained by integrating Eq. 9.39 between x = 0 and x = L. We get:
ha = 2·hx = L …(9.40)
i.e. average value of heat transfer coefficient is twice the local value at x = L.
And, then, average Nusselt number is given by:
Eq. 9.41 is valid for Pr ≥ 0.6.
In the above equations, properties of the fluid are evaluated at the mean temperature between the free stream temperature and the
plate surface temperature i.e. at the ‘film temperature’ given by:
Eq. 9.41 is not valid for liquid metals (Pr << 1); for liquid metals, following correlation is suggested by Kays:
where Pex = Rex·Pr = Peclet number
Example 9.2. Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 20°C is flowing with a velocity of 3 m/s along the length of a long, flat plate, 0.3
m wide, maintained at 100°C.
(a) Calculate the following quantities at x = 0.3 m:
(i) boundary layer thickness (ii) local friction coefficient (iii) average friction coefficient (iv) local shear stress due to friction (v)
thickness of thermal boundary layer (vi) local convection heat transfer coefficient (vii) average heat transfer coefficient (viii) rate of
heat transfer from the plate between x = 0 and x = x, by convection, and (ix) total drag force on the plate between x = 0 and x = 0.3 m.
5
(b) Also, find out the value of xc .(i.e. the distance along the length at which the flow turns turbulent, Rec = 5 × 10 ).
Solution.
Data:
Properties of air are to be taken at the film temperature of 60°C. We get, from the data tables:
3 −6
ρ := 1.025 kg/m Cp := 1017 J/(kgK) μ := 19.907· 10 kg/(ms) k := 0.0279 W/(mK) Pr := 0.71
(a) At x = 0.3 m:
x := 0.3 m
5
Note that Rex is less than 5 × 10 . Therefore boundary layer is laminar and the equations derived above are applicable.
(i)Boundary layer thickness, δ:
(ii) Local friction coefficient Cfx:
(iii) Average friction coefficient Ca:
Or: from Eq. 9.33

−3
Cfa := 2·Cfx i.e. Cfa = 6.16904 × 10
(iv) Local shearing stress, τ.
We have
(v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer:
We have
(vi) Local convection heat transfer coefficient:
We have
(vii) Average heat transfer coefficient:
From Eq. 9.40, average heat transfer coefficient between x = 0 and x = x is equal to twice the value of local heat transfer coefficient at
x = x
i.e. ha := 2·hx
2
i.e. ha = 11.86 W/(m C) (average heat transfer
coefficient.)
(viii) Rate of heat transfer from the plate between x = 0 and x = x, by convection:
(ix) Total drag force on the plate between x = 0 and x = 0.3 m
F D := τ·Area, N (drag
force)
−3
i.e. F D = 1.28 × 10 N.
(b) Distance at which flow turns turbulent:
Example 9.3. Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 20°C is flowing with a velocity of 3 m/s along the length of a flat plate, (size: 0.5
m × 0.25 m), maintained at 100°C. Using Blasius exact solution, calculate the heat transfer rate from: (i) the first half of the plate (ii)
full plate, and (iii) next half of plate.
Solution.
Data:
Properties of air are to be taken at the film temperature of 60°C. We get, from data tables:
3 −6
ρ := 1.025 kg/m Cp := 1017 J/(kgk) μ := 19.907 ´ 10 kg/(m·s) k := 0.0279 W/(mK) Pr := 0.71
(i) Heat transfer rate from the first half of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is half the length of plate:
5
This value is less than 5 × 10 ; so, the boundary layer is laminar and the equations derived above are applicable:
We have:
Therefore average heat transfer coefficient between x = 0 and x = 0.25 m:
Therefore, heat transferred from first half of plate:
Q1 := ha·Area·(Ts − Ta) W
i.e. Q1 = 64.962 W
(ii) Heat transfer rate from the entire plate:
5
We have:
Therefore average heat transfer coefficient between x = 0 and x = 0.5 m:
ha := 2·hL
2
i.e. ha = 9.187 W/(m C) (average heat transfer coefficient)
2
Area := 0.5·0.25 m (area of full of plate)
2
i.e. Area = 0.125 m (area of half of plate)
Therefore, heat transferred from entire plate:
Q2 := ha·Area·(Ts − Ta)
W
i.e. Q2 = 91.87 W
(iii) Heat transfer rate from next half of plate:
This is equal to heat transferred from the entire plate minus the heat transferred from the first half of plate = Q2 – Q1
i.e. Q2 − Q1 = 26.908 W (heat transferred from next half of plate)
9.8.3 Approximate Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations–Von Karman Integral Equations

It may be observed that Blasius solution to the momentum equation, though exact, is quite cumbersome even for the simple case of a
flat plate; further, much ingenuity is required in selecting a suitable similarity parameter η for the solution. In the approximate
method of Von Karman, instead of developing the differential equations starting from an infinitesimal control volume, a finite control
volume is selected and integral equations are developed; this may be done either by directly integrating the momentum (or energy)
equation or by writing a momentum (or energy) balance for the finite control volume. This latter approach is shown below.
Consider a finite control volume, ABCD, that extends from the wall surface in the Ydirection well into the free stream (i.e. beyond
the boundary layer), has a thickness of dx in the Xdirection and has unit width in the Zdirection, as shown. Let the height of AB be H
(> δ). Now, let us write the momentum balance:
FIGURE 9.11 Finite control volume in the boundary layer over a flat plate, for integral approach
Mass flow rate entering face
Mass flow rate leaving face
Since no mass can enter the control volume from face AD, it is clear from the mass balance that the incremental mass, i.e.
must have entered the control volume through face BC, with the free stream velocity U.
The xmomentum fluxes are:
Influx through face AB:
efflux through face CD =
influx through BC =
Assuming that there are no pressure forces (i.e. pressure gradient in Xdirection is zero) and no body forces, and also that there is no
shear force on the upper face BC since it is outside the boundary layer, we write the momentum balance:
Drag or shear force at the plate surface = net momentum change for the control volume.
Note that upper limit of integration is replaced by δ since the integrand is zero for y > δ i.e. outside the boundary layer.
Simplifying, we get:
Eq. 9.44 is known as Von Karman integral momentum equation for the boundary layer. It expresses wall shear stress τw as a function
of nondimensional velocity distribution (u/U). It is clear from Eq. 9.44 that if we know the velocity distribution in the boundary
layer, we can calculate the wall shear stress easily.
Now, method of solution is to assume a velocity distribution in the boundary layer to start with. At first sight, this looks ridiculous to
assume the velocity distribution, but since the boundary layer is very thin, assuming a velocity profile which satisfies the boundary
conditions does not introduce much error. This is verified from practical results and also, as shown in Table 9.4, assumption of
different velocity profiles does not give much variation in calculated values of boundary layer thickness δ or the friction coefficient Cf.
Since, from the experiments, it is observed that velocity distributions in the boundary layer at different xlocations are geometrically
similar, we can say that the dimensionless velocity distribution (u/U) is a function of dimensionless distance from the wall (y/δ). So,
let us assume a velocity profile as follows:
Eq. 9.45 must satisfy the following boundary conditions:
Applying these boundary conditions, we get the constants a, b, c and d in Eq. 9.45 and the velocity profile becomes:
Let us now introduce this cubic velocity profile into the Von Karman momentum integral Eq. 9.44. Simplifying, we get:
At the solid surface, Newton’s law of viscosity gives:
Equating Eqs. 9.47 and 9.48, we get:
Since δ is a function of x only, we integrate the above equation and applying the condition that at x = 0, δ = 0, we get:
Or, in nondimensional form, this may be written as:
where Rex is the Reynolds number with characteristic distance x from the leading edge of the plate.
Eq. 9.49 gives the boundary layer thickness δ, at a distance x from the leading edge.
To calculate the shear stress at the wall, let us insert this value of δ in the expression 9.48 for τw:
Now, from the definition of local skin friction coefficient, we have:
Average skin friction coefficient is given by:
where ReL is the Reynolds number based on length L of the plate.
Note that values of boundary layer thickness and skin friction coefficient obtained above with the approximate, integral method,
match reasonably well with the values obtained by exact analysis of Blasius.
Further, if we assume a velocity profile other than the cubic velocity profile assumed above (satisfying the boundary conditions), it is
observed that the results obtained do not differ greatly. Table 9.4 demonstrates this fact for some velocity profiles, including linear,
parabolic and cubic. Blasius exact results are shown for comparison:
Note that above results are valid for laminar boundary layer conditions only.
Mass flow through the boundary:
If we consider a section at any distance x from the leading edge, mass flow through that section is given by: mx = ∫ [Area × Velocity ×
density]; integration is performed within the limits 0 to δ.
TABLE 9.4 Boundary layer thickness (δ) and skin friction coefficient (Cfa) for different velocity profiles
i.e.
Assuming the cubic velocity profile as done earlier, substituting for u, we get:
i.e.
Mass entrained between two sections at x1 and x2 can be calculated using Eq. 9.52 as:
where δ1 and δ2 are the thicknesses of boundary layer at sections x1 and x2 respectively.
Integral energy equation:
Von Karman integral technique may be applied to get an approximate solution for the energy equation of the boundary layer, as shown
below:
Consider a finite control volume that encloses both the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers, (laminar and incompressible) as
shown in Fig. 9.12. Assume that the fluid properties do not vary with temperature and are constant; let the heating of the plate
commence at a distance x0 from the leading edge of the plate. That means that thermal boundary layer develops only beyond x0 from
the leading edge.
Le us make an energy balance on the control volume ABCD.
FIGURE 9.12 Finite control volume in the boundary layer over a flat plate, for integral energy equation
Energy enters the control volume by convection at face AB, leaves by convection at face CD; also, energy enters the control volume by
conduction through face AD and by convection through face BC. Let us write the various terms involved:
Fluid mass entering face
Fluid mass leaving through face
From continuity consideration, mass increment viz.
must enter the control volume from top face BC.
Heat fluxes through the four faces are:
Heat influx through AB = Qx = mass X specific heat X temperature
i.e.
Heat efflux through CD =
Heat influx through upper face BC: Since face BC is well outside the thermal boundary layer, its temperature is equal to free stream
temperature, Ta. So, we have:
Heat conducted into the control volume through lower face AD =
Writing the energy balance:
Heat flow into the control volume = Heat flow out of the control volume
or,
Qx + QBC + QAD = Qx + dx
Substituting from Eqs. a, b , c and d and simplifying, we get:
Eq. 9.54 is the integral energy equation for the boundary layer, with constant thermophysical properties and constant free stream
temperature.
Note that we have neglected viscous dissipation in the element since it is very small for low velocities.
To solve the integral energy equation we have to assume the velocity and temperature profiles; let us assume cubic velocity profile and
cubic temperature profiles.
Cubic velocity profile, as shown earlier, is:
Temperature distribution must satisfy the boundary conditions:
These boundary conditions are of the form as required for the velocity profile; therefore, temperature distribution is also of the form:
where Ts is the plate surface temperature, Ta is the free stream temperature and δt is the thickness of thermal boundary layer at a given
section.
Now, the Eqs. 9.55 and 9.56 are inserted in the integral Eq. 9.54 and simplified. For most gases (Pr ≅ 1) and oils (Pr > 1), thermal
boundary layer is thinner than hydrodynamic boundary layer, i.e. δt < δ; so, upper limit of integration is changed to δt instead of H
because the integrand becomes zero beyond y = δt.
Final solution for the thermal boundary layer thickness is:
Remember that Eq. 9.57 is for the case when the heating of the plate starts at a distance of x0 from the leading edge. Instead, if the
heating starts from the leading edge itself, putting x0 = 0, we get:
Observe that this value of δt is close to the value obtained with exact analysis.
Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):
We obtain hx from the relation:
Getting dT/dy from Eq. 9.56, and taking the values of δ and (δt/δ) from Eqs. 9.49 and 9.57 respectively, we get:
and, in terms of nondimensional Nusselt number, we write:
If the plate is heated over the entire length, x0 = 0, and we get:
and,
Note that Eq. 9.62 is in excellent agreement with the value obtained with exact analysis.
Average value of the heat transfer coefficient is obtained by integrating the local value over the entire plate:
Performing the integration after substituting for hx, we get:
ha = 2·hL …(9.63)
Similarly, average value of Nusselt number is obtained as:
Note that all the above analysis is for laminar boundary layer conditions; property values are taken at film temperature (i.e. mean
value of surface and free stream temperatures), given by:
Eq. 9.61 is valid for fluids with Prandtl numbers varying from 0.6 to 50 i.e. it is not applicable to liquid metals for whom Pr << 0.6
and for heavy oils or silicones for whom Pr >> 50.
For a wide range of Prandtl numbers Churchill and Ozoe have given the following correlation, for laminar flow on an
isothermal flat plate:
For constant heat flux conditions:
All the above relations were derived for laminar flow over a flat plate, temperature of the plate being maintained constant. However,
there are many practical cases where the heat flux over the surface is constant (e.g. when the surface is heated by electrical heaters).
For the case of constant heat flux, it is shown that local Nusselt number is given by:
In terms of surface heat flux and temperature difference, this is written as:
Average temperature difference along the plate for this case is obtained by performing the integration:
Substituting for (Ts – Ta) from Eq. 9.67 and performing the integration, we get:
and,
2
In the above equations, qs is the heat flux per unit area with units: W/m .
Again, for the constant heat flux case, Eq. 9.65 for very wide range of Prandtl numbers, is modified as:
Fluid properties are still evaluated at the film temperature.
In all cases, average Nusselt number is Nua = 2·NuL …(9.70a)
Example 9.4. Air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure is flowing with a velocity of 3 m/s along the length of a flat plate, maintained at
60°C. Calculate: (i)hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at 20 cm and 40 cm from the leading edge, by the approximate method
(ii) mass entrainment rate between these two sections assuming a cubic velocity profile, and (iii) heat transferred from the first 40 cm
of the plate.
Solution.
Data:
Properties of air are to be taken at the film temperature of 40·C. We get, from data tables:
3 −6 2
ρ := 1.092 kg/m Cp := 1014 J/(kgK) μ := 19.123 ´ 10 NS/m k := 0.0265 W/(mK) Pr := 1.01
(i) Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at section1 (i.e. x = 0.2 m) of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is length x1
5
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, δ1:
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at section2 (i.e. x = 0.4 m) of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is length x2 :
5
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness δ2 :
(ii) Mass flow entrained between sections 1 and 2:
For a cubic velocity profile, mass flow entrained between section 1 and 2 is already shown to be:

(iii) heat transferred from the first 40 cm of the plate: 
To calculate the heat transferred from first 40 cm of the plate, we need the average value of heat transfer coefficient over this length. It
is given by twice the value of local heat transfer coefficient at x = 0.4 m. i.e.
ha := 2·hx …(9.63)
2
i.e. ha = 11.554 W/(m C) (average heat transfer coefficient over 40 cm
length)
2
Area := 0.4.1 m (heat transfer area for unit width)
Therefore, heat transferred over 40 cm length of plate:
Q := ha·Area·(Ts − Ta) W
i.e. Q = 184.858 W …heat transferred over 40 cm length of

plate.
Example 9.5. Engine oil at 30°C is flowing with a velocity of 2 m/s along the length of a flat plate, maintained at 90°C. Calculate, at
a distance of 40 cm from the leading edge: (i) hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses by the exact method (ii) local
and average values of friction coefficient (iii) local and average values of heat transfer coefficient, and (iv) heat transferred from the
first 40 cm of the plate for unit width.
Solution.
Data:
Properties of engine oil are to be taken at the film temperature of 60°C. We get, from data tables:
3 −3 2
ρ := 864 kg/m Cp := 2047 J/(kgK) μ := 72.5 × 10 Ns/m k := 0.140 W/(mK) Pr := 1050
(i) Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness at 0.4 m from leading edge of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is: x = 0.4 m
5
This value is less than 5 × 10 ; so, the boundary layer is laminar and the equations derived earlier are applicable:
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness δ:
Thickness of thermal boundary layer:
We have:
Note that thermal boundary layer thickness is very small compared to that of hydrodynamic boundary layer, since Pr >> 1.

(ii) Local and average values of friction coefficient:
We have:
(iii) Local and average values of heat transfer coefficient:
7
Since Prandtl number is very high and Rex.Pr = 1.001 × 10 > 100,
we shall use Eq. (9.65), i.e.
Therefore, average value of heat transfer coefficient
ha := 2·hx
2
i.e. ha = 235.219 W/m C) (value of average heat transfer coefficient.)
(iv) Heat transferred from the first 40 cm of the plate for unit width.
Example 9.6. An air stream at 20°C and atmospheric pressure, flows with a velocity of 5 m/s over an electriacally heated flat plate
(size: 0.5 m × 0.5 m), heater power being 1 kW. Calculate:
(i) the average temperature difference along the plate (ii) heat transfer coefficient, and (iii) temperature of the plate at the trailing
edge
Solution.
Data:
Note that properties have to be evaluated at the film temperature; however, since the temperature of the plate is not constant, but
varies along the length, we shall start the analysis taking the properties at 20°C and then refine the values later.
At 20°C and atmospheric pressure, properties of air are:
3 −6 2
ρ := 1.205 kg/m Cp := 1005 J/(kgK) v := 15.06 × 10 m /s k := 0.02593 W/(mK) Pr := 0.703
(i) the average temperature difference along the plate
First check Reynolds number for laminar flow:
Therefore, flow is laminar.
For constant heat flux conditions, we use Eq. 9.68, to calculate the average temperature difference:
Now, find the properties again at a film temperature of: (20 + 313.3)/2 = 161.5°C
We get:
−6 2
v := 30.1 × 10 m /s k := 0.0365 W/(mK) Pr := 0.682
Now, using Eq. 9.68 again, we get:
Therefore, film temperature:
Therefore, the film, temperature has not changed much. So, we conclude:
(Ts − Ta)avg = 318.737 deg. C (Average value of temperature difference over the plate length.)
(ii) Convection heat transfer coefficient:
We have, for the case of constant heat flux:
Now,
From Eq. 9.66:
Therefore, average heat transfer coefficient over the whole length of plate:
havg := 2·hL
2
i.e. havg = 16.733 W/(m C) (average heat transfer coefficient over the
plate.)
(iii) Temperature of the plate at the trailing edge:
From the basic heat flow equation., we have:
Example 9.7. SodiumPotassium alloy (25% + 75 %), at 300°C , flows with a velocity of 0.4 m/s over a flat plate (size: 0.3 m × 0.1
m), maintained at 500°C. Calculate (i) the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses (ii) local and average value of
friction coefficient (iii) heat transfer coefficient, and (iv) total heat transfer rate
Solution.
Data:
Properties of NaK alloy are to be taken at the film temperature of 400°C. We get, from data tables:
−6 2
v := 0.308 × 10 m /s k := 22.10 W/(mK) Pr := 0.0108
(i) Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness at 0.3 m from leading edge of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is: x = 0.3 m
5
This value is less than 5 × 10 ; so, the boundary layer is laminar and the equations derived earlier are applicable: 
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, δ:
Thickness of thermal boundary layer, δt:
We have:
Note that thermal boundary layer thickness is very large compared to that of hydrodynamic boundary layer, since Pr << 1.
(ii) Local and average values of friction coefficient:
We have:
(iii) Local and average values of heat transfer coefficient:
3
Since Prandtl number is very low (liquid metal) and ReL.Pr = 4.208 × 10 > 100,
we shall use Eq. 9.65 i.e.
(iv) Heat transferred from the plate:
Note: Alternatively, for liquid metals, we can also use Eq. 9.43 to get local Nusselt number:
where Pe is the Peclet number = Re.Pr

0.5
i.e. NuL := 0.565. (ReL – Pr)
i.e. i.e. NuL = 36.65
Compare this value of Nusselt number with the value of 33.791, obtained from Eq. 9.65.
Value of Q thus obtained is about 8.5% higher than the value obtained by using Eq. 9.65.
9.8.3.1 Turbulent boundary Layer Flow Over a Flat Plate.
Consider a flat plate over which a fluid flows with a free stream velocity of U. At the leading edge the fluid comes in contact with the
surface and then along the length a boundary layer develops, as explained earlier. For a certain distance from the leading edge the flow
in the boundary layer is ‘laminar’, i.e. the flow is regular and the layers of fluid are all parallel to each other; however, after this
distance, called ‘critical distance’ (Xc ) the flow becomes ‘turbulent’, i.e. the flow becomes highly irregular and there is completely
random motion of fluid chunks. The transition from laminar to turbulent is not sudden, but there is a transition region in between.
The dimensionless number characterizing the type of flow i.e. whether it is laminar or turbulent, is the Reynolds number, Re (=
5
ρ.U.L/μ). For a flat plate, generally accepted value of Re at which flow becomes turbulent is 5 × 10 ; however, it should be understood
that this value is not a fixed value, but depends on the surface conditions i.e. if the surface is smooth or rough.
The turbulent boundary layer itself is thought of as subdivided into three sections viz. a laminar sublayer, a buffer layer and lastly, a
turbulent region. See Fig. 9.2.
Now, one could easily imagine that because of the nature of random motion of fluid in turbulent flow, an exact mathematical analysis
of this phenomenon is rather difficult. Models have been proposed by many research workers to explain the observed phenomenon:
Reynolds conducted his famous ‘dye experiment’ in 1883 to visually demonstrate the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. In
turbulent flow it is observed that secondary motions of the fluid are superimposed on the main flow and there are irregular
fluctuations of local velocity. Chunks of fluid, called ‘eddies’ move across the line of motion causing mixing of the fluid, thus causing
the transport of momentum as well as energy. Therefore, in turbulent flow, heat transfer is enhanced; also, there is increased ‘drag
force’ or pressure drop. Prandtl (1925) suggested that the ‘eddies’ moving across the fluid layers cause the transport of momentum,
and the average transverse distance moved by an eddy before it gets mixed with other particles and loses its identity is called as ‘mixing
length’. This mixing length is akin to the ‘mean free path’ appearing in the kinetic theory of gases.
Turbulent flow is important in heat transfer applications, since there is increased heat transfer in turbulent flow; of course, this is
achieved with a penalty of increased pressure drop. It is usual to introduce ‘turbulence promoters’ in applications where increased
heat transfer is the primary consideration.
We shall not go into the theories of turbulence, but give here the important results useful for practical applications.
Velocity distribution:
Boundary layer thickness is more in turbulent flow as compared to that in laminar flow. Also, the velocity distribution is more
uniform across the thickness of boundary layer as shown in Fig. 9.2. It is observed experimentally that the velocity distribution in
turbulent flow follows the oneseventh power law:
Surface shear stress:
Surface shear stress is given by:
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness:
This is obtained by solving the integral momentum equation, i.e.
Substituting for u(y) and τw from Eqs. 9.71 and 9.72 respectively, and solving, we get:
Thermal boundary layer thickness:
In turbulent flow, since the effects of physical movement of eddies predominates over the diffusion effects, Prandtl number does not
have much influence on the thermal boundary layer thickness, δt and is of the same order as the hydrodynamic boundary layer
thickness, δ.
Local skin friction coefficient:
Remembering that local skin friction coefficient is defined as:
and using Eq. 9.72 for τw and Eq. 9.73 for δ, we get:
Average value of skin friction coefficient:
Average value of Cfx over length L is given by:
Substituting for Cfx from Eq. 9.74 and performing the integration, we get:
5 7
Eq. 9.75 is valid for 5 × 10 < ReL < 10 and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
7 9
For values of ReL between 10 and 10 following equation is suggested by Prandtl and Schlichting:
where log (ReL) is the logarithm to base 10. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
Local and average Nusselt numbers:
Local Nusselt number is calculated by applying Colburn analogy (which we shall study in the next section). We get:
and,
5 7
For Eqs. 9.77 and 9.88, remember: 5 × 10 < ReL < 10 and 0.6 < Pr < 60
Local and average heat transfer coefficients:
These are determined from:
and,
For an unheated starting length of x0:
In turbulent flow, when heating starts from an initial length of x0, i.e. thermal boundary layer begins at x = x0:
Note: both x0 and x are measured from the leading edge of the plate.
Some comments on the variation of local heat transfer coefficient and local friction coefficient along the length x from the leading
edge of the plate, in laminar and turbulent flow are appropriate:
(a) In laminar flow, we have:
and
1/2
i.e. in laminar flow, local friction coefficient varies as x ; likewise, from Eq. 9.38, it is clear that local heat transfer coefficient also
1/2
varies as x . Of course, at the leading edge (i.e. at x = 0), both these values are infinite and then decrease along the length of the plate
1/2
according to x .
(b) In turbulent flow, we have:
and,
0.2
i.e. in turbulent flow, both the local friction coefficient and the local heat transfer coefficient vary as x So, as we proceed along the
length of the plate, initially, starting from the leading edge, the flow is laminar where both the local friction and heat transfer
1/2
coefficients vary as x ; then, the flow turns turbulent when the critical distance is reached, and both the local friction and heat
0,2
transfer coefficients reach their highest values at this point and then they decrease along the distance according to: x . This is shown
graphically in Fig. 9.13. In Fig. 9.13, the transition region is also shown.
For uniform heat flux conditions:
Local Nusselt number increases by about 4% over the value for constant wall temperature, and is given by:
Also, in the above equations, it is assumed that flow over the plate is turbulent over the entire plate from the leading edge itself, or
alternatively, region of laminar flow is too small compared to the region of turbulent flow.
9.8.3.2 Combined laminar and Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
As explained earlier, for a flow over a flat plate, the flow at the leading edge starts as laminar and after a critical distance xc the flow
becomes turbulent. If the distance over which the flow is laminar is not negligible as compared to the distance over which the flow is
turbulent (i.e. the plate is long enough to cause the boundary layer to become turbulent, but not long enough to neglect the length over
which the flow is laminar), average friction coefficient and average Nusselt number over the entire plate are determined by integrating
the respective local values over two regions, i.e. the laminar region, 0 < x < xc and, the turbulent region, xc < x < L, as shown below:
and,
FIGURE 9.13 Variation of local friction and heat transfer coefficients for flow over a flat plate
5
If we perform the integration taking the value of critical Reynolds number, Rec as 5 × 10 , we get for the average friction coefficient
and average Nusselt number, the following relations:
5
Another, more general relationship used for critical Reynolds number other than 5 × 10 is:
5 5 6 6
where value of A is 1050, 1700, 3300 and 8700 respectively for values of Rec equal to 3 × 10 , 5 × 10 , 1 × 10 , and 3 × 10 .

5
and, for critical Reynolds number of 5 × 10 , average Nusselt number over the entire plate is
5
and, more generally, for critical Reynolds numbers other than 5 × 10 :
0.8 0.5
where A = 0.036.Rec – 0.664.Rec
Example 9.8. A refrigerated truck is moving at a speed of 85 km/h where ambient temperature is 50°C. The body of the truck is of
rectangular shape of size 10 m (L) × 4 m(W) × 3 m(H). Assume the boundary layer is turbulent and the wall surface temperature is at
10°C. Neglect heat transfer from vertical front and backside of truck and flow of air is parallel to 10 m long side. Calculate heat loss
from the four surfaces.
0.8 0.33
For turbulent flow over flat surfaces: Nu = 0.036.Re . Pr
3 −6 2
Average properties of air at 30°C: ρ = 1.165 kg/m , Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, v = 16.10 m /s, Pr = 0.701
(M.U. Dec. 1999).
Solution.
Data:
Truck is moving at a speed of 85 km/h, i.e.
Properties at Tf by data:

−6 2 3
v := 16 × 10 m /s ρ := 1.165 kg/m C p := 100 5 J/kgK Pr := 0.701
Check if flow is laminar or turbulent:
Reynolds number:

5
5
i.e. flow is turbulent since Reynolds number is more than 5 × 10
Heat transfer:
For turbulent flow, we have:
Also, find out the power required to overcome wind resistance:
We have, average skin friction coefficient given by:
Example 9.9. A flat plate, 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is maintained at 90°C in air with free stream temperature of 10°C, flowing along
1.5 m side of the plate. Determine the velocity of air required to have a rate of energy dissipation as 3.75 kW. Use correlations:
0.5 1/3
NuL = 0.664 Re Pr for Laminar flow, and
0.8 1/3
NuL = [0.036 Re – 836].Pr for turbulent flow.
3
Take average properties of air at 50°C: ρ = 1.0877 kg/m , Cp = 1.007 kJ/kgK,
μ := 2029.105 kg/m.s, Pr = 0.703, k = 0.028 W/mK
[P.U.; 1995]
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf : by data:
−5 3
μ := 2.029 × 10 kg/(ms) ρ := 1.0877 kg/m Cp := 1007 J/kgK Pr := 0.703 k := 0.028 W/mK
Nusselt number:
We have, for convection heat transfer:
Now, we do not know if the flow is laminar or turbulent. To determine this, we need the Reynolds number. But, we do not know the
velocity to determine the Reynolds number. So, we shall first assume the flow to be laminar and then check if the Reynolds number
5
works out to be less than the critical Reynolds number (i.e. 5 × 10 ):
For Laminar flow:
5
This value of Reynolds number is greater than the critical Reynolds number of 5 × 10 . Therefore, the assumption that the flow is
laminar is wrong.
Then, for turbulent flow, we use the relation:
Therefore,
Example 9.10. Air at 30°C flows over a flat plate, 0.4 m wide and 0.75 m long with a velocity of 20 m/s. Determine the heat flow
rate from the surface of the plate assuming that the flow is parallel to the 0.75 m side. Plate is maintained at 90°C. Use correlations:
0.5 1/3 Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
NuL = 0.664 Re Pr for Laminar flow, and
0.8 1/3
0.8 1/3
NuL = [0.036 Re – 836].Pr for turbulent flow.
3
Take average properties of air at 60°C: ρ = 1.06 kg/m , Cp = 1.008 kJ/kgK,
−6 2
v = 18.9710 m /s, Pr = 0.708, k = 0.0285 W/mK
[M.U.]
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf by data:
−6 2 3
v := 18.97 × 10 m /s ρ := 1.06 kg/m Cp := 1008 J/kgK Pr := 0.708 k := 0.0285 W/mK
First, let us find out the distance from the leading edge at which the flow turns turbulent, assuming the critical Reynolds number to be
5
5 × 10 , i.e. Lc at which the critical Reynolds number is reached:
i.e. along the length of the plate, for a distance of 0.474 m, the flow is laminar. This distance can not be neglected as compared to the
total length of the plate of 0.75 m. Therefore, combined effect of laminar and turbulent boundary layer flow has to be considered.
For the case of combined laminar and turbulent boundary layers, we have:
Alternatively, we can calculate the heat transferred by the laminar and turbulent regions separately, and then add them up, to get the
total heat transfer rate for the whole plate:
For laminar flow region (i.e. upto a distance of 0.474 m along the length):
For turbulentr flow region (i.e. from a distance of 0.474 m upto the end of plate):
Local Nusselt number for the turbulent region is given by:
Therefore, average value of heat transfer coefficient for turbulent region is obtained as
Note that is the average Nusselts number for turbulent region
Heat transfer rate for the turbulent region Q2
This value matches with the value obtained earlier by direct formula.
To show graphically the variation of local heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of plate:
0.5
We have stated earlier that the local heat transfer coefficient for the laminar region varies as x and that for the turbulent region
0.2
varies as x . Let us illustrate this graphically, using Mathcad.
For laminar region, i.e. from x1 = 0 to x1 = 0.474 m along the length of plate, local heat transfer coefficient as a function of x is written
as:
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For turbulent region, i.e. from x2 = 0.474 m to x2 Safari? Subscribe Today
= 0.75 m along the length of plate, local heat transfer coefficient as a function of x is

written as:
Now, for the first case, let us define a range variable x1 varying from x1 = 0 to x1 = 0.474 m and draw the graph by choosing the xy
graph from the graph pallete, and filling up the place holder on the xaxis with x1 and the place holder on the yaxis with hxlam(x1);
then for the second case, again define a range variable x2 varying from x2 = 0.474 m to x2 = 0.75 m and in the place holder on the x
axis, put a comma after x1 and type x2 and in the place holder on the yaxis put a comma after hxlam(x1) and then type hxturb (x2 ).
Click anywhere outside the graph region and immediately the graphs appear. See Fig. Ex. 9.10
x1 := 0, 0.01, …, 0.47 (define range variable x1 varying from 0 to 0.47 m, with
an increment of 0.01 m)
x2 := 0.47, 0.48, …, 0.75 (define range variable x2 varying from 0.47 to 0.75 m,

with an increment of 0.01 m)
FIGURE Example 9.10 Variation of local heat transfer coefficient along the length of a flat plate for laminar and turbulent boundary
layer heat transfer
Note:
1. In the above Fig. Example 9.10 first portion of the curve is for laminar boundary layer heat transfer and the second portion is
−0.5
for turbulent boundary layer heat transfer. In laminar portion, the local heat transfer falls steeply, as x , along the length upto
the critical distance; once the critical distance is reached, the boundary layer turns turbulent and the local heat transfer
coefficient suddenly increases to a high value and then, with increasing x the local heat transfer coefficient drops more
0.2
gradually (as x ) as compared to the laminar portion.
2
2. In the laminar region, the heat transfer coefficient varies from an infinite value at x = 0 to about 12 W/(m C) at x = 0.47 m.
2
And, average heat transfer coefficient for the laminar region, as already calculated, is 25.148 W/ (m C).
2
3. In the turbulent region, the heat transfer coefficient varies from a value of about 56 W/(m C) at x = 0.47 m to about 51
2
W/(m C) at x = 0.75 m. And, average heat transfer coefficient for the turbulent region, as already calculated, is 53.229
2
W/(m C).
2
4. Average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate, for the combined laminar and turbulent regions, is 35.441 W/(m C).
9.8.4 Analogy Between Momentum and Heat Transfer

We have shown that the twodimensional equations for the momentum transport and energy transport have identical forms. It is
reasonable to assume that their solutions also must have some correspondence to each other.
Solution of momentum equation leads us to a relation for the skin friction coefficient and the drag force; similarly, solution of the
energy equation leads us to an expression for the heat transfer coefficient. So, we seek an analogy or relation between the fluid friction
and heat transfer coefficients:
9.8.4.1 Relation Between the Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer Coe��icient in Laminar Flow For a Flat Plate.
Recollect that the average Nusselt number for laminar flow over a flat plate is given by:
This can be rewritten as:
Now, the LHS of Eq. a is a dimensionless number known as “Stanton number”, Sta.
Substituting for Nua, ReL and Pr from their respective definitions, we get:
2
where G = ρ.U (kg/(m s), is known as mass velocity.
Therefore, we write:
However, we have already shown that:
i.e.
Then, comparing Eqs. d and e , we can write:
This relation is known as ’Colburn analogy’ and it gives a simple relation between the heat transfer coefficient and the friction
coefficient. Eq. 9.86 is valid for values of Pr between 0.6 and 50. LHS of Eq. 9.86 is also known as ‘Colburn jfactor’, and is generally
used to correlate heat transfer coefficient with Reynolds number.
Note the important significance of this analogy: just by knowing the friction coefficient, one can predict the heat transfer coefficient
for that situation; and conducting experiments to determine friction coefficient is, many times, practically much easier than
conducting experiments to determine heat transfer coefficients.
9.8.4.2 Reynolds and Colburn Analogies for Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
Considering the laminar sublayer adjacent to the plate surface, we have the relation for shear stress, along the Xdirection and at y =
0:
and, heat flux at the surface in the ydirection is:
Combining Eqs. a and b :
Now, if Prandtl number is unity, i.e. if Cp = k/μ, we replace (k/μ) in Eq. c by Cp, and separating the variables, we write, assuming q and
τ to be constant:
In Eq. d, subscript s indicates that q and τ are considered at the surface of the plate.
Integrating Eq. d between the limits u = 0 when T = Ts and u = U when T = Ta, gives:
However, by definition, the local heat transfer and friction coefficients are given by:
Then, Eq. e can be written as: hx.
Eq. 9.87 is known as ‘Reynold’s analogy’ and it gives a relation between Nusselts number (i.e. heat transfer coefficient) and the
friction coefficient. Note that Reynolds analogy was derived with the assumption that Pr = 1 and is valid for most of the gases.
However, when the Prandtl number is different from unity, Colburn’s analogy, i.e.
is applied. This is valid for values of Pr between 0.6 and 50.
In practice, to apply the analogy between momentum and heat transfer, it is necessary to know the friction coefficient Cfx. For
turbulent flow over a flat plate, we have the empirical relation for local friction coefficient:
5 7
Eq. 9.74 is valid for: 5 × 10 < Rex < 10 .
Example 9.11. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Assuming that the plate is heated over its entire length
to a temperature of 60°C, calculate the heat transfer for the first 0.4 m of the plate. Also, compute the drag force exerted on the first 
0.4 m of the plate using Reynolds analogy. Assume air to be a perfect gas with R = 287 J/kgK and Cp = 1.006 kJ/kgK.
(M.U. May 1999).
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf :
Reynolds number:
i.e. flow is laminar.
Therefore, we have for average Nusselts number:
Average heat transfer coefficient:
Heat transfer rate:
Q := ha·(L·B)·(Ts − Ta) W (heat transfer rate for the first 0.4 m length)
i.e. Q = 114.249 W (heat transfer rate for the first 0.4 m

length.)
To calculate the drag force:
We have, for mass velocity:

2
G := ρ·U kg/(sm ) (mass velocity)
Therefore, Stanton number, by definition:
9.9 Flow Across Cylinders, Spheres and Other Blu Shapes and Packed Beds
So far, we studied external flow over a flat plate. Next, we shall consider flow across cylinders, spheres and other bluff shapes such as
disk or half cylinder. These cases are of considerable practical importance. Case of single cylinder in cross flow is identical to the case
of cooling of an electrical cable by forced convection by air flowing across it; also determination of local velocities in a flow by ‘hot
wire anemometer’ involves the heat transfer from a single platinum wire maintained at a constant temperature (or by passing a
constant current through it) and correlating the change in current (or change in resistance) to the velocity of flow. Heat transfer from a
sphere is important when we are interested in performance of systems where clouds of particles are heated or cooled in a stream of
fluid. Such an understanding is generally required when we correlate data for heat transfer in fluid beds, especially in the field of
chemical engineering. If the particle is of an irregular shape, then an equivalent diameter is used in place of sphere diameter, i.e. D is
taken as the diameter of an equivalent sphere that has the same surface area as that of the irregular shape. Front portion of an 
aeroplane wing can be approximated as a half cylinder while calculating the local heat transfer coefficients over the forward portion of
the wing.
9.9.1 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

Now, the characteristic length taken to calculate the Reynolds number is the external diameter D of the cylinder or sphere. And the
Reynolds number is defined, as usual:
where U is the uniform velocity of flow as it approaches the cylinder or sphere.
The critical Reynolds number for flow across cylinder or sphere is:

5
Recr = 2 × 10

5
i.e. upto Re = 2 × 10 , the boundary layer remains laminar and beyond this value, the boundary layer becomes turbulent.
Flow patterns for a flow across a cylinder are shown in Fig. 9.14. Fluid particles at the midplane of a stream approaching the cylinder
strike the cylinder at the ‘stagnation point’ and come to a halt, thus increasing the pressure. Rest of the fluid branches around the
cylinder forming a boundary layer that embraces the cylinder walls. Pressure decreases in the flow direction and the velocity
increases. At very low free stream velocities (Re < 4), the fluid completely wraps around the cylinder; as the velocity increases,
boundary layer detaches from the surface at the rear, forming a wake behind the cylinder. This point is called ‘separation point’. Flow
separation occurs at about θ = 80 deg. when the boundary layer is laminar and at about θ = 140 deg. when the boundary layer is
turbulent.
Drag coefficient (CD): Drag force for a cylinder in cross flow is primarily due to two effects: one, ‘friction drag’ due to the shear
stress at the surface, and the other, ‘pressure drag’ due to the pressure difference between the stagnation point and the wake. At low
Reynolds numbers (< 4), friction drag is predominant, and at high Reynolds numbers (> 5000), pressure drag is predominant. At the
intermediate values of Re, both the effects contribute to the drag.
FIGURE 9.14 Flow patterns for cross flow over a cylinder
FIGURE 9.15 Drag Coefficient Versus Reynolds Number for Long Circular Cylinders and Spheres in CrossFlow
Average drag coefficient CD for cross flow over a cylinder and sphere are shown in Fig. 9.15. Then, the drag force acting on the body in
cross flow is obtained from:
where AN is the ‘frontal area’ i.e. area normal to the direction of flow.
In Fig. 9.15, there are 5 sections, a, b, c, d and e shown. Comments corresponding to these sections of the figure are given below:
1. At Re < 1, inertia forces are negligible and the flow adheres to the surface and drag is only by viscous forces. Heat transfer is
purely by conduction.
2. At Re = about 10, inertia forces become appreciable; now, pressure drag is about half of the total drag.
3. At Re of the order of 100, vortices separate and the pressure drag predominates.
4. At Re values between about 1000 and 100,000, skin friction drag is negligible compared to the pressure drag. Point of
separation is at about θ = 80 deg. measured from the stagnation point.
5. At Re > 100,000, flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent and the separation point moves to the rear.
Heat transfer coefficient: Because of the complex nature of flow, most of the results are empirical relations derived from
experiments.
Variation of local Nusselt number around the periphery of a cylinder in cross flow is given in Fig. 9.16. Nu is high to start with at the
stagnation point, then decreases as θ increases due to the thickening of laminar boundary layer. For the two curves at the bottom,
minimum is reached at about θ = 80 deg., the separation point in laminar flow. For the rest of the curves, there is a sharp increase at
about θ = 90 deg. due to transition from laminar to turbulent flow; Nu reaches a second minimum at about θ = 140 deg. due to flow
separation in turbulent flow, and thereafter increases with θ, due to intense mixing in the turbulent wake region.
Between θ = 0 and 80 deg. empirical equation for local heat transfer coefficient is:
FIGURE 9.16 Circumferential Variation of the Heat Transfer Coefficient at High Reynolds Numbers for a Circular Cylinder in Cross
Flow (W.H. Giedt)
While calculating heat transfer coefficient for a cylinder in cross flow, of practical interest is the average heat transfer coefficient over
the entire surface. A comprehensive relation for cross flow across a cylinder is given by Churchill and Bernstein:
7
Eq. 9.90 is valid for 100 < Re < 10 , and Re.Pr > 0.2 and correlates very well all available data. Fluid properties are evaluated at ‘film
temperature’, Tf = (Ts + Ta)/2 = average of surface and free stream temperatures.
In the midrange of Reynolds numbers, i.e. 20,000 < Re < 400,000, it is suggested that following equation be used:
for 20,000 < Re < 400,000, and Re. Pr > 0.2
Below Pe = (Re.Pr) = 0.2, following relation is recommended by Nakai and Okazaki:
For Eqs. 9.91 and 9.92 also, properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
For heat transfer from a single cylinder in cross flow, for liquid metals, following relation is recommended by Ishiguro et. al.:
Nucyl = 1.125·(Re·Pr)0.413 (for 1 < Re.Pr < 100…(9.93))
However, note that Eq. 9.90 is quite comprehensive and is also valid for liquid metals. For circular cylinder in cross flow, for gases,
following relation is widely used:
where, values of C and n are given in Table 9.5:
TABLE 9.5 Values of C and n in Eq. 9.94
Re C n
0.4–4 0.989 0.330
4–40 0.911 0.385
40–4,000 0.683 0.466
4,000–40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000–400,000 0.0266 0.805
All fluid properties are taken at film temperature.
For noncircular cylinders:

Again, Eq. 9.94 is applicable.
For noncircular cylinders, Fig. 9.17 below, gives the values of C and n to be used in Eq. 9.94. This figure also shows the characteristic
dimension ‘D’ used to calculate the Reynolds number, for each geometry.
Flow across spheres:
For gases, McAdams recommends following relation:

0.6
Nusph = 0.37·Re (for 25 < Re < 100,000…(9.95))
For flow of liquids past spheres, Kramers suggests following relation:

−0.3 0.5
Nusph·Pr = 0.97 + 0.68·Re (for 1 < Re < 2000…(9.96))
In Eq. 9.95 and 9.96, fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature.
A comprehensive equation for gases and liquids flowing past a sphere is given by Whitaker:
Eq. 9.97 is valid for: 3.5 < Re < 80,000 and 0.7 < Pr < 380. Here, fluid properties are evaluated at free stream temperature.
A special case is that of heat and mass transfer from freely falling liquid drops and the following correlation of Ranz and Marshall
is applicable:
FIGURE 9.17 Constants C and n for cross flow over noncircular cylinders
For heat transfer from a sphere to a liquid metal, following correlation is recommended:
In Eq. 9.98, fluid properties are to be evaluated at film temperature.
9.9.2 Flow Across Blu Objects

Normal flat plate (width D):
Half round cylinder of dia. D, with flat surface at rear:
In Eqs. 9.99 and 9.100, fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature.
9.9.3 Flow Through Packed Beds

Here, a gas or liquid flows through a bed packed with solid particles (such as spheres, cylinders or commercial packings like Raschig
rings, ceramic saddles etc.). During the ‘charging cycle’, the hot fluid, while passing through the bed, gives up its ‘heat’ to the solid
particles, and during the ‘discharge cycle’, the incoming cooler fluid picks up the stored heat from the solid particles.
Packed beds are used in catalytic reactors, grain dryers, storage of solar thermal energy, gas chromatography, regenerators and
desiccant beds.
Reynolds number in the correlations is based on a ‘superficial velocity’ Us, i.e. the fluid velocity that would exist if the bed were empty.
Characteristic length used is the equivalent diameter of the packing, Dp. Another parameter that appears in some correlations is the
void fraction, ε, i.e. the fraction of bed volume that is empty.
Whitaker recommends following relation for heat transfer between the gas and packings (including cylinders with diameter
equal to height, spheres, or several types of commercial packings such as Raschig rings, partition rings or Berl saddles):
where ha is the average heat transfer coefficient
Eq. 9.101 is valid for: 20 < ReDp < 10,000, and 0.34 < ε < 0.78.
Packing diameter Dp is defined as six times the volume of the particle divided by the particle surface area; for a sphere, Dp = diameter
of sphere. All properties are evaluated at bulk fluid temperature (One may use the average of inlet and outlet temperature of the heat
exchanger). In the above correlation, Reynolds number is defined as:
Eq. 9.101 does not correlate data well for cube packings.
To determine the heat transfer from the wall of a packed bed to a gas, Beek recommends the following relation, for particles like
cylinders, which can pack next to the wall:
and, for particles like spheres, which contact the wall at one point:
In Eqs. 9.102 and 9.103, properties of fluid are evaluated at the film temperature. Also, the Reynolds number is:
where Dp is the diameter of sphere or cylinder. For other types of packings, Whitaker’s definition of Dp may be used.
Beek also gives the correlation for the friction factor:
where ∆ p is the pressure drop over a length L of the packed bed.
Example 9.12. Air at 35°C flows across a cylinder of 50 mm diameter at a velocity of 50 m/s. The cylinder surface is maintained at
3 −6
145°C. Find the heat loss per unit length. Properties at mean temperature of 90°C are: ρ = 1 kg/m , μ = 20 × 10 kg/(ms), k = 0.0312
W/(mC), Cp = 1.0 kJ/(kgC).
0 805 1/3
Use the relation: NuD = 0.027.(ReD) .(Pr)
[M.U.]
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf:
−6 3 2
μ := 20 × 10 kg/(ms) k:= 0.0312 W/(mC) Cp := 1000 J/(kgC) ρ := 1 kg/m A := π.D.L m

2
i.e. A = 0.157 m
Reynolds number:
Prandtl number:
Nusselts number:
We have:
Therefore, heat transfer coefficient:
Heat transferred, Q:
Q := h·A·(Ts − Ta)
3
i.e. Q = 3.182 × 10 W
Example 9.13. A hot wire probe is 5 mm in length, 10 μm diameter wire with an electrical resistance of 150 ohms/m. The wire is
maintained at a constant temperature of 50°C. If the the probe is kept in an air stream flowing at a velocity of 10 m/s and at 1 bar and
25°C, determine the current required to maintain the wire temperature at 50°C.
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf:
−6 2
v := 16.7 × 10 m /s k := 0.02704 W/(mK) Pr := 0.706
Reynolds number:
Since Re.Pr > 0.2, we can use the correlation of Churchill and Bernstein, viz.
Therefore, heat transfer coefficient:
Heat transferred Q:
Q := h·(p·D·L)·(Ts − Ta) W
i.e. Q = 0.016 W (heat dissipated = 16

mW)

2
This is also equal to the value of electrical power dissipated; Q = I .R
R := 150.0.005 ohms (electrical resistance of the
wire)

i.e. R = 0.75 ohms
Therefore, current flow required:
Alternatively:
To calculate Nu we can also use Eq. 9.94:
Then, for circular cylinder, we get for Re = 5.988, from the Table 9.5:
This value is almost the same as obtained by the correlation of Churchill and Bernstein.
Therefore, current flow required:
Example 9.14. Air at 25°C flows across an elliptical tube 6 cm × 12 cm size, perpendicular to the minor axis with a velocity of 3
m/s. Tube surface is maintained at 55°C. Determine the value of convection coefficient.
Solution.
Data:
Properties at Tf = 40°C:
−6 2
v := 17.6 × 10 m /s k := 0.0265 W/(mK) Pr := 0.71
Reynolds number:
See Fig. 9.17 for the case of flow across an ellipse.
Then, we use Eq. 9.94, viz.
Values of C and n are obtained from Fig. 9.17 as:
C := 0.224 and, n: = 0.612
Heat transfer coefficient:
Example 9.15. In a packed bed heat exchanger, air is heated from 40°C to 360°C by passing it through a 10 cm diameter pipe,
packed with spheres of 8 mm diameter. The flow rate is 18 kg/h. Pipe surface temperature is maintained at 400°C.
Determine the length of bed required.
Solution.
Data:
Average air temperature = (40 + 360)/2 = 200°C
Therefore, average film temperature = (200 + 400)/2 = 300°C
Taking properties of air at 300°C:
3 −6 2
ρ := 0.596 kg/m Cp := 1047 J/(kgK) k := 0.0429 W/(mK) v := 49.2 × 10 m /s Pr := 0.71
Equivalent particle diameter = 6 × volume/surface area = D for a sphere
i.e. Dp := 0.008 m (equivalent particle diameter.)
Therefore, superficial velocity:
Reynolds number:
Therefore,
Nusselts number:
We use Eq. 9.103, viz.
Heat transfer coefficient
Now, heat gained by air, Q = heat transfer between the wall surface and air
i.e. Q := mair·Cp·(Tout − Tin) W
3
i.e. Q = 1.675 × 10 W (heat gained by air)
This should be equal to heat transfer between the wall surface and air = hax pipe surface area x LMTD Here, LMTD is the ‘log mean
temperature difference’ between the pipe surface and the air stream. Since the temperature of air stream goes on changing along the
length of heat exchanger, we use a mean temperature difference between the pipe surface and this air stream, given by LMTD.
LMTD is defined as follows:
Now, writing the heat balance, Q = haX pipe surface area x LMTD , we get:
Q = ha·(π·dpipe·L)·LMTD
where L is the length of pipe (= height of bed)
9.9.4 Flow Across a Bank of Tubes

Flow across a bank of tubes is practically a very important case. In many industrial heat exchangers, one of the fluids flows inside the
tubes in a shell and the second fluid flows through the shell, across the tubes. Typical applications are: in water tube boilers where
water flows through the tubes and hot flue gases flow across these tubes, waste heat recovery systems, air conditioning applications and
common ‘shell and tube’ heat exchangers used in numerous industrial applications.
Tubes in a tube bank may be arranged either in an ‘inline’ configuration or in a ‘staggered’ configuration, as shown in Fig. 9.18. In the
figure, SL is the ‘longitudinal pitch’, ST is the ‘transverse pitch’ and SD is the ‘diagonal pitch’.
Zhukauskas (1972) proposed the following correlation for Nusselts number, based on a large amount of experimental data:
where Nua is the average Nusselts number
ha is the average heat transfer coefficient
ReD = (d ρ Umax)/ μ
Pr is the bulk Prandtl number
Prw is the wall Prandtl number
And,
FIGURE 9.18 Flow across a tube bank
Note:
1. While calculating Umax for the staggered arrangement, calculate with both the Eqs. 9.106 and 9.107 and adopt the larger value
so obtained. U is the velocity of fluid as it approaches the tube bank.
2. For gases, Prandtl number ratio may be dropped, since it does not have much influence
3. All properties (except Prw) are evaluated at free stream temperature
Eq. 9.105 gives very good prediction when the number of tube rows in the bank,
6
N > 20, and 0.7 < Pr < 500, and 1000 < ReD max < 2 × 10 . However, the equation can be used even when N < 20, with a correction
factor applied. If N = 4, error involved in prediction is about 25%.
Eq. 9.105 takes the following forms for various flow regimes:
For Laminar flow (i.e. 10 < ReD < 100):
These equations have been validated also in the range: 50 < ReD < 1000.
5
For transition regime (i.e. 1000 < ReD < 2 × 10 ):
Note: ST/SL < 0.7 for inline tubes, gives very ineffective heat exchanger and should not be used.
5
For turbulent regime (i.e. ReD > 2 × 10 )
For staggered arrangement, with ST/D = 2 and SL/D = 1.4, we have the relation due to Achenbach:

5 6
5 6
Eq. 9.116 is valid in the range 4.5 × 10 < ReD < 7 × 10 .
If the number of tube rows is < 20, a correction factor is applied to the calculated Nusselts number as follows:
Nua_N = Nua·C2 …(9.117)
where Nua_N is the Nusselts number for the actual tube bank with N < 20, and
Nua is the value of Nusselts number calculated for N > 20, using one of the appropriate
relations given above
C2 is the correction factor taken from Table 9.6.
TABLE 9.6 Correction factor C2 in Eq. 9.117 for N < 20
Pressure drop: Pressure drop (in Pascals) for flow of gases over a bank of tubes is given by:
where Gmax = mass velocity at minimum flow area = p.
Umax
ρ = density, evaluated at free stream conditions
N = number of transverse rows
μb = average free stream viscosity
Friction factor, f is given by:
and,
Example 9.16. Air at 1 bar and 20°C flows across a bank of tubes 10 rows high and 4 rows deep; air velocity is 8 m/s, measured at
the entry to the tube bank. Diameter of the tubes is 25 mm and surface temperature of the tubes is maintained at 80°C. Tubes are
arranged in an in line manner. ST = SL = 37.5 mm. Calculate the total heat transfer per unit length of the tube bank, and also the exit
air temperature. Also, find out the pressure drop.
Solution.
Data:
Ts := 80°C Ti := 20°C U := 8 m/s ST := 0.0375 m SL := 0.0375 m D := 0.025 m

Reyonlds number:
This is based on Umax. We have:
Taking properties of air at free stream temperature of 20°C:
3 −6 2
ρ := 1.164 kg/m Cp := 1012 J/(kgK) k := 0.0251 W/(mK) v := 15.7 × 10 m /s Pr := 0.71
Nusselts number:
Since Reynolds number is between 1000 and 200,000 which is in the transition regime, the appropriate equation for average Nusselts
number is:
The last term, i.e. the ratio of Prandtl numbers can be neglected for gases: So, we have:
Therefore, average heat transfer coefficient is:
This is the value of heat transfer coefficient that would be obtained if there were 20 rows of tubes in the direction of flow. But, in the
present case, there are only 4 rows in the direction of flow. So, from the Table, we get the correction factor as:
C2 = 0.90
Therefore, actual heat transfer coefficient is = 184.658 × 0.9 (actual average heat transfer coefficient)
2
i.e. ha = 166.193 W/(m C) (actual average heat transfer coefficient)
Surface area for heat transfer for unit length of tubes is:
2
A := (10·4)·(ρ·D·1) m /m (for 10 rows high, 4 rows
deep)
2
i.e. A = 3.142 m /m.
Total heat transfer rate Q:
Now, total heat transfer rate is given by Newton’s law:
Q = ha·A·Δ·T
Here ΔT is the average temperature difference between the wall and the air stream. However, temperature of air stream goes on
changing from entry to exit in the heat exchanger. So, we use a ‘mean temperature difference’ called LMTD (log mean temperature
difference). Expression for LMTD is derived in the chapter on heat exchangers. For the present, let us take for LMTD:
We need the exit temperature To of the air stream. This is calculated by a heat balance:
i.e. mass_flow = 3.492 kg/s
Then, we can write the heat balance:
h·A·LMTD = mass_flow·Cp·(To − Ti)
Substitute for LMTD and solve for To.
Use Solve block of Mathcad; assume a guess value for To to start with, say To = 70°C. Then type ‘Given’ and write the constraint; then
type Find (To) and get the answer:
To := 70 (guess value)
Given
Therefore, heat transfer rate, Q:
Alternatively, we can use the arithmetic average value of air stream between the inlet and outlet temperature, since this is simpler to
calculate and error involved will not be much:
Using Solve block as earlier, to obtain To:
To := 70 (guess value)
Given
i.e. we get practically the same value for To as obtained earlier.
Pressure drop:
We have:
−6
μw := 20.79 × 10 kg/ms (dynamic viscosity of air at 80·C)
−6
μb := 18.46 × 10 kg/ms (dynamic viscosity of air at average free stream
temperature of 24.5·C)
Therefore,

9.10 Flow Inside Tubes
Circular tubes are the most commonly used geometry for cooling and heating applications, in industry. Often, tubes of other
geometries such as square or rectangle are also used. We are interested in heat transfer in such cases; pressure drop occurring during
flow is also of interest since it has a direct bearing on the pumping power required to cause the flow.
Observe the major difference between the external flows just studied and the internal flow through pipes: in the external flow, say over
a flat plate, there was a free surface of fluid and the boundary layer was free to grow indefinitely; however, in a pipe flow, the flow is
confined within the pipe and the boundary layer growth is limited to grow only upto the centre of the pipe.
9.10.1 Hydrodynamic and Thermal Boundary Layers for Flow in a Tube

Consider a fluid entering into a circular pipe, with a uniform velocity U (See Fig. 9.19). Fluid layer coming in contact with the pipe
surface comes to a complete halt and the adjacent layers slow down gradually due to viscosity effects. Since the total mass flow in a
section must remain constant, velocity in the central portion increases. As a result, a ‘velocity boundary layer’ develops along the pipe.
Thickness of the velocity boundary layer increases along the flow length until the entire pipe is filled up with the boundary layer, as
shown. ‘Hydrodynamic entry length (L h)’ is the distance from the entry point to the point where the boundary layer has developed
upto the centre. In the region beyond the hydrodynamic entry length, the velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged;
this is the ‘hydrodynamically developed region’. As will be shown later, velocity profile in the fully developed region, in laminar flow,
is parabolic; in turbulent flow, the velocity profile is a truncated
Similarly, when a fluid at an uniform temperature enters a pipe whose wall is at different temperature, a ‘thermal boundary layer ‘
develops along the pipe. Thickness of thermal boundary layer also increases along the flow length till the boundary layer reaches the
centre of the pipe. ‘Thermal entry length (L) is the distance from the entry to the point where the thermal boundary layer has reached
the centre, and is shown in the Fig. 9.19. Beyond this point, along the length, we have the ‘fully developed flow’ i.e. the flow is both
hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed.
Temperature profile may vary with x even in the thermally developed region. However, the dimensionless temperature profile
expressed as (T ‒ Ts)/(Tm ‒ Ts) remains constant in the thermally developed region, whether the temperature of the pipe surface
remains constant or the heat flux at the surface remains constant. (Tm is the bulk or mean temperature at a given section).
FIGURE 9.19 Flow inside a pipe
Relative growth of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers is controlled by the dimensionless Prandtl number. For gases, Pr =1,
and the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers essentially coincide; for oils Pr >> 1 and the hydrodynamic boundary layer
outgrows the thermal boundary layer, i.e. hydrodynamic entry length is smaller for oils. For fluids with Pr << 1, such as liquid metals,
thermal boundary layer outgrows the hydrodynamic boundary layer and consequently, the thermal entry length is shorter than the
hydrodynamic entry length.
Reynolds number is the dimensionless number that characterizes the flow inside a tube as laminar or turbulent. Reynolds number is
defined as:
Re = (Um.D)/v
where Um is the mean velocity in the pipe, and n is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. Flow regimes are defined as follows, depending
upon the Reynolds number:
Re < 2300 (Laminar flow)
2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000 (Transition flow)
Re > 4000 (Turbulent flow)
Hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths:
In laminar flow:
L h_lam = 0.05·Re·D …(9.121a)
L t_lam = 0.05·Re·Pr·D …(9.121b)
In turbulent flow, hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are independent of Re and Pr and are generally taken to be:
L h_turb = L t_turb = 10·D …(9.122)
The friction coefficient or shear stress at the surface is related to the slope of the velocity profile at the surface. Since the velocity
profile remains essentially constant in the hydrodynamically developed region, the friction factor and the shear stress remain constant
in the hydrodynamically developed region. By a similar argument, heat transfer coefficient also remains constant in the thermally
developed region.
At the entry to the tube, thickness of the boundary layer is practically zero; so velocity and temperature gradients at the surface are
almost infinite at the entry, which means that the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop are the highest in the entry region and go
on decreasing along the length.
Generally, in practice, turbulent flows prevail in heat transfer applications; length of pipes is also generally much larger as compared
to the hydrodynamic and thermal entrance lengths. Therefore, flow through pipes is generally assumed to be fully developed over the
entire length.
9.10.2 Velocity Profile for Fully Developed, Steady, Laminar Flow

Consider a fully developed, steady, laminar flow in a pipe. Consider a fluid element of length L and radius r, as shown in Fig. 9.20.
We are interested to get the velocity profile and the pressure drop (or friction factor) during flow. This is obtained by making a force
balance on a cylindrical fluid element as shown in Fig. 9.20. Forces acting on the element are: pressure forces at the ends and the
shear forces on the surface; there is no change in momentum since the velocities are same at both sections 1 and 2. So, writing a force
balance:

2
(p1 − p2 )·p·π = τ·(2·π·r·L) …(a)
But,
FIGURE 9.20 Laminar flow through a pipe
(negative sign, since r is measured opposite to the direction of y).
So,
Separating the variables and integrating,
i.e.
This can also be written as:
Negative sign in Eq. 9.123 indicates that pressure decreases in the flow direction. Also, note that the velocity profile is parabolic.

Now, maximum velocity occurs at r = 0, i.e. at the centre: 
Eq. 9.124 gives the maximum velocity in the pipe.
From Eqs. 9.123 and 9.124, we get:
Average or mean velocity, um, is obtained by equating the volumetric flow to the integrated paraboloidal flow:
Now, friction factor is defined by:
where D is the pipe diameter and is the dynamic pressure.
Integrating Eq. 9.127, we get, ’Darcy – Weisbach equation’ for pressure drop:
where ∂p = p1 – p2 and, L = x2 – x1
From Eqs. 9.126 and 9.127, we get:
Eq. 9.129 gives the friction factor for laminar flow (Re < 2000), in a pipe flow.
Since volumetric flow rate, Q = A.um, we can write for head loss:
Eq. 9.131 is known as ’Hagen ‒ Poiseuille equation’.
DarcyWeisbach Eq. 9.128 is applicable to noncircular ducts also, if D is replaced by ‘hydraulic diameter (Dh)’, defined by:
where A is the area of crosssection and P is the wetted perimeter.
Values of product of friction factor and Reynolds number for two important duct configurations (viz. annular ducts and rectangular
ducts) are given Tables 9.7 and 9.8 below:
TABLE 9.7 Annular ducts
Ratio of radii f.Re
74.68
0.001
80.11
0.01
86.27
0.05
89.37
0.10
92.35
0.20
94.71
0.40
95.59
0.60
95.92
0.80
96.00
1.00
TABLE 9.8 Rectangular ducts
Ratio of sides f.Re
89.91
0.05
84.68
0.10
82.34
0.125
78.81
0.166
72.93
0.25
65.47
0.40
62.19
0.50
57.89
0.75
56.91
1.00
9.10.3 Heat Transfer Considerations in a Pipe

Most of the practical cases of heat transfer involving a pipe flow fall under two categories:
1. surface heat flux on the pipe is constant, e.g. when the pipe is subjected to radiation or heated electrically by winding an electric
tape, or
2. pipe surface temperature is constant, e.g. when there is condensation or boiling occurring on the surface of the pipe.
(a) Constant surface heat flux, qs: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
Let a fluid enter a pipe subjected to a constant surface heat flux qs, with a mean inlet temperature of Ti and let the mean exit
temperature of fluid be Te. Then, the heat transfer rate can be written as:
Q = qs·A = m·Cp·(Te − Ti) −(9.133)
Or, the mean exit temperature of fluid may be written as:
where A is the surface area of the pipe, m is the mass flow rate of fluid and Cp is its mean specific heat. Mean fluid temperature, Tm
increases linearly in the flow direction. The surface temperature is determined from:
qs = h·(Ts − Tm) …(9.135)
When h is constant, for constant surface heat flux, (Ts – Tm) is constant, i.e. the surface temperature also increases linearly in the flow
direction. This situation is shown graphically in Fig. 9.21:
Now, we are interested to get the temperature profile and the heat transfer coefficient during flow. This is obtained by making an
energy balance on a cylindrical fluid element shown in Fig. 9.22. Here, the surface heat flux along the length is constant, i.e.
Heat flows to be considered are: conduction in and out of the element at the ends and the heat convected in and out by virtue of flow.
FIGURE 9.21 Tube surface and mean fluid temperatures for a pipe with constant surface heat flux in pipe flow
FIGURE 9.22 Control element for energy balance in pipe flow
So, writing an energy balance:
Heat flow into the element by conduction =
Heat flow out of the element by conduction =
By energy balance:
Net energy convected out = net energy conducted in
i.e. dQConv = dQr − dQr + dr
Substituting for the above terms and simplifying neglecting higher order differentials,
we get:
As already discussed, with constant heat flux at the wall, average fluid temperature must increase linearly with x, so that dT/dx =
constant i.e. temperature profiles will be similar at different locations along the length.
To solve Eq. 9.136, we have to insert the expression for the velocity profile given by Eq. 9.125, with the boundary conditions:
So, Eq. 9.136 becomes:
Integrating,
Integrating again,
Applying the first B.C., we get: C1 = 0. Also, T = Tc at r = 0, at centre of the pipe, i.e. C2 = TC
Therefore, temperature distribution in terms of temperature at the centre of the pipe is:
Bulk temperature:
For convection heat transfer in a pipe, we have:
local heat flux, q = h·(Ts − Tb ) …(9.138)
where Ts is the wall temperature, and Tb the ‘bulk temperature’, which is an energy averaged temperature across the pipe, calculated
from:
Again, we have already shown that bulk temperature is a linear function of x for constant heat flux at the wall. Performing the
calculation in Eq. 9.139, (using Eq. 9.137), we get:
And, wall (or, surface) temperature is given by:
Now, the heat transfer coefficient is given by:
Now, the numerator in Eq. 9.142 is the temperature gradient and is given by:
Substituting Eqs. 9.140, 9.141 and 9.143 in 9.142, we get
Or, in terms of Nusselts number:
Note the interesting result that for, steady, fully developed laminar flow in a pipe whose walls are subjected to a constant heat flux, the
Nusselts number is a constant = 4.364. Of course, at the entrance region, value of Nusselts number will be somewhat higher.
(b) Constant surface temperature, T s:
Let a fluid enter a pipe whose surface is maintained at a constant temperature Ts, with a mean inlet temperature of Ti and let the mean
exit temperature of fluid be Te. Then, the mean temperature of the fluid Tm approaches the surface temperature asymptotically, as
shown in Fig. 9.23.
Now, the temperature of the surface is constant and the fluid temperature varies continuously from Ti at the inlet to Te at the exit. To
determine the heat transfer rate, we have the Newton’s rate equation, Q = hA ΔTm, where A Tm is a mean temperature difference
between the surface and the fluid. In the chapter on heat exchangers, it will be shown that this mean temperature difference, also
known as ‘log mean temperature difference (LMTD)’, is given as:

Where, ΔTi, and ΔTe are the temperature differences at the inlet and outlet, as shown 
Here, m is the mass flow rate (kg/s), A is the area of heat transfer and Cp is the specific heat of the fluid.
From Eq. 9.147, one can calculate the mean fluid temperature at the exit. The term h.A/(m.Cp) is known as ‘Number of Transfer Units
(NTU)’ and is a measure of the size of the heat exchanger.
By making an analysis similar to the one as we did in the case of constant heat flux at the walls, we can show that for the case of
constant wall temperature, for steady, laminar flow, the Nusselts number is a constant, given by:
FIGURE 9.23 Variation of mean fluid temperature for a pipe with constant surface temperature
FIGURE 9.24 Variation of Nusselts number with (x/D)/(Re.Pr), for laminar flow in a pipe
Again, note that this is for fully developed flow and in the entrance region the values will be higher.
Nature of variation of Nusselts number with the dimensionless number (x/D)/(Re.Pr) is shown in the following graph (Fig. 9.24).
Note that for fully developed flows, Nusselts number approaches the asymptotic values of 4.364 and 3.656 for the cases of uniform
heat flux and constant wall temperature, respectively.
For short pipes (L/D is small, < 60), with constant wall temperature, fully developed velocity profile (parabolic), average Nusselt
number is given by Hausen as:
This equation gives the average Nusselt number over the length of tube, including the entry region. Here, Re = (D.um.ρ)/μ. Also, in the
above expression, the dimensionless group in the denominator is known as Graetz number, i.e.
For oils, or other fluids in which viscosity varies with temperature considerably, the constant 0.0668 in equation 9.150a must be
0.14
multiplied by (μ/μs) .
Another correlation for the above conditions is:
In Eq. 9.150, property values are taken at mean bulk temperature. If the outlet temperature is not specified, iterative working will be
required.
Another correlation to take care of the property variations is suggested by Sieder and Tate:
For short pipes (L/D is small, < 60), with constant wall temperature, velocity profile still developing, average Nusselt number is given
by Hausen as:
For oils, or other fluids in which viscosity varies with temperature considerably, the constant 0.104 in Eq. 9.150d must be multiplied
0.14
by (μ/μs) .
For long lengths, at constant wall temperature, Nusselt number asymptotically approaches the value 3.66. For short pipes with
constant wall heat flux, with fully developed parabolic velocity profile, Hausen’s correlation for local Nusselt number is:
Another relation recommended for above conditions is:
For short pipes with constant wall heat flux, with developing velocity profile, Hausen’s correlation for local Nusselt number is:
For long pipes with constant wall heat flux, average Nusselt number approaches the value 4.364, as already discussed.
9.10.4 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Inside Pipes of Non-circular Cross-sections

Nusselts number and friction factor for fully developed laminar flow inside pipes of noncircular crosssections are given in Table 9.9.
Here, Reynolds number and Nusselts number are based on the hydraulic diameter, which was defined earlier, as:
where A is the area of crosssection and P is the wetted perimeter.
Flow through an annulus: Practically important case is the flow through an annulus with the outer surface insulated, and the
inside surface maintained at either a constant temperature or constant heat flux.
In the case of an annulus, the hydraulic diameter as given by Eq. 9.132 viz.
Dh = (Do ‒ Di). For fully developed laminar flow, Nusselt number varies with (Di/Do) as shown in Table 9.10. Here, NuT is the Nusselt
number with the inner wall maintained at constant temperature and NuH is the Nusselt number with the inner surface maintained at
constant heat flux. Outside surface is insulated for both the cases.
In laminar flow, surface roughness of the pipe does not have much effect on Nusselts number or friction factor.
TABLE 9.9 Nusselts number and friction factor for fully developed Laminar flow in pipes of various crosssections
TABLE 9.10 Nusselt numbers for fully developed laminar flow in an annulus, insulated on the outside
9.10.5 Turbulent Flow Inside Pipes
9.10.5.1 Velocity profile and pressure drop.
Experimental results of Nikuradse for turbulent flow in smooth pipes indicated a powerlaw form for velocity profile:
where u is the local timeaverage velocity, umax is the timeaverage velocity at the centre, R is the radius of the pipe and y = (R ‒ r), is
the distance from the pipe wall. Values of index n are given in Table 9.11 for different values of Reynolds numbers:
Pressure drop for turbulent flow in pipes is also given by the Darcy ‒ Weisbach equation i.e.
TABLE 9.11 Values of index ‘n’ in Eq. 9.152 for turbulent flow in pipes
Re n
3
4 × 10
6.0
4
2.3 × 10
6.6
5
1.1 × 10
7.0
6
1.1 × 10
8.8
6
2 × 10
10.0
6
3.2 × 10
10.0
However, friction factor f must be determined experimentally. (Note that in case of laminar flow equation for friction factor was
derived analytically as f = 64/Re).
Average or mean velocity, um over the crosssection is easily calculated for the powerlaw profile as:
Performing the integration we get the result as:
Friction factor ‘f’ for smooth pipes is given by the following empirical relations:
−0.25 4
f = 0.316·Re (for 2 × 10 < Re < 8 × 104…(9.154))
−0.2
f = 0.184·Re (for 104 < Re < 105…(9.155))
−2
f = (0.79·ln(Re) − 1.64) (for 3000 < Re < 5 < 106…(9.156))
Eq. 9.156 for friction factor, developed by Petukhov, covers a wide range of Reynolds numbers.
Friction factor ‘f’ for commercial or ‘rough’ pipes is given by Colebrook’s formula (1939) or from the Moody’s diagram. Here,
surface imperfections on the internal surface extend beyond the laminar sublayer and are characterized by a ‘roughness height’ ‘ε’ and
the ‘relative roughness’ (ε/D) is a parameter in the Moody’s diagram. See Fig. 9.25. Note that in the region of complete turbulence,
friction factor is mainly dependent on the relative roughness. Values of ‘ε’ for commercial piping are given in Table 9.12.
Colebrook formula:
Here, logarithm is to base 10. This equation is slightly difficult to calculate since f occurs on both sides of the equation and an iterative
solution will be required. Instead, following formula for f is relatively easier to calculate:
Losses in pipe fittings:
Fittings, valves, etc. are part of the piping system and they also offer resistance to flow of fluid. Losses through fittings can be quite
considerable in large, industrial piping systems. Generally, head loss through a valve or fitting is expressed in the following form:
Values of ‘loss coefficient’, kL for some common valves and fittings are given in Table 9.13.
In practice, while calculating pressure drop in a piping system, for each valve and fitting, an ‘equivalent length L eq ’ is found out and
added to the straight length of piping and then the Darcy ‒ Weisbach equation is applied. Equivalent length for a valve or fitting is
calculated from:
9.10.5.2 Heat Transfer Coe��icient for Turbulent Flow Inside Pipes.
Analytical treatment of turbulent flow is rather complicated as compared to that of laminar flow; therefore, empirical relations based
on extensive experimental data have been suggested. Reynold’s analogy between momentum and heat transfer supplies the simplest
correlation:
Figure 6.25 Moody’s diagram for friction factor for flow through pipes
TABLE 9.12 Roughness height ‘ε’ for commercial piping
Type of piping ε, mm
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Brass, lead, glass, spun cement 0.0075
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.05
Cast iron (asphalt dipped) 0.12
Galvanized iron 0.15
Wood stave 0.2 to 1.0
Cast iron (uncoated) 0.25
Concrete 0.3 to 3.0
Riveted steel 1 to 10
Reynold’s analogy between momentum and heat transfer for turbulent flow in a pipe: In laminar flow, we have the expression for
shear stress and heat transfer as follows:
TABLE 9.13 Loss coefficient (kL) for some common valves and fittings
Item kt
Angle valve, fully open 3.1 to 5.0
Ball check valve, fully open 4.5 to 7.0
Gate valve, fully open 0.19
Globe valve, fully open 10
Swing check valve, fully open 2.3 to 3.5
Regular radius elbow, screwed 0.9
Regular radius elbow, flanged 0.3
Long radius elbow, screwed 0.6
Long radius elbow, flanged 0.23
Close return bend, screwed 2.2
Flanged return bend, two elbows, regular radius 0.38
—do—, long radius 0.25
Standard Tee, screwed, flow through run 0.6
—do—flow through side 1.8
Here v and α represent momentum and thermal diffusivity, respectively. It is a molecular phenomenon i.e. in laminar flow,
momentum is transported between layers of fluid at a molecular level. However, in turbulent flow, there is an additional factor of
‘eddy transport’ i.e. chunks of fluid, called, ‘eddies’ also physically move between layers and contribute to the transport of momentum
and heat. This is represented for momentum and heat transfer, respectively, as follows:
Now, let us assume that momentum and heat are transported at the same rate i.e. εM = εH, and that the Prandtl number, Pr = 1. Then,
dividing Eq. 9.160 by 9.159, we get:
Now, integrate Eq. 9.161 from the surface to the mean bulk conditions, i.e. from T = Ts, u = 0 to T = Tb and u = um, assuming that q/τ
is a constant at the surface = qs/τs:
Now, heat flux at the wall can be written as:
qs = h·(Ts − Tb ) …(9.163)

And, the shear stress at the wall = (shear force)/surface area 
So, we get:
Substituting Eqs. 9.163 and 9.164 in Eq. 9.162, we get:
Eq. 9.165 is called ‘Reynold’s analogy’ for fluid flow in a pipe and is valid for both laminar and turbulent flows. Note the restriction
that Pr = 1, in Reynold’s analogy i.e. it holds good for most of the gases.
For fluids with Prandtl number much different from unity, we have the ‘Colburn analogy’ expressed as follows:
All fluid properties in Eq. 9.166 are evaluated at (Tb + Ts)/2, except Cp in Stanton number, which is evaluated at the bulk temperature
of the fluid.
Note that by analogy between momentum and heat transfer, we get a relation between heat transfer coefficient (h) and friction
coefficient (f), and by knowing any one of them, the other quantity can be calculated.
There are two more analogies, more refined than the ones already mentioned. We shall just state them:
Prandtl analogy:
Prandtl analogy reduces to Reynold’s analogy when Pr = 1.
Von Karman analogy:
Substituting the f relation from Eq. 9.155 in the Colburn analogy, i.e. 9.166, we get the following relation for Nusselt number for fully
developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes:
This is known as ’Colburn equation’.
9.10.5.3 Design Equations.
However, more popularly used design equation for fully developed (L/D > 60), turbulent flow in pipes is the ’DittusBoelter
equation’. (1930), given below:
n
Nu = 0.023·Re0.8·Pr (for 0.7 < Pr < 160, Re > 10,000…(9.170))
where n = 0.4 for heating and n = 0.3 for cooling of the fluid flowing through the pipe. Here, fluid properties are evaluated at the bulk
mean temperature of fluid i.e. at Tb = (Ti + Te)/2 , where Ti is the temperature of fluid at pipe inlet and Te is the temperature of fluid
at pipe outlet.
If the temperature difference, (Ts ‒ Tb ) is significant, then variations in physical properties have to be taken into account, and in such
situations correlation of Sieder and Tate (1936) is recommended:
A more recent relation (1970) which fits experimental results better is the following:
where n = 0.11 for heating of fluids, n = 0.25 for cooling of fluids, n = 0 for constant heat flux and for gases, temperature in Kelvin
Above equations can be used for the cases of heat transfer with constant wall temperature as well as uniform heat flux at the wall
surface.
Also, relations for turbulent flow in circular pipes can be used for noncircular tubes as well, by replacing pipe diameter D in
evaluating Reynolds number by the hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4.A/P. Correlation for thermal entry region:
For the range of L/D from 10 to 400, Nusselt recommended the following relation for turbulent flow in pipes:
Here, fluid properties are evaluated at mean bulk temperature.
9.10.5.4 Turbulent Flow in a Long, Smooth Annulus.
For Nusselt number, the correlations for circular pipes are used, with the hydraulic diameter taken as Dh = Do ‒ Di.
For friction factor, following relation is proposed:
−0.25
fannulus = 0.085·(Re) (Re based on hydraulic diameter…(9.173))
9.10.5.5 Correlations for Liquid Metals.
For fully developed turbulent flow of liquid metals in smooth circular tubes [(L/D) > 30], with constant surface heat flux,
Skupinski et.al. recommend the following correlation:
0.827
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185·Pe (3600 < Re < 9.05 × 105, 100 <
Pe < 10,000…(9.174))
Note that Pe = Re.Pr
More recent (1972) correlation, which fits the available data well for flow of liquid metals in pipes with constant heat flux, is due to
Notter and Sleicher:

0.93
Nu = 6.3 + (0.0167·Re0.85·Pr ) …(9.175)
Similarly, for constant surface temperature conditions, for flow of liquid metals, Seban and Shimazaki recommend the
following correlation for Pe > 100, and [(L/D) > 30],
0.8
Nu = 5.0 + 0.025·Pe (for Ts = constant Pe > 100…(9.176))
9.10.5.6 Helically Coiled Tubes.
Coiled tubes are used to enhance the heat transfer coefficient and also to accommodate a larger heat exchange surface in a given
volume. Heat transfer in a coiled tube is more compared to that in a straight tube due to the contribution of secondary vortices formed
as a result of centrifugal forces.
Here, we define a new dimensionless number, called ’Dean number, Dn’ as follows:
where D is the diameter of the tube and dc is the diameter of the coil.
For laminar flow, following equations are recommended, depending upon the Dean number:
1. When Dn < 20:
2. When 20 < Dn < 100:
3. When Dn > 100:
All the above three Eqs. viz. 9.178, 9.179 and 9.180 are valid for 10 < Pr < 600.
Also, for coiled tubes, there is not much difference in values of average Nusselt numbers whether the surface temperature is kept
constant or the surface heat flux is maintained constant.
In laminar flow, friction factor for a coiled tube is obtained from:
Here, logarithm is to base 10.
Critical Reynolds number at which flow becomes turbulent in a coiled pipe is given as:
For values of (D/dc ) > 860, critical Reynolds number for a curved pipe is the same as that for a straight pipe.
For turbulent flow in usselt number for helical coil has proposed the following correlation:
Here, LHS is the ratio of average Nusselt numbers for helical and straight tubes, D is the diameter of the tube and dc is the diameter of
the coil.
Example 9.17. Water is heated in the annular section of a double pipe heat exchanger by electrical heating of the inner pipe. Outer
pipe is insulated. Mean bulk temperature of water is 60°C. For the annulus, Di = 2.5 cm and Do = 5 cm. Determine the convection
coefficient and pressure drop/metre length for:
1. flow rate of 0.04 kg/s, and
2. flow rate of 0.5 kg/s
Solution.
Data:
Ta := 60°C Di := 0.025 m D0 := 0.05 m L := 1 m m1 := 0.04 kg/s (Case (i)) m2 := 0.5 kg/s
First, we need the properties of water at average temperature of 60°C:
3 −3
ρ := 983.3 kg/m μ := 0.467 × 10 kg/(ms) Cp := 4185 J/(kgC) k := 0.654 W/(mC) Pr := 2.99
Case (i): Flow rate is 0.04 kg/s:
Since there is electrical heating of the inside tube, it is a case of constant heat flux at the wall; and, the outside surface is insulated.
Reynolds number:
To calculate Re, we need hydraulic diameter, since this is annular duct:
Therefore, this is the case of laminar flow in an annular duct, insulated from outside and subjected to constant heat flux at the inner
wall. We assume fully developed flow. Then, from Table 9.10 we get:
Pressure drop:
Friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in an annulus, is read from Table 9.7.
Therefore, pressure drop is given by:
Case (ii): Flow rate is 0.5 kg/s:
Reynolds number:
Therefore, this is the case of turbulent flow in an annular duct, insulated from outside and subjected to constant heat flux at the inner
wall. We assume fully developed flow. And the DittusBoelter correlation can be used with the hydraulic diameter substituted for tube
diameter D.
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Friction factor for fully developed turb. flow in an annulus, can be read from Moody’s diagram, or we can use Eq. 9.154:
Therefore, pressure drop is given by:
Example 9.18. Water at 20°C flows through a 2.5 cm ID, 1 m long pipe, whose surface is maintained at a constant temperature of
50°C, at velocity of 5 cm/s. Determine the outlet temperature of water, assuming fully developed hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 20°C Ts := 50°C D := 0.025 m L := 1 m U := 0.05 m/s
We need the properties of water at mean bulk temperature. But, as yet, we do not know the exit temperature of water. So, let us assume
the mean bulk temperature as 30°C and proceed with the calculations; later, we will check this assumption and refine our
calculations, if required.
Properties of water at Tb = 30°C:

3 −3
ρ := 996.0 kg/m μ :=0.798 × 10 kg/(ms) Cp := 4178 J/(kgC) k := 0.615 W/(mC) Pr := 5.42
Reynolds number:
Therefore, flow is in the entrance region
Therefore, we use Eq. 9.150b, viz
Now, determine the outlet temperature by an energy balance:
In the above equation we have assumed that the mean temperature difference between the water stream and the surface is the
difference between the surface temperature and the arithmetic mean of water temperature at inlet and exit. Strictly speaking, we
should consider the LMTD; however, the assumption of arithmetic mean is good enough and the error is not much.
Let us solve this easily by Mathcad. Assume a guess value for To to start with, and then write the constraint after typing ‘Given’. Then
the command ‘Find (To)’ gives the value of To immediately:
To := 100 (guess value of To)
Given
Therefore, mean temperature of water is: (20 + 25.152)/2 = 22.5°C, whereas we had assumed a mean value of 30°C. Taking the
properties of water at 22.5°C, calculations can now be repeated:
Properties of water at Tb = 22.5°C:
3 −3

Therefore,
Therefore, we use Eq. 9.150b i.e.
Now, determine the outlet temperature by an energy balance, and using Solve block of Mathcad:
To := 100 (guess value of To)
Given
Therefore, Tb = (20 + 25.073)/2 = 22.573°C, which is very close to Tb = 22.5°C at which properties of water were taken. So, T0 =

25.073°C …(Ans).
Example 9.19. Air at 1 bar and 20°C flows through a 6 mm ID, 1 m long smooth pipe, whose surface is maintained at a constant heat
flux, with velocity of 3 m/s. Determine the heat transfer coefficient if the exit bulk temperature of air is 80°C. Also determine the exit
wall temperature and the value of h at the exit.
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 20°C T0 := 80°C D := 0.006 m L := 1 m U := 3.0 m/s
Therefore, mean bulk temperature is (20 + 80)/2 = 50°C
i.e. Tb = 50°C (mean bulk temperature of air)
Properties of air at Tb = 50°C:

3 −6
Reynolds number:
Since the tuube length is short, entrance effect must be considered.
Nusselt number:
Therefore, we shall use following equation assuming developing velocity profile:
Exit wall temperature:
Since the wall heat flux is constant, we have the relation for h:
Also,
Therefore, from Eq. a:
Example 9.20. Water (under pressure) is heated in an economiser from a temperature of 30°C to 150°C. Tube wall is maintained
at a constant temperature of 350°C. If the water flows at a velocity of 1.5 m/s and the tube diameter is 50 mm, determine the length of
tube required.
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 30°C To := 150°C Ts := 350°C D := 0.05 m U := 1.5 m/s
Therefore, mean bulk temperature is (30 + 150)/2 = 90°C
i.e Tb := 90°C …mean bulk temperature of water
Properties of water at Tb = 90°C:
3 −3
ρ := 965.3 kg/m μ := 0.315 × 10 kg/(m/s) Cp := 4206 J/(kgC) k := 0.675 W/(mC) Pr := 1.96
Reynolds number:
Using more recent correlation,
where n = 0.11 for heating of fluids, n = 0.25 for cooling of fluids, n = 0 for constant heat flux and is to be replaced by for gases,

temperature in Kelvin
We have:
−2
f := (0.79·ln (Re) − 1.64) …(9.156)
i.e. f = 0.015
and, dynamic viscosity of water at wall temperature of 350°C is:

−3
μs = 0.065 × 10 kg/(m/s)
Therefore,
Length of tube required:
Water temperature varies continuously from 30°C at inlet to 150°C at exit, tube surface temperature remainin constant at 350°C. So,
mean temperature difference in Newton’s equation is LMTD, to be very accurate.
Applying energy balance:
Therefore,
Note: We could have taken the mean temperature difference as the difference between surface temperature and the arithmetic mean
between inlet and exit of water i.e. AT = 350 ‒ 90 = 260 whereas LMTD was 255.7°C. Then, L would have been 3.542 m, not much
different from 3.6 m; however, using LMTD is accurate method.
Alternatively, if we had used DittusBoelter equation, viz.
And, using LMTD we would have got L = 4.524 m
Example 9.21. Sodium potassium alloy (25:75), flowing at a rate of 3 kg/s, is heated in a tube of 5 cm ID from 200°C to 400°C.
Tube surface is maintained at constant heat flux and the temperature difference between the tube surface and the mean bulk
temperature of fluid is 40°C. Determine the heat transfer coefficient, heat flux at the surface and length of tube required.
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 200°C To := 400°C ΔT := 40°C D := 0.05 m m := 3.0 kg/s
Therefore mean bulk temperature is (200 + 400)/2 = 300°C
i.e. Tb = 300°C …mean bulk temperature of Na–K alloy
Properties of Na–K alloy at Tb = 300°C:
3 −6 2
ρ := 799 kg/m v := 0.366 × 10 m /s Cp := 1038.3 J/(kgC) k := 22.68 W/(mC) Pr := 0.0134
Reynolds number:
Using the recent correlation of Notter and Sleicher, fo constant heat flux conditions
Heat flux at surface:
Now, heat flux is determined from its definition:
This is obtained by a heat balance:
Alternatively:

Also, if we use Eq. 9.174 to determine heat transfer coefficient: 
Compare this value of h with that obtained earlier using Eq. 9.175.
And,
Example 9.22. 180 kg/h of air at one atm. pressure is cooled from 100°C to 20°C while passing through a 3 cm ID pipe coil bent
into a helix of 0.7 m diameter. Calculate the air side heat transfer coefficient.
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 200°C To := 20°C D := 0.03 m dc := 0.7 m i.e. m = 0.05 kg/s
Therefore mean bulk temperature is (100 + 20)/2 = 60°C
i.e. Tb := 60°C (mean bulk temperature of air)
Properties of air at Tb = 60°C:
3 −6
ρ := 1.06 kg/m μ := 20.10 × 10 kg/(ms) Cp := 1005 J/(KgC) k := 0.02896 W/(mC) Pr := 0.696
Reynolds number:
Nusselt number for straight tube:
Using the DittusBoelter equation for turbulent flow:
0.8 n
Nu = 0.023·Re ·Pr (for 0.7 < Pr < 160, Re > 10,000…
(9.170))
0.8 0.3
i.e. Nu := 0.023·Re ·Pr (n = 0.3 since air is being cooled.)
i.e. Nu = 215.457 (Nusselt number…for straight tube)
Nusselt number for helical coil:
We have:
Therefore,
Example 9.23. In a long annulus (3.125 cm ID, 5 cm OD), air is heated by maintaining the temperature of outer surface of the inner
tube at 50°C. The air enters at 16°C and leaves at 32°C and its flow velocity is 30 m/s. Estimate the heat transfer coefficient between
the air and the inner tube. Use Dittus Boelter equation, viz.
0.8 0.4
NuD = 0.023·(ReD) ·Pr ; Average properties of air at 24°C are:
3 −6 2
ρ = 1.614 kg/m , Cp = 1007 J/(kgC), k = 0.0263 W/(mC), Pr = 0.7 v = 15.9 × 10 m /s (M.U. 1999)
Solution.
Data:
Ti := 16°C To := 32°C Ts := 50°C Di := 0.03125 m Do := 0.05 m L := 1 m U := 30 m/s
Reynolds number:
To calculate Re, we need hydraulic diameter, since this is annular duct:
We have, for hydraulic diameter:
We have:
Also, calculate the pressure drop per metre length:
Friction factor:
We have, from Eq. 9.155:
−0.2
f := 0.184·Re (for 104 < Re < 105…(9.155))
i.e. f = 0.023 (friction factor)
Pressure drop:
Example 9.24. Water at 20°C flows flows through a tube, 4 cm diameter 9 m length, tube surface being maintained at 90°C.
Temperature of water increases from 20°C to 60°C. Find the mass flow rate. Use DittusBoelter equation, viz. NuD = 0.023.
0.8 0.4
(ReD) ·Pr ; Take properties of water at mean bulk temperature of 40°C as:
3 −6 2
ρ = 993 kg/m , Cp = 4170 J/kgC), k = 0.64 W/(mC), v = 0.65 × 10 m s (M.U., 1996)
Solution.
Data:
−4
Ti := 20°C T0 := 60°C Ts := 90°C D := 0.04 m L := 9 m μ := v·ρ i.e. μ = 6.455 × 10 kg/(ms)
Now, from DittusBoelter equation we get Nusselt number, hence the heat transfer coefficient h; then writing a heat balance:
Let m be the mass flow rate (kg/s) of water.
Heat gained by water = heat transferred between the pipe surface and the bulk of water
9.11 Summary of Basic Equations for Forced Convection
Geometry/details Correlation Restrictions
Flat Plate,
laminar flow:
5
Hydrodynamic Re < 5 × 10
boundary layer
thickness
5
Local friction Re < 5 × 10
coefficient
5
Local Nusselt Re < 5 × 10 , Pr > 0.5
number
5
Average Frction Re < 5 × 10
coefficient
5
Average Nusselt Re < 5 × 10 , Pr > 0.5
number
5
Local Nusselt Re < 5 × 10
number for liquid Pe = Re. Pr
metals
Flat Plate,
turbulent flow:
5
Hydrody. b.l. Rex > 5 × 10
thickness
5
Local friction Rex > 5 × 10 , Pr > 0.5
coefficient
5
Local Nusselt Rex > 5 × 10 , Pr > 0.5
number
Average Friction 5 × 105 < ReL < 107
coefficient
7 9
Average Friction 10 < ReL < 10
coefficient
Flat Plate, mixed
boundary layer:
5 7
5 7
Average Friction 5 × 10 < ReL < 10
5
coefficient Rex, c = 5 × 10
5 7
Average Nusselt 0.6 < Pr < 60, 5 × 10 < ReL < 10
number
7
Cylinder in cross 100 < Re < 10
flow: Re.Pr > 0.2
Average Nusselt
number
Cylinder in liquid Nucyl = 1.125·(Re·Pr)0.413 …for 1 < Re.Pr <
metal cross flow 100
Flow across a For gases & liquids.
4
sphere: 3.5 < Re < 7.6.10
Comprehensive 0.71 < Pr < 380, 1 < μ/μs < 3.2
equation of
Whitaker.
Average Nusselt
number
Falling drop:
Average Nusselt
no.
Flow across Tube N > 20, and 0.7 < Pr < 500, 1000 < ReD_max < 2 ×
6
bank: 10
Turbulent flow
5
(ReD > 2 × 10 )
Flow across Tube Gmax = ρ · umax
banks: N = No. of transverse rows
Pressure drop
Friction factor in
Eq. 9.118
Friction factor in
Eq. 9.118
Flow through 20 < ReDp < 10,000, 0.34 < ε < 0.78.
packed beds: See text for definition of ReDp and ε
Heat transfer
between gas and
packings
Flow through For particles like cylinders,
packed beds: see text for definition of ReDp
Heat transfer
between walls of
bed and gas
Flow through For particles like spheres, 40 < ReDp < 2000
packed beds: see text for definition of ReDp
Heat transfer
between walls of
bed and gas
Flow inside L h_lam = 0.05·Re·D Re < 2300…laminar

tubes: L t_lam = 0.05·Re·Pr·D Re > 4000…turbulent
Hydrodynamic L h_turb = L t_turb = 10·D
and thermal
entry lengths
DarcyWeisbach
equation for
pressure drop
Friction factor Laminar flow in tubes
Flow inside Pr > 0.6
tubes:
Nusselt no. for fully
developed laminar
flow, constant wall
heat flux
Flow inside Pr > 0.6
tubes:
developed laminar
flow, constant wall
temperature
Flow inside L/D < 60
short tubes:
developed velocity
profile, laminar
flow, constant wall
temperature
Flow inside
short tubes:
developed velocity
profile, laminar
flow, constant wall
temperature..Sieder
… Tate relation.
0.48 < Pr < 16,700
0.0044 < (μ/μs) 9.75
Flow inside
short tubes:
Local Nusselt no.
for fully developed
velocity profile,
laminar flow,
constant wall heat
flux.
−0.25 4 4
Flow inside f = 0.316·Re …for 2 × 10 < Re < 8 < 10
−0.2 4 5
tubes: f = 0.184·Re …for 10 < Re < 10 .
−2
Friction factor for f = (0.79·In (Re) − 1.64) …for 3000 < Re < 5
6
smooth pipes × 10
Flow inside Relative roughness, (ε/D) is known
tubes:
Friction factor for
rough pipe
Reynold’s
analogy
Colburn analogy
0.8 n
Flow inside Nu = 0.023·Re ·Pr …for 0.7 < Pr < 160, Re Dittus–Boelter equation 0.6 < Pr < 160
tubes: > 10,000 Re > 10,000 L/D > 10
Turbulent flow: n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated, and
Nusselt number n = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled
7
Flow inside Sieder Tate eqn. 0.7 < Pr < 16,700, 6000 < Re < 10
tubes:
Turbent flow:
Nusselt number,
when there is
property variation
Flow inside Fits the experimental data better; n = 0.11 for heating
tubes: of fluids, n = 0.25 for cooling of fluids, n = 0 for
Turbulent constant heat flux, μb /μs = Ts/Tb , temperature in
flow:Nusselt Kelvin
number
0.827 5
Flow of liquid Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185·Pe 3600 < Re <9.05 × 10 , 100 < Pe < 10,000
metals inside
smooth pipes:
constant surface
heat flux.
0.85 0.93
Flow of liquid Nu = 6.3 + (0.0167 · Re · Pr ) Recent correlation which fits experimental data
metals inside better.
smooth pipes:
constant surface
heat flux.
0.8
Flow of liquid Nu = 5.0 + 0.025·Pe …for Ts = constant, Pe
metals inside > 100.
smooth pipes:
constant surface
temperature.
Helically coiled D = diameter of tube
tubes: dc = diameter of helix
Turbulent flow:
Hausen’s relation
9.12 Summary
Convection is the mode of heat transfer with fluid motion. If the fluid motion is caused by density differences as a result of
temperature differences, then it is called ‘natural convection’; instead, if the fluid motion is imposed due to a pump or fan, then it is
called ‘forced convection’. Also, the flow may be ‘laminar’ or ‘turbulent’; in laminar flow, the flow is ‘ordered’ and the different layers
of fluid flow parallel to each other in an orderly manner. In turbulent flow, the flow is ‘chaotic’ and the flow is highly disordered and
there is ‘mixing’ between different layers of fluid as a result of chunks of fluid (‘eddies’) moving between layers. Dimensionless
number that characterizes the flow as laminar or turbulent is the Reynolds number.
In this chapter, we studied the principles of forced convection and stated a few correlations for external flow on flat plates, cylinders
and spheres, and also for internal flow through circular and noncircular pipes.
Mathematical analysis of convection problem is complicated since the temperature profile has to be solved in conjunction with the
fluid flow relations. ‘Boundary layer concept’ simplifies this problem to some extent. Boundary layer is a very thin, stagnant fluid layer
that adheres to the wall surface wherein the velocity and temperature gradients are significant. Thus, the flow field is considered to be
made up of two regions, one ‘a boundary layer region’ and the other, an ‘inviscid region’. Derivation of boundary layer equations and
their solution to the simple case of a flat plate was explained in some detail. Further simplification with the method of integral
equations was also demonstrated.
Central problem in convection heat transfer situation is to find out the heat transfer coefficient, ‘h’. Heat transfer coefficient is
generally represented in terms of the dimensionless Nusselt number, Nu. So, in the analysis, our aim is to get a relation for Nusselt
number. By ‘Dimensional Analysis’, it was shown that in forced convection, Nusselt number is expressed as function of Reynolds and
Prandtl numbers.
We are also interested in the drag force between the fluid and the plate and the pressure drop occurs in the pipe if a fluid is flowing
through it. This is related to the shear stress at the walls, which in turn, is expressed in terms of a ‘skin friction coefficient’ for the flat
plate and a ‘friction factor’ for internal flow through a pipe. We solve the momentum equation to get the shear stress and the friction
coefficient, and by solving the energy equation we get the temperature profile and thus the heat transfer coefficient.
There is a similarity in the governing equations of momentum and energy transfer. This leads to the idea of ‘analogy between
momentum and heat transfer’ and we have extremely useful analogies such as Reynolds analogy and Colburn analogy. Particularly for
rough tubes, an estimate of heat transfer coefficient is easily made just by the knowledge of friction coefficient, with the help of these
analogies.
Most of the convection correlations are empirical, deduced as result of large amount of experimental data. Several empirical
correlations for laminar as well as turbulent, forced convection, for many practically important situations have been presented in this
chapter.
In the next chapter, we study about heat transfer with natural convection.
Questions
1. Explain the difference between natural and forced convection in laminar and turbulent flow.
[M.U.]
2. Write short notes on hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers. What is the importance of these boundary layers in heat
transfer?
[M.U.]
3. Explain the principle of dimensional analysis. What are its advantages and limitations?
[M.U.]
4. State Buckingham μtheorem.
[M.U.]
5. Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for heat transfer coefficient in forced convection in terms of Nusselt number,
Reynolds number and Prandtl numbers.
[M.U.]
6. Explain the physical significance of: (a) Reynolds number (b) Prandtl number, and (c) Nusselt number
[M.U.]
7. Write a short note on applications of dimensional analysis.
[M.U.]
8. Write a short note on Reynolds analogy between momentum and heat transfer, with reference to a flat plate.
[M.U.]
9. In flow across a cylinder, what is meant by friction drag and pressure drag? At what point on the cylinder is the heat transfer
maximum?
10. Show that for flow inside a circular tube, Reynolds number can be written as: Re = 4.m/(π·D·m)
11. State the generally accepted values of critical Reynolds numbers at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent for: (a) a
flat plate (b) flow across a circular cylinder (c) flow across a sphere, and (d) flow inside a circular pipe.
12. Comment on the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths for laminar and turbulent flows for an oil inside a circular pipe. How
would they compare for a liquid metal?
13. What is the difference between friction factor and friction coefficient?
14. How is pressure drop in a tube related to the friction factor?
15. In a circular tube, where is the heat transfer coefficient higher, at the entry or exit? Why?
16. Does the roughness of tube surface affect the heat transfer in (a) laminar flow (b) turbulent flow. Explain your answer.
Problems
1. Glycerine at 10°C flows over a flat plate, 6 m long, maintained at 30°C with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. Determine the total drag force
3
and the heat transfer rate over the entire plate per unit width. Properties of glycerine at 20°C are: ρ = 1264 kg/m , v = 1180 ×
−6 2
10 m /s, Pr = 12,500, k = 0.2861 W/ (mK) and Cp = 2387 J/(kgK).
2. Water at at 30°C is flowing with a velocity of 4 m/s along the length of a long, flat plate, 0.3 m wide, maintained at 10°C.
1. Calculate the following quantities at x = 0.3 m:
(i) boundary layer thickness (ii) local friction coefficient (iii) average friction coefficient (iv) local shear stress due to
friction (v) thickness of thermal boundary layer (vi) local convection heat transfer coefficient (vii) average heat transfer
coefficient (viii) rate of heat transfer from the plate between x = 0 and x = x, by convection, and (ix) total drag force on
the plate between x = 0 and x = 0.3 m
5
2. Also, find out the value of xc (i.e. the distance along the length at which the flow turns turbulent, Rec = 5 × 10 ).
3 −6 2
Properties of water at a film temperature of 20°C are: ρ = 1000 kg/m , v = 1.006 × 10 m /s, Pr = 7.02, k = 0.5978 W/ (mK)
and Cp = 4178 J/(kgK).
3. Consider water flowing at 30°C over a flat plate 1 m x 1m size, maintained at 10°C with a free stream velocity of 0.5 m/s. Plot
the variation of local heat transfer coefficient along the length if heating starts from 0.25 m from the leading edge.
4. Air at a pressure of 3 atm. and 200°C flows over a flat plate (1 m long x 0.3 m wide), at a velocity of 7 m/s. If the plate is
maintained at 40°C, find out the rate of heat removed continuously from the plate. [Hint: heat is removed from both the
surfaces of the plate. Properties k, μ, Pr do not vary much with pressure, but, ρ varies as per the Ideal gas law, viz. ρ = p/(R·T),
temperature in Kelvin.]
3 −6 2
Properties of air at 1 atm. and a film temperature of 120°C are: ρ = 0.898 kg/m , v = 25.45 × 10 m /s, Pr = 0.686, k =
0.03338 W/ (mK) and Cp = 1009 J/(kgK).
5. In problem 4, apply the Colburn analogy to estimate the drag force exerted on the plate.
6. Dry air at at atmospheric pressure and 30°C is flowing with a velocity of 2 m/s along the length of a flat plate, (size: 1 m x 0.5
m), maintained at 90°C.
Using Blasius exact solution, calculate the the heat transfer rate from:
(a) the first half of the plate (b) full plate, and (c) next half of plate.
7. Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure is flowing with a velocity of 2.5 m/s along the length of a flat plate, maintained at 55°C.
Calculate: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
(i) hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at 20 cm and 40 cm from the leading edge by the approximate method (ii) mass
entrainment rate between these two sections assuming a cubic velocity profile, and (iii) heat transferred from the first 40 cm of
the plate.
8. An air stream at 20°C and atmospheric pressure, flows with a velocity of 4 m/s over an electrically heated flat plate (size: 0.6 m
x 0.6 m), heater power being 1 kW. Calculate:
(i) the average temperature difference along the plate (ii) heat transfer coefficient, and (iii) temperature of the plate at the
trailing edge
9. SodiumPotassium alloy (25% + 75 %), at 250°C , flows with a velocity of 0.5 m/s over a flat plate (size: 0.3 m x 0.1 m),
maintained at 550°C. Calculate:
(i) the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses (ii) local and average value of friction coefficient (iii) heat
transfer coefficient, and (iv) total heat transfer rate
−6 2
Properties of Nak alloy at a film temerature of 400°C are: ρ = 775 kg/m3, v = 0.308 × 10 m /s, Pr = 0.0108, k = 22.1 W/
(mK) and Cp = 1000.6 J/(kgK).
10. A thin plate of length 2 m and width 1.5 m is exposed to a flow of air parallel to its surface along the 2 m side. The velocity and
temperature of the free stream flow of air are 3 m/s and 20°C respectively. The plate surface temperature is 90°C. Determine
the lengthwise mean local heat transfer coefficient at the end of the plate and the amount of heat transferred. Take the following
properties of air at 20°C:
−6 2
v = 15.06 × 10 m /s, Pr = 0.703, k = 0.0259 W/ (mK), and use the relation:
0.5 1/3
Nuavg = 0.664. ReL . Pr .
[M.U.]
11. A 10 cm diameter steam pipe, whose surface is at 90°C passes through an area where the wind is blowing across the pipe at a
velocity of 40 km/h at a temperature of 10°C and pressure of 1 atm. Determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit
length.
12. A 6 mm diameter electrical cable carries a current of 60 Amp and its resistance is 0.002 ohm/metre. Determine the surface
temperature of the cable if air at a temperature of 10°C blows across the cable with a velocity of 50 km/h.
13. An incandescent bulb (60 W) can be considered as a sphere of 10 cm diameter. Only 10% of the energy supplied is converted to
light and the remaining 90% of the energy is converted to heat. If air at 20°C blows across the bulb with a velocity of 2.5 m/s,
determine the equilibrium temperature of the glass bulb.
14. A sphere suspended in an air stream is used as speed measuring device. A 12 mm diameter sphere, when suspended in an air
stream flowing at 40°C, maintains a surface temperature of 50°C, while dissipating an electrical energy of 0.6 W. Calculate the
air speed.
15. A 1.5 cm diameter ball bearing at a temperature of 100°C is cooled by passing water at a temperature of 15°C at 0.3 m/s over it.
Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient between the ball bearing and water.
16. In a packed bed heat exchanger, air is heated from 30°C to 370°C by passing it through a 10 cm diameter pipe, packed with
spheres of 6 mm diameter. The flow rate is 18 kg/h. Pipe surface temperature is maintained at 420°C. Determine the length of
bed required. (Hint: In this case, heat is transferred between the gas and the walls of the bed).
17. In a regenerator, (1 m dia x 2 m long), spherical rock fillings of diameter = 25 mm, are used to heat up air. Void fraction of this
bed is 40%. Initially, the rock fillings are at 25°C and the air is at 85°C, flowing in the axial direction with a flow rate of 1.2 kg/s.
Calculate the value of heat transfer coefficient (Hint: In this case, heat is transferred between the gas and the spherical fillings).
18. A tube 15 mm ID is maintained at a constant temperature of 60°C. Water is flowing inside the tube at a rate of 10 g/s.
Temperature of water at entry is 20°C and at a distance of 1 m from entry the temperature is 40°C. Compute the average value
of Nusselt number using the appropriate correlations.
19. Water at 20°C flows through a 15 mm ID, 4 m long tube with a velocity of 2 m/s. Tube wall is maintained at a constant
temperature of 90°C. What is the heat transfer coefficient and the total amount of heat transferred, if the exit temperature of
water is 60°C? Also, calculate the pressure drop.
20. If, in problem 15, three Globe valves are introduced in the pipe line, what will be the new pressure drop value?
21. Water at 20°C flows through a 15 mm ID, 4 m long tube with a velocity of 2 m/s. Tube wall is maintained at a constant heat flux
by electrical heating. What is the heat transfer coefficient and the total amount of heat transferred, and the temperature of tube
wall at the exit, if the exit temperature of water is 60°C?
22. In a heat exchanger, water flows through a long 2.2 cm ID copper tube at a bulk velocity of 2 m/s and is heated by steam
condensing at 150°C on the outside of the tube. The water enters at 15°C and leaves at 60°C. Find the heat transfer coefficient
0.8 0.4
for water. Use the empirical relation: Nu = 0.023.Re° ·Pr° . Physical properties of water at the mean bulk temperature of
3
37.5°C are: ρ = 990 kg/m , μ = 0.00069 kg/(ms), Pr = 0.0108, k = 0.63 W/(mK) and Cp = 4160 J/(kgK). [M.U.]
23. A water heater consists of a thick walled tube of 20 mm ID and 40 mm OD, insulated on the outside surface. Electrical heating
5 3
within the wall provides a uniform heat generation rate of 5 × 10 W/m . Water at a rate of 0.15 kg/s enters at 20°C and leaves
at 70°C. Calculate the length of tube required. What is the local heat transfer coefficient at the exit, if the inner wall surface
temperature at exit is 80°C?
24. Water is flowing through a tube of 6 mm ID at a rate of 4 kg/s. A constant heat flux of 250 W per metre length is provided at
the surface. If the water enters at 20°C and exits at 70°C, what is the length of tube required? Also, what is the surface
temperature at exit? Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 
25. Liquid sodium is to be heated from 170°C to 230°C at a rate of 2 kg/s in a 2.5 cm diameter tube, heated electrically on its
surface. (Constant heat flux). Calculate the length of tube required if the wall temperature is not to exceed 280°C. Properties of
3 2
sodium at average bulk temperature of 200°C are: ρ = 903 kg/m , v = 0.506 m /s, Pr = 0.0075, k = 81.41 W/(mK) and Cp =
1327.2 J/(kgK).
26. A square duct of 20 cm side carries cool air at 10°C over a length of 25 m. Average velocity at entrance is 1.5 m/ s. If the walls of
duct are maintained at 30°C, determine the outlet temperature of air.
27. Water flows through a rough pipe of 40 mm ID and 3 m length. Relative roughness, (ε/D) for pipe = 0.004. Inlet temperature
of water is 20°C and the inlet flow velocity is 1.5 m/s. Determine the outlet temperature and also the pressure drop.
28. Consider a tube bank, made of tubes of 10 mm OD, in an inline arrangement, longitudinal spacing and transverse spacing being
15 mm and 17 mm respectively. Air is heated from 20°C to 40°C by pumping it through this tube bank. Air approaches the tube
bank with a velocity of 4 m/s, and the tube walls are maintained at a constant temperature of 150°C. If there are 10 tube rows,
what is the average heat transfer coefficient and the pressure drop?
29. Water at 20°C flows across a tube bundle at a free stream velocity of 20 m/s. OD of the tubes is 8 cm. Longitudinal and
transverse spacings are 22.5 cm each. Tubes are in a staggered arrangement. If the tube surfaces are maintained at 50°C,
estimate the heat transfer coefficient.
30. Engine oil is to be cooled from 150°C to 90°C in an annulus of 15 mm ID and 30 mm OD. Flow velocity is 1 m/s. Temperature
of inside tube wall is maintained at 25°C. Determine the heat transfer coefficient and the length of tube required. Properties of
3 −6 2
engine oil at a mean bulk temperature of 120°C are: ρ = 828 kg/m , v = 12 × 10 m /s, Pr = 175, k = 0.1349 W/ (mK) and Cp
= 2307 J/(kgK).
31. Water is flowing at the rate of 20 kg/min. through a tube of inner diameter 2.5 cm. The surface of the tube is maintained at
100°C. If the temperature of water increases from 25°C to 55°C, find the length of tube required. Following empirical relation
can be used:
0.8 0.4
Nu = 0.023·Re ·Pr . Physical properties of water can be taken from the following table:
[M.U.]
Example 9.2. Air is passing through a rectangular duct of size 20 cm x 30 cm at a velocity of 8 m/ s and a temperature of 40°C.
−6 2
Properties of air at 40°C are: thermal conductivity (k) = 0.02755 W/ (mK), kinematic viscosity(v) = 16.96 × 10 m /s, and the
Nusselt number is calculated by an empirical relation to be 450. Find out the convective heat transfer coefficient.
Solution.
Data:
a = 0.3 m …length of flow passage crosssection
b = 0.2 m …breadth of flow passage cross
section
V = 8 m/s …velocity of flow
−6 2
n = 16.96 × 10 m /s …kinematic viscosity of air at 40°C
k = 0.02755 W/(mK) …thermal conductivity of air at 40°C
Nu = 450 …Nusselt number
Equivalent diameter:
For a rectangular crosssection:
i.e. de = 0.24 m…equivalent diameter of flow passage
Reynolds Number:
Since Re > 4000, flow is turbulent
Convective heat transfer coefficient:
Since it is given that Nu = 450, we can write, from the definition of Nusselts number:
Example 9.5. Ethylene glycol at 25°C is flowing with a velocity of 0.2 m/s along the length of a flat plate, 6 m long, maintained at
95°C.
Calculate:
(i) hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness and thermal boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of plate (ii) total drag per unit
width on one side of plate (iii) local heat transfer coefficient at the end of plate, and (iv) total heat flow rate from the surface per unit
width.
Solution.
Data:
L = 6.0 m …length of flat plate
W = 1.0 m …width of flat plate
Ts = 95°C …surface temperature of plate
Ta = 25°C …free stream temperature of
air
U = 0.2 m/s …velocity of ethylene glycol
…film temperature
Properties of ethylene glycol are to be taken at the film temperature of 60°C. We get, from data tables:
3
r = 1087.66 kg/m …density of ethylene glycol at 60°C
Cp = 2562 J/(kgK) …specific heat of ethylene glycol at 60°C
−6 2
v = 4.75 × 10 m /s …kinematic viscosity of ethylene glycol at 60°C
k = 0.260 W/(mK) …thermal conductivity of ethylene glycol at 60°C
Pr = 51 …Prandtl number
(i) Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of plate:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is length of plate:
5
This value is less than 5 … 10 ; so, the boundary layer is laminar and the equations derived above are applicable:
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, δ:
Thickness of thernal boundary layer:
We have:
(ii) Average friction coefficient Ca:
(iii) Total drag force on the plate between x = 0 and x = 6.0 m
(iii) Local convection heat transfer coefficient at the end of plate:
We have:
(iv) Total heat flow rate from the surface per unit width:
From Eq. 9.40, average heat transfer coefficient between x = 0 and x = L is equal to twice the value of local heat transfer coefficient at
x = L
Example 9.10. Sodium–Potassium alloy (25% + 75%), at 300°C, flows with a velocity of 0.4 m/s along a flat plate (size: 0.3 m ×
2
0.1 m), heated with uniform heat flux of 1500 kW/m . Calculate: (i) heat transfer coefficient, (ii) the average temperature difference
along the plate, and (iii) temperature of the plate at the trailing edge.
Solution.
Data:
Ta = 300°C …free stream temperature of Na–K
alloy
U = 0.4 m/s …velocity of NaK alloy
L = 0.3 m …length of plate
W = 0.1 m …width of plate
2
qs = 1500 × 103 W/m …heat flux
Note that properties have to be evaluated at the film temperature; however, since the temperature of the plate is not constant, but
varies along the length, we shall start the analysis taking the properties of Na–K alloy at 300°C and then refine the values later.
−6 2
v = 0.366 × 10 m /s …kinematic viscosity of NaK alloy at 300°C
k = 22.68 W/(mK) …thermal conductivity of Na–K alloy at
300°C
Pr = 0.0134 …Prandtl number Na–K alloy at 300°C
(i) Local and average heat transfer coefficient:
Now, characteristic dimension to calculate Reynolds number is : x = 0.3 m
5
This value is less than 5 × 10 ; so, the boundary layer is laminar and we shall apply Eq. 9.70,
i.e.
Therefore, average value of heat transfer coefficient:
ha = 2·hL
3 2
i.e. ha = 7.7127 × 10 W/(m C) …average value of heat transfer
coefficient
(ii) Therefore, average temperature difference:
Now, refine the results taking property values at the new film temperature of:
Then,
This value of local Nusselt number is not much different from the value got earlier.
So, we settle for the value of hL as:
ha = 2·hL
3 2
i.e. ha = 7.809 × 10 W/(m C) …average value of heat transfer
coefficient
(iii) temperature of the plate at the trailing edge
Example 9.15. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate (L = 1 m, W = 0.5 m) with a velocity of 4 m/s. Total drag force acting on
–3
is found from experiment, to be F D = 20 × 10 N. Using Reynolds–Colburn analogy, estimate the corresponding average heat transfer
coefficient for this situation.
Solution.
Data:
Ta = 27·C …free stream temperature of air
U = 4 m/s …velocity of air
L = 1.0 m …length of plate
W = 0.5 m …width of plate
−3
F D = 20 × 10 N …drag force
Properties of air at 27°C:
Cp = 1006 J/kgK …specific heat of air
Pr = 0.708 Prandtl number of
air
3
r = 1.177 kg/m …density of air
We have, by Reynolds–Colburn Analogy:
Now, skin friction coefficient Cfa is determined from definition of drag force, viz.
Now, applying Eq. a:
Example 9.19. Air at 1 bar and 20°C flows across a 10 mm diameter sphere with a free stream velocity of 5 m/s. Surface of sphere is
maintained at 80°C. Determine the value of convection coefficient and the heat loss from the sphere.
Solution.
Data:
Ts = 80°C …sphere surface
temperature
Ta = 20°C …air temperature
U = 5 m/s …velocity of air
D = 0.01 m …diameter of sphere
We shall use Whitaker’s correlation for a sphere, viz.
Here, remember that Reynolds number is evaluated at free stream temperature.
Properties at free stream temperature Ta
−6 2
v = 15.7 × 10 m /s …kinematic viscosity
k = 0.0251 W/(mK)
Pr = 0.71
−6 2
μa = 18.24 × 10 Ns/m …dynamic viscosity at
20°C
−6 2
And, at Tw = 80°C μw = 20.79 × 10 Ns/m …dynamic viscosity at
80°C
Reynolds number:
Nusselts number
Then, from Eq. 9.97 we have
Heat transfer rate Q:
2
Q = h (π·D )·(Ts − Ta) W …heat transfer
rate
i.e. Q = 1.382 W …heat transfer

rate
Alternatively: use McAdam’s equation., viz.

0.6
Nusph = 0.37·Re …for 17 < Re < 70,000…(9.95)
Here, all fluid properties must be taken at the film temperature of: Tf = 50°C
−6 2
At 50°C v = 18.5 × 10 m /s …kinematic viscosity
k = 0.0272 W/(mK) …thermal conductivity
Therefore,
And, from Eq. 9.95, we have:
Nusph =
0.6
0.37·Re
i.e. Nusph = 42.392
And, heat transfer coefficient is:
2
i.e. h = 115.305 W/(m K) …heat transfer coefficient
This is about 57% higher than the value calculated earlier.
Example 9.22. Water at an average temperature of 50°C passes through a rectangular duct of 3 cm × 1.5 cm size at a velocity of 5
cm/s. What is the pressure drop if the length of duct is 20 m?
Solution.
Data:
Ta = 50·C …average temperature of
water
b = 0.03 m …width of duct
a = 0.015 m …height of duct
L = 20 m …length of duct
U = 0.05 m/s …velocity at entry
We need the properties of water at average temperature of 50°C:
3
ρ = 988.1 kg/m …density of water
−3
μ = 0.547 × 10 kg/(ms) …dynamic
viscosity
Reynolds number:
To calculate Re, we need hydraulic diameter, since this is rectangular duct:
We have, for hydraulic diameter:
Friction factor:
Refer Table 9.8 or 9.9 for value of friction factor
Pressure drop:
Therefore, pressure drop is given by
i.e. ∆ p = 42.522 Pa …pressure drop for 20 m length of duct.
Example 9.31. Water flows through a tube, 2.5 cm diameter at a flow rate of 1 lit./s. Tube surface is maintained at 90°C.
Temperature of water increases from 30 to 70°C. Find the length of tube required. Use Dittus–Boelter equation viz. NuD = 0.023.
0.8 0.4
(ReD) .Pr ; Take properties of water at mean bulk temperature of 50°C as:
3 −6 2
ρ = 988.1 kg/m , Cp = 4178 J/(kgC), k = 0.6474 W/(mC), v = 0.556 × 10 m /s
Solution.
Data:
Ti = 30°C …inlet temperature of water
To = 70°C …exit temperature of water
Ts = 90°C …constant surface
temperature
D = 0.025 m …inner diameter of pipe
−3 3
V = 1 × 10 m /s …volume flow rate of water
Reynolds number:
We have:
This is determined from a heat balance:
Mass flow rate,
Heat gained by water = heat transferred between the pipe surface and the water
Temperature difference between the pipe surface and the bulk temperature of water goes on varying along the length of tube; we use
LMTD to be accurate. (Mean temperature of water between inlet and exit also could be used, but answer will not be very accurate).
By heat balance:
If we consider the difference between the surface temperature and the mean of inlet and exit temperature of water, instead of LMTD:
Then, by heat balance:
Compare the two values of length required.
Again note that considering LMTD is more accurate.
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Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

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Chapter 9 - Forced Convection

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10/1/2016 Chapter 9.

 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

9.2 Physical Mechanism of Forced Convection

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9.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling and Heat Transfer Coe icient

9.4 Nusselt Number

9.5 Velocity Boundary Layer

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9.6 Thermal Boundary Layer

9.7 Di erential Equations for the Boundary Layer

9.7.1 Conservation of Mass–The Continuity Equation for The Boundary Layer

9.7.2 Conservation of Momentum Equation for The Boundary Layer

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Viscous shear forces: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 

9.7.3 Conservation of Energy Equation for The Boundary Layer

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9.8 Methods to Determine Convective Heat Transfer Coe icient

9.8.1 Dimensional Analysis

9.8.1.1 Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulas.

9.8.1.2 Buckingham π Theorem.

F(π 1, π 2 , π 3 , …) = 0 …(9.21)

F(π 1, π 2 ) = 0. …(9.22)

F(π 1, π 2 , π 3 ) = 0. …(9.24)

π 1 = f (π 2 , π 3 ) …(9.25)

Now, experimental data can be presented by plotting π 1 against π 2 for different values of π 3 .

9.8.1.3 Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection.

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9.8.1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

9.8.1.5 Dimensionless Numbers and their Physical Significance.

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9.8.2 Exact Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations

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9.8.3 Approximate Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations–Von Karman Integral Equations

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where δ1 and δ2 are the thicknesses of boundary layer at sections x1 and x2 respectively.

Substituting from Eqs. a, b , c and d and simplifying, we get:

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i.e. Q = 184.858 W …heat transferred over 40 cm length of

9.8.3.1 Turbulent boundary Layer Flow Over a Flat Plate.

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where log (ReL) is the logarithm to base 10. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today 

9.8.3.2 Combined laminar and Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.

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x2 := 0.47, 0.48, …, 0.75 (define range variable x2 varying from 0.47 to 0.75 m,

9.8.4 Analogy Between Momentum and Heat Transfer

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i.e. Q = 114.249 W (heat transfer rate for the first 0.4 m

9.9.1 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

0.4–4 0.989 0.330

4–40 0.911 0.385

40–4,000 0.683 0.466

4,000–40,000 0.193 0.618

40,000–400,000 0.0266 0.805

9.9.2 Flow Across Blu Objects

9.9.3 Flow Through Packed Beds

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