Core Maths C3

Revision Notes

October 2012
 Core Maths C3
1 Algebraic fractions .................................................................................................. 3
Cancelling common factors .................................................................................................................. 3
Multiplying and dividing fractions ....................................................................................................... 3
Adding and subtracting fractions .......................................................................................................... 3
Equations .............................................................................................................................................. 4
2 Functions................................................................................................................. 4
Notation ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Domain, range and graph ...................................................................................................................... 4
Defining functions ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Composite functions ............................................................................................................................. 6
Inverse functions and their graphs ........................................................................................................ 6
Modulus functions ................................................................................................................................ 7
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|.............................................................................................................................. 7
Modulus functions y = f (|x|)............................................................................................................................... 8
Standard graphs..................................................................................................................................... 8
Combinations of transformations of graphs .......................................................................................... 9
3 Trigonometry ......................................................................................................... 10
Sec, cosec and cot ............................................................................................................................... 10
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Inverse trigonometrical functions ....................................................................................................... 11
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Trigonometrical identities ................................................................................................................... 11
Finding exact values .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Proving identities. .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Eliminating a variable between two equations ................................................................................................. 12
Solving equations .............................................................................................................................................. 12
R cos(x + α) ........................................................................................................................................ 13
4 Exponentials and logarithms ................................................................................. 14
Natural logarithms .............................................................................................................................. 14
Definition and graph .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Equations of the form eax + b = p ....................................................................................................................... 15
5 Differentiation ........................................................................................................ 15
Chain rule ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Product rule ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Quotient rule ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Derivatives of ex and logex ≡ ln x. ................................................................................................... 17
dy 1
= dx ............................................................................................................................................ 18
dx dy

Trigonometric differentiation.............................................................................................................. 18
Chain rule – further examples ............................................................................................................. 19
Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules ............................................................................... 19

C3 14/04/13 SDB 1
6 Numerical methods ................................................................................................ 20
Locating the roots of f(x) = 0 ............................................................................................................. 20
The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn) ................................................................................................................... 20
Conditions for convergence................................................................................................................. 21
Index ............................................................................................................................. 22

2 C3 14/04/13 SDB
1 Algebraic fractions
Cancelling common factors
x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x
Example: Simplify .
4 x 2 − 36
Solution: First factorise top and bottom fully –
x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x x( x 2 − 2 x − 3) x( x − 3)( x + 1)
= =
4 x 2 − 36 4( x 2 − 9) 4( x − 3)( x + 3)
and now cancel all common factors, in this case (x – 3) to give
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
4( x + 3)

Multiplying and dividing fractions

This is just like multiplying and dividing fractions with numbers and then cancelling common
factors as above.
9 x 2 − 4 3x 2 − x − 2
Example: Simplify ÷
3x 2 − 2 x x3 + x2
Solution: First turn the second fraction upside down and multiply
9x 2 − 4 x3 + x2
= × , and then factorise fully
3x 2 − 2 x 3x 2 − x − 2
(3 x − 2)(3x + 2) x 2 ( x + 1)
= × , and cancel all common factors
x(3 x − 2) (3 x + 2)( x − 1)
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
x −1

Adding and subtracting fractions

Again this is like adding and subtracting fractions with numbers; but finding the Lowest
Common Denominator can save a lot of trouble later.
3x 5
Example: Simplify − 2 .
x − 7 x + 12 x − 4 x + 3
2

Solution: First factorise the denominators

3x 5
= − ; we see that the L.C.D. is (x – 3)(x – 4)(x – 1)
( x − 3)( x − 4) ( x − 3)( x − 1)
3x( x − 1) 5( x − 4)
= −
( x − 3)( x − 4)( x − 1) ( x − 3)( x − 1)( x − 4)

3x 2 − 3 x − 5 x + 20 3x 2 − 8 x + 20
= = which cannot be simplified further.
( x − 1)( x − 3)( x − 4) ( x − 1)( x − 3)( x − 4)

C3 14/04/13 SDB 3
Equations
x x −1 1
Example: Solve − =
x +1 x 2
Solution: First multiply both sides by the Lowest Common Denominator which in this case
is 2x(x + 1)
⇒ x × 2x – (x – 1) × 2(x + 1) = x(x + 1)
⇒ 2x2 – 2x2 + 2 = x2 + x
⇒ x2 + x – 2 = 0, ⇒ (x + 2)(x – 1) = 0
⇒ x = –2 or 1

2 Functions
A function is an expression (often in terms of x) which has only one value for each value of x.

Notation
y = x2 – 3x + 7, f (x) = x2 – 3x + 7 and f : x → x2 – 3x + 7
are all ways of writing the same function.

Domain, range and graph

The domain is the set of values which x can take:
this is sometimes specified in the definition
and sometimes is evident from the function: e.g. √x can only take positive x or zero.
The range is that part of the y–axis which is used.

Example: Find the range of the function

f : x → 2x – 3 with domain x is a real number: –2 < x ≤ 3.

Solution: First sketch the graph for values of x y

between – 2 and 3
and we can see that we are
only using the y–axis from –7 to 3, x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
and so the range is
y is a real number: –7 < y ≤ 3.
-5

4 C3 14/04/13 SDB
Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
f : x → x − 3 + 1.

Solution: First notice that we cannot have the square root of a negative number and so
x – 3 cannot be negative
⇒ x–3≥0
⇒ largest domain is x real: x ≥ 3.
y

To find the range we first sketch the graph

and we see that the graph will cover all of the
y-axis from 1 upwards
x
and so the range is y real: y ≥ 1. 2 4 6 8

Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
2x
f:x→ .
x +1
Solution: The only problem occurs when the denominator is 0, and so x cannot be –1.
Thus the largest domain is x real: x ≠ –1.
y

To find the range we sketch the graph 5

and we see that y can take any value
except 2,
x
so the range is y real: y ≠ 2. -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 1

Defining functions
Some mappings can be made into functions by restricting the domain.
Examples:
1) The mapping x → √x where x ∈ ℜ is not a function as √–9 is not defined, but
if we restrict the domain to positive or zero real numbers then f : x → √ x where x ∈
ℜ, x ≥ 0 is a function.
1
2) x→ where x ∈ ℜ is not a function as the image of x = 3 is not defined,
x −3
1
but f : x → where x ∈ ℜ, x ≠ 3 is a function.
x −3

C3 14/04/13 SDB 5
Composite functions
To find the composite function fg we must do g first.
Example: f : x → 3x – 2 and g : x → x2 + 1. Find fg and gf.

Solution: Think of f and g as ‘rules’

f is times by 3 subtract 2

g is square add 1

⇒ fg is square add 1 times by 3 subtract 2

giving (x2 + 1) × 3 – 2 = 3x2 + 1

⇒ fg : x → 3x2 + 1 or fg(x) = 3x2 + 1.

gf is times by 3 subtract 2 square add 1

giving (3x – 2)2 + 1 = 9x2 – 12x + 5

⇒ gf : x → 9x2 – 12x + 5 or gf (x) = 9x2 – 12x + 5.

Inverse functions and their graphs

The inverse of f is the ‘opposite’ of f:
thus the inverse of ‘multiply by 3’ is ‘divide by 3’
and the inverse of ‘square’ is ‘square root’.
The inverse of f is written as f –1: note that this does not mean ‘1 over f ’.
The graph of y = f –1(x) is the reflection in y = x of the graph of y = f (x)
To find the inverse of a function x → y
(i) interchange x and y
(ii) find y in terms of x.
Example: Find the inverse of f : x → 3x – 2.

y=x
Solution: We have x → y = 3x – 2 y

(i) interchanging x and y ⇒ x = 3y – 2 2

x+2
(ii) solving for y ⇒ y = -4 -2 2 4
x
3
y = f –1(x)
x+2 -2
⇒ f –1 : x →
3
y = f (x)
6 C3 14/04/13 SDB
 x+3
Example: Find the inverse of g : x → .
2x − 5
x+3
Solution: We have x → y =
2x − 5
(i) interchanging x and y
y+3
⇒ x =
2y − 5
y=x
(ii) solving for y
y
⇒ x(2y – 5) = y + 3 5

⇒ 2xy – 5x = y + 3
y = g –1(x)
⇒ 2xy – y = 5x + 3
⇒ y(2x – 1) = 5x + 3 y = g (x)
x
5x + 3 5 1
⇒ y =
2x − 1
5x + 3
⇒ g –1 : x →
2x − 1
Note that f f –1 (x) = f –1
f (x) = x.

Modulus functions
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|
|f (x)| is the ‘positive value of f (x)’,
so to sketch the graph of y = |f (x)| first sketch the graph of y = f (x) and then reflect the
part(s) below the x–axis to above the x–axis.
Example: Sketch the graph of y = |x2 – 3x|.

y
Solution: First sketch the graph of y = x2 – 3x. 5

x
Then reflect the portion between x = 0 and x = 3 in 5
the x–axis

y
to give 5

x
5

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Modulus functions y = f (|x|)
In this case f (–3) = f (3), f (–5) = f (5), f (–8.7) = f (8.7) etc. and so the graph on the
left of the y–axis must be the same as the graph on the right of the y–axis,
so to sketch the graph, first sketch the graph for positive values of x only, then reflect
the graph sketched in the y–axis.
Example: Sketch the graph of y = |x|2 – 3|x|.
y
5

Solution: First sketch the graph of y = x2 – 3x for only

positive values of x.
x
-5 5

y
5

Then reflect the graph sketched in the y–axis to

complete the sketch.
x
-5 5

Standard graphs
y=x4
y = x3 y=x2
y=x y
3y
4
2
3
1
2
x
-4 -2 2 4
1
-1
x
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
1
-3

y = x and y = x4
2

y = x and y = x3

y 4y
2
3
1
2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
1
-1
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
3
1
y= y = √x
x

8 C3 14/04/13 SDB
Combinations of transformations of graphs

We know the following transformations of graphs:

y = f (x)
⎛ a⎞
translated through ⎜ ⎟ becomes y = f (x - a) + b
⎝ b⎠
stretched factor a in the y-direction becomes y = a × f (x)
⎛ x⎞
stretched factor a in the x-direction becomes y = f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a⎠
reflected in the x-axis becomes y = – f (x)
reflected in the y-axis becomes y = f (–x)

We can combine these transformations:

Examples:
1) y = 2f (x – 3) is the image of y = f (x) under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 2
⎛ 3⎞
followed by a translation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , or the translation followed by the stretch.
⎝0⎠
2) y = 3x2 + 6 is the image of y = f (x) under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3
⎛ 0⎞
followed by a translation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ,
⎝ 6⎠
BUT these transformations cannot be done in the reverse order.
To do a translation before a stretch we have to notice that
⎛0⎞
3x2 + 6 = 3(x2 + 2) which is the image of y = f (x) under a translation of ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2⎠
followed by a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3.
3) y = – sin(x + π) is the image of y = f (x) under a reflection in the x-axis followed
⎛−π ⎞
by a translation of ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , or the translation followed by the reflection.
⎝ 0 ⎠

C3 14/04/13 SDB 9
3 Trigonometry
Sec, cosec and cot
1 1
Secant is written sec x = ; cosecant is written cosec x = and
cos x sin x
1 cos x
cotangent is written cot x = =
tan x sin x

Graphs

y y y
1
1 1

x x x
90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360

-1 -1
-1

y = sec x y = cosec x y = cot x

Notice that your calculator does not have sec, cosec and cot buttons so to solve equations
involving sec, cosec and cot, change them into equations involving sin, cos and tan and then use
your calculator as usual.
Example: Find cosec 35o.
1 1
Solution: cosec 35o = o = = 1.743 to 4 S.F.
sin 35 0.53576...

Example: Solve sec x = 3.2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2πc

1 1
Solution: sec x = 3.2 ⇒ = 3.2 ⇒ cos x = = 0.3125
cos x 3.2
⇒ x = 1.25 or 2π – 1.25 = 5.03 radians

10 C3 14/04/13 SDB
Inverse trigonometrical functions
The inverse of sin x is written as arcsin x or sin–1 x and in order that there should only be
one value of the function for one value of x we restrict the domain to –π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2 .
Similarly for the inverses of cos x and tan x, as shown below.

Graphs
y
y
3
y
1
1
2

x
-2 -1 1 2
x
1 -2 -1 1 2

-1
-1
x
-2 -1 1 2

y = arcsin x y = arccos x y = arctan x

–1 ≤ x ≤ 1 –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 x∈ℜ
–π/2 ≤ arcsin x ≤ π/2 0 ≤ arccos x ≤ π – /2 < arctan x < π/2
π

Trigonometrical identities
You should learn these
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 tan A - tan B
tan( A - B) =
tan θ + 1 = sec θ
2 2 1 + tan A tan B

1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ 2 tan A

tan 2 A =
1 - tan 2 A
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B 3 tan A − tan 3 A
tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan 2 A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B P+Q P -Q
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos
2 2
cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A P+Q P -Q
sin P – sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2
= 2 cos2 A – 1
= 1 – 2 sin2 A P+Q P -Q
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos
sin2 A = ½ (1 – cos 2A) 2 2

cos2 A = ½ (1 + cos 2A) P+Q P -Q

cos P – cos Q = – 2 sin sin
sin2 ½ θ = ½ (1 – cos θ) 2 2

cos2 ½ θ = ½ (1 + cos θ) 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B)

sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A 2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) – sin(A – B)

cos 3A = 4 cos3A – 3 cos A 2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A – B)

tan A + tan B –2 sin A sin B = cos(A + B) – cos(A – B)

tan( A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B

C3 14/04/13 SDB 11
Finding exact values
When finding exact values you may not use calculators.
Example: Find the exact value of cos 15o
Solution: We know the exact values of sin 45o, cos 45o and sin 30o, cos 30o
so we consider cos 15 = cos (45 – 30) = cos 45 cos30 + sin 45 sin 30
3 + 1 6 +
= 1
2
× 2
3
+ 1
2
× 12 = 2 2
= 4
2
.

Example: Given that A is obtuse and that B is acute, and sin A = 3/5 and cos B = 5/13 find
the exact value of sin (A + B).
Solution: We know that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B so we must first find
cos A and sin B.
Using sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
⇒ cos2 A = 1 – 9/25 = 16
/25 and sin2 B = 1 – 25/169 = 144
/169
⇒ cos A = ± /5 and sin B = ± /13
4 12

But A is obtuse so cos A is negative and B is acute so sin B is positive

⇒ cos A = – 4/5 and sin B = 12
/13
⇒ sin (A + B) = 3/5 × 5/13 + – 4/5 × 12/13 = –33
/65

Proving identities.
Start with one side, usually the L.H.S., and fiddle with it until it equals the other side. Do not
fiddle with both sides at the same time.
cos 2 A + 1
Example: Prove that = cot 2 A .
1 - cos 2 A
cos 2 A + 1 2 cos 2 A - 1 + 1 2 cos 2 A
Solution: L.H.S. = = 2 = 2 = cot 2 A . Q.E.D.
1 - cos 2 A 1 - (1 - 2sin A) 2 sin A

Eliminating a variable between two equations

Example: Eliminate θ from x = sec θ – 1, y = tan θ.
Solution: We remember that tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ
⇒ sec2θ – tan2θ = 1.
secθ = x + 1 and tanθ = y
⇒ (x + 1)2 – y2 = 1
⇒ y2 = (x + 1)2 – 1 = x2 + 2x.

Solving equations
Here you have to select the ‘best’ identity to help you solve the equation.
Example: Solve the equation sec2A = 3 – tan A, for 0 ≤ A ≤ 360o.
Solution: We know that tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ
⇒ tan2A + 1 = 3 – tan A

12 C3 14/04/13 SDB
 ⇒ tan2A + tan A – 2 = 0, factorising gives
⇒ (tan A – 1)(tan A + 2) = 0
⇒ tan A = 1 or tan A = –2
⇒ A = 45, 225, or 116.6, 296.6.

R cos(x + α)
An alternative way of writing a cos x ± b sin x using one of the formulae listed below
(I) R cos (x + α) = R cos x cos α – R sin x sin α
(II) R cos (x – α) = R cos x cos α + R sin x sin α
(III) R sin (x + α) = R sin x cos α + R cos x sin α
(IV) R sin (x – α) = R sin x cos α – R cos x sin α

To keep R positive and α acute we select the formula with corresponding + and – signs. The
technique is the same which ever formula we choose.

Example: Solve the equation 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 6 for 0o ≤ x ≤ 3600.

Solution: First re–write in the above form:
notice that the sin x is +ve and the cos x is –ve so we need formula (IV).
R sin (x – α) = R sin x cos α – R cos x sin α = 12 sin x – 5 cos x

Equating coefficients of sin x, ⇒ R cos α = 12 [i]

Equating coefficients of cos x, ⇒ R sin α = 5 [ii]

Squaring and adding [i] and [ii] ⇒ R2 cos2 α + R2 sin2 α = 122 + 52

⇒ R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) = 144 + 25 but cos2 α + sin2 α = 1
⇒ R2 = 169 ⇒ R = ±13
But choosing the correct formula means that R is positive ⇒ R = +13
Substitute in [i] ⇒ cos α = 12
/13
⇒ α = 22.620o or ....
But choosing the correct formula means that α is acute ⇒ α = 22.620o.
⇒ 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 13 sin(x – 22.620)
and so to solve 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 6
we need to solve 13 sin(x – 22.620) = 6
⇒ sin(x – 22.620) = 6/13
⇒ x – 22.620 = 27.486 or 180 – 27.486 = 152.514
⇒ x = 50.1o or 175.1o .

C3 14/04/13 SDB 13
Example: Find the maximum value of 12 sin x – 5 cos x and the value(s) of x for which
it occurs.

Solution: From the above example 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 13 sin(x – 22.6).

The maximum value of sin(anything) is 1 and occurs when the angle is 90, 450, 810
etc. i.e. 90 + 360n
⇒ the max value of 13 sin(x – 22.6) is 13
when x – 22.6 = 90 + 360n ⇒ x = 112.6 + 360no.

4 Exponentials and logarithms

Natural logarithms y = ex y=x

y
Definition and graph
2

e ≈ 2.7183 and logs to base e

y = ln x
are called natural logarithms.

x
-
4

-
2

6
log e x is usually written ln x.
-
2

Note that y = ex and y = ln x

-
4

are inverse functions and that

the graph of one is the reflection
of the other in the line y = x.

Graph of y = e(ax + b) + c.
y = e2x y = ex
y

The graph of y = e2x is the graph of

6

y = ex stretched by a factor of 1/2 in

4

the direction of the x-axis.

2

x
-
2

14 C3 14/04/13 SDB
 The graph of y = e(2x + 3) is the graph of
y = e2x + 3 + 4
⎛− 3
⎞ y

y = e2x translated through ⎜⎜ 2

⎟⎟ since
⎝ 0 ⎠
6

4
−3
2x + 3 = 2(x – 2 )
2

and the graph of y = e(2x +3) + 4 is that of x

−8 −6 −4 −2 2

⎛0⎞
y = e(2x + 3) translated through ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ y = e2x + 3
⎝ 4⎠

Equations of the form eax + b = p

Example: Solve e2x + 3 = 5.

Solution: Take the natural logarithm of each side, remembering that ln x is the
inverse of ex.
⇒ ln(e2x + 3) = ln 5 ⇒ 2x + 3 = ln 5
ln 5 − 3
⇒ x = = –0.695 to 3 S.F.
2
Example: Solve ln(3x – 5) = 4.
Solution: Raise both sides to the power of e, remembering that ex is the inverse of
ln x.
⇒ eln(3x – 5) = e4 ⇒ (3x – 5) = e4
e4 + 5
⇒ x = = 19.9 to 3 S.F.
3

5 Differentiation
Chain rule
If y is a composite function like y = (5x2 – 7)9
think of y as y = u9, where u = 5x2 – 7
then the chain rule gives
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
dy du
⇒ = 9u 8 ×
dx dx
dy
⇒ = 9(5 x 2 − 7) 8 × (10 x) = 90 x(5 x 2 − 7) 8 .
dx
du
The rule is very simple, just differentiate the function of u and multiply by .
dx

C3 14/04/13 SDB 15
 dy
Example: y = √(x3 – 2x). Find .
dx
1
Solution: y = √(x3 – 2x) = ( x 3 − 2 x) 2 . Put u = x3 – 2x
1
⇒ y= u 2
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy −1 du −1
⇒ = 12 u 2 × = 1
2
( x 3 − 2 x) 2
× (3x 2 − 2)
dx dx
dy 3x 2 − 2
⇒ = 1
.
dx 2( x 3 − 2 x) 2

Product rule

If y is the product of two functions, u and v, then

dy dv du
y = uv ⇒ = u + v .
dx dx dx

Example: Differentiate y = x2 × √(x – 5).

1
Solution: y = x2 × √(x – 5) = x2 × ( x − 5) 2

1
so put u = x2 and v = ( x − 5) 2

dy dv du
⇒ = u + v
dx dx dx
−1 1
= x2 × 1
2
( x − 5) 2
+ ( x − 5) 2 × 2x
2
x
= + 2x x − 5 .
2 x−5

Quotient rule

If y is the quotient of two functions, u and v, then

du dv
v − u
u dy dx dx .
y = ⇒ =
v dx v2

2x − 3
Example: Differentiate y =
x 2 + 5x
2x − 3
Solution: y = , so put u = 2x – 3 and v = x2 + 5x
x + 5x
2

du dv
v − u
dy dx dx
⇒ = 2
dx v

16 C3 14/04/13 SDB
 ( x 2 + 5 x) × 2 − (2 x − 3) × (2 x + 5)
=
( x 2 + 5 x) 2

2 x 2 + 10 x − (4 x 2 + 4 x − 15) − 2 x 2 + 6 x + 15
= = .
( x 2 + 5 x) 2 ( x 2 + 5 x) 2

Derivatives of ex and logex ≡ ln x.

dy
y = ex ⇒ = ex
dx
dy 1
y = ln x ⇒ =
dx x
dy 1 1
y = ln kx ⇒ y = ln k + ln x ⇒ = 0+ =
dx x x
dy 1 k
y = ln xk ⇒ y = k ln x ⇒ = k× =
dx x x
or use the chain rule.

Example: Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 – 5ex at the point where x = 2.

Solution: f (x) = x3 – 5ex
⇒ f ′(x) = 3x2 – 5ex
⇒ f ′(2) = 12 – 5e2 = –24.9

Example: Differentiate the function f (x) = ln 3x – ln x5

Solution: f (x) = ln 3x – ln x5 = ln 3 + ln x – 5 ln x = ln 3 – 4 ln x
−4
⇒ f ′(x) =
x
or we can use the chain rule
1 1 −4
⇒ f ′(x) = × 3 − 5 × 5x 4 =
3x x x

Example: Find the derivative of f (x) = log 10 3x.

ln 3 x
Solution: f (x) = log 10 3x = (using change of base formula)
ln 10
ln 3 + ln x ln 3 ln x
= = +
ln 10 ln 10 ln 10
1
1
⇒ f ′(x) = 0 + x
= .
ln 10 x ln 10

C3 14/04/13 SDB 17
 2 dy
Example: y = e x . Find .
dx
Solution: y = eu, where u = x2
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy du
⇒ = eu × = eu × 2x = 2x × e x .
2

dx dx

dy
Example: y = ln 7x3. Find .
dx
Solution: y = ln u, where u = 7x3
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1 3
⇒ = × = 3
× 21x 2 = .
dx u dx 7x x

dy 1
= dx
dx dy

dy
Example: x = sin2 3y. Find .
dx
dx
Solution: First find as this is easier.
dy
dx
= 2 sin 3 = 2 sin 3y cos 3y × 3 = 6 sin 3y cos 3y
dy
dy 1 1 1
⇒ = dx = = = 1
3 cosec 6y
dx dy 6 sin 3 y cos 3 y 3 sin 6 y

Trigonometric differentiation

x must be in RADIANS when differentiating trigonometric functions.

f (x) f ′ (x) important formulae

sin x cos x
cos x – sin x sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
tan x sec2 x
sec x sec x tan x tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
cot x – cosec2 x
cosec x – cosec x cot x 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x

18 C3 14/04/13 SDB
Chain rule – further examples
dy
Example: y = sin4 x. Find .
dx
Solution: y = sin4 x. Put u = sin x
⇒ y = u4
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy du
⇒ = 4u 3 × = 4 sin 3 x × cos x .
dx dx

dy
Example: y = e sin x . Find .
dx
Solution: y = eu, where u = sin x
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy du
⇒ = e sin x × = esin x × cos x = cos x × esin x .
dx dx

dy
Example: y = ln (sec x). Find .
dx
Solution: y = ln u, where u = sec x
dy dy du
⇒ = ×
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1
⇒ = × = × sec x tan x = tan x .
dx u dx sec x

Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules

Example: Differentiate y = x2 × cosec 3x.

Solution: y = x2 × cosec 3x
so put u = x2 and v = cosec 3x
dy dv du
⇒ = u + v
dx dx dx
= x × (– 3cosec 3x cot 3x) + cosec 3x × 2x
2

= – 3x2 cosec 3x cot 3x + 2x cosec 3x.

C3 14/04/13 SDB 19
 tan 2 x
Example: Differentiate y =
7x3
tan 2 x
Solution: y = , so put u = tan 2x and v = 7x3
7x3
dy 7 x 3 × 2 sec 2 2 x − tan 2 x × 21x 2
⇒ =
dx (7 x 3 ) 2
dy 14 x 3 sec 2 2 x − 21x 2 tan 2 x
⇒ =
dx 49 x 6
dy 2 x sec 2 x − 3 tan 2 x
2
⇒ =
dx 7x 4

6 Numerical methods
Locating the roots of f(x) = 0
A quick sketch of the graph of y = f (x) can help to give a rough idea of the roots of f (x) = 0.
If y = f (x) changes sign between x = a and x = b and f (x) is continuous in this region then
a root of f (x) = 0 lies between x = a and x = b.
Example: Show that a root of the equation f (x) = x3 – 8x – 7 = 0 lies between 3 and 4.
Solution: f (3) = 27 – 24 – 7 = –4, and f (4) = 64 – 32 – 7 = +25
Thus f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous ⇒ there is a root between 3 and 4.

The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn)

Many equations of the form f (x) = 0 can be re–arranged as x = g (x) which leads to the
iteration x n + 1 = g (x n).
Example: Show that the equation x3 – 8x – 7 = 0
can be re–arranged as x = 3
8 x + 7 and find a solution correct to four decimal places.

Solution: x3 – 8x – 7 = 0 ⇒ x3 = 8x + 7 ⇒ x= 3
8x + 7 .
From the previous example we know that there is a root between 3 and 4,
so starting with x1 = 3 we use the iteration xn + 1 = 3 8xn + 7

to give x1 = 3
x2 = 3.14138065239
y
x3 = 3.17912997899 -4 -2 2 4
x

x4 = 3.18905898325 -5

x5 = 3.19166031127 -10

x6 = 3.19234114002
-15
x7 = 3.19251928098
-20
x8 = 3.19256588883
x9 = 3.19257808284

20 C3 14/04/13 SDB
 As x8 and x9 are both equal to 3.1926 to 4 D.P.
we conclude that a root of the equation is 3.1926 to 4 D.P.
Note that we have only found one root: the sketch shows that there are more roots.

Conditions for convergence

If an equation is rearranged as x = g(x) and if there is a root x = α
then the iteration xn+1 = g(xn), starting with an approximation near x = α
(i) will converge if -1 < g ′(α) < 1

y
y

x x
x1 x2 x3 x2 x4 x3 x1
x5

(a) will converge without oscillating (b) will oscillate and converge
if 0 < g ′(α) < 1, if –1 < g ′(α) < 0,

y
(ii) will diverge if
g ′(α) < -1 or g ′(α) > 1.

x
10
x1 x2 x3

C3 14/04/13 SDB 21
Index
algebraic fractions graphs
adding and subtracting, 3 combining transformations, 9
equations, 4 standard functions, 8
multiplying and dividing, 3 iteration
chain rule, 15 conditions for convergence, 21
further examples, 19 xn + 1 = g(xn), 20
cosecant, 10 logarithm
cotangent, 10 graph of ln x, 14
derivative natural logarithm, 14
ex, 17 product rule, 16
ln x, 17 further examples, 19
differentiation quotient rule, 16
dy 1 further examples, 19
= dx , 18 R cos(x + α), 13
dx dy secant, 10
trigonometric functions, 18 trigonometrical identities, 11
equations trigonometry
graphical solutions, 20 finding exact values, 12
exponential harder equations, 12
eax + b = p, 15 inverse functions, 11
graph of y = e(ax + b) + c, 14 proving identities, 12
graph of y = ex, 14
functions, 4
combining functions, 6
defining functions, 5
domain, 4
inverse functions, 6
modulus functions, 7
range, 4

22 C3 14/04/13 SDB