Electricity - Electronics

Electricity is a form of energy involving the flow of

electrons. All matter is made up of atoms, and an atom
has a center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains
positively charged particles called protons and uncharged
particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an atom is
surrounded by negatively charged particles called
electrons. The negative charge of an electron is equal to
the positive charge of a proton, and the number of
electrons in an atom is usually equal to the number of
protons. When the balancing force between protons and
electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain
or lose an electron. When electrons are "lost" from an
atom, the free movement of these electrons constitutes an
electric current.

Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our

most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity,
which is a secondary energy source, from the
conversion of other sources of energy, like coal,
natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural
sources, which are called primary sources. Many
cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a
primary source of mechanical energy) that turned
water wheels to perform work. Before electricity
generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses
were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in
iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning
or coal-burning stoves. Beginning with Benjamin
Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in
Philadelphia, the principles of electricity gradually
became understood. In the mid-1800s, everyone's
life changed with the invention of the electric light
bulb. Prior to 1879, electricity had been used in arc
lights for outdoor lighting. The lightbulb's invention
used electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes.

Theory
An electric generator (Long ago, a machine that generated electricity was named "dynamo"
today's preferred term is "generator".) is a device for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and
electricity. When a wire or any other electrically conductive material moves across a
magnetic field, an electric current occurs in the wire. The large generators used by the
electric utility industry have a stationary conductor. A magnet attached to the end of a
rotating shaft is positioned inside a stationary conducting ring that is wrapped with a long,
continuous piece of wire. When the magnet rotates, it induces a small electric current in
each section of wire as it passes. Each section of wire constitutes a small, separate electric
conductor. All the small currents of individual sections add up to one current of considerable
size. This current is what is used for electric power.

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or other similar
machine to drive an electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or chemical
energy to electricity. Steam turbines, internal-combustion engines, gas combustion
turbines, water turbines, and wind turbines are the most common methods to generate
electricity.
How Electric Motors and Generators Work

Learn How They Generate Power for Electric Cars & Hybrids

From Christine & Scott Gable, former About.com Guides

Simple electric generator: Electricity is induced in the coil as it cuts through the magnetic field.

Electric vehicles rely exclusively on electric motors for propulsion, and hybrids use electric
motors to assist their internal combustion engines for locomotion. But that's not all. These very
motors can be, and are, used to generate electricity (through the process of regenerative braking)
for charging these vehicles' onboard batteries. The most common question is: "How can that be
... how does that work?" Most folks understand that a motor is powered by electricity to do
work—they see it everyday in their household appliances (washing machines, vacuum cleaners,
food processors). But the idea that a motor can "run backwards," actually generating electricity
rather than consuming it seems almost like magic. But once the relationship between magnets
and electricity (electromagnetism) and the concept of conservation of energy is understood, the
mystery disappears.

Electromagnetism

Motor power and electricity generation begin with the property of electromagnetism—the
physical relationship between a magnet and electricity. An electromagnet is a device that acts
like a magnet, but its magnetic force is manifested and controlled by electricity. When wire made
of conducting material (copper, for example) moves through a magnetic field, current is created
in the wire (a rudimentary generator). Conversely, when electricity is passed through a wire that
is wound around an iron core, and this core is in the presence of a magnetic field, it will move
and twist (a very basic motor).

Motor/Generators

Motor/generators are really one device that can run in two opposite modes. Contrary to what
folks sometimes think, that does not mean that the two modes of the motor/generator run
backwards from each other (that as a motor the device turns in one direction and as a generator,
it turns the opposite direction). The shaft always spins the same way. The "change of direction"
is in the flow of electricity. As a motor it consumes electricity (flows in) to make mechanical
power, and as a generator, it consumes mechanical power to produce electricity (flows out).
Electromechanical Rotation
Electric motor/generators are generally one of two types, either AC (Alternating Current) or DC
(Direct Current) and those designations are indicative of the type of electricity that they consume
and generate. Without getting into too much detail and clouding the issue, this is the difference:
AC current changes direction (alternates) as it flows through a circuit. DC currents flows uni-
directionally (stays the same) as it goes through a circuit. The type of current utilized is
concerned mostly with the cost of the unit and its efficiency (An AC motor/generator is generally
more expensive, but is also much more efficient). Suffice it to say that most hybrids and many
larger all-electric vehicles use AC motor/generators—so that is the type we'll focus on in this
explanation.
An AC Motor/Generator Consists of 4 Main Parts:
 A shaft-mounted wire wound armature (rotor)
 A field of magnets that induce electrical energy stacked side-by-side in a housing (stator)
 Slip rings that carry the AC current to/from the armature
 Brushes that contact the slip rings and transfer current to/from the electrical circuit
The AC Generator in Action
The armature is driven by a mechanical source of power (for example, in commercial electric
power production it would be a steam turbine). As this wound rotor spins, its wire coil passes
over the permanent magnets in the stator and an electric current is created in the wires of the
armature. But because each individual loop in the coil passes first the north pole then the south
pole of each magnet sequentially as it rotates on its axis, the induced current continually, and
rapidly, changes direction. Each change of direction is called a cycle, and it is measured in
cycles-per-second or hertz (Hz). In the United States, the cycle rate is 60 Hz (60 times per
second), while in most other developed parts of the world it is 50 Hz. Individual slip rings are
fitted to each of the two ends of the rotor's wire loop to provide a path for the current to leave the
armature. Brushes (which are actually carbon contacts) ride against the slip rings and complete
the path for the current into the circuit to which the generator is attached.
The AC Motor in Action

Motor action (supplying mechanical power) is in essence the reverse of generator action. Instead
of spinning the armature to make electricity, current is fed by a circuit, through the brushes and
slip rings and into the armature. This current flowing through the coil wound rotor (armature)
turns it into an electromagnet. The permanent magnets in the stator repel this electromagnetic
force causing the armature to spin. As long as electricity flows through the circuit, the motor will
run.