CHAPTER 1

PRINCIPLES OF STEAM GENERATION

1.0 STEAM GENERATION :

Steam Generation is the process of converting water into steam, a vapor exhibiting the
properties of a gas by application of heat. Heating water at any pressure eventually will cause
it to boil and steam will be released.

1.1 SENSIBLE HEAT :

The heat required to bring the water from 0 oC to the boiling point is the enthalpy or
heat content of the liquid measured in Kcal/kg. This is also known as sensible heat. The
sensible heat required to bring the water to the boiling point depends on the pressure at which
the water is heated. Higher the pressure, higher will be the requirement of sensible heat.

1.2 SATURATION TEMPERATURE :

When required sensible heat is added to water, it starts boiling with the continuation of
heat addition. But both water and the steam remains at the same temperature though heat is
continued to be added till the entire water is converted into steam. This temperature is the
saturation temperature. For each boiling pressure there is only one saturation temperature and
vice-versa. The water and steam at this temperature are termed saturated water and saturated
steam respectively.

1.3 LATENT HEAT :

During the boiling process, that is after the water attains the saturation temperature,
even though heat is being added the temperature remains constant. This heat is being used to
change the water from liquid to vapor state. This heat is the enthalpy of evaporation or the
latent heat. Thus the latent heat is the heat required to convert the saturated water into
saturated steam. Like sensible heat the latent heat required also depends on the pressure at
which boiling occurs. Latent heat requirement decreases with increase in pressure.

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1.4 CRITICAL POINT :

It can be seen in Fig. 1.1 with the increase in pressure for steam generation, the
sensible heat required increases with decrease in latent heat. At every pressure between
saturated water and saturated steam a phase called wet steam exists. However at one point the
water turns into steam on addition of

Fig 1.1

sensible heat alone without going through the phase of wet steam. This occurs at a
temperature of 374oC and 224.6 kg/cm2 absolute pressure. This point is called as critical point
and the pressure and saturation temperature corresponding to this point are the critical
pressure and critical temperature. At critical point the density of water and steam remains the
same.

1.5 SUPER HEAT :

When the steam is heated out of contact with water, the steam temperature increases
above saturation temperature. Such a heating is known as super heating. On superheating of
the steam, the enthalpy (heat content) of the steam will increase by the amount the heat is
added and the temperature of steam also will rise. The rate at which the temperature rises
depends to some degree on pressure.

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2.0 HEAT TRANSFER :

For effecting steam generation, it is essential to transfer heat from a source to the
water. In an equipment like boiler where steam is generated all modes of heat transfer viz.
conduction, convection and radiation have a part in transferring the heat released during
combustion to the boiler water to make steam.

2.1 CONDUCTION :

Here the heat is transferred from one part of the material to the another or to a
contiguous material through the molecules. Substances differ greatly in their ability to
conduct heat. Gases and vapors are the poorest conductors, liquids are much better and
metals are the best. In boilers heat transfer through conduction takes place from the outer to
inner surface of the tubes carrying water for steam generation or steam for superheating.

2.2 CONVECTION :

Convection heat transfer takes place by the movement of the heated medium. When a
fluid is heated its density decreases. If part of a fluid mass is heated, the cooler, heavier
portion acts to displace the heated portion. Cooler portions become heated in turn and are
displaced. Result is continuous flow of cooler fluid to the heated area and of heated fluid
away from it, setting up a convection current. The moving hot fluid becomes the heat transfer
medium. The convection flow when caused by density difference alone is natural convection
and if aided by a fan or pump it is forced convection. In a boiler mostly the tubes receive the
heat from the convectional flow of hot gases from combustion chamber (furnace). Also
within the tubes the water or steam picks up the heat from inner surface of the tubes by
convection.

2.3 RADIATION :

All heated bodies radiate heat energy. Radiation does not require a transmission
medium and it travels through vacuum as well as through a gas. Radiation travels like light
waves. The amount of energy a body radiates depends to some degree on its size, shape and
substance but mainly on the fourth power of the body’s absolute temperature. Within a boiler
all the tube sections surrounding the combustion chamber or in the vicinity of furnace receive
heat by radiation.

3.0 BOILING :

When a container of water is heated, steam forms in bubbles at the heated surface.
These bubbles are displaced by heavier – steam free water and circulation currents bring
bubbles to the surface where steam is released. This process, boiling, can take place in two
ways.

i) Nucleate Boiling
ii) Film Boiling

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3.1 NUCLEATE BOILING: (Fig 1.2.)

Fig 1.2.

When the water droplets, adhered to the inner surface of a container heated upon,
receive the heat from the inner wall and the droplets are individually converted into steam
bubbles. As these bubbles grow in size, they get themselves detached from the wall and move
up through the water body due to low density. Other water droplets occupy their space and
this process continues as long as the container is heated. This process of individual bubble
formation is termed as Nucleate Boiling. Under this condition the inner walls are always in
contact with water droplets and so the inner wall temperature normally remain around the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.

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3.2 FILM BOILING: (Fig1.3.)

Fig 1.3.

If the heat flux (heat added per unit area in unit time) to the container is greatly
increased before individual bubbles detach from the wall more steam bubbles adjacent to each
other will be formed. These adjacent bubbles of steam coalesce to form a steam film on the
inner wall of the heating surface. That is between the inner wall and water body a steam film,
which is a poor conductor of heat, will be formed. This reduces the heat flow from the
heating surface to water but the steam film gets superheated and so the metal temperature
increases. This phenomenon is called Film boiling. The deviation of boiling process from
Nucleate boiling condition to film boiling is termed as Departure from Nucleate Boiling
(DNB). Occurrence of DNB in steam generation process leads to overheating of the metal.

4.0 HEATING SURFACE:

For evaporation of water into steam, essentially the water needs to be held in a
container, which has to be heated. The walls of the container, through which heat is
transferred to water, form the heating surface. A boiler, which provides steam of large
quantity, must have sufficient heating surface. Though the arrangement of heating surface in
a boiler depends on the type of boiler, for more practical purpose and in large capacity boilers
generating steam for Power Generation or Industrial applications the heating surfaces are in
the form of round tubes. Through these tubes placed in heating zones water or steam will be
circulated to receive sensible heat, latent heat and superheat.

A boiler will have number of circuits of heating surfaces such as economiser, water
walls, boiler bank, super heater and re heater for efficiently transferring the heat of
combustion to the water and steam. They may absorb heat either by radiation, convection or
both.
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5.0 CIRCULATION :

Flow of water, steam or both through the tube circuits of a boiler is termed as the
Circulation. An adequate circulation is necessary for all the circuits to remove the heat and
cool the heating surfaces thereby keeping the surfaces within the temperature limits of the
material. In circuits where water is evaporated into steam sufficient circulation will be needed
to avoid the deposit of salts from water on the surfaces (scaling).

In a circuit if the fluid enters at the inlet and leaves the outlet to the next circuit it is a
once through system. If part of the fluid from the outlet of the circuit is returned to the inlet
of the same circuit it is a re circulation system. In a boiler the following circuits always adopt
once through system.

i) Economiser
ii) Super heaters
iii) Re heaters

In these circuits the inlet pressure of the fluid effects the circulation. The water walls
or evaporator circuits of a boiler will have either a once through or re circulation system.
Many boilers for these circuits adopt only re circulation system.

5.1 CIRCULATION TYPES :

In the evaporating circuits of a steam-generating unit, the circulation may be produced

naturally by the action of the force of gravity, mechanically by means of pumps or by a
combination of the two. Accordingly there are three types of circulation as follows:

i) Natural circulation
ii) Forced circulation
iii) Assisted circulation.

5.1.1 NATURAL CIRCULATION :

Fig 1.4.
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 This is adopted in re circulation systems. In the Fig. 1.4 water from the economiser
circuit enters a drum and joins the circulation system. Water entering the drum flows down
through the down comer pipes kept in non heating zone and enters the bottom of the water
wall tubes, that is the evaporator section. As these tubes are heated by furnace radiation, a
part of the water is converted to steam and the mixture flows back to the drum. In the drum
the steam is separated. Remaining water mixes with the incoming water from the economiser
and the cycle is repeated. This sort of steam generation is adopted to

i. prevent the dissolved salts in water, precipitating and depositing scale on the
surface of tubes when all the water in the tube is evaporated to steam.

ii. ensure the inner walls of the tubes are continuously wetted with water and to have
nucleate boiling throughout the tubes.

The circulation in this case takes place on the thermo-siphon principle. The down
comers contain relatively cold water, whereas the water wall tubes contain steam water
mixture, whose density is comparatively less. This density difference is the driving force for
the mixture to over come the frictional resistance. Circulation takes place at such a rate that
the driving force and frictional resistance are balanced.

Fig 1.5.

As the pressure increases the difference in density between water and steam reduces as
shown in Fig 1.5. Thus the hydrostatic head available will not be able to overcome the
frictional resistance for a flow corresponding to the minimum requirement of cooling of water
wall tubes. Therefore natural circulation is limited to boiler with drum operating pressure
around 175 kg/cm2.

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5.1.2 ASSISTED CIRCULATION:

Beyond 175 kg/cm2 of pressure in a re circulation system, circulation through the

evaporator is to be assisted with mechanical pumps to overcome frictional losses in the tubes.
A pump called Boiler circulation pump will be placed between the drum and water wall tubes
inlet to do this function.

In such a system some times to regulate the flow through various tubes in accordance
to the amount of heat received orifice plates will be used at the inlet of the tubes. Such a
system is known as Controlled Circulation.

5.1.3 FORCED CIRCULATION :

In the once through systems of sub critical pressure or in boilers operating above
critical pressure, the water from the feed supply is pumped to the inlet end or ends of the heat
absorbing circuits. This is called forced circulation. Evaporation or change of state gradually
takes place along the length of the circuit and when evaporation is complete, further progress
through the heated circuits results in superheating the vapor. Conventionally this type of
forced circulation requires no steam and water drum.

5.2 CIRCULATION NUMBER :

The circulation number is the ratio of the quantity of water-steam mixture flowing
through the circuit to the quantity of steam produced in the circuit. In other words if 10 kg of
water is circulated for each kg of steam generated, the circulation number is 10. The
circulation number for a boiler will be decided considering many factors especially to ensure
nucleate boiling is maintained for all operating conditions.

Higher circulation number reduces the chance of scale formation in evaporating tubes
and DNB but needs more evaporating surface.

The general practice adopted for circulation number in various boilers is:

i) Natural Circulation Industrial boiler - 10 to 15

ii) Natural Circulation Utility boiler - 7 to 9
iii) Assisted Circulation boilers - 2 to 4
iv) Forced Circulation/Once through boiler - 1