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7
6
Fig. 1
5 8
11 Rim bead seat
12 Hump 4
13 Rim flange
14 Casing
15 Air-tight rubber
layer 9
16 Belt
3 10
17 Tread
æ UFR0033Y
18 Sidewall
2 11
19 Bead
10 Bead core 1
11 Valve
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_2, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Tires 13
æ UFB0606-1E
100
entire circumference of the tire and across the 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 mm
full width of the tread. Tread depth
Illustration of slip
The slip component of wheel rotation is
referred to by λ, where
a υ U1
ϕ1 λ = (υF–υU)/υF
On a braked wheel,
the angle of rotation, φ,
per unit of time is smaller
(slip)
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 15
Yaw
al
Vertiction
vibra
Vertical axis
Pitch
Aerodynamic drag
is M Motive force
al ax
ongitudin
L Lateral force
Roll Braking
force Vertical force
M
Slide
æ UAF0072E
Tr
an
sv
Vertical force
is
16 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle
force (positive:
motive force;
negative: braking
FS
FU
force)
FS Lateral force
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 17
3 Kingpin offset
a b c
Fig. 3
a Positive kingpin
offset:
1 1 1 MGes = MT + MB
b Zero kingpin offset:
no yaw moment
c Negative kingpin
offset:
MGes = MT – MB
1 Steering axis
2 Wheel contact
point
3 Intersection point
æ UFB0638-1Y
l Kingpin offset
MGes Total turning force
2 3 2 3 2
(yaw moment)
l l MT Moment of inertia
MB Braking torque
18 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle
4 Linear wheel velocity, υX, with braking force, FB, 5 Frequency distribution of the coefficient
and braking torque, MB of friction at a locked wheel at various
road speeds on wet roads
Fig. 4
æ UFB0348-1E
υx Linear velocity of
wheel
FN Vertical tire force
(normal force)
Frequency
FB Braking force
MB Braking torque MB
Fig. 5 υx
40
Source:
Forschungsinstitut für Ve 60
Kraftfahrwesen und
hi
cl 80
in e s
æ UFB0586-1Y
Fahrzeugmotoren, FB FN km pe 100 1
Stuttgart, Germany /h ed 0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4 µ
0 friction H
F
(research institute for
ient of
υ
A B a Stable zone
Nevertheless, the tire can also slide while it is 0
b Unstable zone
0 20 40 60 80 %
rolling, and on motor vehicles this is referred α Slip angle
Brake slip λ
to as slip. A Rolling wheel
B Locked wheel
1 Coefficients of friction, µHF, for tires in various conditions of wear, on various road conditions
and at various speeds
Vehicle Tire Dry road Wet road Heavy rain Puddles Icy
road speed condition (depth of (depth of (depth of (black ice)
water 0.2 mm) water 1 mm) water 2 mm)
7 Lateral slip angle, α, and the effect of lateral force, FS, 8 Position of tire contact area relative to wheel in a
(overhead view) right-hand bend showing lateral force, FS, (front view)
υx
α υα
Fig. 7
υα Velocity in lateral
slip direction
υx Velocity along FS
longitudinal axis FS FY
FS, Fy Lateral force
α Slip angle
FN
æ UFB0589-1Y
æ UFB0590-1Y
Fig. 8 FS
FN Vertical tire force
(normal force) m
FS Lateral force
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 21
There is a nonlinear relationship between Fig. 6 shows the lateral-force coefficient, µS,
the slip angle α and the lateral-force coeffi- as a function of brake slip at a lateral slip an-
cient µS that can be described by a lateral gle of 4°. The lateral-force coefficient is at its
slip curve. In contrast with the coefficient highest when the brake slip is zero. As brake
of friction µHF that occurs under acceleration slip increases, the lateral-force coefficient de-
and braking, the lateral-force coefficient µS is clines gradually at first and then increasingly
heavily dependent on the wheel contact force rapidly until it reaches its lowest point when
FN. This characteristic is of particular interest the wheel locks up. That minimum figure oc-
to vehicle manufacturers when designing sus- curs as a result of the lateral slip angle
pension systems so that handling characteris- position of the locked wheel, which at that
tics can be enhanced by stabilizers. point provides no lateral force whatsoever.
With a strong lateral force, FS, the tire contact Friction – tire slip – vertical tire force
area (footprint) shifts significantly relative to The friction of a tire depends largely on the
the wheel (Fig. 8). This retards the buildup degree of slip. The vertical tire force plays a
of the lateral force. This phenomenon greatly subordinate role, there being a roughly linear
affects the transitional response (behavior dur- relationship between braking force and verti-
ing transition from one dynamic state cal tire force at a constant level of slip.
to another) of vehicles under steering.
The friction, however, is also dependent on
Effect of brake slip on lateral forces the tire’s lateral slip angle. Thus the braking
When a vehicle is cornering, the centrifugal and motive force reduces as the lateral slide
force acting outwards at the center of gravity angle is increased at a constant level of tire
must be held in equilibrium by lateral forces slip. Conversely, if the braking and motive
on all the wheels in order for the vehicle to be force remains constant while the lateral slip
able to follow the curve of the road. angle is increased, the degree of tire slip
However, lateral forces can only be gener- increases.
ated if the tires deform flexibly sideways
so that the direction of movement of the
wheel’s center of gravity at the velocity, υα,
diverges from the wheel center plane “m”
by the lateral slip angle, α (Fig. 7).
22 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of linear motion
gradient angle G
Standard tractor unit
S Center of gravity
– without fairings ≥ 0.64
FG = FL + FSt + FRo – with some fairings 0.54 ... 0.63
Table 1
– with all fairings ≤ 0.53
Table 2
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of linear motion2
corresponds to FS acting α
at D (in aerodynamics
it is normal to refer to
dimensionless coeffi-
cients instead of forces)
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of lateral motion2
standstill.
has reached
stabilised level
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
t7 Vehicle comes to
Time
a halt
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