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Falls Prevention7march PDF
Falls Prevention7march PDF
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Ageing and Life Course, Family and Community Health
1.Accidental falls - prevention and control. 2.Risk factors. 3. Population dynamics. 4.Aged.
I.World Health Organization.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
Contents
Chapter I
Magnitude of falls – A worldwide overview 1
1. Falls 1
2. Magnitude of falls worldwide 1
3. Population ageing 3
4. Main risk factors for falls 4
5. Main protective factors 6
6. Costs of falls 6
7. References 7
Chapter II
Active ageing: A Framework for the Global Strategy for the prevention of falls in older age 10
1. What is 'Active Ageing'? 10
2. References 12
Chapter III
Determinants of Active Ageing as they relate to falls in older age 13
1. Cross-cutting determinants: Culture and gender 13
2. Determinants related to health and social services 14
3. Behavioural determinants 15
4. Determinants related to personal factors 16
5. Determinants related to the physical environment 18
6. Determinants related to the social environment 18
7. Economic determinants 19
8. References 19
Chapter IV
Challenges for prevention of falls in older age 20
1. Changing behaviour to prevent falls 20
2. References 25
Chapter V
Examples of effective policies and interventions 26
1 Policy 26
2. Prevention 29
3. Practice – Interventions 32
4. Concluding remarks 33
5. References 33
Chapter VI
WHO falls prevention model within the Active Ageing framework 35
1. The need 35
2. The foundation 37
3. Three pillars of the WHO Falls Prevention Model 39
4. The way forward 47
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Acknowledgements
This global report is the product of the conclusions reached and recommenda-
tions made at the WHO Technical Meeting on Falls Prevention in Older Age which
took place in Victoria, Canada in February 2007. The report includes international
and regional perspectives on falls prevention issues and strategies and is based
on a series of background papers that were prepared by worldwide recognized ex-
perts. The papers are available at: http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/falls_pre-
vention_older_age/en/index.html
The report was developed by the Department of Ageing and Life Course (ALC)
under the direction of Dr Alexandre Kalache and the coordination of Dr Dongbo
Fu who was closely assisted by Ms Sachiyo Yoshida. ALC would like to thank three
institutions for their financial and technical support: the Division of Aging and
Seniors, Public Health Agency of Canada; the Department of Healthy Children,
Women and Seniors, British Columbia Ministry of Health and the British Columbia
Injury Prevention and Research Unit.
The contribution and input of the following experts are gratefully acknowledged:
Dr W. Al-Faisal (Syria), Ms Lynn Beattie (U.S.A), Dr Hua Fu (China), Dr K. James
(Jamaica), Dr S. Kalula (South Africa), Dr B. Krishnaswamy (India), Dr Nabil Kronfol
(Lebanon), Dr P. Marin (Chile), Dr Ian Pike (Canada), Dr Debra J. Rose (U.S.A.),
Dr Vicky Scott (Canada), Dr Judy Stevens (U.S.A), Prof. Chris Todd (the United
Kingdom), Dr G. Usha ( India ) and Dr Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko (U.S.A.).
Editing, layout and printing of the report was managed by Mrs Carla Salas-Rojas
(ALC).
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 1
c) Need of medical attention. d) Fall mortality rates.
Falls and consequent injuries are major Falls account for 40% of all injury deaths
public health problems that often require (27). Rates vary depending on the country
medical attention. Falls lead to 20-30% of and the studied population. Fall fatality
mild to severe injuries, and are underlying rate for people aged 65 and older in United
cause of 10-15% of all emergency depart- States of America (USA) is 36.8 per 100
ment visits (18). More than 50% of injury- 000 population (46.2 for men and 31.1 for
related hospitalizations among people women) (28) whereas in Canada mortality
over 65 years and older (19). The major rate for the same age group is 9.4 per 10 000
underlying causes for fall-related hospital population (29). Mortality rate for people
admission are hip fracture, traumatic brain age 50 and older in Finland is 55.4 for men
injuries and upper limb injuries. and 43.1 for women per 100 000 population
(30).
The duration of hospital stay due to falls
varies; however it is much longer than other Figure 1 (page 3) shows fatal falls by 5-year
injuries. It ranges from four to 15 days in age group and sex (31). Fatal falls rates
Switzerland (20), Sweden (21), USA (22), increase exponentially with age for both
Western Australia (23), Province of British sexes, highest at the age of 85 years and
Columbia and Quebec in Canada (24). In over. Rates of fatal falls among men exceed
the case of hip fractures, hospital stays that of women for all age groups in spite
extend to 20 days (25). With the increas- of the fewer occurrences of falls among
ing age and frailty level, older person are them. This is attributed to the fact that men
likely to remain in hospital after sustaining suffer from more co-morbid conditions
a fall-related injury for the rest of their life. than women of the same age (28). A similar
Subsequently to falls, 20% die within a year difference in mortality between men and
of the hip fracture (26). women has been reported following hip
fracture. The incidence of hip fracture is
In addition, falls may also result in a post-
greater among women while hip fracture
fall syndrome that includes dependence,
mortality is higher among men (32). One
loss of autonomy, confusion, immobiliza-
study found that men reported poorer
tion and depression, which will lead to a
health and a greater number of underlying
further restriction in daily activities.
conditions than women, which substan-
tially increased the impact of hip fracture
and consequently increased the risk of
mortality (33). Or is it not that men who fall
have more co-morbidity than other men in
general.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
153.2
150
106.4
100
63.9
50 41.4
34
16 19
5.4 10.6 9.5
0
65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85+ Age group
3. Population
30 ageing with a decreasing proportion of younger
population. The triangular population pyra-
"Population ageing is a triumph of human- mid of 2005 will be replaced with a more
ity but also a 24
challenge to society" (34). cylinder-like structure in 2025.
Worldwide, the number of persons over
60 years is growing faster than any other a) Impact of population ageing on falls.
18
age group. The number of this age group
Falls prevention is a challenge to popula-
was estimated to be 688 million in 2006,
12 to almost two billions tion ageing. The numbers of falls increase in
projected to grow
magnitude as the numbers of older adults
by 2050. By that time, the population of
increase in many nations throughout the
6 be much larger than that
older people will
world. Falls exponentially increase with
of children under the age of 14 years for
age-related biological change, therefore a
the first time in human history. Moreover,
0 pronounced number of persons over the age
the oldest segment0-9of population,
65-69 aged 80
of 80 years will trigger substantial increase
and over, particularly prone to falls and its
of falls and fall injury at an alarming rate. In
consequences is the fastest growing within
fact, incidence of some fall injuries, such as
older population expected to represent 20%
fractures and spinal cord injury, have mark-
of the older population by 2050 (35).
edly increased by 131% during the last three
Figure 2 illustrates the population pyramid decades (36). If preventive measures are not
in 2005 and 2025. It highlights the growing taken in immediate future, the numbers of
proportion of older population in parallel injuries caused by falls is projected to be
100% higher in the year 2030 (36).
PAGE 3
This applies to many developing countries dimensions: biological, behavioural, envi-
where currently close to 70% of the elderly ronmental and socioeconomic factors.
population lives, and where population
Figure 3 encapsulates the risk factors and
ageing is occurring rapidly. “Unlike the
the interaction of them on falls and fall-
developed world that became richer before
related injuries. As the exposure to risk
getting older, developing countries are
factors increases, the greater becomes the
getting older before becoming richer” (37).
risk of falling and being injured.
This is reflected in the fact that health in
older age is neglected in some developing
countries. Falls prevention is one of the a) Biological risk factors
issues that have not been given a sufficient
Biological factors embrace characteristics
attention. For instance, there is a lack of
of individuals that are pertaining to the
epidemiological data in many regions of the
human body. For instance, age, gender and
developing world.
race are non-modifiable biological factors.
These are also associated with changes due
to ageing such as the decline of physical,
4. Main risk factors for falls cognitive and affective capacities, and the
Falls occur as a result of a complex interac- co-morbidity associated with chronic ill-
tion of risk factors. The main risk factors nesses.
reflect the multitude of health determi-
nants that directly or indirectly affect
well-being. Those are categorized into four
Age group
Males Females
80+
70-74 2025
2005
60-64
50-54
40-44
30-34
20-24
10-14
0-4
400000 300000 200000 100000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000
Population in thousands
Source : UN, 2004 (35)
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 5
d) Socioeconomic risk factors 6. Costs of falls
Socioeconomic risk factors are those The economic impact of falls is critical to
related to influence social conditions and family, community, and society. Health-
economic status of individuals as well as care impacts and costs of falls in older age
the capacity of the community to challenge are significantly increasing all over the
them. These factors include: low income, world. Fall-incurred costs are categorized
low education, inadequate housing, lack of into two aspects:
social interaction, limited access to health
and social care especially in remote ar- Direct costs encompass health care costs
eas, and lack of community resources (see such as medications and adequate services
Chapter 3 for further information) e.g. health-care-provider consultations in
treatment and rehabilitation.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 7
11. Weiping M, Lihua Y (2002). Analysis of risk 23. Hendrie D et al. (2003). Injury in Western
factors for elderly falls. Chinese Journal of Australia: The health system costs of falls
Behavioural Medical Science, 11(6):697-699. in older adults in Western Australia. Perth,
12. Gang L, Sufang J, YS (2006). The incidence Western Australia, Western Australian
status on injury of the community-dwelling Government.
elderly in Beijing (in Chinese). Chinese Journal 24. Herman M, Gallagher E, Scott VJ (2006).
of Preventive Medicine, 40(1):37. The evolution of seniors' falls prevention in
13. Litao L, Shengyong W, Shong Y (2002). A British Columbia. Victoria, British Colombia,
British Columbia Ministry of Health http://
study on risk factors for falling down in elderly
www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/
people of rural areas in Laizhou city. Chinese
year/2006/falls_report.pdf, accessed 27 August
Journal of Geriatrics, 21(5):370-372. 2007).
14. Yoshida H, Kim H (2006). Frequency of falls 25. The University of York (2000). The economic
and their prevention (in Japanese). Clinical cost of hip fracture in the U.K., Health
Calcium, 16(9):1444-1450. Promotion, England.
15. Reyes-Ortiz CA, Al Snih S, Markides KS 26. Zuckerman JD (1996). Hip fracture. New
(2005). Falls among elderly persons in Latin England Journal of Medicine, 334(23):1519-
America and the Caribbean and among elderly 1525.
Mexican-Americans. Revista Panamericana de
Salud Pública, 17(5-6):362-369. 27. Rubenstein LZ (2006). Falls in older people:
epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for
16. Stevens JA, Sogolow ED (2005). Gender prevention. Age Ageing, 35-S2:ii37-ii41.
differences for non-fatal unintentional fall
related injuries among older adults. Injury 28. Stevens JA et al. (2007). Fatalities and Injuries
Prevention, 11(2):115-119. From Falls Among Older Adults, United
States, 1993-2003 and 2001-2005. Journal of
17. Gregg EW et al. (2000). Diabetes and physical the American Medical Association, 297(1):32-
disability among older U.S. adults. Diabetes 33.
Care, 23(9):1272-1277.
29. Division of Aging and Seniors, PHAC. Canada
18. Scuffham P, Chaplin S, Legood R (2003). (2005). Report on senior's fall in Canada.
Incidence and costs of unintentional falls in Ontario, Division of Aging and Seniors. Public
older people in the United Kingdom. Journal of Health Agency of Canada.
Epidemiology and Community Health, 57:740-
744. 30. Kannus P et al (2005). Fall-induced deaths
among elderly people. American Public Health
19. Scott VJ (2005). Technical report: Association, 95(3):422-424.
hospitalizations due to falls among Canadians
age 65 and over. In Report on Seniors' falls in 31. National Council on Ageing (2005). Falls
Canada. Canada, Minister of Public Works and among older adults: risk factors and prevention
Government Services. strategies. In Fall free: promoting a national
falls prevention action plan. J.A. Stevens Eds..
20. Seematter-Bagnoud L et al. (2006). Healthcare
utilization of elderly persons hospitalized after 32. Fransen M et al. (2002). Excess mortality or
a noninjurious fall in a Swiss academic medical institutionalization after hip fracture: men
center. Journal of the American Geriatrics are at greater risk than women. Journal of the
Society, 4(6):891-897. American Geriatrics Society, 50(4):685-690.
21. Bergeron E et al. (2006). A simple fall in the 33. Hernandez JL et al. (2006). Trend in hip
elderly: not so simple. Journal of Trauma, fracture epidemiology over a 14-year period
60(2):268-273. in a Spanish population. Osteoporosis
International, 17: 464-470.
22. Roudsari B et al. (2005). The acute medical
care costs of fall-related injuries among the 34. World Health Organization (2002). Active
U.S. older adults. Injury, 36(11):1316-1322. Ageing: A Policy Framework. Geneva.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
35. United Nations (UN) (2004). World Population 40. Nurmi I., Luthje P (2002). Incidence and
Prospects: The 2004 Revision. New York, USA. costs of falls and fall injuries among elderly
36. Kannus P et al. (2007). Alarming rise in the in institutional care. Scandinavian Journal of
number and incidence of fall-induced cervical Primary Health Care, 20(2):118-122.
spine injuries among older adults. Journal of 41. Carey D, Laffoy M (2005). Hospitalisations due
Gerontology: Biological Sciences and Medical to falls in older persons. Irish Medical Journal,
Sciences, 62(2):180-183. 98(6):179-181.
37. Kalache A, Keller I (2000). The greying world: a 42. Cummings SR, Rubin SM, Black D (1990).
challenge for the 21st century. Science Progress, The future of hip fractures in the United
83(1):33-54. States. Numbers, costs, and potential effects
38. Peel NM, McClure RJ, Hendrikz JK (2006). of postmenopausal estrogen. Clinical
Health-protective behaviours and risk of Orthopaedics and Related Research,
fall-related hip fractures: a population-based (252):163-166.
case-control study. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afl056.
Age Ageing, 35(5):491-497.
39. American Geriatrics Society, British
Geriatrics Society, and American Academy
of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls
Prevention (2001). Guideline for the prevention
of falls in older persons. Journal of the
American Geriatrics Society, 49(5):664-672.
PAGE 9
Chapter II. Active Ageing: a framework for the global
strategy for the prevention of falls in older age
The WHO's Active Ageing policy offers a gender and culture, which are cross-cut-
coherent framework on which to develop a ting, and six additional groups of comple-
strategy for the prevention of falls in older mentary and interrelated determinants:
age worldwide.
1. access to health and social services,
a) What is 'Active Ageing'?
2. behavioural,
Active Ageing is the process of optimizing
opportunities for health, participation and 3. physical environment,
security in order to enhance quality of life 4. personal,
as people age.
5. social, and
Active Ageing depends on a variety of
influences or determinants that surround 6. economic.
individuals, families and communities as
expressed in Figure 1 below. They include
Gender
Health and
Economic social services
determinants
Behavioural
Active determinants
Social Ageing
determinants
Personal
determinants
Physical
environment
Culture
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
Rang
e
in ind of functio
ividu n
als
Disability threshold*
Age
Source: Active Ageing: A Policy Framework, WHO, 2002
Source: Active Ageing: A Policy Framework, WHO, 2002
In addition, there are the underlying 'bio- of decline is largely determined by factors
logical' factors which can play a significant related to lifestyle behaviours, as well as ex-
role as preventing individuals from falls ternal social, environmental and economic
and consequent injuries or, conversely, can factors. From an individual and societal
act as risk factors. All of these determi- perspective, it is important to remember
nants, and the interplay between them, play that the speed of decline can be influenced
an important role in affecting how high or and may be reversible at any age through
low is the risk of falling and/or if a fall oc- individual and public policy measures, such
curs, the risk of sustaining serious injuries. as promoting an age-friendly living envi-
ronment. An example of particular impor-
These determinants have to be understood
tance within the context of falls, relates to
from a life course perspective which rec-
bone mass. Good nutrition and optimum
ognizes that older persons are not a homo-
levels of physical activity throughout child-
geneous group and that individual diver-
hood and adolescence are critical for the
sity increases with age. This is expressed
development of healthy bones. As individu-
in Figure 2 (next page), which illustrates
als age they experience a gradual decline in
that functional capacity (such as muscu-
bone mass. Once again, healthy life styles
lar strength and cardiovascular output)
can slow down the process. For post meno-
increases in childhood to peak in early
pausal women in particular, such life styles
adulthood and eventually decline. The rate
PAGE 11
are crucially important to counterbalance • Drop off and pick up bays close to build-
the hormonal factors that can precipitate ings and transport stops are provided for
the onset of osteoporosis. For some sec- handicapped and older people.
ondary prevention through drug-therapy
becomes an indispensable form of interven-
tion for avoiding bone fractures as a conse- 2. References
quence of even relatively minor traumas.
1. World Health Organization. Active Ageing –
A Policy Framework. Geneva: World Health
Active ageing is a lifelong process. Thus,
Organization, 2002.
age-friendly environments with barrier-
free buildings and streets, adequate public
transportation and accessible sources of
information and communication enhance
the mobility and independence of younger
as well as older persons who present the
risk of developing disabilities. Secure
neighbourhoods allow children, younger
women and older persons to venture out-
side in confidence to participate in physi-
cally active leisure and in social activities –
contributing to preventing falls at all ages,
particularly at old age. The operative word
in a society committed to active ageing is
enablement – for instance through initia-
tives such as:
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 13
women's muscle mass declines faster than 2. Determinants related to health
that of men, especially in the immediate and social services
few years after menopause. To some extent
Health and social services providers are by and
this is gender-related as women are less
large unprepared to prevent and manage falls
likely to engage into the practice of muscu-
in older age.
lar building physical activity though the life
course e.g. sports. Falls in older age has been a neglected
public health problem in many societies,
Health seeking behaviour differs according
particularly in the developing world. Many
to gender. Culturally-oriented expectations
health and social services providers are
to gender roles affect behaviour when seek-
unprepared to prevent and manage falls in
ing medical care. Male higher fatality rates
older age as they lack sufficient knowledge
may be due in part to the tendency of men
to treat the conditions that predispose their
not seeking medical care until a condition
consequences and complications.
becomes severe, resulting in substantial
delay to the access to prevention and man- Falls in older age are often iatrogenic
agement of diseases. Further, men are more conditions – that is, induced by incorrect
likely to be engaged in intense and danger- diagnoses and treatments. Examples in-
ous physical activity and risky behaviours clude over-prescription of medications that
– such as climbing high ladders, cleaning cause side effects and interactions among
roofs or ignoring the limits of their physical the drugs, inadequate dosage and lack of
capacity. warning to make older people aware about
their effects.
Various policy options and falls prevention
strategies for men and women based on Appropriate training programmes cover-
gender differences in locations, circum- ing knowledge and skills in falls prevention
stances and events preceding falls and fall- and management should be a priority in
related injuries are needed. primary heath care (PHC) settings, where
increasing number of patients are older
people. PHC practitioners should be well
versed in the diagnosis and management of
falls and fall-related injuries. In addition,
social services that ensure the accessibility
of older people to falls prevention pro-
grammes are critical.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 15
c) Use of medicines Wearing poor fitting shoes is also a risk
taking behaviour. Walking in socks without
Older people tend to take more drugs than shoes or in slippers without a sole increases
younger people. Also as people age, they the risk of slipping indoor. Appropriate
develop altered mechanisms for absorbing shoes are particularly important – avoiding
and metabolizing drugs. If older persons high heels, thin and hard soles, or slippers
don't take medications as directed by health of unsuitable size and that do not stick
professionals, their risk of falling can be closely to the feet.
affected in several ways. Effects of uncon-
trolled medical conditions and of medica-
tion because of non-adherence can provoke
4. Determinants related to personal
or generate altering alertness, judgement,
factors
and coordination; dizziness; altering the
balance mechanism and the ability to a) Attitudes
recognize and adapt to obstacles; and in-
People's attitudes influence their behaviours.
creased stiffness or weakness (7).
Attitudes affect how people interpret and cope
When prescribing new drugs to these older with falls in older age.
patients health professionals should fully
Older people's attitudes greatly influence
ascertain other drugs being taken, includ-
whether they will avoid fall-related risk-
ing self-prescribed medicines.
taking behaviours when they participate
d) Risk-taking behaviours in activities of daily living. If older people
perceive falls as a normal consequence of
The ordinary choices people make and the ageing expressed as "seniors will always
actions they take may increase their chance of fall" their attitudes may halt preventive
falling. measures.
Some risk-taking behaviours increase the Attitudes of policy-makers determine to
risk of falling in older age. Those behav- a large extent the amount of resources
iours include climbing ladders, standing on allocated to falls prevention and develop-
unsteady chairs or bending while perform- ment and enforcement of related policies.
ing activities of daily living, rushing with Awareness and attitudes of health profes-
little attention to the environment or not sionals to falls are essential to increased in-
using mobility devices prescribed to them centive in providing appropriate services for
such as a cane or walker (8). preventing and managing falls in older age.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 17
5. Determinants related to the Factors related to the public environment
physical environment are also frequent causes of fall in older age.
Even walking on a familiar route can lead
Factors related to the physical environment are to falls as a consequence of poor building
the most common cause of falls in older age. design and inadequate consideration. Most
Physical environment plays a significant problematic factors are cracked or uneven
role in many falls in older age. Factors sidewalks, unmarked obstacles, slippery
related to the physical environment are the surfaces, poor lighting and lengthy distanc-
most common cause of falls in older people, es to sitting areas and public restrooms.
responsible for between 30 to 50% of them
(11). A number of hazards in the home and
public environment that interact with other 6. Determinants related to the social
risk factors, such as poor vision or balance, environment
contribute to falls and fall-related injuries.
Social connection and inclusion are vital to
For example, stairs can be problematic –
health in older age. Social interaction is in-
studies show that unsafe features of stairs
versely related to the risk of falls.
can be frequently identified including
uneven or excessively high or narrow steps, Isolation and loneliness are commonly
slippery surfaces, unmarked edges, dis- experiences by older people particularly
continuous or poorly-fitted handrails, and among those who lose their spouse or live
inadequate or excessive lighting. alone. They are much more likely than
other groups to experience disability and
Since approximately half of falls occurs
the physical, cognitive, and sensory limita-
indoor, the home environment is critical
tions that increase the risk of falls.
for avoiding them. A high particular risk
to falls was found in homes with irregular Isolation and depression triggered by lack
sidewalks to the residence, loose carpets on of social participation increase fear of fall-
the kitchen and bathroom floors, loose elec- ing, and vice versa. Fear of falling can in-
trical wires, and inconvenient doorsteps. crease the risk of falls through a reduction
Poor surroundings around home such as in social participation and loss of personal
garden paths and walks that are cracked or contact - which in turn increase isolation
slippery from rain, snow or moss are also and depression. Providing social support
dangerous. Entrance stairs and poor night and opportunities for older people to par-
lighting can also pose risks. ticipate in social activities to help maintain
active interaction with others may decrease
their risk of falls.
PAGE 18
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
access health care services even when they 5. Day M et al. (2002). Randomised factorial
trial of falls prevention among older people
have acute or chronic illness exacerbates living in their own homes. BMJ, doi:10.1136/
the risk of falling. bmj.325.7356.128.
6. Tuck SP, Francis RM (2002). Osteoporosis.
The negative cycle of poverty and falls in Postgraduate Medical Journal, 78:526-532.
older age is particularly evident in rural 7. Division of Aging and Seniors (2005). Report
areas and in developing countries. The fall- on senior's fall in Canada. Ontario. Public
Health Agency of Canada.
related burden to health system will keep
8. Gallagher EH, Brunt H (1996). Head over
increasing unless resources and money are heels: A clinical trial to reduce falls among the
allocated in order to provide proper PHC elderly. Canadian Journal on Aging, 15:84-96.
and opportunities to older people for social 9. Simpson JM, Salkin S (1993). Are elderly
people at risk of falling taught how to get up
participation. It is never too late to break again? Age Ageing, 22: 294-296.
this vicious cycle. 10. Ellis AA, Trent RB (2001). Hospitalized
fall injuries and race in California. Injury
Prevention, 7:316-320.
11. Rubenstein LZ (2006). Falls in older people:
epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for
prevention. Age and Ageing, 35-S2:ii37-ii41.
12. Reyes CA et al. (2004). Risk factors for falling
in older Mexican Americans. Ethnicity &
Disease, 14:417-422.
PAGE 19
Chapter IV. Challenges for prevention of falls in
older age
1. Changing behaviour to prevent • it is within their ability to do so;
falls
• they have the resources to implement
The background papers that underlie this change (including physical, psychologi-
report refer to a considerable body of cal and social capital resources);
evidence indicating the effectiveness of a
number of interventions for falls preven- • the changes are perceived as being of
tion. These include strength and balance benefit to them; and
training, environmental modification and
• the benefit outweighs the cost or effort
medical care aimed at removing or reduc-
in overcoming barriers.
ing specific risk factors by for example
review of medications and reduction of For example, the older person may care for
polypharmacy. The systematic reviews, grandchildren, and thus using time to do
evidence syntheses and meta-analyses are exercises to maintain or improve physical
well referenced in the briefing papers to be function may appear in the immediate term
found at the following WHO URL: a poor use of time or impossible if it con-
flicts with childcare responsibilities. Thus,
http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/falls_
the programme will need to be tailored to
prevention_older_age/en/index.html
fit with these responsibilities, or the person
Crucial to the success of such interventions must be persuaded that a long-term gain
is changing the beliefs, attitudes and behav- (maintaining independence and seeing
iour of older people themselves, the health the grandchildren grow up) outweighs the
and social care professionals who provide short-term 'pain'. Most importantly, the
services, and the wider communities in society in which older people live must
which older people live. For example, a value them and be willing to allocate re-
fifteen-week balance and exercise class will sources to the maintenance of their health
only have an effect if the older person goes and well-being. Expression of valuing older
to the sessions, undertakes the exercises as people must include allocation of adequate
prescribed, and continues to practice after resources towards helping people to age
completion of the course. People will only well and take part in activities that have the
change their lifestyles if: potential to prevent falls.
PAGE 20
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
This chapter is based heavily on a se- At present, advice from family members
ries of recommendations made by the and health professionals tends to empha-
Psychological Aspects of Falling Group size avoiding risk rather than engaging in
(1, 2), Work Package 4 of the Prevention of activities to improve strength and bal-
Falls Network Europe (ProFaNE) and fuller ance (3-5). Informing the general popula-
evidence for the recommendations has tion about the benefits of easy-to-provide
been published (1, 2). These recommenda- interventions such as strength and balance
tions should be sufficiently general to be training activities should influence older
applicable to populations other than the people’s views and counteract fatalistic
European population for which they were views that falling is a consequence of ageing
originally developed. (6). Exercise may be generally recognized
as important for maintaining fitness and
a) Raise awareness in the general popula-
strength, but its importance in maintaining
tion of a number of interventions that could
good balance and function needs to be bet-
improve balance and prevent falls.
ter publicized. It is likely that the approach
To make choices people need to have at will prove effective for both high and
least basic information about benefits of lower-risk populations (7). Although the
taking part in activities aimed at preven- effectiveness of less intensive interventions
tion. But information alone is not enough, at a population level is currently unknown
it needs to be framed so that it promotes it would seem likely that they will provide
realistic positive beliefs about the possibili- benefit. Exercises that improve strength
ties for preventive action if any change is and balance should be recommended for all
likely to follow. Many older people seem older people (7-9).
to assume that falls prevention consists of
Emphasis must be on the positive advan-
activity restriction or the use of aids and
tages of undertaking interventions such as
home modifications. Research suggests
balance and exercise training, rather than
that many older people are ignorant that
on reduction of risk of falls since the latter
fall risks can be reduced because there is
is generally viewed negatively and of little
a fatalistic acceptance of falling that may
relevance by many older people. Uptake
contribute to low uptake of falls prevention
may be encouraged by promoting greater
interventions.
awareness among older people, their
Campaigns need to raise general aware- families and health professionals of how
ness and should not be aimed only at older undertaking specific physical activities may
people. The opinions of others, including contribute to improving balance and reduc-
health professionals and family, influence ing falls risk.
older people’s decisions.
PAGE 21
b) When offering or publicizing interventions, Uptake of falls prevention interventions
promote benefits that fit with a positive self- may be enhanced by emphasizing the
identity. positive benefits that are likely to accord
with desirable self images for older people,
It seems that many older people do not
in addition to those that reduce fall risks.
acknowledge falls, for example because of
Examples of such benefits include increased
fear of:
independence, greater confidence, ability to
• negative stereotyping; take an active part in society and support
younger generations.
• beliefs that falls are an inevitable and
unavoidable consequence of ageing; and c) Utilize a variety of forms of social encour-
agement to engage older people
• embarrassment about loss of control.
Uptake may be encouraged by the use of
Falls prevention advice is often perceived as personal invitations to participate (from
being for other ‘disabled or elderly people’. a health professional or other authority
Programmes that are perceived to impact figures) and positive media images and
negatively on self-image are likely to be peer role models to illustrate the social ac-
unattractive while those, which are viewed ceptability, safety and multiple benefits of
as improving skills or characteristics val- taking part. Uptake and adherence may be
ued by older people, are likely to be more encouraged by ongoing support from fam-
popular. In interviews older people say that ily, peers, professionals and social organiza-
they would participate in falls-prevention tions. A wide range of social influences are
initiatives to be proactive in managing their known to impact on health-related behav-
own health needs, maintain independence iour, including encouragement, approval
and improve confidence (4, 5). Older people and social support from health profession-
value strength and balance training activi- als and other sources (10). Role models
ties for their potential to: should provide examples of successful ac-
complishment of health-related goals (11).
• maintain functional capabilities and
Concern about social disapproval poses a
thus avoid disability and dependence;
barrier to undertaking physical activity,
• enhance general health, mobility and while social support, positive media images
appearance; and and real-life examples of ordinary older
people doing exercise can promote greater
• be interesting, enjoyable and sociable (4, 5).
physical activity (12-14).
These characteristics are all compatible
with a positive identity and should be en-
couraged.
PAGE 22
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
Social factors play a key role in people’s de- d) Ensure that the intervention is designed to
cisions whether to participate in falls pre- meet the needs, preferences and capabilities
vention interventions (15, 16). In European of the individual.
countries a personal invitation from a
Review of evidence generally suggests that
trusted health professional is an important
a tailored personal approach – even for
motivation for taking up an intervention,
group contexts – can greatly improve the
and approval and encouragement from
chance of older people engaging with and
family, friends and health professionals
maintaining an intervention programme
influence initial and continued participa-
(1-2). There is a need to consider the
tion (5). Participation in group activities
individual’s lifestyle, values, religious and
is influenced by anticipated and actual
cultural beliefs, which may be associated
positive and negative social contacts with
with ethnicity and gender-specific factors.
members and leaders of the group. A major
Environmental determinants such as the
barrier is the perception that falls preven-
wealth of the society in which the older
tion is only for very old and frail people and
person lives; their place of residence and
not relevant to oneself (3-5). Inversely, old
availability and access to services should
and frail people may see health promoting
also be contemplated. Interventions need
activities as strenuous and only suitable for
to be presented in ways that are tailored to
people who are younger and fitter (6). Since
the cultural preferences of older people and
seeing prevention activities as appropriate
be realistic within the resources available.
for someone like oneself is the foremost
Group sessions with trained-balance and
predictor of intention to undertake these
strength-exercise instructors for example,
activities (3, 17) it may be valuable to use
are relatively low-tech affordable interven-
media pictures and peer role models to
tions that should be within the means of
promote a positive social image of strength
many societies. Although more research is
and balance training. The latter is as a suit-
necessary, there is growing evidence that
able activity for those who are still fit and
many older people may prefer exercises
active, in order to maintain their mobility
delivered at home with some professional
and independence, while emphasizing that
guidance (4, 12).
it can still be a safe and effective method of
falls prevention for those at higher risk of
falling.
PAGE 23
Cost-effective ways of catering for these f) Draw on validated methods for promoting
preferences at a public health level should and assessing the processes that maintain
be considered when developing a policy. adherence, especially in the longer term.
The evidence-based principles of balance
These could include encouraging realistic
and strength training could be presented as
positive beliefs, assisting with planning and
part of a set of activities that are recogniz-
implementation of new behaviours, build-
able and accepted within specific cultures.
ing self-confidence, and providing practical
For example, while exercises, which pro-
support. There is substantial evidence for
mote physical strength and balance, may
a range of techniques for changing health-
be presented within T'ai Chi Ch'uan based
related behaviour but it is most effective to
practice appropriately in China, a more
combine a variety of such approaches (10).
suitable presentation of exercises, which
Potentially important ingredients include:
promote physical strength and balance in
India, may be based on yogic practices. • creating a supportive partnership rela-
Dance may provide a vehicle for adequate tionship with the therapy provider (see
exercises in a number of cultures. How recommendations 3 and 5);
exercises are best presented will need to
be developed locally and should be tested • providing with good practical support
before large-scale roll out of a programme (access and appropriate supervision);
in a country.
• promoting the belief that the interven-
e) Encourage self-management rather than tion is necessary and effective;
dependence on professionals by giving older
• building confidence in being able to
people an active role.
carry out the intervention;
There is strong theoretical rationale in the
• developing skills for generating and
psychology literature generally to suggest
maintaining new behaviours (e.g. goal-
that participation and adherence will be
setting, planning, self-monitoring, and
maximized if the older person can choose
self-reward); and
or modify the intervention (1-2). While
some form of supervision will be necessary • tailoring interventions to individual
to ensure safety and appropriate compo- needs (see recommendation 4).
nents, the older person should be enabled,
wherever possible, to select among:
• different interventions;
PAGE 24
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 25
Chapter V. Examples of effective policies and
interventions
As discussed in previous sections, the 1. Policy
effect of a fall on an older person can be
a devastating event, resulting in chronic To effectively address the growing problem
pain, loss of independence and a reduced of falls in an ageing society, healthy public
quality of life. Moreover, the cumulative policies are needed to provide vision,
effect of falls and resulting injuries among set priorities and establish institutional
older persons in most countries has the po- standards. Such policies should facilitate
tential to reach epidemic proportions that capacity building unique to each setting by
would consume a disproportionate amount supporting the generation of new research,
of health care resources. Healthy public encouraging broad collaboration and
policies and proven prevention strategies maximizing availability of resources.
are needed to provide the infrastructure Falls and resulting injuries among older
and support essential for the integration persons are public health problems in
of fall prevention evidence into practice. all regions of the world that are facing
The complex and multifactorial nature of the impact of an ageing population. The
fall risk among a rapidly ageing and grow- good news is that evidence exists to
ing population demands a proactive and show that most falls are both predicable
systematic approach to prevention that and preventable. There are also good
integrates policy, preventive measures and examples to show that this evidence
practice. can be applied to sustainable changes
• Policy should provide the infrastructure in practice when supported by healthy
and support essential to a comprehen- public policies. Examples of such policies
sive and integrated approach to falls are more commonly seen in developed
prevention. countries where healthy public policies
have established capacity for effective
• Prevention evidence is needed to sup- falls prevention through good leadership,
port the effective application of proven intersectoral collaboration and education.
interventions. Moreover, these are the countries that have
first experienced population ageing and
• Practice is where evidence is applied ac-
have had the necessary financial resources
cordingly to the standards and proto-
to implement such policies.
cols set by policy.
PAGE 26
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
Leadership
b) Collaboration
A good leader will recognize that the most included in a recently passed USA Senate
important collaborators in developing ef- Committee Falls Prevention Bill, with US$ 8
fective falls prevention policies are those million of authorized spending for fall-risk
most directly impacted by the issue – older screening and multifactorial prevention
persons at risk of falling, those who care strategies (5). Another example using an
for them, and those who provide services to electronic network for reaching a broad
older adults. This comprehensive approach audience is found in Europe.
serves to include health-care providers,
PAGE 27
Falls Free Coalition
An example of an effective coalition is the Falls Free Coalition coordinated in the USA;
a collective of representatives of national organizations and state coalitions working
to reduce the growing number of falls and fall-related injuries among older adults
(17). With support from the Archstone Foundation and Home Safety Council non-profit
organizations, members of the Falls Free Coalition first convened in 2004 to write the Falls
Free National Action Plan (4). The plan outlines key strategies and action plans for fall
prevention to address the following five priority areas:
• physical mobility;
• medications management;
• home safety;
• environmental safety in the community; and
• cross-cutting issues, such as advocacy, policy, links to health care systems and
integration of interdisciplinary activities.
More information about the National Action Plan, and the Coalition and its bimonthly
newsletter may be found at www.healthyagingprograms.org.
c) Education
Along with good leadership and collabora- • are responsible for the design and con-
tion, education is an essential strategy for struction of housing and public spaces
building the necessary capacity for effective used by older persons.
fall prevention policy and practice. Such
To be effective, education must be part of
education is needed by those who:
a larger strategy for falls prevention that
• are at risk of falling; reflects current evidence, adult learning
principles and integration of learning to
• provide health and social services to practice. An example of an education pro-
those at risk; and gramme that reflects these principles is the
Canadian Falls Prevention Curriculum.
ProFaNE
PAGE 28
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
The Canadian Falls Prevention Curriculum© (7), funded by the Population Health Fund
of the Public Health Agency of Canada is designed to provide community leaders and
those who provide health and social services to older persons with the necessary skills
to design, implement and evaluate evidence-based falls prevention programmes. To
ensure relevance to the target audience the process for the development, testing and
dissemination of the curriculum actively involves partners representing older persons,
policy-makers, educators, researchers and health and social service providers. See www.
injuryresearch.bc.ca for further information.
2. Prevention
There has been a substantial increase in the and disease-related conditions and the indi-
past decade in research on the prevention vidual’s interaction with their social and
of falls among older persons. Considerable physical environment (9). It is also known
evidence now exists that most falls among that risk is greatly increased for those with
older persons are associated with identifi- multiple risk factors (11). There is good evi-
able and modifiable risk factors and that dence to show that some interventions are
targeted prevention efforts are shown to be more effective than others and those when
cost-effective (9, 10, 11, 12). Most falls and tailored to individual risk profiles in com-
resulting injuries among older persons are munity, residential and acute care settings
shown to result from a combination of age are most effective.
Fallproof ©
PAGE 29
a) Community Within a multifactorial approach, the
components of successful health interven-
For older persons living in the community,
tions focus on post-fall clinical assessment
evidence shows that health and environ-
followed by treatment involving a multi-
ment risk-factor assessment with inter-
disciplinary-team approach. The following
ventions based on assessment results, is
medical conditions are most often reported
highly effective in reducing falls among
as target areas for fall reduction:
community-dwelling older persons who
are cognitively intact (13, 14). Components • cardiac dysrhythmias and orthostatic
of successful multifactorial approaches hypotension;
include:
• reducing the number of medications,
• balance and gait training with appropri- particularly those that contribute to
ate use of assistive devices; postural hypotension or sedation;
PAGE 30
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 31
c) Acute care settings2: 3. Practice – Interventions
No evidence exists to support the effec- Practice settings are where falls preven-
tiveness of multifactorial interventions in tion evidence is translated into feasible,
acute care settings (14). The use of physical affordable and sustainable interventions.
or pharmaceutical restraints commonly Practitioners are well placed to link the
used with the intention of reducing falls application of evidence to organizational
is shown not to be effective. Conversely, policies and to identify gaps that need to
there is moderate evidence to support an be addressed before successful adoption is
increased risk of injury from a fall with possible. An effective tool for enacting the
the use of restraints (12). Alternatives to translation of evidence into practice is the
restrains (lower bed, mats on floor, train- development of a clinical practice guide-
ing on exercise and safe transfers) have line. An example of an effective guideline
moderate evidence for their effectiveness is produced by the Registered Nursing
(12). Other interventions that have been Association of Ontario (RNAO), Canada.
tested but lack strong supporting evidence
In less developed countries the translation
include: hospital discharge risk assessment
of falls prevention evidence to practice is
and planning, exercise programmes, envi-
made difficult by competing demands for
ronmental modifications, use of bed alarms
urgent health-care issues and shortages of
and the use of identification bracelets
health-care providers. In addition, before
(18, 19). Some evidence exists to support
effective adoption of evidence to prac-
facilitated home assessments for those at
tice, more studies are necessary to better
high risk for falling when discharged from
understand the unique contributors to
hospital (10).
falls among older people in less developed
countries, including the influence of diet,
hazardous environments, the lack of acces-
2 Acute care setting: refers to hospitals or rehabilitation
units sible safety equipment and transportation,
and the role of inadequate health services.
The RNAO Prevention of Falls and Fall Injuries in the Older Adult Best Practice Guideline
The RNAO Prevention of Falls and Fall Injuries in the Older Adult Best Practice Guideline
was designed for long-term and acute-care nurses to enhance their skills and abilities for
risk assessment and prevention. The purpose of this guideline is to increase all nurses’
confidence, knowledge, skills and abilities in the identification of adults within health-
care facilities at risk of falling and to define interventions for the prevention of falling (20).
PAGE 32
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 33
6. Prevention of Falls Network Europe, ProFaNE 15. Gardner MM, Robertson MC, Campbell AJ.
(2007). Manchester, GB, ProFaNE (http://www. (2000). Exercise in preventing falls and fall
profane.eu.org/, accessed 27 August 2007). related injuries in older people: a review of
7. Scott VJ et al. Canadian Falls Prevention randomised controlled trials. British Journal of
Curriculum©, Vancouver, British Columbia. Sports Medicine, 1(34):7-17.
B.C. Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 16. Wolf SL et al. (2003). Selected as the best paper
(unpublished data). in the 1990s: Reducing frailty and falls in
8. Rose, DJ (2003). Fallproof! A comprehensive older persons: An investigation of tai chi and
balance and mobility training program. computerized balance training. Journal of the
Windsor, Ontario, Human Kinetics. American Geriatrics Society, 51(12):1794-1803.
9. Rubenstein LZ (2006). Falls in older people: 17. Kannus P et al. (2000). Prevention of hip
epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for fracture in elderly people with use of a hip
prevention. Age Ageing, 35-S2:ii37-ii41. protector. New England Journal of Medicine,
343(21):1506-1513.
10. Rubenstein LZ et al. (2006). The summary
of the newly updated ABS/BGS guideline: 18. Hill K et al. (2000). An analysis of research on
Evidence based practice guideline for the preventing falls and falls injury in older people:
prevention of falls in older persons. Chicago: community, residential care and hospital
American Geriatrics Society Plenary settings (2004 update). Canberra, Australia,
Symposium, May 4, 2006. National Ageing Research Institute for the
Commonwealth Department of Health and
11. Tinetti ME, Speechley M, Ginter SF (1988). Aged Care.
Risk factors for falls among elderly persons
living in the community. New England Journal 19. Oliver D, Hopper A, Seed P (2000). Do hospital
of Medicine, 319(26):1701-1707. fall prevention programs work? A systematic
review. Journal of the American Geriatrics
12. Skelton D, Todd C (2004). What are the main Society, 48(12):1679-1689.
risk factors for falls amongst older people
and what are the most effective interventions 20. Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario
to prevent these falls? Copenhagen, WHO (2005). Prevention of falls and fall injuries in
Regional Office for Europe, Health Evidence the older adult. Toronto, Ontario, Registered
Network report (http://www.euro.who.int/ Nurses’ Association of Ontario (www.rnao.
document/E82552.pdf, accessed 27 August org/bestpractices/PDF/BPG_Falls_rev05.pdf,
2007). accessed 27 August 2007).
13. Chang JT et al. (2004). Interventions for the 21. Barss P et al. (1998). Injury prevention: An
prevention of falls in older adults: systematic international perspective. Epidemiology,
review and meta-analysis of randomised surveillance, and policy. New York, Oxford,
clinical trials. British Medical Journal, Oxford University Press.
328:680-683. 22. World Health Organization (2002). Active
14. Gillespie LD et al. (2004). Interventions ageing: A policy framework. Geneva.
for preventing falls in elderly people.
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
(4):CD000340.
PAGE 34
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
COMMUNITY
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PAGE 35
60 years is expect to increase to more than and social costs. This would result in the in-
two billion with 85% of them living in de- appropriate use of resources, which are still
veloping countries. Global ageing will place needed to address other health and social
increased economic and social demands challenges. There is a need to shift the pub-
worldwide. However, the ageing population lic health paradigm from one that focuses
should not be viewed as a threat or a crisis. on “finding and fixing” acute problems to a
On the contrary, the WHO Active Ageing more systematic, coordinated, and compre-
Framework recognizes that older persons hensive strategy designed to prevent, treat,
are precious and invaluable resources who and manage the growing number of NCDs
make an extraordinarily important contri- worldwide. The WHO Falls Prevention
bution to the fabric of all societies. Model is an example of such a systematic,
coordinated, and comprehensive strategy
A major factor behind the global ageing and
designed to reduce the burden of one of
the increase in life expectancy observed
the most significant causes of age-related
in most countries has been the impressive
injuries and non-communicable conditions
development of public health practices and
associated with old age.
policies that have greatly reduced prema-
ture deaths through the partial control of The extensive reviews of the scientific
many previously fatal-infectious diseases. literature summarized in earlier sections of
The worldwide development and imple- this report underscore the reality that falls
mentation of PHC practices and the control among older people are a large and increas-
of communicable diseases are important ing cause of injury, treatment costs and
components of the WHO mission. This un- death in virtually all regions of the world.
finished agenda has now been followed by The WHO Active Ageing Framework
a shift in the global burden of disease from recognizes that the injuries sustained as a
the management of acute conditions to consequence of a fall in old age are almost
addressing the steady increase in noncom- always more severe than when that occurs
municable diseases (NCDs). As individuals earlier in life.
and societies age, NCDs are increasingly
For injuries of the same severity, older
becoming the leading causes of morbidity,
people experience more disability, longer
disability and mortality in all regions of the
hospital stays, extended periods of rehabili-
world.
tation, a higher risk of subsequent depen-
Fortunately, many NCDs can be prevented dency as well as a higher risk of dying. The
through the application of appropriate good news is that many fall-related injuries
health promotion and disease-prevention are preventable. There is now compelling
strategies. The WHO Active Ageing evidence that risk-factors for falling can
Framework recognizes that the failure to be influenced by the implementation of
prevent or manage the growth of NCDs ap- targeted intervention strategies designed to
propriately will result in enormous human modify the various intrinsic and extrinsic
PAGE 36
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
determinants known to increase the likeli- their caregivers in all aspects of the plan-
hood of falling. The WHO Falls Prevention ning, implementation and evaluation.
Model provides a comprehensive multi-
An effective falls-prevention strategy will
sectoral framework for reducing falls and
need to acknowledge the cultural reality
fall-related injuries among older persons.
of the society in which it is to be imple-
The model is designed to identify policies,
mented. The culture that surrounds all
practices and procedures that will:
individuals and communities shapes and
• build awareness of the importance of influences all of the determinants of ac-
falls prevention and treatment among tive ageing. Cultural values and traditions
older persons; determine not only how a given society
views older people and the ageing process,
• improve the assessment of individual,
but also the types of prevention, detection
environmental, and societal factors that
and treatment services that are most likely
increase the likelihood of falls;
to be successful in a particular country and
• facilitate the design and implementation culture.
of culturally-appropriated evidence-
In order to address the diversity of cultural
based interventions that will signifi-
determinants, the WHO Falls Prevention
cantly reduce the number of falls among
Model requires the cross-national, transre-
older persons.
gional and global sharing of information
and ideas. The Active Ageing Framework
reminds us that all effective NCD preven-
2. The foundation tion and treatment strategies will need to
The WHO Falls Prevention Model within be firmly grounded within the local, na-
the Active Ageing Framework cannot suc- tional, and regional reality. These realities
ceed unless it is integrated into a healthy- must consider factors such as epidemiologi-
public policy that embraces a multisectoral cal transition, rapid changes in the health
approach to the prevention, treatment, and sector, globalization, urbanization, chang-
management of NCDs. The WHO vision ing family patterns and environmental
of healthy and active ageing requires the degradation, as well as persistent inequali-
mobilization and commitment of many ties and poverty, particularly in develop-
sectors of society including health and ing countries where the majority of older
social services, education, employment and persons are already living.
labour, finance, social security, housing, The WHO Active Ageing Framework
transportation, and both rural and urban recognizes that effective policies and pro-
development. Furthermore, all effective grammes designed to combat NCDs in old
active-ageing policies and programmes age need to adopt a life course perspective
realize the involvement of older people and that acknowledges that most determinants
PAGE 37
of chronic conditions and disabilities have Finally, falls prevention policies and pro-
their roots in childhood as well as in young grammes cannot be targeted at only one
and middle-aged adult life. If a substantive level of determinants or risk-factors.
decrease in the impact of falls on the health Effective strategies will need to acknowl-
and quality of life of older persons is to be edge and balance multiple levels of de-
achieved, it will be necessary to develop terminants including recognizing the
programmes and policies that create sup- importance of individual-level risk factors
portive environments, reduce risk factors and responsibilities; the development of
and foster healthy choices at all stages of age-friendly and enabling environments;
the life course. and the formulation of policies and pro-
grammes that maximize participation and
Any effective falls prevention strategy
inclusion of older persons.
will also need to acknowledge the real-
ity that globally, women are at greater The WHO Falls Prevention Model is built
risk for falls and fall-related injuries than around three pillars that are highly inter-
men. Accordingly, gender issues need to be related and mutually dependent;
considered in the development of all poli-
(1) Building awareness of the importance of
cies, programmes and practices. The WHO
falls prevention and treatment;
Active Ageing Framework reminds us that
in many societies, girls and women have (2) Improving the assessment of individual,
lower social status and less access to food, environmental and societal factors that
education, meaningful work and health increase the likelihood of falls; and
services. Because the consequences of falls
disproportionately impact older women it (3) Facilitating the design and implementa-
is especially important that these factors be tion of culturally-appropriated evidence-
addressed proactively and explicitly within based interventions that will significantly
the Falls Prevention for Active Ageing reduce the number of falls among older
context. Moreover, it is also important to persons.
observe that mortality rates resulting from
Making progress in implementing the strat-
injuries caused by falls are higher among
egies identified in each of these pillars will
older men than women of same age for
require an ongoing commitment to capac-
reasons that are not yet fully understood.
ity building, education, and training in all
More research in this regard is urgently
countries and regions.
needed.
PAGE 38
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
3. Three pillars of the WHO Falls Family and caregivers: Both informal and
Prevention Model: formal caregivers have a critical role to
a) Pillar One - Building awareness of the play in building awareness about the
importance of falls prevention: importance of falls and falls prevention.
It is especially important to provide fam-
There is a need to build awareness of the
ily members, peer counsellors and other
importance of falls within all sectors of
informal caregivers with information and
society that are impacted by falls and
training on how to identify risk factors for
fall-related injuries. Awareness building
falls and how to take action to decrease the
is not restricted to educating individuals
likelihood of falling among those at great-
and groups about the significance of falls
est risk. It is also critical to ensure that
as modifiable risk factors for disabling
formal caregivers are fully familiar with the
conditions and increased mortality. It also
latest evidence related to the assessment,
involves education about the increasing
prevention, and treatment of falls. This will
economic and social costs associated with
comprise the incorporation of modules
the failure to address falls and fall-risk
on falls and fall prevention in professional
factors in a systematic manner. Awareness
caregiver curricula at all levels, including
will need to be built within the following
continuing education. Within the develop-
constituencies:
ing world, it is important to acknowledge
Older persons: Any strategy to build aware- the contribution of healers who are knowl-
ness of the importance of falls and fall edgeable about alternative and complemen-
prevention must begin with older persons tary medicines. These individuals should
themselves. Many of them are unaware be encouraged to integrate their special
that falls are preventable. In many cultures skills and knowledge with contemporary
falling is considered to be a normal, un- evidence-based practice related to falls and
avoidable consequence of growing older. fall prevention.
The WHO Active Ageing Framework calls
Youth and young adults: Any active-ageing
for increasing basic-health education and
strategy that strives to be effective in reduc-
health literacy through a commitment to
ing the prevalence of chronic diseases and
lifelong learning about health and disease
disabling conditions will need to adopt a
prevention. By applying such an approach
life course perspective. This is especially
to educating older adults about falls and
important in the area of falls and falls
fall prevention, not only would older adults
prevention because many of the individual-
become more aware of the importance of
level determinants, which predispose a
paying close attention to fall-related risk
person to be at risk for injurious falls,
factors and determinants but they would
begin to manifest themselves early in life.
also be more likely to take action to correct
Furthermore, building awareness of the
these challenges to their health and inde-
importance of falls and fall-related issues in
pendence.
PAGE 39
children and youth will increase the likeli- and fall-related injuries. It is important to
hood to implementing intergenerational ap- provide incentives and training for health
proaches to falls prevention and treatment. and social service professionals. This will
increase their awareness and understand-
Community: The majority of older persons
ing of contemporary research and practices
grow old in their own homes and in the
so that they are able to counsel healthy
communities they have lived in for most
lifestyle practices that reduce falls and fall-
of their lives. Accordingly, it is important
related injuries among men and women of
to educate all sectors of these communi-
all ages.
ties about the importance of a proactive,
evidence-based strategy for reducing falls. Government: Raising awareness of the
Building awareness of risk factors for falls importance of falls prevention among
at the community level is particularly im- government officials at all levels is critical if
portant because there is evidence that the the resources and other support needed to
structure of the physical environment can implement a comprehensive, multisectoral
impact the likelihood of an older person to fall prevention strategy at any of societal
fall. It can also make the difference between levels are to be made available. It is impor-
independence and dependence for indi- tant to underscore that a commitment to
viduals who live in unsafe environments or prevention and treatment of falls is both
areas with multiple physical barriers. These cost-effective and the right thing to do.
barriers can render older persons more Legislators and government officials should
susceptible to isolation, depression, reduced be invited to participate in all aspects of the
physical activity, and increased mobility development and implementation of public
problems. health policies and practices that focus on
health promotion and disease prevention.
Health sector:: The WHO Active Ageing
Framework recognizes that building aware- Media: The media have an important role
ness and changing the attitudes of health to play in promoting a positive image of
and social-service providers is paramount ageing, therefore building awareness among
to ensuring that their practices enable and them of the significance of falls and falls
empower individuals to remain as autono- prevention is paramount. The media can
mous and independent as doable for as help by widely disseminating realistic and
long as possible. Within the area of falls positive images of active ageing, as well as
and falls prevention, health professionals by sharing educational information on falls
have a critical role to play in identifying and falls prevention strategies. The media
risk factors and determinants for falls, and can also help to confront negative stereo-
for recommending culturally-appropriated types about growing old and help to combat
evidence base interventions for the preven- persistent ageism.
tion, treatment and management of falls
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
b) Pillar Two – Improving the identification Furthermore, there must be neither age nor
and assessment of risk factors and determi- gender discrimination in the provision of
nants of falls: services and service providers should treat
There is a growing appreciation that a people of all ages with dignity and respect.
complex combination of individual-level,
Behavioural: : There is a growing apprecia-
community-wide, and societal factors influ-
tion that a number of important behavioural
ence the probability of falls and fall-related
factors impact older persons vulnerability to
injuries among older persons. Although the
falls and their likelihood to seek treatment
evidence base regarding how best to iden-
or care for falls and fall-related conditions.
tify and assess the various risk factors and
Many older adults incorrectly believe that
determinants for falls is growing, there are
it is too late to change their behaviour and
many areas where information is lacking
adopt a healthy lifestyle in old age. Others
and improvements are needed. A system-
experience a significant fear of falling that
atic multisectoral strategy for reducing falls
greatly limits their activity choices, reduces
and fall-related injuries will require con-
their independence and decreases their
certed efforts to improve assessment and
engagement in society. It is not sufficient to
identify critical determinants in each of the
simply educate older adults about the impor-
following domains:
tance of falls and falls prevention, it is also
Health and social services: Convenient and crucial to assess their readiness to change
affordable access to health and social ser- their lifestyles and adopt preventative and/
vices can greatly impact an older persons’ or rehabilitative therapies. Any integrated
likelihood of experiencing a fall or fall- strategy to reduce falls at the individual and/
related injury. Health and social services or community level will need to acknowl-
should be structured in such a way as to edge and assess the critical behavioural de-
routinely screen older persons for known- terminants known to impact an individual’s
risk factors for falls. Health professionals risk for falling. Attention to these factors
should be trained to use evidence-based can significantly increase the chance that a
protocols and procedures that help to iden- person will engage in appropriate preventive
tify those individuals who are at the great- behaviours such as physical activity, healthy
est risk. Suitable follow-up strategies should eating, not smoking and using alcohol and
be in place to assist clinicians to recom- medications wisely. These behaviours can in
mend culturally-appropriated and afford- turn help to prevent disease and functional
able evidence-based treatment programmes decline, extend longevity and enhance qual-
when indicated. The WHO Active Ageing ity of life.
Framework notes that health and social
services need to be integrated, coordinated
and cost-effective.
PAGE 41
Personal: There are many personal or indi- attention to environmental risk factors such
vidual-level risk factors and determinants as unsafe sidewalks, poorly lit roadways,
that can influence an individual’s likelihood and inaccessible or unsafe neighborhoods
of experiencing a fall. In any comprehen- can significantly increase the likelihood
sive falls prevention programme, effective of falls among older persons. There are
evidence-based strategies will need to be also many risk factors within the homes,
developed to screen for and identify indi- in which older people live, that place them
vidual-level risk factors known to be associ- at an increased risk for falling. In many
ated with an increased risk for falling. The countries home-safety visits have proved to
specific nature of such screening protocols be effective for identifying environmental
will inevitably vary as a function of the re- risks factors that increase the risk of falling.
sources and expertise available to perform The need to address environmental deter-
these assessments. At the most basic level, minants of falls may be particularly acute
evidence-based questionnaires are available in developing countries where many older
to screen older persons for key risks fac- persons are forced to live in arrangements
tors. Ideally, more comprehensive clinical that are not of their choice, such as with
examinations can be used to assess for relatives in already crowded households. In
known risk factors such as physical inactiv- many developing countries, the proportion
ity, decreased muscle strength, impaired of older people living in slums and shanty
balance, poor vision, confusion, inadequate towns is rising rapidly. Older people living
or inappropriate medication and/or polyp- in these settlements are at an increased risk
harmacy. Accurate identification of indi- for falls and fall-related injuries.
vidual-level risk factors and determinants
Social: Older persons who have suffered
can greatly increase the likelihood of select-
from fall-related injuries and others who
ing an appropriate prevention or treatment
experience a fear of falling can often
strategy that is targeted to meet the needs
become isolated and disengaged from the
of the individual older person.
community. Any comprehensive falls
Physical environments: There is a growing prevention programme will need to recog-
appreciation that the nature and structure nize and acknowledge the critical role that
of the physical environment can signifi- social support plays in providing oppor-
cantly influence the likelihood of an indi- tunities for older persons to fully partici-
vidual to suffer a fall or fall-related injury. pate in society. The WHO Active Ageing
The WHO Active Ageing Framework un- Framework recognizes that opportunities
derscores the need to ensure that the older- for education and lifelong learning, peace,
people physical environments are “age- and protection from violence and abuse are
friendly” because this can make a difference key factors in the social environment that
between independence and dependence. enhance health, participation and security
There is a growing base of knowledge sug- as people age. Loneliness, social isolation,
gesting that a systematic assessment of and illiteracy and a lack of education, abuse
PAGE 42
Who global report on falls prevention in older age
and exposure to conflict situations greatly On the one hand, it provides opportuni-
increase older people’s risks for disabilities ties for older persons to earn money and
and early death. Inadequate social sup- stay active and engaged in the community,
port is associated not only with an increase on the other it can place older persons
in mortality, morbidity and psychological at increased risk for accident and injury,
distress but a decrease in overall health particularly in cases where the worksite is
and well-being. Assessment of and atten- hazardous with inadequate facilities and
tion to the adequacy of social support in an lighting.
older person’s environment is an important
In all countries, families provide the major-
element of a comprehensive fall-risk assess-
ity of support for older people who require
ment protocol and can make a difference
help. However, as societies develop and
between success and failure of an interven-
the tradition of generations living together
tion strategy.
declines, mechanisms that provide social
Economic: The economic environment, in protection for older people who are unable
which an older person lives, can play a pro- to earn a living and are alone and vulner-
found impact on their health and quality of able are needed. National, regional, and
life. The WHO Active Ageing Framework local falls-prevention strategies cannot be
reminds us that economic factors such as developed independently of these cultural,
income, work and social protection need political, and economic realities?.
to be considered when developing effec-
tive strategies in the area of active ageing. c) Pillar Three - Identifying and
All ageing policies must acknowledge the
implementing realistic and effective
interventions
reality of poverty and the impact that a lot
of lack of personal resources has on the Falls are complex events that are caused by
opportunities available to an older person. a combination of intrinsic impairments and
Active-ageing policies need to intersect disabilities which are often compounded
with broader schemes to reduce poverty by a variety of environmental hazards. Due
at all ages. While all poor people face an to the multifactorial nature of falls risk
increased risk of ill-health and disabilities, factors and determinants, numerous stud-
older people are particularly vulnerable. In ies have shown that interventions can be
many countries and cultures, older people effective in reducing falls in older people by
are, by necessity or choice, continuing simultaneously targeting several intrinsic
to work in the labour force well into old and extrinsic risk factors or determinants.
age. Others participate in unpaid labour Successful multifaceted-intervention pro-
through childcare and work within the grammes have included such components
home and in the fields. Continued employ- as:
ment of older persons can be a “double-
edged sword”.
PAGE 43
• medical assessment; maintaining an intervention designed to
promote health and/or reduce the risk of
• home safety checks and advice;
chronic conditions. There is now good evi-
• monitoring of prescription medications; dence that incorporating a comprehensive
behavioural change strategy into inter-
• environmental changes; ventions designed to increase health and
well-being can help to maximize recruit-
• tailored exercise and physical activity;
ment, increase motivation, and minimize
• training in transfer skills and gait; attrition. Among the behavioural strate-
gies that have been shown to increase the
• assessment of readiness to change be-
likelihood that a person will sustain a new
haviour; and
behaviour are the following:
• referral of clients to health-care profes-
• Securing social support from family
sionals.
and friends.
Unfortunately, multifactorial falls preven-
• Promoting the participant’s self-efficacy
tion interventions can be labour-intensive
and perceived competence.
and expensive both for the individual and
the community. For these reasons, deci- • Providing older persons with active
sions regarding whether to implement a choices that are tailored to their per-
comprehensive, multifaceted falls-preven- sonal needs and preferences.
tion intervention, or targeted interven-
• Encouraging older persons to commit
tions addressing individual risk factors and
to an intervention by developing health
determinants will need to be made at the
contracts and/or goal statements that
local or national level. These shown-effec-
include realistic and measurable plans
tive decisions need to take into account a
of action with specified health goals.
variety of economic, cultural, and political
factors. In the section below, information • Concerns for safety are identified as a
about some of the most promising inter- barrier to changing behaviour by many
ventions that have been shown to be effec- older adults. Educating participants
tive in reducing the incidence of falls and about actual risks of interventions can
fall-related injuries in older populations is help to alleviate many of these con-
summarized. cerns.
Behaviour change: In recent years grow- • Providing regular and accurate perfor-
ing attention has focused on the study of mance feedback can assist older adults
behavioural factors that increase the prob- in developing realistic expectations
ability of an individual in initiating and about their own progress.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 45
Older persons are more likely than younger For healthy older adults at low risk for
people to need and use medications. falls, engaging in a broad range of physical
Unfortunately, medications are often either activities on a regular basis is likely to be
unavailable or over-prescribed in this sufficient to substantially reduce the risk of
population. Averse drug-related reactions, falling.
polypharmacy, and confusion induced by
In contrast, older adults at higher risk for
psychotropic medication are all associated
falls will benefit from engaging in struc-
with an increased risk of falls and fall-
tured exercise programmes that systemati-
related injuries. Health care strategies that
cally target the risk factors amenable to
require regular and systematic review of
change and are progressed at a rate that is
prescription and over-the counter medi-
determined by the individual’s capabilities
cations have been shown to decrease the
and previous experience with physical ac-
number of falls in older adult populations.
tivity. Older adults identified at the highest
Because visual impairments, especially
risk for falls will benefit from an individ-
poor contrast sensitivity and poor depth
ually-tailored exercise programme that is
perception, have been shown to be signifi-
embedded within a larger multifactorial
cant risk factors for falling and fall-induced
intervention approach. In these popula-
injuries, regular visual examinations with
tions, regular strength and balance exer-
appropriate follow-up as necessary can be
cises, such as, Tai Chi programmes have
beneficial in reducing falls in older adults.
been shown to be effective in reducing the
Physical activity: The WHO Heidelberg risk of both non-injurious and injurious
Guidelines for Physical Activity for Older falls. Additional research is necessary to
Persons recommend that virtually all older quantify the optimum type, frequency,
persons should participate in physical duration, and intensity of exercise needed
activity on a regular basis. There are well to produce the maximum benefit. Because
established physiological, psychological, regular physical activity provides substan-
and social benefits associated with partici- tial health-related benefits and it is cheap,
pation in physical activity. Furthermore, safe, and readily available, it is likely that
regular physical activity is associated with a physical activity programmes will play a
significant decrease in risk for most non- major role in the prevention, treatment,
communicable diseases. With respect to and management of falls in most countries
falls prevention, regular physical activity and cultures.
has been shown to prevent and/or lower an
older person’s risk for falling in community
and home settings.
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Who global report on falls prevention in older age
PAGE 47
ISBN 978 92 4 156353 6