Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Algebra and Trigonometry PDF
Algebra and Trigonometry PDF
Review Material
Department of Mathematics
Vanderbilt University
June 2, 2004
http://atlas.math.vanderbilt.edu/~pscrooke/calculus/calculus.html
!" #
$ "
!
%
# &'
%
( !
)
$
% * " + ,' #
-" #(
.
/0
%#
1
23456 78 9 5:3 ;7:3
<=>?@AB
CDEFGHI JKLM L NGHM 1EJOHPLQP HOKG 1Q ELPRGELP1SIT I1QSG PRGM LHG LEOQU PRG EOIP
FLI1S LQV DIGWDK ELPRGELP1SLK OFXGSPIY ZGSLKK PRLP L SOKKGSP1OQ OW OFXGSPI 1I SLKKGV L
Y [ IGP SLQ FG VGISH1FGV FM K1IP1QU 1PI GKGEGQPIT LI 1Q \ ] ^_`a`b`cdT OH FM U1N1QU L
JHOJGHPM PRLP SOEJKGPGKM VGPGHE1QGI PRG GKGEGQPIT IDSR LI \ ] ^efe 1I LQ GNGQ QDEFGH
FGPgGGQ h LQV idY jR1I gLM OW gH1P1QU L IGP 1I SLKKGV
Y jRG IGPI OW QDEFGHI
gG g1KK FG DI1QU 1Q SLKSDKDI LHG PRG WOKKOg1QUk
jRG IGP l OW
1I PRG IGP OW SODQP1QU QDEFGHI OH JOI1P1NG gROKG QDEFGHIk
l ] ^h`_`m` nnd
jRG IGP o OW "
1I PRG IGP OW LKK JOI1P1NG LQV QGULP1NG gROKG QDEFGHI POUGPRGH g1PR
p GHOk o ] ^nnn` qm` q_` qh`r` h`_`m` nnnd
jRG IGP s OW
1I PRG IGP OW LKK tDOP1GQPI OW 1QPGUGHI g1PR QOQ p GHO
VGQOE1QLPOHIk
s ] uvw x v ` w LHG 1QPGUGHI g1PR w ]y rz
jRG IGP { OW
1QSKDVGIxx LKK OW PRG LFONG QDEFGHIT POUGPRGH g1PR LKK PRG
~ x LQV Y NGHM HGLK QDEFGH e SLQ FG PRODURP OW LI PRG
1HHLP1OQLK QDEFGHI K1|G }_` }`T
OH1GQPGV V1IPLQSG OW L JO1QP OQ L K1QG WHOE PRG OH1U1QY
O PRG IGP OW HGLK QDEFGHI 1I 1Q
V1HGSP SOHHGIJOQVGQSG g1PR L K1QG OQ L JKLQGY
x
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1UDHG hYhk jRG HGLK QDEFGH K1QG
GSLDIG SGHPL1Q IDFIGPI OW PRG HGLK K1QG LHG DIGV tD1PG OWPGQT gG LVOJP L IJGS1LK
QOPLP1OQ WOH PRGE PRLP 1I SLKKGV Y jRG IGP ^ef h e _d OW LKK HGLK
QDEFGHI FGPgGGQ h LQV _T 1QSKDV1QU h LQV _T 1I VGQOPGV FM h`_Y W gG gLQP LKK PROIG
h
QDEFGHI GSGJP WOH _` gG gH1PG h`_ ] ^efh e _dY Q UGQGHLK gG RLNG PRG WOKKOg1QU
QOPLP1OQ WOH SGHPL1Q IGPI OW QDEFGHI SLKKGV
Y
` ] ^ef e d
` ] ^ef e d +0
` ] ^ef e d +0
` ] ^ef e d
<=>@A´µ¶· ¸¹ºA@BB´»¼B
jRGHG LHG SGHPL1Q PR1QUI PO |GGJ 1Q E1QV gRGQ gOH|1QU g1PR QDEGH1SLK GJHGII1OQIY
¢RGQ LVV1QU OH EDKP1JKM1QU PgO QDEFGHI PRG OHVGH 1I QOP 1EJOHPLQPY OH GLEJKGT
« ¤ m ] c ] m ¤ «Y Q UGQGHLKT WOH LKK HGLK QDEFGHIT
¤ ] ¤ LQV ]
jRG ILEG 1I QOP PHDG WOH IDFPHLSP1OQ OH V1N1I1OQT I1QSG « q m ]y m q « LQV «½m ]y m½«Y
¾OHGONGHT gRGQ gG LVV OH EDKP1JKM QDEFGHI gG VO QOP QGGV JLHGQPRGIGI PO IJGS1WM PRG
OHVGH 1Q gR1SR PRG OJGHLP1OQ IRODKV FG JGHWOHEGVT I1QSG
¤ ¤ ¿ ] ¤ ¤ ¿ LQV ¿ ] ¿
DPT LUL1QT PR1I 1I QOP PHDG WOH IDFPHLSP1OQ OH V1N1I1OQT I1QSG « q m q _ ] « q h ] aT
gR1KG « q m q _ ] _ q _ ] rY
jRDI gG QGGV JLHGQPRGIGI gRGQ gG JGHWOHE IDFPHLSP1OQ OH gRGQ gG VGLK g1PR EOHG
PRLQ OQG OJGHLP1OQT I1QSG « À m ¤ _ ] h« ¤ _ ] hT gR1KG « À m ¤ _ ] « À « ] _«Y
jR1I SHGLPGI LQ ONGHLFDQVLQSG OW JLHGQPRGIGIT IO gG LUHGG PO JGHWOHE EDKP1JK1SLP1OQI
m
LQV V1N1I1OQI HIP LQV PRGQ LVV1P1OQI LQV IDFPHLSP1OQIÁ EOHGONGHT gG JGHWOHE K1|G OJ¡
GHLP1OQI WHOE KGWP PO H1URPY
OT « Àm¤ _ EGLQI h«¤ _ ] hT gR1KG « qm q _ EGLQI _ q_ ] rY
P 1I GLIM PO OFIGHNG PRLP « À m ¤ _ ] « À m ¤ « À _T LQV PR1I L UGQGHLK JHOJGHPM OW
QDEFGHIT gR1SR LKIO ROKVI 1W gG RLNG IDFPHLSP1OQ 1QIPGLV OW LVV1P1OQk
q¤ ¿¿ ]] ¤q ¿¿ LQV ¤ ¿ ] ¤ ¿
q ¿ ] q ¿
LQV
W gG PL|G ] qhT gG UGP q ¤ ¿ ] q q ¿ LQV q q ¿ ] q ¤ ¿T U1N1QU DI L gLM
OW UGPP1QU H1V OW JLHGQPRGIGI gRGQ gG RLNG L E1QDI I1UQ 1Q WHOQPY
$ª
_ q « q h q m q ¤ _ ¤ a hr q m ] _ q a q m q« ¤ a À ] _ q a ¤ h« ¤ _c ] ah
ÂZ
_ q « q h q m q ¤ _ ¤ a hr q m ] _ q « ¤ h ¤ _h q b ¤ ar q h_ ] ah
Ã?B»·=Ä@ Ŷ·=@B
1QSG L HGLK QDEFGH e 1I L JO1QP OQ PRG HGLK K1QGT gG SLQ SOQI1VGH 1PI V1IPLQSG WHOE
PRG OH1U1QT gR1SR gG SLKK PRG
OW e LQV VGQOPG FM fe fY
|y| |x|
b
mY ¢H1PG VOgQ PRG WOKKOg1QU IGP OW QDEFGHI 1Q FOPR 1QPGHNLK LQV IGP QOPLP1OQY
ÞÝÞÝ ÜÛÜÛ ÛÜÛÜ
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
aY ¢H1PG PRG 1QPGHNLK q_`_ 1Q IGP QOPLP1OQ DI1QU LFIOKDPG NLKDGIY
GG LEJKGI hh
LQV h_Y
«Y 1QV LKK NLKDGI OW e IDSR PRLP fm q ef ] _Y
bY
OKNG fe q haf ] r WOH eY
Y
OKNG f_e ¤ mf ] h WOH eY
cY ßHLg OQ PRG HGLK QDEFGH K1QG PRG IGP OW e¡NLKDGI WOH gR1SR GLSR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU 1I
PHDGY àIG MODH VHLg1QU PO gH1PG PRG IGP 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
L fe f «
F fe f Ê c
S fe q _f b
V fe ¤ hf Ê a
áâã 78 ä78åæ7:
¸¹º»¼@¼ÄB
W LQV w LHG QDEFGHIT gRLP VO gG EGLQ gRGQ gG gH1PG PRG GJHGII1OQ çè é GPêI
LQIgGH PR1I tDGIP1OQ FM FGU1QQ1QU g1PR PRG I1EJKGIP SLIGI gRGHG ODH 1QPD1P1OQ IGHNGI LI
L QLPDHLK UD1VGY
1HIPT 1W w 1I L JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGH PRLP 1IT w SODKV FG hT_TmT GPSYT ç XDIP EGLQI PRLP gG
EDKP1JKM FM 1PIGKW w P1EGIY
ª
L më ] m À m À m À m ] ch
F ìeh íî ] eh À eh À eh ] eh
S q_ï ] q_ q_ q_îq_ q_ ] qm_
ð=·@B ñ»A ¸¹º»¼@¼ÄB
W PR1I 1I gRLP gG EGLQ FM ç gRGQ w 1I L JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHT gRLP HDKGI IRODKV GJOQGQPI
OFGM è
é GP DI SOQI1VGH gRLP ò À ç IRODKV FGT gRGQ FOPR v LQV w LHG JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHIY
jR1I 1I XDIP EDKP1JK1GV FM 1PIGKW v P1EGIT EDKP1JK1GV FM T w EOHG P1EGIY jRDI gG RLNG
P1EGI 1PIGKW v ¤ w P1EGIY jR1I 1I XDIP òóç T LQV gG RLNG PRG WOKKOg1QU HDKGk
ò À ç ] òóç h
ª ¢G RLNG
« À « Ì ] « À « À « « À « ] « À « À « À « À « ] « ï ] « ó Ì
jR1I LKIO PGKKI DIî ROg gG IRODKV VG QG PRG GJHGII1OQ ô k 1W HDKG î h 1I PO ROKV WOH
LKK QDEFGHIT gG IRODKV RLNG PRLP ç ] çóô ] ç À ô T IO PRLP ô RLI PO FG h gRGQGNGH
]y rY
O KGP DI EL|G PR1I VG Q1P1OQ WOH LKK QDEFGHI gR1SR LHG QOP rk
c
ô ] h gRGQ ]y r _
¢RLP OPRGH HDKGI IRODKV GJOQGQPI OFGM è
õOQI1VGH gRLP RLJJGQI gRGQ gG HL1IG L JOgGH PO L JOgGHT gRGHG FOPR JOgGHI LHG
1QPGUGHIk
ò ç ] À À nnn À À nnn À À À nnn À
jRGHG LHG w UHODJI OW êI LQV GLSR UHODJ SOQPL1QI v êIY jRGHGWOHG gG RLNG v w êI
POPLKT LQV gG QOg RLNG PRG HDKG
ò ç ] òç m
ª ¢G RLNG
a Ì ] a À a ] a À a a À a a À a ] a À a À a À a À a À a ] aö ] a Ì÷
é GPêI IDJJOIGî PRLP gGî gLQP PRGIG Q1SG HDKGI PO FG OFGMGV QO ELPPGH gRLP î QDEFGHI
gG SROOIG LI ODH GJOQGQPIT LQV IGG ROg PR1QUI RLNG PO gOH| ODPY
W w 1I L JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGH LQV ]y rT gG EDIP RLNG hPRLP h ] ô ] çøç ] ç À øç T IO
PRLP gRGQ gG V1N1VG FOPR I1VGI FM ç T gG UGP PRLP ] øç Y é GP DI PL|G PR1I LI ODH
VG Q1P1OQ OW øç T IO PRLP gG SLQ VG QG JOgGHI g1PR QGULP1NG ç 1QPGUGHI LI GJOQGQPIk
øç ] hç a
$ª
L e ø ] eh ] e À eh À e
î
F hm øÌ ] hmî h Ì ] hm hÀ hm ] hbih
i
ð¶ù´µ¶·B
DJJOIG LUL1Q PRLP w 1I L JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHY
1QSG ú ] T gG RLNG PRLP ] ú ]
ç ÷úûçILMI] úûç ç FGSLDIG
XDIP PRG
gG gLQP HDKG m LFONG PO FG PHDG WOH LKK GJOQGQPIY DP PR1I
QDEFGH PRLP EDIP FG HL1IGV PO PRG JOgGH w PO UGP PRG QDEFGH Y
úûç 1I
üOD ELM HGSLKK PRLP gG RLNG L IJGS1LK QLEG WOH PR1I QDEFGHk gG SLKK 1P PRG w PR HOOP OW
IOT LQV gG SLQ gH1PG 1P DI1QU LI }ý Y
1QSG PRG ItDLHG HOOP OSSDHI
WHGtDGQPKMT gG gH1PG 1P EOHG I1EJKMk úûÌ ] } Y jRG gOH| gG XDIP V1V IROgI PRG
WOKKOg1QU WOHEDKLk
úûç ] }ý
¢G RLNG XDIP IL1V PRLP }ý 1I PRG QDEFGH PRLPT gRGQ HL1IGV PO PRG JOgGH w T U1NGI PRG
QDEFGH Y ¢RGQ w 1I LQ GNGQ 1QPGUGHT PRGHG LHG UGQGHLKKM þ QDEFGHI PRLP tDLK1WM WOH
PR1I VG Q1P1OQY OH GLEJKGT _ LQV q_T gRGQ ItDLHGVT FOPR U1NG PRG QDEFGH ak
_Ì ] a ] q_Ì
Q IDSR SLIGIT gG ILM PRLP }ý 1I PRG ÿ Y
O }a ] _T QOP q_T GNGQ PRODUR
_ LQV q_ LHG FOPR ItDLHG HOOPI OW aY jO HGJHGIGQP FOPR HOOPIT gG DIG PRG JKDI¡OH¡E1QDI
I1UQk
Î } a ] ^q_`_d
#ª
L }hbi ] hbi úûÌ ] hm
F _ }c ] _ À c úû ] _ À _ ] a
î
»A@ ð=·@B ñ»A ¸¹º»¼@¼ÄB
üOD IRODKV UGP DIGV PO SOQNGHP1QU HLV1SLKI PO GJOQGQPI LQV N1SG NGHILT I1QSG MOD g1KK
RLNG PO VO PR1I 1Q ELQM V1 GHGQP |1QVI OW JHOFKGEIY
QOg1QU ROg PO VG QG úûç PGKKI DI ROg PO VG QG JOgGHI gRGHG ODH GJOQGQP 1I L
JOI1P1NG HLP1OQLK QDEFGHT PRLP 1IT 1W ODH GJOQGQP 1I vw WOH PgO JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHI v LQV
w Y ¢G RLNG PRG WOHEDKL
òûç ] ò ÷úûç ] ò úûç ] úûç ò «
LUL1Q FGSLDIG HDKG m EDIP IP1KK FG OFGMGVY
hr
(ª
m_ ûï ] m_ úûï ] _ ] c
1QLKKMT 1W gG RLNG L QGULP1NG îHLP1OQLK GJOQGQP
î î qv WOH JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHI LQV w T
w v
h
gG RLNG ø ý ] LI gLI PRG SLIG g1PR QGULP1NG 1QPGUGHIY
ý
jRGHG LHG PgO EOHG VGPL1KI OW gR1SR gG EDIP PL|G QOPGY é GP w FG L JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHY
W LQV LHG PgO QDEFGHIT 1P VOGIQêP ELPPGH 1Q gRLP OHVGH gG EDKP1JKM LQV T IO gG
RLNG PRLP
ç ] À À nnn À ] À À nnn À À À À nnn À ] ç À ç
U1N1QU DI PRLP
ç ] ç À ç b
Q WLSPT KGP DI VG QG PR1I PO FG PRG SLIG WOH QDEFGHI w T IO PRLP PR1I 1I L UGQGHLK
HDKGWOH GJOQGQPIY
1QLKKMT gG SOQI1VGH PRG GJHGII1OQ
ç Y
1QSG h ] øú T gG RLNG PRLP ] À h ]
À øú Y
O gG |QOg PRLP
ç ] øú ç ] ç À øú ç ] ç À øç ] ç
ç
WOH LQM QDEFGH w PRLP gG ELM SROOIGY jR1I U1NGI DI PRG WOKKOg1QU WOHEDKLk
ç ] ç b
ç
%ª
L «e ] « À e ] h_«e
F m¿ îë ] mëî À ¿ëî À ë ] chî À ¿ë À ë ] ch¿ë ë
S ì_em íî ] _e ] _ À e ] ce
m î î_ î _î
î
hh
é GPêI IDEELH1p G PRG HDKGI PRLP gGêNG WODQV WOH GJOQGQPIY OH LQM QDEFGHI `eT LQV
T LQV LQM JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGH w T PRG WOKKOg1QU WOHEDKLI LHG PHDGk
ô ] h gRGQ ]y r
ó ] À
ø ] h
úûç ] }ý
]
û ] úû ] úû
] À
]
}ý ] }ý }ý
ý ] }}ýý
ha
$ :% 4 å7: 78 &7æ6å '
( »·) ¼»>´¶·B
[ 1Q PRG NLH1LFKG e 1I LQ LKUGFHL1S GJHGII1OQ OW PRG WOHE
ç e ç ¤ çøúe çøú ¤ n n n ¤ úe ¤ ô `
gRGHG ç T çøú T n n nT ú T LQV ô LHG HGLK QDEFGHI SLKKGV PRG *
OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKT
ç ]y rT LQV w 1I L QOQQGULP1NG 1QPGUGH SLKKGV PRG " OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKY
[ JOKMQOE1LK g1PR VGUHGG h 1I SLKKGV OH £
"Y [ JOKMQOE1LK g1PR
VGUHGG _ 1I SLKKGV ' OH
"Y [ JOKMQOE1LK g1PR VGUHGG m 1I SLKKGV
OH + "Y [ JOKMQOE1LK g1PR OQKM OQG PGHE 1I SLKKGV L T LQV L
JOKMQOE1LK g1PR GLSPKM PgO PGHEI 1I SLKKGV L
Y
ª
L aeÌ ¤ e q h 1I L tDLVHLP1S JOKMQOE1LKY
F që e ¤ _h 1I L K1QGLH JOKMQOE1LKY
S 1Iî L EOQOE1LK OW VGUHGG rY
V e úôú q h 1I L F1QOE1LK OW VGUHGG hrhY
=·Ä´º·) ´¼ ( »·) ¼»>´¶·B
jRG
. OW EDKP1JK1SLP1OQ ONGH LVV1P1OQ LQV IDFPHLSP1OQ ILMI PRLP WOH
LQM HGLK QDEFGHI T T LQV ¿T
¤ ¿ ] ¤ ¿` LQV q ¿ ] q ¿n
¢RGQ EDKP1JKM1QU PgO JOKMQOE1LKIT PRG V1IPH1FDP1NG KLg EGLQI PRLP GNGHM PGHE 1Q PRG
HIP JOKMQOE1LK EDIP FG EDKP1JK1GV FM GNGHM PGHE 1Q PRG IGSOQVk
e ¤ _ _e Ì q ae ¤ h ] e _e Ì q e ae ¤ e h ¤ _ _e Ì q _ ae ¤ _ hn
h«
¢G SLQ I1EJK1WM PR1I GJHGII1OQ FM EDKP1JKM1QU LQV SOKKGSP1QU K1|G JOgGHI OW ek
e ¤ _ _e Ì q ae ¤ h ] _e q ae Ì ¤ e ¤ ae Ì q ce ¤ _
] _eî ¤ qae Ì ¤ ae Ì ¤ e q ce ¤ _
] _e î¤ qa ¤ ae Ì ¤ h q ce ¤ _
] _e î q e ¤ _n
¢RGQ EDKP1JKM1QU PgO F1QOE1LKIT IPDVGQPI î IOEGP1EGI QV 1P RGKJWDK PO HGEGEFGH PRG
LSHOQME Â é T gR1SR IPLQVI WOH ¨ 1HIP ÂDPGH QQGH é LIPY©
ª
ae ë ¤ h e Ì ¤ me ] JHOVDSP OW 1HIP PGHEI ¤ JHOVDSP OW ÂDPGH PGHEI
¤ JHOVDSP OW QQGH PGHEI ¤ JHOVDSP OW é LIP PGHEI
] ae ë e Ì ¤ ae ë me ¤ h e Ì ¤ h me
] aeö ¤ h_e ï ¤ e Ì ¤ me
mY W PRG JOKMQOE1LK 1Q tDGIP1OQ 1I tDLVHLP1ST PRGQ PRG WOKKOg1QU WOHEDKL ELM FG DIGWDKk
e Ì ¤ ¤ e ¤ ] e ¤ e ¤ n
2 1NGQ L JOKMQOE1LK OW PRG WOHE eÌ ¤ ¿e ¤ T PO DIG PR1I WOHEDKLT PHM PO QV PgO QDEFGHI
LQV gROIGIDE 1I ¿ LQV gROIG JHOVDSP 1I Y
(ª LSPOH eÌ ¤ hme ¤ __Y
1QSG hh ¤ _ ] hm LQV hh À _ ] __T gG SLQ QV PRG WLSPOHIk
e Ì ¤ hme ¤ __ ] e ¤ hh e ¤ _n
h
a W PRG JOKMQOE1LK
RLI WODH PGHEIT 1P ELM FG JOII1FKG PO
""Y
%ª LSPOH _e q ceÌ ¤ me q h_Y
COPG PRLP PRG HIP PgOî PGHEI RLNG L SOEEOQ WLSPOHT LI VO PRG KLIP PgO PGHEIY 2 HODJ
PGHEI g1PR SOEEOQ WLSPOHI LQV JDKK ODP PROIG WLSPOHIk
_e q ce Ì ¤ me q h_ ] _e q ce Ì ¤ me q h_
î ] _e Ìî e q a ¤ m e q a
COg gG RLNG PgO PGHEIT GLSR OW gR1SR RLI L WLSPOH OW e q aY 3 DKK ODP PRLP SOEEOQ
WLSPOHk
_e q ce Ì ¤ me ¤ h_ ] _e Ìe q a ¤ m e q a
î ] e q a _e Ì ¤ m
ð»»ÄB »ñ ( »·) ¼»>´¶·B
jRG
OW L JOKMQOE1LK ç e ç ¤ çøúe çøú ¤ n n n¤ ú e ¤ ô LHG PROIG QDEFGHI WOH
gR1SR
ç ç ¤ çøú çøú ¤ n n n ¤ ú ¤ ô ] rn
ª e ] _ 1I L HOOP OW PRG JOKMQOE1LK eÌ ¤ e q b FGSLDIG _Ì ¤ _ q b ] rY
[ JOKMQOE1LK SLQ RLNG OQKM LI ELQM V1IP1QSP HOOPI LI 1PI VGUHGGY P ELM RLNG WGgGHT
FDP 1P SLQQOP RLNG EOHGY W e ] 1I L HOOP OW L U1NGQ JOKMQOE1LKT PRGQ e q 1I L WLSPOH
OW PRLP JOKMQOE1LKY
, / - . / - !& . - , //-, /! /)/ / 0 &) 1
h jHM WLSPOH1QU PRG JOKMQOE1LKY
1QSG L JHOVDSP GtDLKI p GHO 1W LQV OQKM 1W LQM OW 1PI
WLSPOHI GtDLKI p GHOT PRG HOOPI OW L JOKMQOE1LK LHG PRG HOOPI OW 1PI WLSPOHIY
ͪ ¢RLP LHG PRG HOOPI OW eÌ q be q ar è
Q OPRGH gOHVIT gRLP e¡NLKDGI EL|G eÌ q be q ar ] r è
e Ì q be q ar ] r
e q hr e ¤ a ] r
e q hr ] r OH e ¤ a ] r
e ] hr OH e ] qa
hc
jRDI eÌ q be q ar RLI HOOPI e ] qaT hrY
Ϫ ¢RLP LHG PRG HOOPI OW aeë q ieÌ è
ae ë q ie Ì ] r
e Ì_e q m _e ¤ m ] r
e Ì ] r OH _e q m ] r OH _e ¤ m ] r
e ] r OH e ] m_ OH e ] q m_
jRDI aeë q ieÌ RLI HOOPI e ] rT Ì T q Ì Y
_ W PRG JOKMQOE1LK 1I tDLVHLP1Sî LQVî OW PRG WOHE
eÌ ¤ e ¤ ¿
PRGQ 1PI HOOPI LHG U1NGQ FM PRG ' k
e ] q Î }_ Ì q a ¿
45 67 8 9 : 7 þ þ ; < 5 9 67 8 = ; : > ËOgGNGHT
WLSPOH1QU 1I IOEGP1EGI WLIPGHY
ª ¢RLP LHG PRG HOOPI OW _eÌ q ae ¤ hè
ËGHG ] _T ] qaT LQV ¿ ] hT IO PRG tDLVHLP1S WOHEDKL U1NGI HOOPI
e ] q qa Î ?_qa _
Ì q a _ h ] _ Î }_ n
_
jRDI _eÌ q ae ¤ h RLI HOOPI e ] Ì óÌ@ Ì LQV e ] Ì øÌ@ Ì Y
ª ¢RLP LHG PRG HOOPI OW eÌ q ae ¤ i è
Q PR1I SLIGT PRG tDLVHLP1S WOHEDKL U1NGI
e ] q qa Î ?_qah
Ì q a h i ] a Î }q_r n
_
hi
¢RGQGNGH L HOOP 1QNOKNGI PRG ItDLHG HOOP OW L QGULP1NG QDEFGHT gG SLKK PR1I HOOP "0
Y ELU1QLHM HOOPI LHG QOP HGLK QDEFGHI LQV VO QOP SODQP LI HGLK HOOPIY P 1I
LIIDEGV PRHODURODP EOIP SLKSDKDI SODHIGI PRLP HOOPI EDIP FG HGLK QDEFGHIY ¢RGQ PR1I
LIIDEJP1OQ 1I ELVGT 1ELU1QLHM HOOPI VO QOP SODQP LI HOOPIY jRDI PO LQIgGH PRG tDGIP1OQT
¨¢RLP LHG PRG HOOPI OW eÌ q ae ¤ i ©T gG gODKV ILM PRLP eÌ q ae ¤ i RLI QO HGLK HOOPI
I1QSG 1PI OQKM HOOPI LHG 1ELU1QLHMY è
1QSG PR1I JOKMQOE1LK 1I tDLVHLP1S LQV RLI QO HGLK HOOPIT gG SLKK 1P LQ
'Y
Ãù A¶¼µ@ù ð»»Ä B + ´¼ù´¼ C@µ D ¼´E =@B
jRG PRHGG PGSRQ1tDGI VGISH1FGV LFONG g1KK FG GQODUR PO QV PRG QV PRG HOOPI OW ELQM
OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKI MOD g1KK GQSODQPGHY ËOgGNGHT PO QV PRG HOOPI OW IOEG JOKMQOE1LKIT
GIJGS1LKKM JOKMQOE1LKI OW VGUHGG m OH R1URGHT MOD g1KK QGGV EOHG LVNLQSGV PGSRQ1tDGIT
IDSR LI PRG WOKKOg1QUk
hY jRG -+ ILMI PRLP 1W PRG SOGF S1GQPI OW L JOKMQOE1LK ç e ç ¤
¤ n n n ¤ ú e ¤ ô LHG 1QPGUGHIT PRGQ LQM HLP1OQLK HOOP PRLP 1IT LQM HOOP PRLP
SLQçøúFGe çøúGJHGIIGV LI L WHLSP1OQ OW 1QPGUGHI RLI PRG WOHE Î GH gRGHG I LQV J LHG JOI1P1NG
1QPGUGHIT I 1I L V1N1IOH OW ô T LQV J 1I L V1N1IOH OW ç Y
ª 1QV LKK HLP1OQLK HOOPI OW me ¤ eÌ q h_e q aY
ËGHG w ] mT ç ] mT LQV ô ] qaY
1QSGî I 1I L V1N1IOH OW ô ] qaT I SODKV FG hT _T
OH aY
1QSG J 1I L V1N1IOH OW ç ] mT J SODKV FG h OH mY ËGQSG LQM HLP1OQLK HOOP OW PRG
JOKMQOE1LK EDIP FG OQG OW PRG WOKKOg1QUk
Îh`Î_`Îa`Î mh `Î m_ `Î am
jO VGPGHE1QG gR1SR OW PRGIG LSPDLKKM LHG HOOPIT IDFIP1PDPG GLSR OQG 1QPO PRG JOKMQOE1LKk
_r
e me ¤ eÌ q h_e q a
h î qh_
qh b
_ r
q_ r
a h«b
qa qhm_
ú q Kô
q îú r
1QSG PRG JOKMQOE1LK 1I SDF1ST 1P îRLI LP EOIP PRHGG HOOPIY ¢G RLNG WODQV PRHGG HOOPI
e ] _T q_T LQV q ú T IO gG RLNG WODQV PRG HOOPI OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKY
î
_Y W MOD SLQ QV OQG HOOP OW L JOKMQOE1LK JGHRLJI FM LJJKM1QU PRG ZLP1OQLK ZOOP
jRGOHGE LI gG V1V 1Q PRG KLIP GLEJKGT PRGHG LHG PgO EGPROVI OW LPPGEJP1QU PO QV
ÂQG OW PRGIG EGPROVI 1I SLKKGV "
Y
PRG HGEL1Q1QU HOOPIY
$ª 1QV LKK HOOPI OW eë q e q eÌ q hae q _aY
jRG ZLP1OQLK ZOOP jRGOHGE PGKKI DIî PRLP LKK HLP1OQLK HOOPI EDIP FG OW PRG WOHE Î GH T
gRGHG I LQV J LHG JOI1P1NG 1QPGUGHIT I 1I L V1N1IOH OW ô ] q_aT LQV J 1I L V1N1IOH OW
ç ] hY ËGQSG PRG SLQV1VLPGI WOH HLP1OQLK HOOPI LHG
Îh`Î_`Îm`Îa`Îb`Îc`Îh_`Î_an
1QSG aë q a q aÌ q ha a q _a ] rT e ] a 1I L HOOP LQV IO e q a 1I L WLSPOHY àIG
JOKMQOE1LK KOQUî V1N1I1OQ PO V1N1VG PRG JOKMQOE1LK FM e q ak
_h
e ¤meÌ ¤«e ¤b
e q a eëî qe qeÌ qhae q_a
q eë qaeî
me î qeÌ qhae q_a
q meî qh_eÌ
î «eÌ qhae q_a
q «eÌ q_re
be q_a
q be q_a
r
1QSG gG |QGg e q a gLI L WLSPOH OW ODH JOKMQOE1LKT gG GJGSPGV PO UGP r LI ODH QLK
HGEL1QVGHY
jRDI eë qe q eÌ q hae q _a ] e qa e ¤ meÌ ¤ «e ¤ bY jO WLSPOH e ¤ meÌ ¤ «e ¤ bT
gG LJJKM PRG ZLP1OQLK ZOOP jRGOHGE LQV UGPî SLQV1VLPG HLP1OQLK HOOPI Îh`Î_`Îm`ÎbY
1QSG q_ ¤ m q_Ì ¤ « q_ ¤ b ] rT e ] q_ 1I L HOOP LQV IO e q q_î ] e ¤ _ 1I L
î
WLSPOHY àIGî JOKMQOE1LK KOQU V1N1I1OQ LUL1Qk
eÌ ¤e ¤m
e ¤ _ e ¤meÌ ¤«e ¤b
q îe ¤_eÌ
î eÌ ¤«e ¤b
q eÌ ¤_e
me ¤b
q me ¤b
r
[I FGWOHGT gG GJGSPGV PO UGP r LI ODH QLK HGEL1QVGH I1QSG gG |QGg PRLP e ¤ _ gLI L
WLSPOH OW e ¤ meÌ ¤ «e ¤ bY
î
__
ËGQSG eë q e q eÌ q hae q _a ] e q a e ¤ _ eÌ ¤ e ¤ mY jO QV PRG HOOPI OW
eÌ ¤ e ¤ mT DIG PRGî tDLVHLP1S WOHEDKLk
e ] qh Î ?_hÌ hq a h m ] qh Î _} qhh
jRGIG LHG 1ELU1QLHM HOOPIT LQV IO PRG HGLK HOOPI OW PRG OH1U1QLK JOKMQOE1LK LHG e ] a
LQV e ] q_Y
mY 2 1NGQ OQG HOOP OW L JOKMQOE1LKT PRG OPRGH EGPROV WOH QV1QU PRG HGEL1Q1QU HOOPI 1I L
JHOSGII SLKKGV
+
Y ¢R1KG JOKMQOE1LK KOQU V1N1I1OQ KGPI MOD V1N1VG LQM
JOKMQOE1LK 1QPO LQM OPRGH JOKMQOE1LKT IMQPRGP1S V1N1I1OQ 1I OQKM JOII1FKG 1W PRG V1N1IOH 1I L
JOKMQOE1LK OW PRG WOHE e q Y GGJ 1Q E1QV PRLP SODKV FG QGULP1NGT IO e ¤ _ ] e q q_
1I IDSR L JOKMQOE1LKY
jO DIG IMQPRGP1S V1N1I1OQ PO V1N1VG e q 1QPO ç e ç ¤ çøú e çøú ¤ n n n¤ ú e ¤ ô T FGU1Q
g1PR PRG WOKKOg1QU V1LUHLEk
ç çøú À À À ú ô
CGPT gH1PG ç 1Q PRG FOPPOE HOg OW PRG SOKDEQ g1PR ç 1Q PRG POJ HOgY jRGQT WOH GLSR
SOKDEQ WHOE KGWP PO H1URPT
L EDKP1JKM PRG NLKDG 1Q PRG FOPPOE HOg OW PRG JHGN1ODI SOKDEQ FM T
F gH1PG PR1I NLKDG 1Q PRG E1VVKG HOgT
_m
S LVV PR1I NLKDG PO PRG NLKDG 1Q PRG POJ HOgT LQV
V gH1PG PRG HGIDKP OW PR1I LVV1P1OQ 1Q PRG FOPPOE HOgY
NGQPDLKKM MOD g1KK UGP L QDEFGH 1Q PRG KOgGH H1URPRLQV SOHQGH OW PRG V1LUHLEY W
PR1I QDEFGH 1I QOP rT PRGQ e q 1I QOP L WLSPOH OW PRG JOKMQOE1LK LQV IO 1I QOP L HOOPY
W PR1I QDEFGH 1I rT PRGQ e q 1I L WLSPOH OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKT 1I L HOOP OW PRG JOKMQOE1LKT
LQV PRG QDEFGHI 1Q PRG FOPPOE HOg PO ePRG¤KGWPn n n OW¤ PRG NGHP1SLK K1QG PGKK MOD PRG SOG F S1GQPI
OW PRG OPRGH WLSPOHT PRG JOKMQOE1LK ç ç e q ô Y
#ª 1QV LKK HOOPI OW e q aeÌ q _e ¤ mY
jRG ZLP1OQLK ZOOP jRGOHGE îU1NGI DI SLQV1VLPG HLP1OQLK HOOPI Îh LQV ÎmY àIG
IMQPRGP1S V1N1I1OQ PO IGG 1W h 1I L HOOPk
h h qa q_ m
h qm q«
h qm q« q_
1QSG q_ ]y rT e ] h 1I QOP L HOOPY jHM e ] qhk
qh h qa q_ m
qh « qm
h q« m r
1QSG r LJJGLHI 1Q PRG KOgGH H1URPRLQV SOHQGHT e ] qh 1I L HOOP LQV
e q ae Ì q _e ¤ m ] e ¤ h e Ì q «e ¤ mn
COPG ROg PRG QDEFGHI î1Q PRG FOPPOE HOg OW PRG V1LUHLE hT q«T LQV m U1NG DI PRG
SOG F S1GQPI OW PRG OPRGH WLSPOHY
jO QV PRG HOOPI OW eÌ q «e ¤ mT DIG PRG tDLVHLP1S WOHEDKLk
e ] q q« Î ?_q« h
Ì q a h m ] « Î }hm
_
ËGQSG PRG HOOPI OW PRG OH1U1QLK JOKMQOE1LK LHG e ] qhT « ¤ _}hm T LQV « q _}hm Y
_a
¸¹@Aµ´B@B
ßGPGHE1QG PRG VGUHGG OW PRG WOKKOg1QU JOKMQOE1LKIY
hY eÌ q h _Y h q e
mY ha aY e ¤ eÌ ¤ ¿e ¤
î
1EJK1WM PRG WOKKOg1QU GJHGII1OQI FM EDKP1JKM1QU LQV SOKKGSP1QU K1|G JOgGHI OW eY
«Y _e e q h bY aeë ¤ _eÌ q eÌ
Y «e qî h e ¤ b cY eÌ q h eÌ ¤ h
iY e ¤ _Ì hrY e q hÌ
hhY _eÌ q h h q e q meÌ h_Y qeÌ ¤ _e q m hae ¤ h
hmY e ¤ ¿e ¤ haY e ¤ î
h«Y e e ¤ h e ¤ _ hbY e q _ eî ¤ mÌ
LSPOH SOEJKGPGKM PRG WOKKOg1QU JOKMQOE1LKIY
hY eÌ ¤ e hcY meë ¤ ie
hiY _e ¤ aeÌ ¤ _e _rY qeÌ ¤ beî q i
_hY hbeÌî q _« __Y aieÌ q cheë
_mY c q e _aY _e ¤ h
î ¤ _
_«Y eÌ ¤ h_e _bY _eÌ î¤ ce ¤ b
_Y eÌ q _e q c _cY eÌ ¤ ae q _h
_iY e ¤ eÌ q e q h mrY hbeë q hbe ¤ _e q _
mhY eëî ¤ _e q e q _ m_Y eë q ceÌ ¤ îhb
î
_«
1QV LKK HGLK HOOPI OW PRG WOKKOg1QU JOKMQOE1LKIY
mmY eÌ ¤ hre q hh maY eÌ q ae ¤ a
m«Y eÌ q i mbY eÌ ¤ _«e ¤ hrr
mY eÌ q e q h mcY e ¤ _eÌ ¤ _e
miY qeÌ ¤ ae ¤ h arY _eÌî q e ¤ _
ahY eÌ ¤ ae ¤ i a_Y meÌ ¤ e ¤ _
àIG PRG LVNLQSGV HOOP¡ QV1QU PGSRQ1tDGI V1ISDIIGV 1Q PR1I IGSP1OQ PO QV LKK HGLK HOOPI
OW PRG WOKKOg1QU JOKMQOE1LKIY
amY e q beÌ ¤ e q b aaY e ¤ eÌ q _ae ¤ mb
a«Y _eëî q ie q _eÌ ¤ mie q hc abY eëî q ae ¤ beÌ q ae ¤ h
aY _eë ¤ h«eî ¤ _«eÌ q ce ¤ hb acY î ¤ he q hieÌ ¤ hme q m
aeï q hbeë
aiY eë q eÌ ¤î h_ «rY eë q e q _e q a î
«hY eë q hmeÌ q h_e «_Y meë q meî q be q h_
î
_b
9 : ' 567åæ &67æå
PRLP 1IT gG EDKP1JKM PRG QDEGHLPOH FM PRG HGS1JHOSLK OW PRG GJHGII1OQ 1Q PRG VGQOE1QLPOHY
ª ß1N1VG LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIk
e
L ee̤
] e e¤
À e e¤Ì
î ] ee
Ì ee¤¤
î ] e ¤e
Ì
e ¤
e
q eî e
q e
F e T ] eT
] e
q e À eT ] e
q À eT ] e T e
q ]
q
T
À
T
T
T
T
_c
Ãùù´¼ ¶¼ù U =?ÄA¶µÄ´¼
¢RGQ LVV1QU OH IDFPHLSP1QU WHLSP1OQIT PRGHG LHG PgO SLIGI PO SOQI1VGHY
*
ª ßGQOE1QLPOHI LHG PRG ILEG
¢RGQ LVV1QU OH IDFPHLSP1QU WHLSP1OQI g1PR PRG ILEG VGQOE1QLPOHIT gG DIG PRG WOK¡
KOg1QU HDKGIk P ¤ P q
P
Q
¤ R ]
Q Q
R OH P
Q
q R ]
Q Q
R
PRLP 1IT gG LVV OH IDFPHLSP PRG QDEGHLPOHI LQV |GGJ PRG SOEEOQ VGQOE1QLPOHY
$ª [VV OH IDFPHLSP LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIk
L ¤ _ q ¤¤ _ ] q ¤ ¤_ ] q ¤ q_ ] q¤ _
F aeÌe Ì qq «eÌ
¤ _ee Ì
qq
ÌÌ ] aeÌ eqÌ meq
Ìq
Ì ] aee ¤¤
ee qq
] aee ¤¤
jRG PGSRQ1tDGI DIGV PO I1EJK1WM HLP1OQLK GJHGII1OQI ELM LKIO FG DIGV PO I1EJK1WM LKUG¡
FHL1S WHLSP1OQI 1Q gR1SR PRG QDEGHLPOH LQV X OH VGQOE1QLPOH PRGEIGKNGI SOQPL1Q WHLSP1OQLK
mr
GJHGII1OQIY jRGIG PMJGI OW WHLSP1OQI LHG SLKKGV
Y jgO GLEJKGI OW
SOEJKG WHLSP1OQI LHG h
ae LQV } ¤ a n
e q e øÌ _ q }
¢G DIG PRG WOKKOg1QU UD1VGK1QGI PO I1EJK1WM SOEJKG WHLSP1OQIY
U ´>º·´ Y µ¶Ä´»¼ =´ù@·´¼@B ñ»A Z »>º·@¹ + A¶µÄ´»¼B
0 + ª
hY
1EJK1WM PRG QDEGHLPOH LQV PRG VGQOE1QLPOH IGJLHLPGKM PO OFPL1Q L I1QUKG WHLS¡
P1OQLK GJHGII1OQ 1Q GLSRY
_Y jHGLP PRG HGIDKP LI L V1N1I1OQ JHOFKGEY
mY
1EJK1WM LI DIDLKY
0 + ª
hY 1QV PRG é õß OW LKK VGQOE1QLPOHI LJJGLH1QU 1Q PRG GQP1HG WHLSP1OQY
_Y ¾DKP1JKM PRG GQP1HG WHLSP1OQ FM hT DI1QU ww gRGHG w 1I PRG é õß WODQV 1Q IPGJ hY
mY
1EJK1WM LI DIDLKY
%ª 3 GHWOHE PRG U1NGQ OJGHLP1OQI LQV I1EJK1WMk
h ¤ eh
L h
h q eÌ
àI1QU ¾GPROV hk
h ¤ eh ee ¤ eh e ¤e h e ¤ h eÌ e ¤ heÌ ] e
] ] ] À ]
h q ehÌ eÌeÌ q ehÌ eÌeqÌ h e e Ì q h e e ¤ h e q h e q h
mh
àI1QU ¾GPROV _k
h ¤ eh
jRG GJHGII1OQ h RLI VGQOE1QLPOHI e LQV eÌÁ PRG é õß 1I eÌY
h q eÌ
h ¤ eh h ¤ eh eÌ ìh ¤ eh í eÌ eÌ ¤ e e e ¤ h e
O h ] h À e Ì ] ] ] ]
h q eÌ h q eÌ ìh q ehÌ í e Ì e Ì q h e ¤ h e q h e q h
eÌ ¤ h \[ q
_eÌ eÌ ¤ h q _eÌ
eÌ ¤ h \[ q _eÌ eÌ ¤ h ø \[ ] e Ì ¤ h \[ ] e Ì ¤ h \[ e Ì ¤ h \[
h q eÌ h q eÌ h q eÌ
eÌ ¤ h q _eÌ h q eÌ
] ehÌ q¤ ehÌ \[ ] ehÌ q¤ ehÌ \[ ] ehÌ q¤ eÌh [ À h qh e Ì ] e Ì ¤h h [
\ \
àI1QU ¾GPROV _k
eÌ ¤ h \[ q
_eÌ
1HIP gH1PG eÌ ¤ h \[ qh q_eÌe ÌeÌ ¤ h ø \[ ] e Ì ¤ h \[ Y
h q eÌ
m_
jR1I GJHGII1OQ RLI PRG VGQOE1QLPOH eÌ ¤ h \[ Á PRG é õß 1I eÌ ¤ h \[ Y
eÌ ¤ h \[ q
_eÌ
O eÌ ¤ h \[ qh q_eÌe ÌeÌ ¤ h ø \[ ] e Ì ¤ h \[ À eÌ ¤ h \[
h q eÌ e Ì ¤ h \[
"eÌ ¤ h \[ q
_eÌ eÌ ¤ h \[ "eÌ ¤ h \[ eÌ ¤ h \[ q _eÌ eÌ ¤ h \[
] e Ì ¤ h \[ ] e Ì ¤ h \[
h q e Ì e Ì ¤ h# [
\ h q e Ì e Ì ¤ h [
\
#
P 1I L ELPPGH OW JGHIOQLK PLIPG LI PO gR1SR OW PRG EGPROVI 1Q PRG LFONG GLEJKGI OQG
DIGIY
ð¶Ä´»¼¶·´] ´¼ +A¶µÄ´»¼B
¢RGQ WHLSP1OQI RLNG QDEGHLPOHI OH VGQOE1QLPOHI SOQPL1Q1QU IDEI OH V1 GHGQSGI 1Q¡
NOKN1QU HLV1SLKIT gG ELM IOEGP1EGI gLQP PO ^ PRG QDEGHLPOH OH VGQOE1QLPOHY
ZLP1OQLK1p 1QU PRG QDEGHLPOH EGLQI UGPP1QU H1V OW LQM HLV1SLKI 1Q PRG QDEGHLPOHY é 1|G¡
g1IGT HLP1OQLK1 p 1QU PRG VGQOE1QLPOH EGLQI UGPP1QU H1V OW LQM HLV1SLKI 1Q PRG VGQOE1QLPOHY
ª ZLP1OQLK1p G PRG QDEGHLPOH OW h ¤} e} e LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIY
Q OHVGH PO UGP H1V OW PRG HLV1SLK } e 1Q PRG QDEGHLPOHT gG EDKP1JKM PRG U1NGQ WHLSP1OQ
FM }} ee LQV SOEJDPGk
} e ] } e À } e ] } eÌ ] } eÌ ] e n
h ¤ } e h ¤ } e } e h ¤ } e } e } e ¤ } eÌ } e ¤ e
COPG PRLP gG EDIP EDKP1JKM QDEGHLPOH VGQOE1QLPOH FM } e IO PRLP gG VOQêP
SRLQUG PRG NLKDG OW PRG OH1U1QLK WHLSP1OQ _ gGêHG OQKM EDKP1JKM1QU FM PRG QDEFGH h V
mm
¢RGQ HLP1OQLK1p 1QU PRG QDEGHLPOH OH VGQOE1QLPOH OW L WHLSP1OQT gG IOEGP1EGI QGGV
PO DIG PRG " OW L U1NGQ GJHGII1OQY ZGSLKK PRLP PO OFPL1Q PRG SOQXDULPG OW
LQ PgO¡PGHE GJHGII1OQ 1QNOKN1QU HLV1SLKIT gG SRLQUG PRG I1UQ FGPgGGQ PRG PGHEIY OH
GLEJKGT PRG SOQXDULPG OW }m ¤ } e 1I }m q } eT LQV PRG SOQXDULPG OW }e ¤ _ q h 1I
}e ¤ _ ¤ hY
ͪ ZLP1OQLK1p G PRG VGQOE1QLPOH OW h ¤} e} e LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIY
¢G EL|G DIG OW PRG SOQXDULPG OW h ¤ } e` gR1SR 1I h q } eY Q OHVGH PO UGP H1V OW PRG
HLV1SLK } e 1Q PRG VGQOE1QLPOHT gG EDKP1JKM PRG U1NGQ WHLSP1OQ FM hh qq }} ee LQV SOEJDPGk
} e ] } e À h q } e ] } e h q } e ] } e q } eÌ ] } e q e n
h ¤ } e h ¤ } e h q } e h ¤ } e h q } e hÌ q } eÌ h q e
[UL1QT gG EDIP EDKP1JKM QDEGHLPOH VGQOE1QLPOH FM h q } eT IO PRLP gG VOQêP
SRLQUG PRG NLKDG OW PRG OH1U1QLK WHLSP1OQY
Ϫ ZLP1OQLK1p G PRG QDEGHLPOH OW }e ¤ `` q } e LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIY
¢G EL|G DIG OW PRG SOQXDULPG OW }e ¤ ` q } eT gR1SR 1I }e ¤ ` ¤ } eY Q OHVGH PO
UGP H1V OW PRG HLV1SLKI }e ¤ ` LQV } e 1Q PRG QDEGHLPOHT gG EDKP1JKM PRG U1NGQ WHLSP1OQ
FM }e ¤ ` ¤ } e LQV SOEJDPGk
}e ¤ ` ¤ } e
}e ¤ ` q } e ] }e ¤ ` q } e À }e ¤ ` ¤ } e ] }e ¤ ` q } e }e ¤ ` ¤ } e
` ` }e ¤ ` ¤ } e ` }e ¤ ` ¤ } e
] }e ¤ ` Ì q } eÌ ] e ¤ ` q e ]
` }e ¤ ` ¤ } e ` }e ¤ ` ¤ } e
`
` }e ¤ ` ¤ } e
] h
}e ¤ ` ¤ } e
COPG PRLP 1Q LEJKGI cT iT LQV hrT HLP1OQLK1p 1QU PRG QDEGHLPOH OH VGQOE1QLPOH
85 ÿ PRG NLKDG OW PRG OH1U1QLK WHLSP1OQ I1QSG gG gGHG EGHGKM EDKP1JKM1QU FM PRG
QDEFGH hY ZLP1OQLK1 1QU PRG QDEGHLPOH OW L WHLSP1OQ XDIP ¨GSRLQUGI© L HLV1SLK 1Q PRG
POJ WOH L HLV1SLK 1Q PRGp FOPPOEY é 1|Gg1IGT HLP1OQLK1p 1QU PRG VGQOE1QLPOH ¨GSRLQUGI© L
HLV1SLK 1Q PRG FOPPOE WOH L HLV1SLK 1Q PRG POJY
ma
¸¹@Aµ´B@B
ZGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIk
hY eÌe¤Ì qe qa _ _Y eq_e ¤ _eÌ q me
î Ìqe¤m
mY _ Ì_ qÌm ¤ mq iÌ aY eëe ¤q aeÌ
_e Ì
î î
3 GHWOHE PRG 1QV1SLPGV OJGHLP1OQ I LQV HGVDSG PO KOgGIP PGHEIk
m«
h ¤ eh
hiY ae
Ì q e_
Ì ¤ e
h _rY
h q eh
eÌ q
Ì h¤h
_hY e eq
__Y Ì q Ì
e ¤ h¤e
_mY hh qq ee ee _aY ee øîÌ qq eh
e ¤ h¤e ø
_«Y _e e ¤ h øe\[Ì q e ¤ h \[ _bY _e ¤ h \[ q _ee ¤¤ h_ _e ¤ h ø \[
ZLP1OQLK1p G PRG QDEGHLPOH OW GLSR GJHGII1OQk
_Y h ¤}e}e¤ ¤_ _ _cY }ie Ì ¤ e q me
_iY }
}q
h mrY m q«} e
ZLP1OQLK1p G PRG VGQOE1QLPOH OW GLSR GJHGII1OQk
mhY h ¤}e}e¤ ¤_ _ m_Y }
}q
h
mmY } e ¤h }
maY m hr} e
mb
c d 37:åå
qh gLI QOP L IOKDP1OQ 1YGY 1W PRG 1QGtDLK1PM gLI e Ö qhT gG gODKV DIG LQ OJGQ S1HSKG
LQV PRG 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQ WOH PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP gODKV FG qh`¥Y
2 1NGQ LQM PgO HGLK QDEFGHIT LQV T GLSPKM OQG OW PRG WOKKOg1QU 1I PHDGk
T ] T OH Ö Y
jO IOKNG 1QGtDLK1P1GI K1|G
qe q c b LQV i ¤ m _e q a Ê _e ¤ hm
gG DIG EGPROVI I1E1KLH PO PROIG DIGV PO QV IOKDP1OQI OW GtDLP1OQIY jRGIG EGPROVI LHG
FLIGV OQ PRG WODH HDKGI FGKOgY
&'
ª
é GP T T LQV ¿ FG LQM HGLK QDEFGHIY
h W LQV ¿T PRGQ ¿Y
_ W T PRGQ ¤ ¿ ¤ ¿Y
m W LQV ¿ 1I JOI1P1NGT PRGQ ¿ ¿Y
a W LQV ¿ 1I QGULP1NGT PRGQ ¿ Ö ¿Y
m
ª
L _ m LQV m a IO _ a
F « IO « ¤ _ ¤ _ m i
S m c IO m a c a m h_ m_
V i IO q_ Ö i q_ m qha Ö qhc
ª
OKNG L qe q c b LQV F i ¤ m _e q a Ê _e ¤ hm WOH e LQV
gH1PG MODH IOKDP1OQ IGP 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
L qe q c b F i ¤ m _e q a Ê _e ¤ hm
qe q c ¤ c b ¤ c be q m Ê _e ¤ hm
qe ha be q _e q m ¤ m Ê _e q _e ¤ hm ¤ m
qe Ö ha ae Ê hb
q q ae Ê hb
e Ö q_ a a
q_`¥ eÊa
a`¥
[ ' 1I LQ 1QGtDLK1PM PRLP SLQ FG gH1PPGQ g1PR L JOKMQOE1LK
OQ OQG I1VG LQV r OQ PRG OPRGHY [WPGH gG RLNG gH1PPGQ PRG JOKMQOE1LK 1QGtDLK1PM g1PR r
OQ OQG I1VGT gG SLQ FGU1Q PO IOKNG 1P FM WLSPOH1QU PRG JOKMQOE1LK 1QPO K1QGLH WLSPOHIY ÂQG
gLM PO QV PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP WOH L JOKMQOE1LK 1QGtDLK1PM 1I PO VGNGKOJ L SRLHP SOQPL1Q1QU
PRG I1UQI OW PRGIG WLSPOHIY
$ª 1QV PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP WOH eÌ q m Ö _e LQV gH1PG 1P 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
e Ì q m Ö _e m e Ì q _e q m Ö r m e q m e ¤ h Ö r
Sign of
(x+1) - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + + + +
(x-3) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + +
(x+1)(x-3) + + + + + + + + 0 - - - - - - - - - 0 + + +
qppq onon nono
-1 3
mc
1QSG gG LHG 1QPGHGIPGV 1Q NLKDGI PRLP EL|G PRG JHOVDSP e q m e ¤ h JOI1P1NGT PRG
IOKDP1OQ IGP 1Iq¥ ` qh § m`¥Y
#ª 1QV PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP WOH _re qeÌ qe r LQV gH1PG 1P 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
î
_re q e Ì q e r m e _r q e q e Ì r m e a q e e ¤ « r
î
Sign of
x - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + + + +
(4-x) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 - - -
(x+5) - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
x(4-x)(x+5) + + + 0 - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + 0 - - -
utut rr rsrs
-5 0 4
1QSG gG LHG 1QPGHGIPGV 1Q NLKDGI PRLP EL|G PRG JHOVDSP e a q e e ¤ « p GHO OH QGULP1NGT
PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1I q«`r § a`¥Y
[ ' 1I LQ 1QGtDLK1PM PRLP SLQ FG gH1PPGQ g1PR L HLP1OQLK WDQSP1OQ
L JOKMQOE1LK ONGH L JOKMQOE1LK OQ OQG I1VG LQV r OQ PRG OPRGHY ¢G SLQ IOKNG HLP1OQLK
1QGtDLK1P1GI DI1QU L EGPROV I1E1KLH PO PRG OQG DIGV WOH JOKMQOE1LK 1QGtDLK1P1GIY
(ª 1QV PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP WOH eÌ ¤ehaeq _¤ ai Ê r LQV gH1PG 1P 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
eÌ ¤ hae ¤ ai Ê r m e ¤ Ì Ê r
eq_ eq_
Sign of
(x+7) - - 0 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x+7) - - 0 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x-2) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + +
(x+7) 2/(x-2) - - 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - U + + + + + xyx
wvwv y
-7 2
jRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1I ^qd§ _`¥Y COPG PRG ¨à© 1Q PRG I1UQ SRLHPY jR1I I1UQ1 GI PRLP ODH
GJHGII1OQ 1I DQVG QGV LP _Y z { |} ~ { Q UGQGHLKT L HLP1OQLK GJHGII1OQ 1I QOP VG QGV
WOH NLKDGI gR1SR EL|G PRG VGQOE1QLPOH p GHOY
mi
jO IOKNG 1QGtDLK1P1GI 1QNOKN1QU LFIOKDPG NLKDGT gG QGGV PRG WOKKOg1QU JHOJGHP1GIk
&'
.+
ª
GP FG LQM HGLK QDEFGH LQV KGP e FG LQ
éGJHGII1OQ 1QNOKN1QU eY
h W f ef T PRGQ q e Y
_ W f ef Ö T PRGQ e q e Ö Y
COPG PRLP 1W f ef T PRGQ e ILP1I GI FOPR 1QGtDLK1P1GI e Ö q e
WOH LKK NLKDGI OW eT LQV PRDI gG ELM gH1PG PR1I LI OQG IPLPGEGQPk q e Y
ËOgGNGHT 1W f ef Ö T PRGQT U1NGQ L IJGS1 S e NLKDGT e ILP1I GI 5 e q
e Ö FDP FOPRY jRDI gG 8 gH1PG PR1I LI L I1QUKG IPLPGEGQP g1PRODP LFIOKDPG
NLKDG I1UQIY
%ª
OKNG fa ¤ ef q b Ö « LQV GJHGII PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
fa ¤ ef q b Ö «
fa ¤ ef q b ¤ b Ö « ¤ b
fa ¤ ef Ö hh
a ¤ e qhh a ¤ e Ö hh
e qh« e Ö
jRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1I q¥ ` qh« § `¥Y
ª
OKNG f q _ef i LQV GJHGII PRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1Q 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
f q _ef i
qi q _e i
qhb q_e _
c Ê e Ê qh
jRG IOKDP1OQ IGP 1I qh`cY
ar
¸¹@Aµ´B@B
1QV PRG NLKDGI OW e PRLP ILP1IWM PRG WOKKOg1QU 1QGtDLK1P1GI LQV gH1PG PRG IOKDP1OQ IGPI 1Q
1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQY
hY _h e ¤ m Ö _ _Y qme ¤ _a Ê r mY _e q «e q i
aY q b« e q am «Y me q ch Ö mc ¤ _e bY hmea¤ «e q i
Y eÌ ¤ ae Ö r cY eë q eï Ö r iY meÌ ¤ _e q c r
hrY ieÌ ch hhY h_ q «e q _eÌ r h_Y e ¤ ae Ö «eÌ
e ¤ a m q e eÌî q e
hmY e r haY e ¤ _ r h«Y e ¤ h Ê r
hbY eh bh hY eÌ bq a q _e aq m Ö h_h hcY e qe « hhh
hiY f_e q mf Ö _rY fa q ef Ê c _hY f«e ¤ hmf h_
__Y i« ¤ mh e bh _mY _f_e q f¤ hh Ê _« _aY af« q mef m_
xx xx
x x
ah
& 3æå 78 å
«e q a 1W e h
PRGQ a ] _ aÌ ¤ h ] m_ ¤ h ] mmT I1QSG a Ö hY é 1|Gg1IGT h ] rT LQV r ]
« r q a ] qaY
ª é GP e FG L WDQSP1OQ PRLP PL|GI LI 1QJDP JGOJKG 1Q MODH SKLIIT LQV DIGI
PRG WOKKOg1QU HDKG WOH ODPJDPk
e ] u eêI
HIP QLEG 1W e 1I ELKG
eêI KLIP QLEG 1W e 1I WGELKG
jRGQ OF
E1PR ] OF LQV
LKKM OQGI ] OQGIY
CD @ Z ¶AÄ@B´¶¼ ( ·¶¼@ ¶¼ù A¶º D ´¼ +=¼µÄ´»¼B
Q EOIP OW PRG GLEJKGI LFONGT gG RLNG VGISH1FGV L WDQSP1OQ FM DI1QU gOHVI OH
GtDLP1OQIY [QOPRGH NGHM DIGWDK gLM PO VG QG L WDQSP1OQ 1I PO V1IJKLM 1P LI L UHLJRY jRG
aa
"+ OW L WDQSP1OQ
] e 1I PRG IGP OW LKK JO1QPI e`
1Q PRG õLHPGI1LQ JKLQG gRGHG
e 1I 1Q PRG VOEL1Q OW LQV
] eY
jRG VG Q1P1OQ OW L WDQSP1OQ HGtD1HGI PRLP WOH GNGHM e 1Q PRG VOEL1QT PRGHG 1I OQG LQV
; NLKDG
g1PR
] eY COg L NGHP1SLK K1QG 1Q PRG JKLQG UOGI PRHODUR LKK PRG
JO1QPI PRLP RLNG L IJGS1 S e¡NLKDGY jR1I EGLQI PRLP 1W L SDHNG 1Q PRG JKLQG HGJHGIGQPI
L WDQSP1OQT L NGHP1SLK K1QG SLQ 1QPGHIGSP PRG SDHNG 1Q LP EOIP OQG JO1QP FGSLDIG L U1NGQ
e¡NLKDG SLQ RLNG ;
¡NLKDG LIIOS1LPGV g1PR 1PY jR1I 1I IO DIGWDK 1Q 1VGQP1WM1QU
UHLJRI OW WDQSP1OQI PRLP gG IPLPG 1P LI L HDKGk
) -
ª [ SDHNG 1Q PRG õLHPGI1LQ JKLQG HGJHGIGQPI L WDQSP1OQ 1W LQV OQKM 1W
LQM NGHP1SLK K1QG JLIIGI PRHODUR PRG SDHNG LP EOIP OQG P1EGY
ª jRG UHLJR OQ PRG KGWP HGJHGIGQPI L WDQSP1OQT gR1KG PRG UHLJR OQ PRG H1URP
WL1KI PRG GHP1SLK é 1QG jGIP LQV SLQQOP FG L WDQSP1OQY
12.5
4
10
3
7.5
2
5
2.5 1
-2 2 4 6 -2 2 4 6
a«
]y
]y
$ª W e ] } eT PRGQ
_« q hb ] i ] } i ] m`
FDP
_« q hb ] } _« q } hb ] « q a ] hn
ZGEGEFGH PRLP PO I1EJK1WM L WDQSP1OQT MOD EDIP < 7 5 < 9 5 9 7 8 T
LQV PRGQ DIG PRG JHOJGHP1GI PRLP LHG WLE1K1LH WHOE LH1PREGP1ST LKUGFHLT OH PH1UOQOEGPHMY
#ª W e ] e ¤ «T QV ¤ n
¤ ] ¤ ¤ « î] ¤ m Ì ¤ m Ì ¤ ¤ «
î î î
¸ E =¶Ä´»¼B »ñ M ´¼@B
jRG I1EJKGIP PMJGI OW K1QGI LHG ROH1p OQPLK OH NGHP1SLKY [ +^ 1I PRG IGP
OW OW LKK JO1QPI g1PR PRG ILEG
¡NLKDGk
] ¿Y
1E1KLHKMT L 1I PRG IGP OW LKK
JO1QPI g1PR PRG ILEG e¡NLKDGIk e ] Y Q UGQGHLKT gG |QOg WHOE LKUGFHL PRLP LQM K1QG
PRLP 1I QOP NGHP1SLK SLQ FG HGJHGIGQPGV FM LQ GtDLP1OQ OW PRG WOHE
] v e ¤ T gRGHG
LQV LHG HGLK QDEFGHIY
1QSG v e ¤ 1I L JOKMQOE1LKT L QOQ¡NGHP1SLK K1QG 1I XDIP L
vJLHP1SDKLH PMJG OW WDQSP1OQY
2 GOEGPH1SLKKMT gG PR1Q| OW K1QGI 1Q PGHEI OW JO1QPI LQV IKOJGY W P e `
LQV
P e `
LHG JO1QPI 1Q PRG õLHPGI1LQ JKLQG g1PR e ]
Ì P 1I PRG QDEFGH ] \ ø Y [ K1QG ELMú FGy ePRODURP
Ì1QU PÌ LQV Ì T PRG
ú úK1QGú XO1Q¡
OW PRG
ú PRLPÌ PRG IKOJG FGPgGGQ
v LQM \ øPgO OW LI L SDHNG g1PR PRG
JHOJGHPM [
[ JO1QPI OQ PRG SDHNG 1I L GV SOQIPLQPY ¢G
SLQ DIG PR1I JHOJGHPM PO gH1PG GtDLP1OQI WOH K1QGI 1Q PRG JKLQG PRLP LHG VGPGHE1QGV FM
V1 GHGQP PMJGI OW 1QWOHELP1OQY
hY W gG LHG U1NGQ L IKOJG v LQV L JO1QP P ú e ú `
ú OQ PRG K1QGT PRG GtDLP1OQ OW PRG K1QG
PRHODUR P ú g1PR IKOJG v 1I VGPGHE1QGV FM PRG WLSP PRLP 1W P e`
1I LQOPRGH JO1QP OQ
ab
PRG K1QGT PRG IKOJG FGPgGGQ LQM PgO JO1QPI EDIP FG v Y
O PRG GtDLP1OQ OW PRG K1QG 1I
v ] øø [[ T gR1SR I1EJK1 GI PO
ú v e q e ú n
q
]
a
A¶º D B »ñ M ´¼@B
jRG I1EJKGIP LJJHOLSR PO VHLg1QU PRG UHLJR OW L K1QG 1I PO QV PgO JO1QPI OQ PRG
K1QG LQV VHLg L IPHL1URP K1QG PRHODUR PRGEY [ JO1QP OQ PRG K1QG SLQ FG VGPGHE1QGV FM
SROOI1QU L NLKDG WOH e LQV DI1QU PRG GtDLP1OQ OW PRG K1QG PO QV PRG SOHHGIJOQV1QU NLKDG
WOH
Y
Ϫ
|GPSR PRG UHLJR OW PRG K1QG
] ë e q bY
W e ] rT PRGQ
] qbY W e ] aT PRGQ
] qmYî
O PRG JO1QPI r` qb LQV a` qm LHG
OQ PRG K1QGT LQV PRG UHLJR 1I IROgQ FGKOgk
1
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
ac
ª 1QV LQ GtDLP1OQ WOH PRG K1QG g1PR
¡1QPGHSGJP a PRLP 1I JGHJGQV1SDKLH PO
PRG K1QG
] _e ¤ mY
jRG IKOJG OW PRG U1NGQ K1QG 1I v ú ] _T IO PRG IKOJG OW PRG VGI1HGV K1QG g1KK FG v Ì ]
q òú ] q Ìú Y jRG GtDLP1OQ OW PRG K1QG g1PR IKOJG q Ìú LQV
¡1QPGHSGJP a 1I
] q Ìú e ¤ aY
[
¸¹@Aµ´B@B
¢R1SR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU LHG WDQSP1OQI è JKL1Q gRM OH gRM QOP 1Q GLSR SLIGY W PRG U1NGQ
HDKG VG QGI L WDQSP1OQT U1NG PRG VOEL1Q OW PRG WDQSP1OQY
hY e ]
IDSR PRLP
ë ] e
_Y e ] «eë q e
mY e ]
IDSR PRLP î
]e
aY jRG HDKG PRLP PL|GI îGLSR MGLH LI 1QJDP LQV U1NGI FLS| PRG LUG 1Q MGLHI MOD gGHG
VDH1QU PRLP SLKGQVLH MGLHY
«Y jRG HDKG PRLP PL|GI LQ LUG 1Q MGLHI LI 1QJDP LQV U1NGI FLS| PRG SLKGQVLH MGLH 1Q
gR1SR MOD gGHG PRLP LUGY
bY jRG HDKG PRLP PL|GI JGOJKG 1Q MODH SKLII LI 1QJDP LQV U1NGI FLS| GLSR JGHIOQêI LUG
1Q MGLHI LP QOOQ OQ
GJPGEFGH aT _rrhY
Y e 1I PRG KLHUGIP JH1EG QDEFGH KGII PRLQ e
1QV PRG VOEL1Q OW GLSR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU WDQSP1OQIY
cY e ] }e ¤ h_
iY e ] \óøÌë
hrY e ] @ ø\ óÌ ë
hhY e ] ó\ ë ï ö
@ øú ø ó
ai
¢R1SR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU UHLJRI HGJHGIGQP WDQSP1OQI è
h_Y hmY
4 6
4
2
2
1 2 3 4
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-2
-2
haY h«Y
-4 -4
4
10
2
5
-2 -1 1 2 -10 -5 5 10
-5
-2
-10
-4
OH GLSR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU J1GSGg1IG WDQSP1OQIT U1NG PRG NLKDG OW e WOH GLSR OW PRG eêI
K1IPGVY
hbY e ] qmT hT _
ú
e ] \ øú
1W e ]y h` qh
h 1W e ] h` qh
hY e ] qhT rT m
_e ¤ h 1W e qh
e ]
me 1W qh e h
_e q h 1W e Ê h
«r
hiY e ] q_T rT hT m
eÌ ¤ m 1W e Ö h
e ]
ú 1W q_ e h
óÌ
e 1W e q_
1QV LQ GtDLP1OQ WOH GLSR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU K1QGIY Q GLSR SLIGT IOKNG PRG GtDLP1OQ WOH
Y
_rY jRG K1QG g1PR IKOJG _ LQV
¡1QPGHSGJP mY
_hY jRG K1QG g1PR IKOJG qïö LQV
¡1QPGHSGJP mY
__Y jRG K1QG PRLP UOGI PRHODUR PRG JO1QPI _Th LQV mT_Y
_mY jRG K1QG PRLP UOGI PRHODUR PRG JO1QPI aT_ LQV bThY
_aY jRG K1QG PRHODUR PRG JO1QP hTr PRLP 1I JLHLKKGK PO PRG K1QG
] ¤ _Y
_«Y jRG K1QG PRLP 1I JLHLKKGK PO
] qe q h LQV UOGI PRHODUR PRG JO1QP î rTaY
_bY jRG K1QG PRLP 1I JGHJGQV1SDKLH PO
] _e LQV RLI
¡1QPGHSGJP «Y
_Y jRG K1QG PRLP 1I JGHJGQV1SDKLH PO
] qme ¤ _ LQV UOGI PRHODUR PRG JO1QP _T_Y
_cY jRG K1QG PRLP 1I JGHJGQV1SDKLH PO
] e ¤ _ LQV 1QPGHIGSPI PRLP K1QG LP PRG ILEG
JO1QP PRLP 1P 1QPGHIGSPI g1PR
] _e ¤ hY
2 HLJR GLSR OW PRG WOKKOg1QU K1QGIY
_iY
] qme ¤ _
mrY
] q Ìú e ¤ h
mhY
] }_e q m
m_Y
q a ] @Ì e
î
«h
4 ã:å ' d 376
[ '
1Q e 1I L IGSOQV¡VGUHGG JOKMQOE1LK gR1SR RLI PRG UGQGHLK WOHE
e Ì ¤ e ¤ ¿n
Q SGHPL1Q SLKSDKDI LJJK1SLP1OQIT gG QGGV PO FG LFKG PO gH1PG tDLVHLP1S GJHGII1OQI LI PRG
IDE OH V1 GHGQSG OW PgO ItDLHGIY jRG JHOSGII WOH VO1QU PR1IT SLKKGV " +
'T 1QNOKNGI HGNGHI1QU PRG JHOSGVDHG WOH ItDLH1QU ODP L F1QOE1LKk
e ¤ Ì ] e Ì ¤ _ e ¤ Ì n
ËGHG 1I LQ GLEJKG PRLP IROgI PRG IPGJI PO WOKKOg gRGQ ] hY
ª õOEJKGPG PRG ItDLHG OQ PRG tDLVHLP1S eÌ ¤ be q «Y
hY 2 HODJ PRG PGHEI SOQPL1Q1QU e LQV eÌY
e Ì ¤ be q « ] e Ì ¤ be q «
_Y jL|G PRG SOGF S1GQP OW eT V1N1VG 1P FM _ LQV ItDLHG PRG HGIDKPY
ìb_í Ì ] m Ì ] i
mY [VV PRG QDEFGH WHOE IPGJ _ 1QI1VG PRG JLHGQPRGIGI LQV IDFPHLSP 1P ODPI1VGY
e Ì ¤ be q « ] e Ì ¤ be ¤ i q « q i
aY ¢H1PG PRG GJHGII1OQ 1QI1VG PRG JLHGQPRGIGI LI L ItDLHG LQV I1EJK1WM PRG QDEGH1SLK
PGHE ODPI1VGY
e Ì ¤ be q « ] e ¤ mÌ q ha
«_
ª õOEJKGPG PRG ItDLHG 1Q PRG GJHGII1OQ
Ì q
¤ _hY
Ì q
¤ _h ]
Ì q
¤ _h
] ì
Ì q
¤ aia í ¤ _h q aia I1QSG ì q_ í Ì ] aia
] ì
q _í Ì ¤ ca qa ai
] ì
q _í Ì ¤ m«a
««
6å ' 4 6 %
CD @ ¼´Ä Z ´Aµ·@
jRG HIP |GM PO DQVGHIPLQV1QU PH1UOQOEGPHM 1I PO |QOg PRG DQ1P S1HSKGY jRG
1I PRG S1HSKG SGQPGHGV LP r`r g1PR HLV1DI hY
(0, 1)
(-1, 0) (1, 0)
õOQI1VGH LQ LQUKG 1Q PRG DQ1P S1HSKGY jRG LQUKG 1I JOI1P1NG 1W 1P 1I EGLIDHGV SODQ¡
(0, -1)
135
-135
jRG LFONG LQUKGI LHG EGLIDHGV DI1QU "
Y [Q LQUKG ELM LKIO FG EGLIDHGV
DI1QU
Y jRG HLV1LQ EGLIDHGEGQP SOHHGIJOQVI PO L V1IPLQSG LHODQV PRG S1HSDE¡
WGHGQSGT T OW PRG DQ1P S1HSKG ] _Y
é GP DI EGLIDHG LQ LHS OQ PRG DQ1P S1HSKG IPLHP1QU LP h`r OW KGQUPR ë LQV GQV1QU LP
L JO1QP P Y W gG VHLg L HLM WHOE PRG OH1U1Q PRHODUR JO1QP P T gG RLNG WOHEGV LQ LQUKG
T gRGHG ] HLV1LQIY
ë
P
π
radians
4
θ
(1,0)
«b
jRG WOKKOg1QU PgO LQUKGI LHG PRG ILEGY
π
45 OR radians
4
jO SOQNGHP HLV1LQI PO VGUHGGI LQV N1SG NGHILT DIG PRG WOKKOg1QU GtDLP1OQY
HLV1LQI ] hcr
ª õOQNGHP mr PO HLV1LQIY
HLV1LQI ] hcr
HLV1LQI ] h
hcr
mr À hcr HLV1LQI ] mr À h
HLV1LQI ] mr
b
ª õOQNGHP ï HLV1LQI PO VGUHGGIY
HLV1LQI ] hcr
c À HLV1LQI ] c À hcr
« «
c HLV1LQI ] _cc
«
«
C A´ »¼»>@ÄA´µ +=¼µÄ´»¼B
õOQI1VGH PRG JO1QP P ] e` gRGHG PRG LQUKG OW EGLIDHG 1QPGHIGSPI PRG DQ1P S1HSKGY
¢G DIG PRG SOOHV1QLPGI e LQV
OW PR1I JO1QP PO VG QG I1 "
OW
Y
(0, 1)
P
(x, y)
(-1, 0) θ (1, 0)
(0, -1)
45
1
1
2
45
1
2
«c
M EON1QU PR1I PH1LQUKG 1QPO PRG DQ1P S1HSKG LQV HGEGEFGH1QU PRLP a« GtDLKI ë
HLV1LQIT gG QV PRLP PRG SOHHGIJOQV1QU JO1QP OQ PRG DQ1P S1HSKG RLI e`
¡SOOHV1QLPGI
ú ` ú Y
@Ì @Ì
1 1
( 2
,
2
)
1
π 1
y=
4 2
1
x=
2
jRDI
I1Q a ]
] }_h LQV SOI a ] e ] }_h n
¢G SLQ QV I1Q T SOI T I1Q ö T LQV SOI ö 1Q L I1E1KLH WLIR1OQ FM QOP1QU PRLP HLV1LQI
GtDLKI br LQV ö HLV1LQI GtDLKI mr Y [ mr ¡br ¡ir PH1LQUKG g1PR L RMJOPGQDIG OW KGQUPR
î î gG QGGVY
h U1NGI DI PRG 1QWOHELP1OQ î
30
1
3
2
60
1
2
«i
3 1
( 2
,
2
)
π
1 1
6 y=
2
x= 3
2
1 3
( 2
,
2
)
1
π 3
y=
3 2
1
x=
2
jRDI
I1Q b ] _h LQV SOI b ] }m_
LQV
I1Q m ] }m_ LQV SOI m ] _h n
Q SLKSDKDIT gG EGLIDHG LQUKGI 1Q T LQV gG OWPGQ DIG PRG PH1U NLKDGI gG XDIP
WODQVT IO 1P g1KK FG RGKJWDK PO EGEOH1p G PRG ¨GQRLQSGV© DQ1P S1HSKG OQ PRG QGP JLUGY
br
( 0 , 1) ( 1
2
, 3
2 )
π
π
2
3
π
( 1
2
, 1
2
)
4
π
( 3 ,
2
1
2 )
6
( -1 , 0 ) ( 1 , 0)
π 0, 2 π
3π
2
( 0 , -1 )
ODH OPRGH PH1UOQOEGPH1S WDQSP1OQI LHG VG QGV DI1QU I1QG LQV SOI1QGY jRGM LHG PRG
0
¨IGS©T
¨SIS©T " ¨PLQ©T LQV " ¨SOP© PH1UOQOEGPH1S
WDQSP1OQIT VG QGV LI WOKKOgIY
IGS ] SOIh SIS ] I1Qh
I1Q
PLQ ] SOI SOP ] PLQh ] SOI
I1Q
1QSG SOI LQV I1Q LHG r WOH IOEG NLKDGI OW T PRG PH1U WDQSP1OQI IGS T SIS T PLQ T
LQV SOP LHG DQVG QGV WOH IOEG NLKDGI OW Y OH EOHG 1QWOHELP1OQT IGG PRG UHLJRI OW
PRG PH1U WDQSP1OQI LP PRG GQV OW PR1I IGSP1OQY
bh
ª 1QV SOP ö Y
SOP b ] SOI
I1Q öö ] ÌÌúî ] } m
@
x<0 x>0
y>0 y>0
II I
(0,0)
x
III IV
x<0 x>0
y<0 y<0
COPG PRLP L JO1QP 1Q DLV g1KK RLNG L QGULP1NG e¡NLKDG LQV L JOI1P1NG ¡NLKDGY jRDIT
SOI1QG 1I QGULP1NG LQV I1QG 1I JOI1P1NG 1Q DLV Y jO HGEGEFGH gR1SR PH1U
WDQSP1OQI LHG
JOI1P1NG 1Q gR1SR tDLVHLQPIT DIG PRG ILM1QUT ¨[KK
PDVGQPI jL|G õLKSDKDIY©
Sin θ All
csc θ
positive positive
Tan θ Cos θ
cot θ sec θ
positive positive
$ª 1QV SOI ë Y
¢G g1KK HIP QV 1Q îgR1SR tDLVHLQP ë K1GIY
î b_
3
π
( 12 ,
2
)
π
2π 2
3
3
π 0, 2 π
III
4π
3 3π
2
1 , 3
(- 2
-
2
)
ßDG PO IMEEGPHMT LQV ë RLNG PRG ILEG SOOHV1QLPGI GSGJP WOH PRG QGULP1NG I1UQIY
jRDI
î î SOI am ] q _h n
bm
C A´ »¼»>@ÄA´µ ù@¼Ä´Ä´@B
jRG WOKKOg1QU PH1UOQOEGPH1S 1VGQP1P1GI g1KK FG DIGWDK 1Q SLKSDKDIY
SOI Ì ¤ I1Q Ì ] h
PLQ Ì ¤ h ] IGS Ì
SOP Ì ¤ h ] SIS Ì
I1Q ¤ ] I1Q SOI ¤ SOI I1Q
I1Q q ] I1Q SOI q SOI I1Q
SOI ¤ ] SOI SOI q I1Q I1Q
SOI q ] SOI SOI ¤ I1Q I1Q
I1Q _ ] _ I1Q SOI
SOI _ ] SOI Ì q I1Q Ì
] _ SOI Ì q h
] h q _ I1Q Ì
SOI Ì ] h ¤ SOI
_
_
I1Q Ì ] h q SOI
_
_
SOI q ] SOI
I1Q q ] q I1Q
#ª
" 0 + 2 1NGQ 1I 1Q DLV LQV SOP ] _T QV PRG NLKDGI
OW PRG HGEL1Q1QU PH1U WDQSP1OQIY
1HIPT SOPLQUGQP LQV PLQUGQP LHG HGS1JHOSLKIT IO
PLQ ] SOPh ] _h n
CGP DIG PRG 1VGQP1PM SOPÌ ¤ h ] SISÌ PO UGP SIS k
SOP Ì ¤ h ] SIS Ì
_ Ì ¤ h ] SIS Ì
SIS ] Î } «
SIS ] q } «
I1QSG 1I 1Q DLV Y
õOIGSLQP LQV I1QG LHG HGS1JHOSLKIT IO
I1Q ] SISh ] q }«h n
àI1QU I1QÌ ¤ SOIÌ ] hT gG UGP
h Ì
SOI Ì ¤ q }« ] h
bb
SOI Ì ] a«
SOI ] Î }«_
SOI ] q }«_
I1QSG 1I 1Q DLV Y
õOI1QG LQV IGSLQP LHG HGS1JHOSLKIT IO
IGS ] SOIh ] q }«_ n
hypotenuse
opposite
θ
adjacent
jR1I U1NGI
OJJOI1PG
I1Q ] RMJOPGQDIG LVXLSGQP
SOI ] RMJOPGQDIG OJJOI1PG
PLQ ] LVXLSGQP
ÂQG SLQ HGEGEFGH PRGIG GtDLP1OQI DI1QU PRG LSHOQME ¨
ÂË õ[Ë jÂ[© gRGHG
]
I1QGT Â ] OJJOI1PGT Ë ] RMJOPGQDIGT õ ] SOI1QGT [ ] LVXLSGQPT LQV j ] PLQUGQPY
Q PRG JHGN1ODI PH1LQUKGT gG LIIDEGV gLI 1Q DLV Y ËOgGNGHT FM DI1QU IMEEGPHMT
gG SLQ LIIDEG 1I 1Q LQM tDLVHLQPY DP FG SLHGWDK OW PRG
2 C
OW PRG PH1U WDQSP1OQI
gRGQ 1I 1Q DLV T T OH V
¢G g1KK QOg gOH| LEJKG « LUL1Q DI1QU ¾GPROV _Y
b
#ª
" 0 + 2 1NGQ 1I 1Q DLV LQV SOP ] _T QV PRG NLKDGI
OW PRG HGEL1Q1QU PH1U WDQSP1OQIY
SOP ] PLQh ] OJJ
LVX ] _
h
¢G PRGQ RLNG PRG WOKKOg1QU PH1LQUKGY
2 2 2
h 1 + 2 = h
1
h = 5
θ
2
CGP QOPG PRLP 1I 1Q DLV Y jRDI
LVX ] q _
SOI ] q RMJ IGS ]
h ] q }«
}« SOI _
I1Q ] q OJJ ]
RMJ }« q h SIS ]
h ] q}«
I1Q
PLQ ] OJJ
LVX _] h
0.5
-0.5
-1
] I1Q e
h
1
0.5
-0.5
] SOI e
-1
10
8
6
4
2
] PLQ e
-10
10
8
6
4
2
] SOP e
-10
_
10
8
6
4
2
¸¹@Aµ´B@B
õRLQUG PO HLV1LQ EGLIDHGk
hY «r _Y h_r mY m« aY qh_
õRLQUG PO VGUHGG EGLIDHGk
«Y qïö bY úïÌ Y cY qÌ
î
î
m
1QV PRG WDQSP1OQ NLKDGIk
iY I1Q ï hrY PLQ ö hhY SIS úúë h_Y SOI qÌ
hmY IGS úúîö haY I1Q q Ì h«Y SOP ïë hbY SOI ïö î !
î
[ WDQSP1OQ NLKDG LQV L tDLVHLQP LHG IJGS1 GVY 1QV PRG OPRGH NG WDQSP1OQ NLKDGIY
!
17
θ
8
a
9 ª 6 « 88 ¬ 234568 áâ6æå
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
mY 1QPGHNLK QOPLP1OQk qa` qh § r`mÁ IGP QOPLP1OQk Ðe q a e qh OH r e mÑ
«Y e ] hT « xx
x
Y e ] q_T qh
² ¸¹º»¼@¼ÄB ¶¼ù ð¶ù´µ¶·B
hY eú û mY m_ «Y hbeë Y a
iY _îî hhY ai hmY h h«Y hr_a
hY e hiY
cî _hY eÌë
Ìô _mY qae ûö
øï û
_ î
_«Y baÌ ¿ _Y m q }heÁ iÌ q he
úö
_iY q_ q e } m ¤
Á a q eÌ m ¤
] a q meÌ q eÌ
³ ( »·) ¼»>´¶·B ¶¼ù +¶µÄ»A´¼
hY _ mY r
«Y _eë q _e Y «eÌ ¤ _ie q b
iY eÌ ¤ ae ¤ a hhY qbeë q _e ¤ «eÌ ¤ e q h
hmY ¿eÌ ¤ ¤ ¿e ¤ h«Y e ¤ meÌ ¤î_e
hY e e ¤ h hiY _eî e ¤ hÌ
«
_hY ae q « ae ¤ « _mY _ q e a ¤ _e ¤ eÌ
_«Y e ¤ m e ¤ i _Y e q a e ¤ _
_iY e q h e ¤ hÌ mhY e ¤ _ e q h eÌ ¤ e ¤ h
mmY e ] qhhT h m«Y e ] Îm
mY e ] ú´Ì@ ï miY e ] _ Î }«
ahY QO HGLK HOOPI amY e]b
a«Y e ] Ìú T q_T m aY e ] qa
aiY e ] Î_T Î}m «hY e ] qmT qhT rT a
b
¶ ¼@ E =¶·´Ä´@B
hY q_`¥ mY Ì `¥ «Y Ìú `¥ !
Y q¥ ` qa § r`¥ iY î ë!
·q_` hhY q¥ ` qa § ·Ì `¥
hmY qa`r h«Y qh`rî ¸ § `¥ hY î !
q¥ `r § m`¥
hiY q¥ ` q_ § «`¥ _hY ·q«` q ú
ï _mY q¥ `r § `¥
¸
º Z »>º·@Ä´¼ Ä D @ U E =¶A@
hY e ¤ «Ì q a«
mY h_ q T ¤ ëú Ì
«Y úïöö q « q úúï Ì
Y i e q hÌ ¤ a
¤ Ìú Ì ] m
iY hb e ¤ _Ì q i
¤ «Ì ] haa
hhY _ e q ëú Ì ¤ _
¤ ëú Ì ] ëï
» C A´ »¼»>@ÄA )
hY ï mY ÌïúÌ
ú
«Y qh«r Y h«n«
iY q @Ì hhY }_
hmY Ìî h«Y h
@
hY SOIî ] qÌ @ Ì T PLQ ] q Ì ú Ì T IGS ] q Ì Ì T SOP ] q_}_T SIS ] m
hiY
@
SOI ] q îúÌö T I1Q ] q ïÌö T IGS ] q}_bT î SIS ] q Ìö T SOP ]
@
@ @
@
ï ïú
c
_hY SOI ] ú T I1Q ] úúï T PLQ ] úï T IGS ] ú T SIS ] úúï T SOP ] úï
_mY ¼ ë ¤ _ w ` ë ¤ _w ` ïë ¤ _ w ` ë ¤ _w ½ OH ¼ ë ¤ çÌ ½
_«Y ¼ ` Ì ` ë ` ïî ½ _Y ¼r``_` Ì ` Ì ½
î î î ö î` úúö ½
_iY ¼r``_` î
i