Professional Documents
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(~ll) -
S
(~ll)
[IOOJ
, (IlP)
P s
_
p
(a )
P [IOOJ
and as - a[JOOl
in which 1[100J and lnll] represent the values for cube edges and the
body diagonals. There is close agreement between the observed
and calculated results of the change in the electrical resistance of
Hon.
The same principle of averaging was also applied to the thermal
expansion (Ot) and the specific resistance (p) of the tetragonal and
hexagonal crystals (678). Integration of the eArpressionrepresent-
ing dependence upon orientation (58/1) gives
11
312 The Properties of Poly crystalline Technical Materials
to the main axis. So far as specific Tesistance is concerned, this
result conflicts with the values obtained earlier. It was pointed out
in (672) that it was preferable to obtain averages for the constants
of conductivity rather than for those of specific resistance, and the
expression for the specific resistance of the random oriented poly-
crystal was stated to be
The conductivity (~) has been averaged over the whole range of
orientation in (679), from which it follows that for p > p-.L
p = 2 V P-.L(P-.L- pll)
1 VP-.L + Vp-.L - pll (S1/4b)
ITV p-.L - V p-.L - pll
for the isotropic solid the relotionships ]{ = ~ - ~ and I-' = 2~- I.. Satis-
faction of these equations is therefore a necessary although inadequate
indication of quasi-isot,·opy.
82. Interpretation of Properties of Technical Components 313
employed. This should be particularly emphasized in respect of
the coefficient of expansion, which in the case of zinc exhibits such
exceptional anisotropy CxiXl = 4'51) . The distortions at the grain
boundaries, which, as the temperature changes, are necessary for
the cohesion of the polycrystal, appear therefore to be confined to
such small areas that their effect can be only slight. A decision
regarding the average values for specific resistance [the values
calculated according to (81/4, a and b) lie between those given in
the table] cannot be reached on the basis of results so far obtained,
especially in view of what has just been said regarding the uncertainty
of the comparative figures.
In (680) Sachs has furnished an important clue for calculating
the plastic properties of quasi-isotropic polycrystals from the be-
haviour of the single crystal. These are arrived at by determining
the ratio of the tensile and torsional yield points of the cubic face-
centred metals. The shear stress law (cf. Section 40) provides the
basis for this calculation. By taking the mean values from graphs
it will be found that the maximum shear stress at the start of
deformation of the polycrystal is, in the tensile test, greater by 12
per cent., and in the torsional test greater by 29 per cent., than the
critical shear strength of the octahedral glide system. From this it
follows that the ratio of the torsional yield point to the tensile yield
point of the polycrystal (measured by the maximum shear stress) is
1·15. This figure agrees well with the direct experimental deter-
minations made on copper and nickel, which showed the effect of
the mean principal stress, and gave for the above ratio an average
figure of 1·125 [(681), (682)). Previously this could be explained
only on the assumption that the energy of deformation represented
a measure of the probability of flow (683).
An attempt to calculate the yield point of cubic and hexagonal
crystals on the basis of an assumed condition of flow of the single
crystal, equivalent to a square function of the stresses, will be found
in (674). (For objections to this type of flow condition in the single
crystal, see Section 40.)
I'll?
.R.
kg.jmm.2
""-DO·
Rec"yslallized
\ \.
Wo R.
\
15"
.70·
r
0"
2Bo,JWR
off/mm'
.?'fOOD
.?/JoOD
16'000
12000
BODO \
}\
fOOD \
\
\ ~JO"
FIG. 219.-The Modulus of Elasticity in Relation to Direction in Cold-rolled
Fe Sheet (691).
WR = rolling direction. QR = transverse direction.
TABLE XXXVII
Dependence of the Strength and Elongation of Recrystallized Sheets
upon Direction
••
318 The Properties of Polycrystalline Technical Materials
the texture; in fact, the cupping test is merely an intricate tensile
test in which the fibres are stretched in all possible directions (694).
In the deep drawing of hollow components the anisotropy of the
sheet will reveal itself in "earing" (" Zipfelbildung") and in a
reduced capacity for deep drawing [aluminium (632), copper (695),
(693), iron (696)].
The zonal type of structure which is characteristic of cold-drawn
wires (cf. Fig. 209) suggests that in different layers of the same wire
TABLE XXXVIII
Directionality of Certain Properties of Zinc Sheets. [Taken
from (637)]
Parallel to the:
Sheet
Property. thickness, Trans-
mm. Rolling Normal
verse di-
direction. direction.
rection.
TABLE XXXIX
Tensile and Comprehensive Yield Point of a Deformed Elektron
Alloy (AZM). [Taken fTOm (703)]
Compressive yield
Yield point (0'2%),
Component. kg·flum.:!,
point (-0·2%),
kg./rnm.2.
12·0 18·0
8·0 8·0
••
TABLE XL
1 H Groystalline Lattice Stmcturoe of the Elements z He
hex. 0
0 Cubic face centred.
5 B GJ Cubic body centred. 7 N 8 0 9 F 10 Ne
Cubic Diamond. kub.hex. rhom~ex 0
~ Hexagonal close packed. D>
b. Hhombohedral. 15 P 16 S 7CL 18 AT' r-o
kub. b. rhomb. 0 r-o
w trj
'''' 31 Ga 3Z Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 KT'
'''' rhomb. ~ /:::,. 0hex.mo Z
0
9 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 J 54 X H
fetr. ~ telr. b. hex. rhomb 0 fx1
76 Os 81 Tt 82 Pb B3 Bi B4 Po 85 B6 Em
° 0", ~O /:::,.
B7
Appendix 323
TABLE XLI
Para- Parameter,· A.
Metal. J~attice typc. meter,' )letal. Latticc type. I
A.
a. c.
--- ----------
Al
y-Fe i 1 4·040
3'56
Bc
Mg
1j Hcxagonal close
2·281
3·202
3·577
5·199
I
J3-Co 3·54 a-Co 2·51 4·07
Ni 3·517 Zn packed ,,13 2,659 4·935
Pd 3·881 Cd 2·974 5,606
Pt C"'<o
centred '-Al t 3·915
Cu 3·608 u-Sn Cubic face-centred 6·46
Ag 4·078 (diamond) ,,14
All 4·070 --- ------
Pb 4·939 /3-Sn Tetragonal body- 5·819 3·175
centred ,,15
TABLE XLII
NaI
]~F
KC! l Rock salt Bl
6'46
5·33
6·28
:\fIAs
XiS
} Nickel Arsenide
118 (hexagonal)
3·61
3·42
5-03
5'30
KBr
KI
RbCI
NIT,I
lIIgO
j ' "' "' 6·59
7'0:>
6·54
7·24
4·20
CaF,
TiO,
Fluorspar
(cubic)
Rutile, C4
(tetragonal)
Cl 5'451
4·58
-
2·95
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••
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271. O. Raase and E. Schmid, "Reciprocal Effect of Glide and Twinning
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•
334 Bibliography
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299. 'V. Fahrenhorst and E. Schmidt, "Zn; Change of the :YIechanical
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375. J. Czochralski, "Disappearance of the Capacity for Etching after
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376. G. Borelius, "Thermo-electric Force, AI, Ni, Cu, Ag, Au, Fe ", Ann.
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G. RE CRYSTALLIZATION
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410. G. Sachs, "Recrystallization after Torsion and Reverse Torsion, AJ ",
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411. P. Beck and M. Polanyi, "Recrystallization after Bending and Back
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412. H. J. Gough, D. Hanson and S. J. \Vright, "Reverse Deformation
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413. R. l(arnop and G. Sachs, " Recrystallization of Al after Stretching and
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z
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after Heavy Deformation. Grain Growth ", Z. Physik, 1929, 54,
74.
427. \V. G. Burgers, "Recrystallization of Compressed and RoJled Al
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428. \V. G. Burgers and P. C. Louwerse, "HecrystaJlization of Compressed
and Rolled Al Crystals ", Z. Physi7c, 1931,67, 605.
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INDEX
ALLOYING,effect of, on cl'itical normal on galvanic potential, 203; on
stress 174· on critical shear stress hardening, 120; on heat of com-
133; 'on hardness, 133, 174; o~ bustion, 203; on heat of solution,
yield-stress curve, 139 203; on internal energy, 203, 205;
Alternating stressing, 181, 317 on lattice, 195, 252; on magnetic
- - hardening due to, 185 properties, 206; on modulus of
- - softening due to, 187 elasticity, 202, 254; on modulus of
Alternating torsion, hardness in- shear, 202; on phase transforma-
creased by, 187 tion speed, 207; on physical and
- - recovery after, 189 chemical properties, 190, 201; on
" Amorphous" plasticity, 284 resistance to chemical attack, 206;
An isotropy, 1, 192 on specific heat, 203
Annealing, critical normal stress Coloration of alloys, changed by cold
affected by, 244 working, 206; of ionic crystals by
- critical shear stress affected by, il'l'adiation, 255
116, 237 Compressibility, dependence of, on
- lattice disturbances eliminated by, orientation, 20
222 Compression of alkali halide crystals,
- softening due to, 223 240
Asterism, 196, 234 - by simple glide, 62, 90
Atomic arrangement, effect of, on Compressive texture, 298
critical shear stress, 138; on yield- Concealed elastic stresses, 315
s tress curve, 144 Conductivity, electrolytic, 256, 264
Atomic migration, 281 - thermal, 194, 204
- - plasticity, 284 Conical fibre texture, 296
Corrosion fatigue, 182
Back-reflexion photography, 48 Corrosion resistance, effect of cold
Band formation through glidc, 56 working on. 206
Bauschinger effect, 180, 241, 315 - - dependent on texture, 319
Bending, glide, 280 Cracks (notch effect), 271
Bending strength of NaCl crystals, Creep strength, 285
247 Creep tests, Al crystals, 160
Bi-crystal, 301 Critical normal stress, effect of
Bragg's equation, 37 additions on, 243, 247; of alloying
Bravais lattice, 3 on, 174; of annealing on, 244; of
Brinell hardness of ionic crystals, 250 cross-sectional area on, 243; of
Broadening of X.ray diffractions, 199, origin on, 243; of previous deform-
253 ation on, 175; of temperature on,
174, 245
Cast structure. 289 - - - of ionic crystals, 244
Casting texture, 294, 305 - - - of metal crystals, 174
Cauchy relations, 17, 311 Critical shear stress, effect of addi-
" Circular" fibre texture, 293 tions on, 236; of alloying on, 133;
Classes, crystal. 2 of annealing on, 116, 237; of
Cleavability, 230 atomic arrangement on. 138; of
Cleavage planes of ionic crystals, 228; method of production on, 115; of
of metal crystals, 85, 168 precipitation on, 139; of speed of
Cleavage types, 231 deformation on, 149; of tempera-
Closeness of packing, effect of, on the tu re on, 145, 237
capacity for glide, 116 - - - of ionic crystals, 238
- - in relation to critical shear - - - Law, 103
stress, 116 - - - of metal crystals, 113
Cold working, effect of, on colora- - - - in relation to closeness of
tion of alloys, 206; on density, packing, 116
202, 251; on diffusion rate, 207; Critical strain, 22
349
350 Index
Cross-section, change during glide, 61 Electrical resistance, ] 94, 204, 311,
Cross-sectional area, effect of, on 319
critical normal stress, 243 Electrolytical conductivity, 256, 264
Crystal classes, 2 Energy (see Internal)
- natural, 275 Expansion, thermal, 195,203,311,319
- orientation, determination of, 34 Extension, formula for double glide,
- production, 22; drawing method, 66; for simple glide, 58; for
31 lnechanical t\"inning, 72
- projection, 8 Extension surface, [28
- recovery, 158 (see also Re-
covery). Fatigue strength, dependenee on
- symmetry, 1; simplifies Hooke's orientation, 188, 317
Law, 15 - - physical definition of, 188
- systems, 2 - - (see also Oorrosion fatigue)
- torsion, 109 Fibre texture, 288
Crystals, work hardening of, 278 __ " circular 'l, 293
Cyclic stressing (see Alternating - - conical, 296
stressing). - - spiral, 297
Filament-extension apparatus (Pol-
Debye-Scherrer rings, 38 anyi), 102
Deformation of the electron shells, 281 Fracture, in alloy erystals, 139
Deformation speed, effect of, on - conditions for cubic metal crystals,
critical sheat· stress, 149; on yield- 129; for hexagonal metal crystals,
stress curve, 155 126
Deformation textures, 299, 305 - along erystallographic planes, 167
Density, change of, produced by cold - duration of process, 169, 247
working, 202, 251 - normal dilatation on, 172
Diffusion rate, increased by cold - planes (see Oleavage planes)
working, 207 - Sohncke's Norm"l Stress Law, 169,
Dilatation (normal) on fracture, 172 241
- - at the yield point, 270 Fraeture surface of the zinc crystal,
Dislocations, 274, 278 173
Dodecahedral glide, 229
Double glide, 64 Galvanic potential, effect of cold
- - extension formula, 66 working, 203
Double refraction due to stress, 232 Gas, release of, dUI'ing heat treatment,
Drawing method of crystal produc- 225
tion (Czochralski), 31 Glide, band formation, 56
Drawing texture, 298 - bands, 56, 259, 261
Duration of fracture process, 169, 247 - - spurious, 68
- bending, 280
Elastic after-effect, 179, 24[, 281, 315 - ehange of eross-section during, 61 ;
Elasticity coefficients (Si.) of ion ic of orientation due to, 57, 66, 77, 88
crystals, 252; of metal crystals, 191 - cubic, in NaCl crystals, 229, 258
Elasticity, modulus of, 20 - dodecahedral, 229
- - calculation for the polycrystal, - double, 64
309 - - extension formula, 66
- - dependent on crystal orienta- - effect of, on twinning, 164
tion. 20, 193; on texture, 316 - effect of closencss of packing on,
- - effect of cold working on, 202, 116; of temperature on, 145
254 - indices transformed during, 63
- - matrices of the Cik for erystal - initiation of, 103, 231
classes, 15 - jerky, 120
Elastic parameters of crystals, 20, - octahedral, 87
191, 252 - physical description of, 161
Elastic shear strain, at the yield - in polycrystals, 302
point, 114, 270 - secondary in twin lamellro, 99
- - - when twinning, 164, 229 - shear coefficient, 114
Elastic stresses, eoncealed (Hpyn's), - - hardcning of latent systems,
315 124, 142
Index 351
Glide, simple, 57 Lattice, 1
- - compression by, 62, 90 - Bravais, 3
- - extension formula, 58 - changes due to cold working, 195,
- speed, 145, 155 252
- strain, 58 - dimensions, 323
- termination of, 126 - - of some solid solutions, 134
Gliding elements, determination of, 77 - disturbances, elimination by heat
- - ionic crystals, 228 treatment, 222
- - metal crystals, 84 - energy, 266
Gliding, model of, 55 - structure of the elements, 322
Goniometer, X-rays, 44 - types, 36
Grain boundary effect, 303 - vacant sites, 271
Grain growth, 26, 220 Laue Method, 47
Layer Lines (Polanyi), 41
Hardening, due to alloying, 133, 174; Lengthening of the X-ray reflex ions,
to alternating stressing, 185; to 196
cold working, 120; to damaging of
the crystal, 274; to precipitation, :\1agnetie properties, calculation for
139; to twinning, 164 polyerystals,311
- shear, 120 - - effect of cold working on, 206
- - of latent glide systems, 124, l\latthiessen Law, 206
142 :Uaximwn load condition for cubic
- - due to twinning, 166 crystals, 130
- wod" capacity of Mg solid solu- Maximum lustre, 34
tion for, 142 Mechanical properties, dependence on
- - of crystals, 278 texture, 3 J7, 318
Hardness, increased by alternating :\liller Indices, 4 (see also Indices)
torsion (AI crystals), J87 l\lodels, cubic crystals, 242
- methods for determining, 248 - gliding, 55
- Mohs' scale, 249 - Te crystal, 17J
- pendulum test, 251 - twinning, 69
- scratch, 249, 264 - Zn crystal (-185° C.), 173
- (see also Brinell hal'dness) - (see also Swjace)
Heat of combustion, changed by cold Modulus of elasticity (see Elasticity)
working, 203; of solution, changed - shear (see Shear)
by cold working, 203 Mohs' hardness scale, 249
Heyn's concealed elastic stresses, 315 :\losaie texture, 275
- residual stresses, 199
Hooke's Law, 14 Natural el'ystal, 275
- - simplified owing to crystal sym- Normal dilatation on fracture, 172
metry, 15 - - at the yield point, 270
Hysteresis, 179, 241, 281, 316 Normal stress Law (80I1ncke), 169,
241, 273
Indices, Miller, 4 - - recovery, 179
- transformation to new axes, 12 ~otch effect, 271
- - during glide, 63 - - (cracks), 271
- - - twinning, 74
Inhomogeneity in crystals, 271, 276 Oblique photographs, 40, 291
- of textures, 294 Octahedral glide (normal case of cubic
Intensity changes in the X-ray face-centred crystals), 87
diagrams of deformed crystals, 201, Orientation, change due to glide, 57,
254 66,77, 88; due to twinning, 97
Internal energy, changed by cold -determination of, in crystals, 34
working, 203, 205 -determined by reflexions, 35; by
Internal sepat'ation planes, 280 rotating-crystal method, 44
Internal stresscs in deformed ionic - effect on compressibility, 20; on
crystals, 233, 253 fatigue strength, 188, 317; on
Interplanar spacing, 13 modulus of elasticity, 20, 193; on
shear n:lodulus, 21, 193; on stress-
J offa effect, 259 strain curves of metal crystals,
352 Index
119; on tensile strength, 169,241; Scratch hardness, 249, 264
on tensile yield point, 105. 235; on Secondary glide (in twin lamelhe), 99
torsional yield point, III " Sccondary " structure, 276
Shenl', coefficient in the glide system,
Pendulum hardness test, 251 114
Phase transformation, speed of, in- - hardening, 120
ereased by eold working, 207 - - of latent glide systcms, 124,
Photographs, baek.l'eflexion, 48 142
- oblique, 40, 291 - - due to twinning, 1.66
Pintsch wil'es, 26 - t'Ocipl'Ocal, 95
Plasticity, amorphous, 284 - strain (sce Elastic)
- atomic migration, 284 - strain(s), 72
- limits of ionic crystal, 232 - strength, theoretical, 269, 273
Plastic yield surface of the cubic crys- - Stress Law, 105, 235
tal, 117; of the hexagonal crystal, - stress recovery, 158. 179
118, 173; of the NaCI crystal, 235 - types 1 and 2, 7:';
Poisson's ratio, 17, 19, 311 Shear modulus, 20
Polanyi filament·extension apparatus, - - calculated for polycrystals, 309
102 - - dependent on crystal orienta-
Polanyi layer lines, 41 tion, 21, 193
Polar reflexion chart, ;)1 - - effect of cold working on, 202
Pole figure representation, 29l Simple glide, 57
Polycrystal, deformation due to - - compression by, 62, 90
stretching of the individual grain, - - extension formula, 58
301 Softening due to alternating stressing,
- quasi-isotropic, 308 187; to annealing, 223; to erystal
Potential. galvanic, change due to recovery, 179
cold working, 203 Sohncke's Normal Stress Law, 16D,
241, 273
Quasi-isotropic condition, 313 Solution, heat of, effect of cold work-
- - polycrystal, 308 ing on, 203
- rate of, 194, 203, 256
Hate of solution, 194, 203, 256 Spnce groups, 2
Reciprocal shear, 95 Space lattice, 1
Hecovery, 158, 216, 224, 257, 277 Specific heat, change due to cold
- after alternating torsion, 189 working, 203
- diagram, 158 Spherical projection, 8
- normal stress, 179 Spiral .fibre texture, 297
- shear stress, 158, 179 Stereographic projection, 9
Recrystal1ization, atomic migration Strain strengthening, 175
plasticity, 281 Strength, calculation for' ion ic crystals,
- diagram, 216, 283 266
- nuclei, 208 Stress-strain curves of metal crystals
- speed of, 214, 257 after cyclic stressing, 189; depend-
- temperatLIJ'e, 282 ence on orientation, lID
- texture, 219, 300, 308 - - of NaCI crystals, 232, 240
Heflexion, circle of, 37, 291 Structurally sensitive and insensiti'-e
- polar. chart. 51 properties, 207, 271
Heflexions, optical, for determining Surface, extension, 128
orientation, 3.~ - fracture, zinc crystal, 173
Residual stress (Heyn's). 199 - plastic yield, Al crystal, 117
Resistance, electrical, 194, 204, 311, - - - hexagonal crystal, 118, 173
319 - - - NaCI crystal, 235
- to chemical attack, limits of, - tensile strength, cubic crystal, 242
changed by cold working, 206 - - - Te crystal, 171
HoLIing textme, 291, 299 - - - Zn crystal, 173
]~ose's channels, 9.~, 201 - ultimate tensile stress, 128
Hotating-crystal method, 37, 44 Susceptibility, 192
Symmetry, crystal,
Schopper tensilc testing machine, 101 - operations, 2
Index 353
Tensile strength, dependent on Twinning elements, determination of,
orientation, 169, 241 90
- - effect of crystal recovery on, 179 - - of ionic crystals, 228
- - model of cubic crystal, 242; - - of metal crystals, 94
of Te crystal, 171; of Zn crystal
(-185° C.), 173 Ultimate tensile stress of cubic metal
- - theoretical, 266, 272 crystals, 129
Tensile tcsting machine (Schopper), - - - surface, 128.
101 Ultra-red absorption of wetted NaCl
Texture, 287, 305, 316 crystals, 264
- casting, 294, 305 Undistorted planes, 71
- compressive, 298 Unit cells, 3
- conical fibre, 296 Unit volume, 13
- corrosion resistance dependent on, Unstretched cone, 83
319
- deformation, 299, 305 Vacant latticc sites, 271
- drawing, 298
- fibre, 288 Work of deformation, hexagonal
- inhomogeneity of, 294 metal crystals, 127, 141, 154
- mechanical properties dependent Work hardening capacity of the Mg
on, 317, 318 solid solution, 142
- modulus of elasticity dependent Work hardening of crystals, 278
on, 316 Wulff's net, 11
- mosaic, 275
- recrysta.Ilisation, 219, 300, 308 X-rays, back-reftexion photography,
- rolling, 291, 299 48
- spiral fibre, 297 - broadening of diffractions, 199,253
- torsional, 298 - diffraction by crystal lattices, 35
- yield point of polycrystals depend. - double refraction due to stress, 232
ent on, 320 - goniometer, 44
Theoretical shear strength, 269, 273 - intensity changes in the diagrams
Thermal conductivity, 194, 204 of deformed crystals, 201, 254
Thermal expansion, 195, 203, 311, 319 - Laue Method, 47
Thermoelectric force, 195, 204 - layer-line diagrams, 41
Thomson effect, 195 -lengthening of the reftexions, 196
Torsion of crystals, 109 - oblique photographs, 40, 291
Torsion, stress analysis, 109 - rotating-crystal method, 37, 44
Torsional strength of NaCI crystals,
248 Yield condition, quadratic function
- texture, 298 for crystals, 108
Transformation, speed of, 215 Yield point, of crystals, 103, 232
- - increased by cold working, 207 - - dependent on the section, 109,
Twinning, 69 236
- condition for, 74, 162 - - elastic shear strain at the, 114,
- effect of previous glide on, 164; 270 .
of temperature on, 164 - - of polycrystals dependent on
- elastic shear strain, 164, 239 texture, 320
- extension formula for mechanical, - - - in tension and torsion, 313
72 - - tensile, dependent on orienta·
- hardening due to, 164 tion, 105, 235
- indices transformed during, 74 - - torsional dependent on orienta·
- initiation of, 162 tion, III
- mechanical, 96 Yield-stress curve, 118, 124
- model, 69 - - effect of alloying on, 139; of
- orientation, change due to, 97 atomic arrangement on, 144; of
- in the polycrystal, 303 deformation speed on, 155
- secondary glide in twin lamelloo, 99
- shear harc1ening due to, 166 Zone, crystallographic, 8
- shear types 1 and 2, 75 - circlc in the Laue diagram, 48