Curves and Surfaces: CMPT 361 Introduction To Computer Graphics Torsten Möller

Curves and Surfaces
CMPT 361
Introduction to Computer Graphics
Torsten Möller
© Machiraju/Zhang/Möller
Rendering Pipeline
Hardware
Modelling Transform Visibility
Illumination +
Shading
Texture/
Perception,
Color Realism
Interaction
Reading
• Angel – Chapter 10
• Foley et al. - Chapter 11
3
Today
• Polynomials
• Parametric representation
• Fairness vs. smoothness
• Parametric vs. geometric continuity
• Hermite spline
• Bezier spline
• B-Spline
• Surfaces
• Subdivision © Machiraju/Zhang/Möller 4
Filling a gap …
• So far, we have focused on lines, flat
polygons, and simple objects, e.g., spheres
• Missing: freeform curves and surfaces
• Although smooth curves and surfaces are
converted to polygonal curves and meshes
when rendered, they still provide a good
option for modeling
• We follow the text loosely
© Machiraju/Zhang/Möller [Zorin 01]

5
Why curves and surfaces?
• Natural to use for modeling of smooth shapes,
e.g.,
– Body of an automobile
– Shape of cartoon characters (Shrek)
– Motion curves in animation, etc.
• Smoothness can often be http://www.shrek2.com/
guaranteed analytically
• Compact (analytical) representation
• Theory of smooth curves and surfaces, e.g.,
from calculus and differential geometry, is well-
developed 6
Polynomial curves and surfaces
• In computer graphics, we prefer curves and
surfaces represented by polynomials
– Approximation power: Can approximate any
continuous function to any accuracy
(Weierstrass’s Theorem)
– Can offer local control for shape design through
the use of piecewise polynomials
– All derivatives and integrals are available
(infinitely smooth) and easy to compute
– Compact representation
– Efficient evaluation – e.g., Horner’s rule
7
Horner’s rule
• Consider a cubic polynomial
b(t) = at3 + bt2 + ct + d
• Straightforward way to evaluate b(t) takes 6
multiplications and 3 additions
• Horner’s Rule:
b(t) = ((a * t + b) * t + c) * t + d
• It takes 3 additions and 3 multiplications. In
general, n +’s and n *’s for polynomial with
degree = n. © Machiraju/Zhang/Möller
8
Curve & surface representation
• Explicit: y = f(x), z = f(x, y)
• Implicit (level-set): f(x,y) = 0, f(x, y, z) = 0
• Parametric:
– 2D planar curve segment:
(x(t), y(t)), t ∈[0, 1]
– 3D space curve segment:
(x(t), y(t), z(t)), t ∈[0, 1]
– 3D parametric surface patch:
(x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)), u, v ∈[0, 1]
9
Basis Functions
http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~petersd/interp.html
10
Piecewise polynomial curves
• Consider the problem of polynomial
interpolation:
High-degree
interpolation
Piece-wise cubic
interpolation
11
Today
• Polynomials
• Hermite spline
• Bezier spline
• B-Spline
• Surfaces
Fairness vs. smoothness
• Smoothness of curves and surfaces:
– Local property: often achieved by design
– Related to existence and continuity of various
derivatives,
– e.g., f(x) = 3x100 – 9x2 + … + 1 is infinitely smooth,
but is it “visually pleasing”?
• Fairness (often appears in CAGD literature)
– Global property: often achieved by some form of
energy minimization
– Related to the “energy” of a curve or surface
– e.g., f(x) = 3x100 – 9x2 + … + 1 has high bending
energy, and is not© Machiraju/Zhang/Möller
very visually pleasing 13
Parametric cubic curves
• Let us focus on parametric curves for now
• Generalization to surfaces is quite straightforward
• Questions: what degree (of the polynomials) to
use?
– Degree 0 – 2 (constant, linear, or quadratic): often has
too little flexibility
– High-degree: unnecessarily complex and easy to
introduce undesirable wiggles (most objects we want
to model using curves and surfaces are somewhat
fair) – fairness vs. smoothness
– Most commonly used in graphics: parametric cubic
(degree-3) curves and surfaces 14
Parametric cubic segment
• Consider a single piece:
x(t) = a3t3 + a2t2 + a1t + a0
y(t) = b3t3 + b2t2 + b1t + b0
z(t) = c3t3 + c2t2 + c1t + c0
• In matrix form:
• T is said to be the monomial basis

15
Derivatives and continuity
• 1st-order derivative of (x(t), y(t)): (x’(t), y’(t)) –
tangent
• 2nd-order derivative: (x’’(t), y’’(t)) – related to

curvature
• Parametric continuity of a curve (smoothness of
motion):
– C0 continuous: curve is joined or connected
– C1: requires C0 & 1st-order derivative is continuous
– C2: requires C0 & C1 & 2nd-order derivative is cont.
– C : requires C & … & Cn–1 & nth derivative cont.
n 0 16
Continuity of piecewise
polynomials
• A single polynomial segment is always C∞
• But we mostly deal with piecewise polynomial
curves
• Key: what happens at the joints between segments
– C0: curve segments are connected
– C1: C0 & 1st-order derivatives agree at joints
– C2: C0 & C1 & 2nd-order derivative agree at joints, etc.
• If Ci is not possible to enforce, can relax a bit
– “Visual” smoothness: direction of tangents stays the
same but magnitude (speed) may change
17
Geometric continuity
• geometric continuity
– G0 cont.: curve segments are connected (same as C0)
– G1: G0 & 1st-order derivatives are proportional at joints.
– Note:
• Proportional = same direction but may have different
magnitudes
• Weaker than C1
– G2: G1 & 2nd-order derivative proportional at joints
• Example: p(t) = (3t, t3) and q(t) = (4t+3, 2t2+4t+1)
with t ∈ [0, 1] for each. Is this C0, G1, and/or C1?
– p(1)=q(0)=(3,1), so G0; p’(1)=(3,3) and q’(0)=(4,4), so
1 1 © Machiraju/Zhang/Möller
G not C 18
On to curve design
• We want to design piecewise cubic polynomial curves
that satisfy certain design constraints, e.g.,
– Curve should pass through certain points
– Curve should have some given derivatives at specific points
– Curve should be smooth: G1, C1, C2, or …
– Curve must be contained in certain area, or has at most this
length, etc.
• Need proper basis functions to facilitate design process
• These basis functions or blending functions blend
together the individual contributions of the control
points
19
Basis of cubic polynomials
• Monomial basis: {1, t, t2, t3}, is only one
possibility
• Recall basis:
x(t) = P1b1(t) + P2b2(t) + P3b3(t) + P4b4(t)
• From design point of view, want P1, P2, P3, and P4
to represent observable quantities, e.g.,
– Position: for interpolation
– Derivatives: to control direction and smoothness, etc.
• i.e., they are control points
• Control points are blended by the basis functions;
they control the shape of the curve 20
Ex. 1: Hermite curves
• Defined by two points (P1 and P4) and two
tangents (R1 and R4) R 1
P
• Aim: Achieve C or G continuity
1 1 4
• Want cubic curve x(t), P 1

R 4
t ∈ [0, 1], such that Let us note that the

(y and z are similar) control “points” P1,
P4, R1, and R4 are
– x(0) = P1 all observable
quantities and they
– x(1) = P4 control the shape of
– x’(0) = R1 the curve
– x’(1) = R4 21
Cubic Hermite curves
• x(t) = TA = a3t3 + a2t2 + a1t + a0, where T =
[t3 t2 t 1] and A = [a3 a2 a1 a0]T. We want
• So G = BA and thus A = B–1G

• It follows that x(t) = TA = TB–1G = HG
22
Hermite curves
• How to interpret this: x(t) = TA = TB–1G = HG
– G is a vector of observables or control points
– H is vector of cubic Hermite bases (blending
polynomials)
– For any G, use H to blend four control points to get

curve x(t)
– The matrix Mhermite = B–1 is really a change of basis
matrix: it changes the monomial basis T into the
Hermite basis H
– Hermite curves are completely determined by
Mhermite 23
The cubic Hermite matrix
24
Piecewise Hermite curves
• Can obviously enforce C1 or G1 continuity
at the joints
R1 R’4
P4 = P’1
P’4
P1
R4 = kR’1
• Each segment parameterized over [0, 1], as

usual
25
Today
• Polynomials
• Hermite spline
• Bezier spline
• B-Spline
• Surfaces
Ex. 2: Cubic Bézier curve
• Defined by four control points P0, P1, P2, and P3
– x(0) = P0
– x(1) = P3
– x’(0) = 3(P1 – P0)
– x’(1) = 3(P3 – P2)
• Convex hull property: Bézier curve lies within
the convex hull of the four control points –
good control
• Convex hull of a set of points on the plane:
tightest convex polygon enclosing the set
27
Convex hull property
• A cubic curve satisfies the convex hull property if
it lies within the convex hull of its four control
points
• Convex hull property is satisfied if and only if the
basis polynomials B1(t), B2(t), B3(t), B4(t) satisfy:
– 1. 0 ≤ B1(t), B2(t), B3(t), B4(t) ≤ 1 for t ∈ [0, 1], and
– 2. B1(t) + B2(t) + B3(t) + B4(t) = 1
• Then each point of the curve is a convex
combination of the control points
• The basis Bi(t) form a partition of unity
28
The cubic Bézier matrix
29
Bézier basis polynomials
– B0(t) = (1 – t)3, B1(t) = 3t(1 – t)2,
– B2(t) = 3t2(1 – t), B3(t) = t3
• Well known as the Bernstein Polynomials of
degree 3
• Bernstein polynomials of degree n
• We have
• Partition of unity easy to see:
Σi Bi(t) = [t + (1 – t)]n
30
Piecewise Bézier curves
• How to ensure C1 or G1 continuity for a
piecewise Bézier curve?
• Each segment is parameterized over [0, 1]
as usual P2
P6
P1
P3
P0 P5
P4
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~min/cs426/jar/bezier.html
31
Ex 3. Cubic B-Spline curves
• Most popular choice in computer graphics
• They are C2 continuous – this beats Hermite
and Bézier curves in terms of smoothness
• The theory of B-splines is very rich
• NURBS: nonuniform rational B-splines
– Each component is rational: x(t)/w(t), etc.
– Can be used to specify circles, etc.
32
Cubic B-Spline curves
• Each cubic B-spline segment is specified by
four control points
• Has the convex hull property
• The cubic B-spline matrix:
33
Piecewise cubic B-splines
• Two consecutive segments share three control
points
• m control points → m – 3 segments
• Each segment parameterized over [0, 1] as usual
• Exercise: what if control points repeat? P8
P6 C5
P2 P4 C3
P1 C1 P5 C4 P7
C2
P3
• http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~cs234325/Applets/applets/bspline/GermanApplet.html 34
From curves to surfaces
• One easy way: sweep a curve whose control
points also trace out some curves, e.g., bilinear
interpolation
• Fit the simplest surface
between four points
• Sweep a straight line and each
bilinear interpolation
point on the line traces a
straight line
• Example of a ruled surface
• Also an example of the more general class of
tensor-product surfaces
35
Tensor-product (TP) surfaces
• The curve to sweep:
• Control point ai goes through a curve
• The resulting surface is a tensor-product

surface
• Surface is controlled by the grid of control

points Pij
36
Ex. 1: TP cubic Bézier patch
• The Bi(u)Bj(v)’s form a basis for bi-cubic

polynomials
• They also form a partition of unity — the patch lies
within the convex hull of the 16 control points Pij
• Patch can be seen as generated by sweeping a
Bézier curve where each point on the curve sweeps
out a Bézier curve
• The four corner vertices are interpolated (easy to
see?) 37
Cubic Bézier surface patch
[Angel 02]
In matrix form:
http://www.math.psu.edu/dlittle/java/parametricequations/beziersurfaces/index.html
38
Ex. 2: TP cubic B-spline
surfaces
• Analogues extension
of B-spline curves
• N(u) and N(v) are the
cubic B-spline bases
• 16 control points per
bi-cubic B-spline patch
• Satisfy the convex hull
property
39
Smoothness of Bézier surface
• G1 continuity: make 2-sets of 4 control
points on either side of an edge collinear
• C1 continuity: collinear and equally spaced
Collinear control points

near patch boundary 40
Smoothness of B-spline
surface
• C2 continuity is achieved if adjacent patches
share control points
41
Today
• Polynomials
• Hermite spline
• Bezier spline
• B-Spline
• Surfaces
deCasteljau Recursion
• We can use the convex hull property of
Bezier curves to obtain an efficient
recursive method that does not require any
function evaluations
– Uses only the values at the control points
• Based on the idea that “any polynomial and
any part of a polynomial is a Bezier
polynomial for properly chosen control
data”
43
Splitting a Cubic Bezier
• p0, p1, p2, p3 determine a cubic Bezier
polynomial and its convex hull
Consider left half l(u) and right half r(u)

44
l(u) and r(u)
• Since l(u) and r(u) are Bezier curves, we
should be able to find two sets of control
points {l0, l1, l2, l3} and {r0, r1, r2, r3} that
determine them
45
Convex Hulls
• {l0, l1, l2, l3} and {r0, r1, r2, r3} each have a convex hull that
that is closer to p(u) than the convex hull of {p0, p1, p2, p3}
This is known as the variation diminishing property.
• The polyline from l0 to l3 (= r0) to r3 is an approximation to
p(u). Repeating recursively we get better approximations.
46
Equations
• Start with Bezier equations p(u)=uTMBp
• l(u) must interpolate p(0) and p(1/2)
l(0) = l0 = p0
l(1) = l3 = p(1/2) = 1/8( p0 +3 p1 +3 p2 + p3 )
• Matching slopes, taking into account that l(u)

and r(u) only go over half the distance as p(u)
l’(0) = 3(l1 - l0) = p’(0) = 3/2(p1 - p0 )
l’(1) = 3(l3 – l2) = p’(1/2) = 3/8(- p0 - p1+ p2 + p3)
• Symmetric equations hold for r(u)

47
Efficient Form
l0 = p0
r3 = p3
l1 = ½(p0 + p1)
r1 = ½(p2 + p3)
l2 = ½(l1 + ½( p1 + p2))
r1 = ½(r2 + ½( p1 + p2))
l3 = r0 = ½(l2 + r1)
Requires only shifts and adds!
48
Every Curve is a Bezier Curve
• We can render a given polynomial using the
recursive method if we find control points
for its representation as a Bezier curve
• Suppose that p(u) is given as an
interpolating curve with control points q
p(u)=uTMIq
• There exist Bezier control points p such that
p(u)=uTMBp
• Equating and solving, we find

p=M B
-1M
I
49
Matrices
Interpolating to Bezier
B-Spline to Bezier
50
Example
• These three curves were all generated from
the same original data using Bezier
recursion by converting all control point
data to Bezier control points
Bezier Interpolating B Spline
51
Surfaces
• Can apply the recursive method to surfaces if we
recall that for a Bezier patch curves of constant u (or
v) are Bezier curves in u (or v)
• First subdivide in u
– Process creates new points
– Some of the original points are discarded
original and discarded
original and kept

new
– 52
Second Subdivision
16 final points for

1 of 4 patches created
53
Normals
• For rendering we need the normals if we
want to shade
– Can compute from parametric equations
– Can use vertices of corner points to determine

– OpenGL can compute automatically
54
Utah Teapot
• Most famous data set in computer graphics
• Widely available as a list of 306 3D vertices
and the indices that define 32 Bezier patches
55
Subdivision Schemes
• In order to draw a curve we need to find
points on it:
• first idea - go step by step, i.e.:
56
Subdivision Schemes
• Same for surfaces:
• How can we find those new points?

• What about triangles/arbitrary polygons?
57
Subdivision Schemes (2)
58
Loop
• Guaranteed to be smooth everywhere except
at extraordinary vertices
• Face Split
• Triangular
meshes
• approximating
59
Loop (2)
60
Loop - Boundary
• Subdivision Mask for
Boundary Conditions
Edge Rule Vertex Rule
61
Modified Butterfly
• Face Split
• Triangular
meshes
• interpolating
62
Catmull-Clark
• Face Split
• Quad. Meshes
(extents to
arbitrary)
• approximating
• Masks for odd vertices
63
Catmull-Clark (2)
• Face Split
• Quad. Meshes
(extents to
arbitrary)
• approximating
• Masks for even vertices
64
Catmull-Clark (2)
FACE
EDGE
VERTEX
65
Kobbelt
• Face Split
• Quad. Meshes
• interpolating
66
Kobbelt (2)
• Mask for face vertex
adjacent to an
extraordinary vertex.
• Two steps
– The edge vertices
– The face vertex
• the edge odd control
point adjacent to an
extraordinary vertex
67
Doo-Sabin
• Vertex Split
• Quad. Meshes
• interpolating or approximating??
68
Mid-Edge
• Midedge, the simpler version of Doo-Sabin
scheme.
69
Doo-Sabin & Mid-Edge
• The interior rules can be decomposed into a
sequence of averaging steps.
Doo-Sabin scheme
Midedge scheme
70
Subdivision Schemes
Loop Butterfly
Catmull-
Doo-Sabin
Clark
71
Modeling with Subdivision
• Subdivision produces smooth continuous
surfaces.
• How can “sharpness” and creases be controlled
in a modeling environment?
• ANSWER: Define new subdivision rules for
“creased” edges and vertices.
– Tag Edges sharp edges.
– If an edge is sharp, apply
new sharp subdivision rules.
– Otherwise subdivide with
normal rules. © Machiraju/Zhang/Möller 72

Curves and Surfaces: CMPT 361 Introduction To Computer Graphics Torsten Möller

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Curves and Surfaces

Modelling Transform Visibility

© Machiraju/Zhang/Möller [Zorin 01]

• T is said to be the monomial basis

• 2nd-order derivative: (x’’(t), y’’(t)) – related to

• Want cubic curve x(t), P 1

t ∈ [0, 1], such that Let us note that the

• So G = BA and thus A = B–1G

– For any G, use H to blend four control points to get

• Each segment parameterized over [0, 1], as

• The resulting surface is a tensor-product

• Surface is controlled by the grid of control

• The Bi(u)Bj(v)’s form a basis for bi-cubic

Collinear control points

Consider left half l(u) and right half r(u)

• Matching slopes, taking into account that l(u)

• Symmetric equations hold for r(u)

Requires only shifts and adds!

• Equating and solving, we find

Bezier Interpolating B Spline

original and kept

16 final points for

– Can use vertices of corner points to determine

• first idea - go step by step, i.e.:

• How can we find those new points?

Edge Rule Vertex Rule

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