Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoenv

Street dust from a heavily-populated and industrialized city: Evaluation of T

spatial distribution, origins, pollution, ecological risks and human health
repercussions
⁎
R. Urrutia-Goyesa, N. Hernandezb, O. Carrillo-Gamboab, K.D.P. Nigamb,c, N. Ornelas-Sotob,
a
Departamento de Ciencias de la Energía y Mecánica, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Av. Gral. Rumiñahui s/n, P.O. Box 171-5-231B, Sangolqui 171103,
Ecuador
b
Laboratorio de Nanotecnología Ambiental, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey, N.L. 64849, México
c
Department of Chemical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Emissions from vehicles include particles from tire and brake wearing that can settle down and join industrial
Street dust discharges into street dust. Metals present in street dust may create ecological and health threats and their
Heavy metals analysis is of great environmental relevance. The city of Monterrey, Mexico is an industrial pillar of the country
XRF and shows an increasing fleet during the last years, which has yielded higher traffic and emissions. This study
Human health
analyzes 44 street dust samples taken across the city for total element concentrations by using X-ray fluores-
Risk assessment
cence. Associations and indicators are calculated to define possible origins, levels of pollution, natural or an-
thropogenic sources, and ecological and human health risks. High concentrations of As, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, Pb,
Ti, and Zn were found. Main sources of metals were defined as: tire wearing for Zn and Fe; brake wearing for Ba,
Cu, Fe, Pb and Zr; additional industrial sources for Mo, Ni, Pb, and Ti; and other natural sources for As.
Ecological risk was found to be moderate across the city and risk due to Pb concentrations was established for
children.

1. Introduction production. With a contribution of ~9% to the gross domestic product

Emissions due to traffic is a recurrent concern for both developed
and in-development cities since an increase in population and industrial
activities yields higher traffic and hence higher emissions (Carrera
et al., 2015; Xing and Brimblecombe, 2018). Many adverse effects have
been associated with tailpipe emissions and thus, the majority of in-
ternational regulations point to this specific type of production
(Buzzard et al., 2009; Morin et al., 2016). However, there are other
discharges from automobiles that may create ecological and human
health risks that are worth revising. Additional emissions from vehicles
include particles resulting from tires treads and tire dust, brake dust and
brake pads, and general parts wear. Such particles may become street
dust and join industrial emissions in the area creating a threat once they
are exposed to humans (Adamiec et al., 2016; Apeagyei et al., 2011;
Thorpe and Harrison, 2008).
Monterrey, with dry but extreme temperature conditions, is the
third largest urban center in Mexico with more than 4 million in-
habitants and 5 million expected for 2030. Its economy is based among
others, on manufacturing, metallurgy, and food and beverages
(GDP) of the country and a GDP per capita only second to Mexico City,
Monterrey is considered the most important industrial region of the
whole country. The fleet of the city was 1.7 million in 2008 an over 2
million in 2015, with an estimated 8 million of daily trips (GMM, 2015;
INEGI, 2016).
Previous studies have found the city to have high levels of fine or-
ganic aerosols in the air, and defined the exhaust from motors as the
main air pollutant (Carrera et al., 2015; González et al., 2017; Mancilla
et al., 2016). However, no studies have been carried out in street dusts
across the region. Since street dust has been reported to have enriched
concentrations of heavy metals compared to soils, and that vehicle
emissions, aside from tailpipe, may contain high amounts of Zn, Fe, Cu,
Pb, among others, an evaluation of the street dust in Monterrey is ne-
cessary to define its metal content, origin, and possible pollution effects
on ecological and human health (Apeagyei et al., 2011; Charlesworth
et al., 2011). In addition, some metals may be bioavailable in ecosys-
tems as toxins, and some of the adverse effects related to exposure and
inhalation of particulate matter include respiratory illnesses, neurolo-
gical complications, digestive diseases, etc.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: erurrutia@espe.edu.ec (R. Urrutia-Goyes), ornel@itesm.mx (N. Ornelas-Soto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.054
Received 13 March 2018; Received in revised form 20 April 2018; Accepted 26 April 2018
Available online 21 May 2018
0147-6513/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al.
Fig. 1. Sampling locations in Monterrey, Mexico. Referenced on the field with a
GPS. Greyed-out area denotes densely populated areas.
In order to analyze the concentration of metals in street dust and
soil, techniques such as inductively coupled mass spectrometry, X-ray
fluorescence (XRF), and atomic absorption have been used (OSHA,
2014; USEPA, 2014). The advantages of using a portable XRF device
include multi-element analysis, immediate results, simple sample pre-
paration, and the ability to take non-destructive measurements in the
field. The technique is based on the release of energy produced by the
interaction between electrons and a radiation applied to the atoms of
the sample. Such energy is detected and matched to signature spec-
trums that are element-dependent (USEPA, 2015; Weindorf et al.,
2014).
The aim of this study is to characterize street dust from an over-
populated city in Mexico by using portable XRF to assess any associa-
tion to natural or anthropogenic sources such as traffic or industry
emissions, and to find any possible risks posed to the environment and
human health. To the best of our knowledge, the present study would
be first of its kind to intertwine sources, sinks, and repercussions in a
city from Mexico. This work can serve as a multidisciplinary example of
the sources and effects of pollution present in highly populated and
industrialized cities across the globe.
Fig. 2. Box plots of (standardized) concentrations (in mg/kg) of the elements present in street dust in Monterrey.
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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204
2. Methods
2.1. Study area
Monterrey belongs to the state of Nuevo León, Mexico and is located
~700 km to the north of Mexico City. The city is divided by Santa
Catarina River and comprises several districts into one major urban
zone referred to as Monterrey Metropolitan Area –MMA. Monterrey is
considered a developed industrial city with a mix of commercial streets
and residential areas. Street dust samples were collected from high
traffic roadways across both densely populated areas and peripheral
zones. In total, samples were obtained from 44 locations according to
Fig. 1 and analyzed for metal concentrations.
2.2. Sampling
Street dust samples were collected in August 2017. The sampling
process was completed throughout the day (20–30 °C), within one week
after several without any rain during the dry season. Specific locations
can be seen in Fig. 1. Two plastic brushes (with thick and thin bristles
respectively) were used to sweep street dust up onto a flat piece of
paper and then placed into a zip locked plastic bag. Water and a cloth
were used to clean tools after sampling to avoid cross contamination.
Each sample represents 400–800 g of dust from an area of approxi-
mately one square meter on road shoulders, at a distance of few cen-
timeters away from the curb or gutter. Subsequently, samples were
disaggregated, air-dried and stored in the laboratory at room tem-
perature.
2.3. Analysis
Any vegetation and gravel-sized particles were removed from every
street dust sample collected. Plastic bags were then poured out onto a
250 µm sieve. Samples were sieved and the resulting subsamples were
placed into plastic bags (100 µm thickness) before homogenizing by
mixing and rotating at 45 degrees. Shaking of the subsamples was
avoided since it produces stratification. The subsample in the bag was
then flattened to form a uniform layer of approx. 3 cm thickness. Loss of
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al.
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution and concentration (in mg/kg) of the elements present in street dust samples from Monterrey. Circles represent sampling locations.
material due to sieving was insignificant (Gerlach et al., 2002; Hall
et al., 2014; Urrutia-Goyes et al., 2018, 2017).
An Olympus Delta Premium 6000 PXRF analysis device was used to
quantify the presence of metals. After factory- and laboratory-calibra-
tion, the measurement window of the device was placed on top of the
subsample and readings were taken for 90 s in soil mode to reach the
detection limits defined by the manufacturer. Certified Reference
Materials (CRMs) NIST-2710a and NIST-2711a (from NIST®), and CRM-
023 and CRM-025 (from AccuStandards®) were used to evaluate the
accuracy of the measurements in addition to a blank sample that
comprises silica sand (USEPA, 2007). After multiple readings and al-
though results are element dependent, the calculated relative standard
deviation values ranged from 1% to 21% and mean recoveries ranged
from 92% to 113%. Overall, the device was considered appropriate to
perform the required analysis.
2.4. Statistics and spatial representation
Elemental concentrations were analyzed by descriptive statistics
and plotted. Correlations were assessed between variables. Data sets
were also evaluated by principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster
analysis (CA) to define any relationship between variables from street
dust samples. Spatial representation and statistical analyses were per-
formed by using software packages SADA 5.0 from The University of
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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204
Tennessee, Knoxville, USA; XLSTAT 2017 from Addinsoft, Paris, France;
and The Unscrambler 10.1 from CAMO, Oslo, Norway. Among the
process run by these packages are descriptive statistics, principal
component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), spatial interpolation,
and human health risk assessment representation.
2.5. Pollution Indicators
Pollution indicators Enrichment Factor (EF) and Geoaccumulation
Index (Igeo) were calculated for the samples taken across the city. EF for
elements present in street dust samples was calculated using Mn as a
reference element since it showed low variability. EF and Igeo were
calculated according to Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), where C and B are the
concentrations of the studied element n and the reference element ref,
in the sample and in the background, respectively. Background values
for the studied elements were obtained from official local sources or
from reported concentrations in the earth's crust (Bourliva et al., 2016;
Muller, 1969; Rudnick and Gao, 2003; SGM, 2000).
2.6. Ecological and human health risk assessment
Potential Ecological Risk Index (RI), Hazard Quotient (HR) and
Cancer Risk (CR) were calculated for the city. RI was calculated ac-
cording to Eq. (3), where Tri is the toxic response factor. HQ and CR
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Total elemental concentrations

Street dust samples were analyzed and the following elements

Fig. 4. a) PCA score plot of elemental concentrations of the first two principal
components and b) dendrogram for clustering of street samples from
Monterrey.
were calculated according to Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), based on their cor-
responding chronic daily intake (CDI), reference dose (RfD), and slope
factor (SP) for three different exposure pathways, namely ingestion,
inhalation, and dermal contact. CDI values were calculated according to
Eqs. 6, 7 and 8 and to defined parameters (see Table S1). RfD and SP
values are element dependent (see Table S2) (De Miguel et al., 2007;
Ferreira-Baptista and De Miguel, 2005; Hakanson, 1980; USEPA, 2002,
1989).
(Cn/ Cref ) sample
EF =
(Bn / Bref )background (1)
showed concentrations above the limit of detection of the portable
XRF device: As, Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Ti, Zn, and Zr.
Boxplots of the elemental concentrations can be seen in Fig. 2, after
standardizing in order to fit every plot under one scale for compar-
ison purposes. See Table S3 for a summary of descriptive statistics for
the elements found across the city. Mean values for As, Ba, Cu, Fe,
Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn were above soil background values reported of-
ficially for Monterrey by local authorities (SGM, 2000), while Cr and
Zr showed values slightly below. Ti is the only element lacking a
previously reported soil background value and hence such compar-
ison is not possible. This provides a first indication of enrichment due
to either natural or anthropogenic sources. From Fig. 2, it can be
noted that most of the elements showed a log-normal tendency and a
positive skewness, which is typical for environmental variables. Also
elements Ba, Pb, Zn, and Zr showed the greatest range in con-
centrations suggesting a more heterogeneous distributions whereas
Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn, and Mo showed the shortest range in concentrations
suggesting a more homogeneous distribution. Among the elements
that showed distinctly high concentrations, Ba, Cu, Fe, Ti, and Zr,
can be related to their presence in tire breaks, as well as Mo, Sn, V,
Sr, and Pb in smaller quantities (Apeagyei et al., 2011). Thus some
influence of traffic in the composition of local road dust could be
suggested. Likewise, high concentrations of Zn might be related to
tire wearing besides (in smaller quantities) Fe, Ti, and Cr (Apeagyei
et al., 2011). Finally, in the case of Zn, measured concentrations
showed values above soil thresholds recommended by local agencies
(SEMARNAT, 2006); and Ti showed up as the element with the most
notorious high concentration in spite of lacking a reported soil
background value for comparison.
A spatial representation of the most important detected elements
can be seen in Fig. 3. High concentrations of metals in street dust can be
problematic since such elements do not degrade and their concentration
can only increase with time or their subsistence can change from one
media to another i.e. rain water can wash street dust to some degree
and particles might be transported to nearby water streams (Marrugo-
Negrete et al., 2017). As can be noted, some higher-than-average con-
centrations were measured for As, Ba, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the central
and central-eastern areas of the city. Similarly, Ti shows anomalous
high concentrations across the entire central-southern area of the city.
Additional relationships and the nature of these metals are discussed
below.

Cn ⎞ 3.2. Correlations and PCA/CA

Igeo = log 2 ⎛⎜ ⎟

⎝ ×Bn ⎠
1.5 (2)
Pearson correlation coefficients for the analyzed elements were
7 C calculated (see Table S4). Some positive and relatively strong cor-
RI = ∑i =1 Tri ⎛ n ⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎝ Bn ⎠ (3) relations (p < 0.05) were found among Ba, Fe, Mn and Zr; Cr, Fe,
and Zr; Fe and Zn; Fe and Zr; Ni and Mn; As and Pb; Ba and Mn;
HQ = CDI /RfD (4)
suggesting similar sources for their release. On the other hand, weak
CR = CDI × SF (5) relationships were found for Ti and the rest of the elements showing
origins more unique for this element. Detailed analysis based on PCA
Ring × EF × ED and CA might help with the identification of shared sources and is
CDIing = Cexp × × 10−6
BW × AT (6) hence necessary.
Rinh × EF × ED Two principal components explained more than 90% of the total
CDIinh = Cexp × variance. Principal component 1 explained 85% of the total variance
PEF × BW × AT (7)
and confirms that Ti and Zn have a distinct source of release (see
SA × SAF × ABS × EF × ED Fig. 4.a). On the other hand, Ba, Cr, Cu Pb, Ni, and Zr appear to a
CDIdermal = Cexp × × 10−6
BW × AT (8) have a common origin. Additionally, hierarchical cluster analysis

201
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al.
Fig. 5. Boxplots of EF and Igeo indicators for the studied elements in street dust in Monterrey.
was applied to the data set in order to identify similar groups ac-
cording to concentrations. Fig. 4.b shows a dendrogram where three
main clusters can be recognized. Again, Ti seems to have an in-
dependent source since it shows the greatest dissimilarity, whereas
Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zr appear in a different cluster confirming their
shared origin from braking pads.
Correlation analysis, PCA and CA have led to the conclusion that
elements with similar sources can be grouped as follows: Ti as an
independent element possibly from wearing of brake pads and in-
dustry releasing; Zn and Fe released from tire wear dust and heavy
traffic across the city; and Ba, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zr released from brake
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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204
pads wearing. Chemical elements, such as As, Cr, Ni, and Pb could
have different industrial sources since they also show high con-
centrations.
3.3. Pollution Indicators
In order to prove that anomalous concentrations occur due to nat-
ural or anthropogenic sources, pollution indicators EF and Igeo were
calculated. Enrichment factors greater than 10 and geoacummulation
indicator values greater than 1 suggest anthropogenic sources. Fig. 5
shows box plots for EF and Igeo calculated for every element considered
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al.
Fig. 6. Spatial distribution across Monterrey of a) potential ecological risk
index (RI); and non-carcinogenic risk index HQ due to Pb presence in street dust
for b) adults and c) children.
in this study, excluding Ti since no background values have been re-
ported yet. Significant, very high, or extremely high enrichment can
readily be seen for Ba, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb and Zn. Results in this study show
that anthropogenic activities are the main reason for the presence of
these metals. Additionally, pollution categories moderate, moderate to
heavy, and heavy are reported for the same elements, confirming the
last statements. This way, it has been confirmed that high traffic and
industrial activities are responsible for releasing and depositing high
quantities of metals in the city producing high levels of pollution.
However, some elements such as Mo, Ni, and Pb suggest additional
unidentified industrial origins; and other elements such as As and Zr
suggest unidentified natural origins.
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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204
3.4. Ecological and health risk
Potential Ecological Risk Index (RI) allows to evaluate the potential
adverse ecological effects of trace metals in soils. Calculated values
above 150 define a moderate risk, above 300 a considerable risk, and
above 600 a high ecological risk. The toxic response factor (Tri) is de-
fined as a 10, 2, 30, 5, 1, 5, and 5 for As, Cr, Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Ni.
Since Cd concentrations were under the detection limits of the tech-
nique, they are not included in the analysis. The calculated global RI for
the city was 158.44 (by using mean values), which defines a moderate
ecological risk. However, a point by point analysis can also be held to
determine the risk spatially. Fig. 6.a shows RI values across the city of
Monterrey. Although there are no zones that show an RI value greater
than 300, the area showing a moderate ecological risk is widespread
and three different hot spots for higher risk are defined. Southern,
central and central-eastern regions of the city need precautions re-
garding heavy metal concentrations producing ecological risks. It is
worth noting that the central and central-eastern hotspots are close to
‘Niños Héroes Park’ and ‘La Pastora’, respectively. Both are public areas
in the city where people gather for leisure and a significant number of
plant and animal species can be found.
Table 1 shows health risks calculated for population of the city. The
corresponding contribution for each exposure pathway is included for
Hazard Quotient (HQ) values. It can be readily noted that values re-
garding ingestion are the greatest and hence such exposure pathway is
the main concern. Although all the HQ values are smaller than one, the
total HQ value is slightly below one. Likewise, in the case of Pb, HQ
values for children are fairly close to such limit and awareness must be
raised among local authorities to maintain a proper monitoring of these
indicators. As can be seen in Fig. 6.b-c, HQ values for Pb for adults show
areas of concern with values reaching the unity, but the equivalent re-
presentation for children, shows some hotspots with HQ values already
greater than one and hence posing a non-carcinogenic risk. The two
hotspots in the central and central-eastern areas are located either in
industrialized or heavy-traffic zones, and are very close to public spaces
where children can be greatly exposed. On the other hand, Cancer Risk
(CR) values was in the tolerable zone for As (CR=2.50E-05) while the
rest of the elements did not produce any carcinogenic risks to report.
4. Conclusion
In this study, dust samples from the streets of an overpopulated city
were analyzed for heavy metals. Elemental characterization has shown
high concentrations of As, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, Pb, Ti, and Zn.
Correlation analysis, PCA, CA, and pollution indicators EF and Igeo have
led to the conclusions that Zn and Fe concentrations are related to tire
wearing; Ba, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zr relate to brake pads wearing; Mo, Ni, Pb,
and Ti show additional undefined anthropogenic sources, possibly re-
lated to industrial emissions; and As suggests and undefined natural
source. Ecological risk in the city was found to be moderate with three
hot spots of higher risk defined across the region. Finally, four hot spots
of non-carcinogenic risk due to Pb was found for children. Monterrey is
a highly populated city and although high traffic can be found all
across, the location of such hotspots are close to public places and hence
immediate action should be taken in order to alleviate the risks posed
both to the environment and the population.
This study has identified and documented pollution and ecological
and human health risks due to the presence of metals in street dust in
Monterrey, Mexico. Efforts must be undertaken by the authorities in
order to apply policies regarding monitoring of indicators seeking the
health of the whole population and the environment. Similar studies
can be carried out in cities with an excessive automobile traffic.
Suggested further research include the definition of background values
for Ti, and temporal studies that allow to define the change in con-
centration of the elements, possible migrations, and effects in other
media.
R. Urrutia-Goyes et al. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 198–204

Table 1
Health risks for adults and children due to exposure to the studied elements in street dust in Monterrey.
Element Concentration Ingestion Inhalation Dermal Total

Hazard (Adult) Hazard (Child) Hazard (Adult) Hazard (Adult) Hazard (Adult)

As 10.11 4.60E- 02 4.30E- 01 7.10E- 06 6.00E- 03 5.20E- 02

Ba 265.51 5.20E- 03 4.80E- 02 3.70E- 04 3.90E- 03 9.50E- 03
Cr 101.47 4.60E- 02 4.30E- 01 7.20E- 04 1.20E- 01 1.70E- 01
Cu 167.03 5.70E- 03 5.30E- 02 8.80E- 07 1.00E- 03 6.70E- 03
Mn 398.46 1.20E- 02 1.10E- 01 5.60E- 03 1.60E- 02 3.30E- 02
Mo 6.27 1.70E- 03 1.60E- 02 2.50E- 07 2.40E- 04 2.00E- 03
Ni 52.84 3.60E- 03 3.40E- 02 4.10E- 04 7.10E- 04 4.70E- 03
Pb 226.85 8.90E- 02 8.30E- 01 1.30E- 05 3.10E- 02 1.20E- 01
Zn 649.41 3.00E- 03 2.80E- 02 4.40E- 07 7.90E- 04 3.80E- 03
Total 2.50E- 01 2.40E+ 00 3.80E- 01 2.10E- 01 8.50E- 01

Acknowledgements sedimentological approach. Water Res. 14, 975–1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/

The authors would like to thank Ing. Mucio Rodriguez with
Tecnologico de Monterrey for his collaboration in the project; the
funding of Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT),
Mexico (scholarship #387660); and the reviewers for their comments
and suggestions.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.054.
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