Professional Documents
Culture Documents
11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Basic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Social revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Public perceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
WASTE CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sanitary waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Construction waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
ON-SITE STORAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
WASTE COLLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Collection systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Collection vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
STREET CLEANING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
TRANSFER STATIONS/SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
i
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
RECYCLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
INCINERATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
LEVELS OF SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Level 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Level 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Level 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Level 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Level 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ii
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
iii
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
iv
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
This chapter discusses waste management for Should any changes at this level - such as source
developing urban areas. The aim of the guidelines is to separation - be effected, consideration must be
assist such areas in implementing a waste- given to
management plan that will enable them to deal with
waste as economically and safely as possible. Waste • appropriate type and capacity of on-site storage
produced by any urban community may, if left required;
uncontrolled, not only be an aesthetic problem, but • changes to collection procedures;
also pose serious health risks. This can be aggravated if • reduction in landfill volumes; and
hazardous material is present in the waste. It is • sustainable markets for recyclable products.
therefore important that waste is collected from all
sources as efficiently as possible, and disposed of in On-site storage
controlled disposal facilities. In the context of urban
development, waste management at landfill sites is Any changes to on-site storage options mean that
considered a bulk service and will not be discussed in consideration must be given to
any detail. As there are a number of existing disposal
facilities in operation, it is necessary to understand the • waste volumes;
importance of proper disposal and the influence of • waste types; and
landfill sites on the service provided and the • collection vehicles.
community as a whole. The level of service is
dependent on financial inputs and can therefore vary. Collection
There is, however, a basic level of waste management
that needs to be provided to all communities. These Any changes in collection vehicles will have an
guidelines should assist authorities to achieve this impact on
basic level and also provide some information to
enable standards to be upgraded. • the number of working crews required and
therefore job opportunities;
The waste cycle • the capital and operational costs;
• the location of landfill and/or transfer stations;
RECYCLED
PRODUCTS
WASTE
GENERATED
and
• the type of on-site storage.
SOURCE
Transfer stations/systems
SEPARATION
TRANSFER DIRECT
Incineration
STATION TRANSPORT
1
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
With landfilling being the final step in the waste Mix of well-developed and poorly-
management cycle, consideration should be given developed areas
the method used (i.e. baling) which would
Population influx has created many informal and
• reduce cover material requirements; congested pedestrian-only settlements in open spaces
• reduce both wind-blown litter and vermin; and on the peripheries of towns and cities. This has
• reduce leachate production; and provided the authorities responsible for waste
• influence the type of landfill equipment needed management in South Africa with new challenges.
on the site.
To integrate well-developed and poorly-developed
It is therefore important to consider the areas, engineers and town planners need to provide
implications prior to implementation, if innovative and cost-effective methods of waste
sustainability of the service is to be achieved. collection, while maintaining a standard acceptable to
both the community and the environment. This
integration has created a new platform where the
SOUTH AFRICAN SCENARIO involvement of the communities in planning waste
management systems is crucial, if sustainability and
History acceptance of the system are to be achieved.
Northern Province
Demand for land
Pietersburg
Kimberley
Kwa-Zulu Natal cheek by jowl with generally low-income - but
Bloemfontein
A formal waste collection service was first With about half the potentially economically active
implemented in the Cape Colony in 1786, and by the population unemployed, there is increased pressure on
1820s a regular waste collection service on specific authorities to couple the delivery of social services
days of the week, using animal-drawn carts, was with increasing elements of job creation. Labour-
established. intensive - rather than mechanised - methods are
positively encouraged by central government and this
It was only in the 1920s, with the advent of motor form of collection is rapidly becoming the norm rather
vehicles in South Africa, that the advantages of than the exception, as it provides entrepreneurial
mechanical transport could be tested. The first trucks opportunities and job creation in an activity where
used for refuse collection were able to replace a there are no serious technical or financial barriers to
number of carts with a significant cost saving and the entry. The government’s privatisation policy further
advantage of easier supervision. encourages this pattern, but the demand for higher
wages and career opportunities must mean that “old
Social revolution technology” must incorporate modern methods of cost
control, efficiency and planning in order to provide a
The rapidly changing socio-political situation has cost-effective service.
meant that traditional mechanised methods of
2
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Sections 19, 20, These sections cover definitions, Department of Environment Affairs
21, 22, 24, 25 prohibitions, regulations, procedures for
permit applications, regulatory powers,
offences and penalties, forfeiture and
delegatory powers
Sections 21(1), These sections cover the prevention of Department of Water Affairs & Forestry
22, 23, 26 pollution by effluent, stormwater control,
location of waste sites, offences and
penalties, policies and strategies
Sections 1, 20(1), These sections cover definitions, prevention Department of National Health &
38, 39, 40, 57 of pollution of water for human Population Development
consumption, regulations regarding
communicable disease and relating to
rubbish, nightsoil, nuisances, offences and
penalties
Sections 1, 17, These sections cover definitions, prevention Department of National Health &
18, 19, 20, 27, 28, of burning, smoke control, smoke and dust Population Development, in conjunction
33 control areas and regulations with Local Authorities
3
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Domestic and household waste comes mainly from Due to the complexity of identifying the proper
residential areas and may include foodstuffs, garden handling and disposal procedures, hazardous and toxic
waste, old clothing, packaging materials such as glass, waste is generally the domain of specialist operators. It
paper and cardboard, plastics, and, in certain cases, is, however, important that industries producing
ash. hazardous and toxic substances are identified and
monitored to ensure that proper procedures are
Business and commercial waste followed.
Construction waste
4
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
5
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
• capital and operational costs; Door-to-door collection can be carried out in two
• level of income within the community; and ways:
• grants or subsidies available.
(a) the collection crew removes the waste
2. Accessibility container from the premises and returns it after
it is emptied into the collection vehicle; and
• road infrastructure and conditions.
(b) the householder places his or her refuse
3. Level of education containers on the sidewalk, ready for collection
by the collection crew, and retrieves them after
• literacy and awareness of the community to collection.
understand the principles of waste
management. It is important to understand that flexibility of
refuse collection is an important factor in today’s
4. On-site storage facilities urban development. Although it is understandable
and logical that an efficient mechanical system of
• availability and suitability; and collection can evolve in a conventional suburban
• composition and volume of the waste. environment, this method may be totally
inappropriate for highly dense, congested
5. Potential benefits settlements that have mushroomed on the fringes
of local authority areas. Now, more than ever,
• clean and healthy environment; and administrators and engineers are faced with a
• job creation and upliftment. dilemma: capital-intensive solutions that were well
justified a few short years ago, are becoming
6. Available facilities and infrastructure obsolete and inappropriate less than halfway
through their amortisation period. The norm, for
• appropriate vehicles; and the next decade at least, will be to have a mix of
• available expertise. old and new technology and the ability to
integrate both systems to maximise economic
7. Distance to disposal site advantage.
6
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
7
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
The graphs below give an indication of vehicle requirements based on the relationship
between distance to landfill / transfer station and number of households
LOAD LUGGER
12,00
10,00
1000 households
Vehicles required
8,00
5000 households
6,00
12000 households
4,00
20000 households
2,00
0,00
5km 10km 15km 20km
Distance to landfill
2,50
2,00
Vehicles required
1000 households
12000 households
1,00
20000 households
0,50
0,00
5km 10km 15km 20km
Distance to landfill
3,00
Vehicles required
0,50
0,00
5km 10km 15km 20km
Distance to landfill
Assumed
8
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Hand carts, although not commonly used in South Tractor and trailer
Africa, can be designed for specific applications.
These may include small informal communities The tractor and trailer, although not the first, was
with no planned or designed road infrastructure, probably the most common means of mechanical
and even planned developments during the early transport for waste collection prior to the
stages where occupancy does not warrant introduction of compaction units, and can still be
sophisticated equipment, particularly in what can effectively utilised in most developed and
be considered the lower income groups. Although undeveloped areas. The variations and
limited in carrying capacity, hand carts can be combinations available are numerous and must be
effectively employed where job creation and carefully assessed prior to implementation. The
limited capital expenditure are the main tractor-trailer combination can be operated
considerations. where road conditions are not suitable for trucks,
but is limited to a maximum 10 kilometre distance
The use of hand carts has the advantage of not to the disposal facility, provided access via
only providing more employment opportunities freeways is not required.
within the community due to the relatively small
areas of responsibility of the operator, but also of Flat-bed truck
combining street cleaning with normal refuse
collection. The main disadvantage is that they The flat- or open-bed truck is not commonly used
would need to be supplemented with a communal in South Africa. It has the disadvantage of a high
bin system and the appropriate vehicle for final loading height, particularly for use in developing
disposal. areas where the high ash content of the collected
waste results in increased mass of the container.
9
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
10
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Location Markets
The location of communal disposal points must be The success of recycling is largely dependent on the
selected with sensitivity and careful planning to ensure market availability of both the raw product and the
accessibility and acceptance by the community, and remanufactured product, and unfortunately they have
not to interfere with pedestrian movement, or create a direct effect on each other. As waste cannot be
an eyesore, or a public nuisance of dust and odour. considered recycled until it is reprocessed, these
Refer also to Chapter 5. markets have achieved little more than providing
subsistence levels for the individual entrepreneurs.
The larger or more sophisticated transfer station
systems should be located with equally careful Education
planning. Easy access to trunk routes and minimal
conflict with future development are some of the Education in the principles and effect of waste
more important considerations. minimisation and recycling is a critical part of the
waste management process. The process of education
Other aspects often not considered in locating transfer will no doubt be slower in developed communities,
stations and landfill sites, particularly in large where new attitudes need to be cultivated. The
operations, are traffic densities and road design. It is opportunities for success are far greater in newly
important that the requirements of both the local and developed communities if proper planning and
provincial authorities are complied with, particularly in educational programmes are an integral part of the
respect of paving design as well as visibility and traffic collection system.
flow at intersections and access roads. Refer also to
Chapters 7 and 8.
DISPOSAL
Despite several million rands having been spent on The volume and content of the waste to be disposed
sophisticated recycling plants, the history of recycling of will dictate the size and classification of the landfill,
on a large scale in South Africa has not been and necessary requirements for licensing purposes.
particularly successful. There has been reasonable There are generally only two distinct types of landfill:
success in certain regions, with organisations such as
Collect-a-Can, Nampac, Sappi, Mondi and Consol Glass • general waste landfills (G) for waste normally
concentrating mainly on beverage cans, paper, plastics produced within residential and business
and glass. Voluntary recycling and small buy-back communities, with the exception of hazardous or
centres have met with some success, which is generally toxic wastes; and
dependent on the user-friendliness of the scheme.
11
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
12
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
G
LEGEND GENERAL WASTE
Site description R R R R R R R R
13
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
G
LEGEND GENERAL WASTE
Landfill permit R R R R R R R R
Development plan R R R R R R R R
Closure/rehabilitation plan R R R R R R R R
End-use plan N N R R R R R R
14
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
For any collection service to be truly effective all waste This first level of service can be considered the
must be removed completely from all storage and minimum, where the residents are required to
collection points. This, however, has many practical deliver their waste to specifically allocated communal
and cost implications. It is therefore important to disposal points (Phase 1 disposal). These disposal
establish a minimum standard that is acceptable and points could be specially designed masonry structures
affordable by the community, based on the on-site with embankments, or ready-made containers
storage facilities provided, the frequency of collection strategically placed. Should the option of fixed
and the effectiveness of the service provided. All levels structures be selected, these would need to be cleared
of service are therefore based on the premise that the either by manual labour or mechanical means and the
local authority provides the necessary guidance and a waste transferred to suitable vehicles for transport to
minimum collection/removal service at least once a the disposal site. The container option allows the use
week rendering an acceptable level of cleanliness of either rear-end loader or special application vehicles
within the community. that have the capability of lifting and transporting the
containers in use.
There are many permutations in providing a waste
collection service within the current South African Level 2
scenario. Particular thought and attention should be
given to the mix of levels of service and cost-effective This level of service requires the local authority to
options of servicing the Phase 1 disposal points (see provide for the collection of refuse from each
Figure 11.6). household by the cheapest possible means (i.e.
LEVELS OF SERVICE
WASTE COLLECTION
LOCAL AUTHORITY RESPONSIBILITY
PHASE 1 DISPOSAL
Designed platform
L
E
V Residents
E
L
- Container
1
L Designed platform T S
E R T
V A A
E Hand cart N T
L S
- I
F O
2 Container E N
R
L Designed platform
E S
V O
E U Animal-drawn cart
L R
- C
3 E Container
L
L A
Designed platform N
E
V D
E Tractor-trailer F
L I
- L
4 L
Container
L
E
V
E
L Rear-end loader
-
5
15
Solid waste management Chapter 11
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
wheelbarrow or handcart). Refuse is collected from The standard method of reporting waste generation is
site or from the kerbside and transported to the in terms of mass - this is necessary for proper vehicle
nearest or designated communal disposal point. selection. However, weight data are of limited value in
designing landfills and selecting storage containers,
Level 3 which are identified by volumetric measurement.
Volumetric measurement of the waste does, however,
This level of service can be considered a natural depend on how much the waste has been compacted
progression from Level 2. The collection agent has the and it’s density.
option of making use of animal-drawn carts or
motorised tricycles, allowing for a larger area of There are two methods for determining waste-
responsibility. Where the landfill is considered to be an generation rates:
economically viable distance from the collection area,
the need for Phase 1 disposal points may be Load count analysis or weight volume
eliminated, provided access via freeways is not analysis
required.
• A specific area of collection is selected and the
Level 4 number of individual loads, corresponding
vehicle volumes and characteristics, and the
This level of service can be considered a progression weight of each load are recorded over a
from Level 3, where the collection agent has the specified period of time.
option of using mechanical means for transporting the
collected refuse; depending on the terrain, this could Materials balance analysis
be in the form of tractor-trailer or suitable light
delivery vehicle. Again, should the landfill be • Identify a system boundary.
considered an economically viable distance from the
collection area, the need for Phase 1 disposal can be • Record all activities that cross and occur within
eliminated. the boundary, which affect the waste
generation rate.
Level 5
• Identify and record the rate of generation
This level of service can be considered the optimum associated with these activities.
means of collection in the majority of developed
communities. The waste is collected from site or the • Identify and record the composition of the
kerbside by means of specially designed collection waste generated within the boundary.
compactor vehicles and transported directly or via
transfer station to point of final disposal. Collection-route balancing and planning
16
Chapter 11 Solid waste management
Table 11.6: Guide to responsibilities and conditions
Level 1 Litter prevention Community liaison No formal road infrastructure Containers (minimum 1 per ±50 households) Dependent on waste volumes
Residents Litter collection Collect waste from disposal point Maximum distance to disposal point ±200 m Dependendent on frequency of service (Phase 1 disposal)
Delivery of waste to disposal point Maintenance of disposal point
Environmental awareness programmes Transport vehicles Dependent on distance to landfill (see graphs)
Level 3 Place waste for collection on kerbside Community liaison No formal road infrastructure Animal-drawn carts/Motorised tricycles Dependent on community-based programme
Animal- Litter prevention Collect waste from kerbside Limited road infrastructure Dependent on waste volumes
drawn carts; Collect waste from site (where necessary) Maximum distance to disposal point 3 000 m Dependent on frequency of service
motorised Collect waste from disposal point Allowable road ordinance conditions Dependent on access to landfill/transfer station
tricycles Maintenance of disposal point
Litter collection Containers (minimum 1 per ±50 households) Dependent on waste volumes
Environmental awareness programmes Dependent on frequency of service (Phase 1 disposal)
Level 4 Place waste for collection on kerbside Community liaison Limited road infra-structure Tractor-trailer combos/LDVs Dependent on community-based programme
Tractor-trailer Litter prevention Collect waste from kerbside Maximum distance to disposal point ±10 km Dependent on waste volumes
combinations; Collect waste from site (where necessary) Allowable road ordinance conditions Dependent on frequency of service
light delivery Collect waste from disposal point Dependent on access to landfill/transfer station
vehicles Maintenance of disposal point
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Litter collection Containers (minimum 1 per ±50 households) Dependent on waste volumes
Environmental awareness programmes Dependent on frequency of service (Phase 1 disposal)
Level 5 Place waste for collection on kerbside Collect waste from kerb-side Allowable road ordinance conditions Transport vehicles Dependent on waste volumes
Rear-end Litter prevention Collect waste from site (where necessary) Proper road infra-structure Dependent on frequency of service
loaders Litter collection Dependent on distance to landfill (see graphs)
Environmental awareness programmes
Chapter 11
17
GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN
BIBLIOGRAPHY
18
Chapter 11 Solid waste management