Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.1 Estimating
It is an art of examination of quantities of different items and their cost. So estimating helps us
to plan the amount required for executing a work before actually carrying out the work.
Purpose of Estimating and Costing
As per good management practices we must know the material required (with complete
specifications and quantity of each item) and the cost to be incurred thereon before taking up any
new program in hand. For this, it becomes necessary to prepare a complete project for the given
program as it will act as a guide in the successful implementation of the program. The project
report includes complete details of the work to be carried out such as detailed drawings of the
work, completed details of the required materials with costing and the sequence of operations to
be performed.
Estimating is also essential as it provides us an accurate assessment of the amount of money
required money required, availability of material etc. In case any program is taken in hand is
started without preparing project report and without estimating and costing, it will be difficult,
rather impossible, to complete the work uninterruptedly because shortage of money and/or
avaibility of materials may cause blockade at any stage.
1.2 Catalogues
For the pricing of the estimate, up to date catalogues from manufacturers and whole sale dealers
for the required material must be available with the estimator.
The estimator saves time by making selection of standard catalogues. Further saving in time and
trouble can be cheived if the estimator prepares his own price lists consisting of net figures.
Insert the items with complete specifications and quantity required in their respective columns.
Then rates for all items from standard catalogue, the total cost item wise, and finally the totaling.
If any special type of fitting is required then a letter or phone message or E-mail will have to
send to the manufacturer for a quotation. Thus we will reach the total cost of the material
required.
1.5 Determination of Cost of Labour
To determine the labour cost one the following methods must be adopted:-
i. Determine the total number of points, taking two points for main board and one point
for each sub circuit in addition to the total number of points to be installed. Then find
out the total labour cost charging @ Rs.65, 75 and 125 per point for cleat, casing
capping, batten and conduit wiring respectively.
ii. Provide the labour charges as 15 %, 20 % or 25% of material cost.
After totaling the material cost and labour cost we should provide some percentage of the above
cost under the heading contingencies and then finally arrive at the final cost of the wiring work.
1.6 Contingencies
This is for vague and unforeseen items. The amount is provided under the head of contingencies
to cover the unforeseen expenditure such as to cover extra costs on account of delays in delivery,
minor accidents and unforeseen variations from the plans of the estimating department. Such
expenses may also be due to natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes, storms, hailstorms
etc. The amount to be allowed is too variable and depends upon the exactness of the
specifications.
The contingencies fully compensate additional material cost, labour cost and other allied
expenses which could not be accounted for.
1.7 Overhead Charges
The overhead charges or standing charges of the business cover all expenditure necessary to
carry out the business, in addition to the special expenditure, incurred in carrying out a particular
job. These can be classified under the following headings:
i. Rent of offices and workshop;
ii. Allowances for the wear and tear of buildings, plant and machinery (depreciation);
iii. Wages of clerical staff;
iv. General expenses;
v. Rates and taxes;
vi. Lighting and heating;
vii. Advertising; insurance;
viii. Postage and telephone;
ix. Carriage and general travelling expenses, legal costs and bad debts etc.
Y
B
Disadvantages:-
a) Power delivered is pulsating (not constant) and objectionable for many applications.
b) For a given frame size a single phase machine gives lesser output than a three phase
machine.
c) Parallel operation of single phase generator is difficult than that of single phase
generators.
d) For transmitting the same amount of power at same voltage a single phase line requires
more conductor than a three phase line. Thus single phase transmission is costly.
e) For a given amount of power to be transmitted through a system, the single phase system
requires conductor with a larger cross sectional area. This means greater cost and larger
initial investment.
3.1.2 Three Phase Four Wire Distribution
Three-phase, 4-wire distribution layout is shown in following figure.
Transformers substations are built at or near the load centers of the area where the load is to be
supplied. The substations contains high voltages switchgear and bus-bars, and low voltage fuses
or links. The supply to the primary is by high voltage or extra high voltage feeder cable from the
generating station. The low voltage bus-bars are distinguished by colour marking: red, yellow,
and blue, for the phases, and black for the neutral. The local 4-wire distributors are connected in
parallel to the bus-bars through the fuses or links, and the separate cores are also distinguished
by similar color marking. Domestic and other low voltage consumer's premises are connected to
the distributors by 2-wire service cables, which are tee jointed to the distributors. In order to
balance the three phases, the consecutive services are connected to the different phases and the
neutral in turn: red-neutral, yellow-neutral, and blue-neutral. Larger non-domestic consumers are
supplied with a 4-wire service, to give 240 V single phase for lighting, as well as 415 V 3-phase
for power.
2. Testing of Transformers
3. Testing of Cable
4. Testing of motors and other equipment
- > The insulation resistance of each phase winding against the frame and between the
windings should measured by Megger.
5. Testing of Wiring Installation
-> The insulation resistance between earth and the whole system of conductor or any
section is measured by suing Megger. The whole installation should have the insulation
resistance less than 1 Mega ohm.
6. Testing of Earthing
For checking the efficiency of earthing, following tests are recommended
a) The earth resistance of each electrode is measured.
b) The earth resistance of earthing mat is measured.
c) All electrodes are connected to the grid and earth resistance of the entire earthing system is
measured.
Note that all these tests should be carried preferably in summer season.
4. Dining Room
In a small and average sized dining room, the right place for the light source is over the center of
the dining table. One or two 5 ampere socket outlet and one 15 ampere socket outlet should be
provided.
5. Drawing Room
For a drawing room there is not any hard and fast rule. It depends upon the position and style of
furniture and decoration.
6. Bedroom Lights
In a bedroom one light is necessary, a few centimeters in front of the dreing table. In bedroom
two or three 5 ampere socket outlet and one 15 ampere socket outlet should be provided.
7. Kitchen Lights
In kitchens light should be provided as hanging down close infront of the cooking burner. A
second light, however , may be provided where light is required and not necessarily in center of
the room. In kitchen two 15 ampere and one 5 ampere socket outlet is to be provided.
8.Bathroom Lights
The light used in the bathroom should be fitted in a glass and fixed directly in the ceiling and out
of reach of the person standing on the edge of the bath. The switch should be either outside the
door or in case if it is to be provided inside the bathroom then the switch board must be out of
the reach of the person standing in the bath.
4.1 Introduction
Electrical energy is generated at the power stations (hydroelectric, thermal or nuclear) which are
usually situated far away from the load centers. Hence an extensive network of conductors
between the power stations and the consumer is required. This network of conductors may be
divided into two main components, called the transmission and distribution system. The
generation, transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called electrical supply
system.
4.1.1 Transmission System
The transmission system is to deliver bulk power from the power stations to the load centers and
large industrial consumers beyond the economical service range of the regular primary
distribution lines. Three phase three wire system is universally adopted for the transmission of
large blocks of power. The transmission system may be further divided into primary transmission
and secondary transmission. Explain the following figure if required in examination.
4.1.2 Distribution System
The distribution system is to deliver power from the substations to the various consumers. Three
phase four wire system is universally adopted for the distribution of electrical power. The
distribution system may be further divided into primary and secondary distribution.
The distribution system can be divided into Feeder, Distributor and Service Mains. These are
shown in diagram below.
1. Feeders: - Feeders are the conductors which connect the stations (in some cases generating
stations) to the areas to be fed by those stations. Generally from feeders no tapping is taken to
the consumers, there-fore, current loading of a feeder remains the same along its length. It is
designed mainly from the point of view of its current carrying capacity.
2. Distributors: - Distributors are the conductors from which numerous tappings for the supply to
the consumers are taken. The current loading of a distributor varies along its length
Distributors are designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in them.
3. Service Mains: - Service mains are the conductors which connect the consumer's terminals to
the distributor.
2.1 Introduction
Light is a prime factor in the human life because all activities of human beings ultimately depend
upon light. Where there is no natural light we need artificial lighting. Artificial lighting is
produced electrically because electrical energy is clean, low cost, easily controllable etc. The
science of illumination engineering therefore becomes important.
2.2 Illumination
It differs from light very much. Light is a cause and illumination is the effect of that light on the
surfaces on which the light falls. Thus illumination makes the surface look more or less bright
with a certain color. Our eyes see this brightness and color and it may be pleasant or irritating.
Illumination (E) =
Therefore we see that unit of illumination is Lumen per Square Meter or Lux or Candle Meter.
2.3 Terms used in Illumination
i) Light
It is defined as the radiant energy from am hot body that produces visual sensation upon
the human eye. It is usually denoted by Q, expressed in lumen hours.
ii) Luminous Flux
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body. It is represented by and measured in Lumens.
iii) Luminous Intensity
Luminous intensity in any given direction is the luminous flux emitted by the source per
unit solid angle, measured in the direction in which the intensity is required.it is denoted by I
and measured in Candela.
iv) Candle Power
It is the light radiating capacity of light in a given direction.
v) Brightness and illuminance
When the eye receives a great deal of light from an object we say that it is bright and
brightness is important quantity of illumination.
Generally brightness of an object is not same from all point of view. When brightness is
considered in terms of measurable quantity, the term illuminance is used. Illuminance is
defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source of light or
a reflecting surface. It is denoted by L.
vi) Lamp Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of luminous flux of a lamp to power input
vii) Glare
It may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come direct from the light source or it may be
reflected brightness such as from nickelled machine parts, top of desk etc. Glare provides
discomfort to the eye so it should be avoided in the design as much as possible.
viii) Mounting Height
It is the height above the ground and below the ceiling at which the luminaries are to be
mounted. It is generally taken as 2.25 or 2.5 meters while design.
ix) Space to Height Ratio
Length Space or Horizontal Space to Mounting Height Ratio = Spacing Along the
Length / Mounting Height
Breadth Space or Vertical Space to Mounting Height Ratio = Spacing Along the
Breadth / Mounting Height
Gases are normally poor conductors but the application of suitable voltage called the ignition
voltage,across the two electrodes can result in a discharge through the gas, which is followed by
electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of this radiation depends up on the gas, its pressure
and the metal vapour used in the lamp. Argon gas, sodium and mercury vapours are commonly
use din the manufacture of the sodium discharge lamps.
Followings are the types of gaseous discharge lamps:-
a) Sodium Discharge Lamp
b) High Pressure Mercury Vapour Discharge Lamp
c) Neon Lamp
d) Neon tube
e) Fluorescent Tubes
Here we discuss only about Fluorescent tubes:-
It has the great advantage over other light sources in many application. The tubes can be
obtained in variety of length with illumination in a variety of colors. It is possible to obtain quite
high lighting without excessive temperature rise and danger of the glare is minimized.
Fluroscent Lamp
f) Due to comparatively low working temperature low heat is produced.
g) Its brightness is less
h) Initial cost is high
i) Life of lamp is high
j) With time the light is output is slowly reduced.
i) General lighting
In large machine shops the mounting height of the lamps depend by the necessity of keeping the
lamps above the travelling crane. In such cases it is often desirable to supplement the main
lighting by side lighting on order to give additional illumination. Since light coloured walls and
ceiling add to the effectiveness of an installation, it is necessary to get white washing or painting
done.
ii) Local Lighting
On some points fairly intense illumination is required. For this purpose local lighting can be
provided by means of suitable fittings attached to the machine. Such lamps should be mounted in
deep reflectors so that glare is avoided.
Portable hand lamps are used for maintenance work and emergency lighting.
Local lighting should never be provided alone, good general lighting is essential so that dark
places between the local lighting units are avoided because it causes discomfort to the eyes.
iii) Emergency Lighting
It is used at the following places:-
a) For safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main lighting circuit is off
b) For control posts
c) For first aid centers
The circuit supplying the power to the emergency lighting should be independently and
separate from the main lighting circuit.