Chap 16: The Family

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO FAMILY

Systems approach:
Parents and children influence each other
Families are complex social networks

Family systems are also dynamic

Both individuals and relationships develop with time
Some changes are normative, others may be unexpected life events
Societal changes also exert an influence

PARENT SOCIALIZATION
The process through which children are encouraged to adopt socially desirable behaviour patterns
Done using guidance, rewards and punishment
Parental goals and beliefs play an important role

Dimensions of Parenting
Parental involvement/ warmth
Parental demandingness/control

Parenting Styles
1) Authoritarian
High control but little warmth
Demand obedience
No explanation of rules
Children: withdrawn or act out, lower self-esteem, less socially skilled

2) Indulgent-Permissive
Warm & attentive, but place few demands on child
Lax & inconsistent feedback
Children: impulsive, easily frustrated, dependent, less socially skilled, lack self-control

3) Indifferent-Disengaged
See their role as only providing food, clothing and shelter
Emotionally detached
Depressed and overwhelmed by life stress (focus on own needs)
Children: low self-esteem, impulsive, moody, aggressive

4) Authoritative
Demanding but warm
Sensitive to child
Consistently explain & enforce rules
◦Encourage verbal give-and-take
Children: responsible, self-assertive, cooperative, independent, self-controlled

Variations in Child Rearing

When evaluating best ways to rear children, must keep in mind the skills and attitudes that will serve them best
E.g. authoritarian-like parenting may play a protective role for children in high-risk environments during certain times of development

Parenting in other Cultures

In many non-Western cultures, parents rank high on involvement and high on a kind of control that:
◦does not encourage discussion
◦expects compliance by authority of parents

Parental Discipline Techniques

1) Power Assertion
Physical or verbal enforcement of parental control
Includes demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges and spanking

2) Withdrawal of Love
Ignoring, isolating or showing dislike for the child

3) Induction
Strategy that uses reasoning with child
Includes setting limits, demonstrating logical consequences of an action through explanation and discussion

SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS
Make unique contribution to one another’s social, emotional and cognitive development
Serve many functions
There may be a decrease in attachment security after birth of a second child
◦Especially 1-2 months after
Positive adjustment:
◦Secure attachment
◦“Baby” discussions
◦Keep normal routines
Early childhood: often emotionally loaded
◦Marked by positive & negative aspects
Siblings get along when:
they’re of the same gender
parents treat them fairly
parents get along

DIVERSITY IN FAMILY LIFE

Greater diversity in structure of the family

Adoptive Families
May be pre-existing issues
◦Can still have positive adjustment and outcomes
Adoption process is moving from a confidential system to a more open system

Single Parent Families

May result from divorce
◦Single mothers
◦Single fathers
Teen mothers
Single mothers by choice

Gay and Lesbian Parents

Children mostly adopted or from heterosexual relationship that resulted in divorce
Children do not typically experience gender confusion
Children tend to have more liberal attitudes toward sexuality
Children tend to be psychologically well-adjusted

Divorce
Period before marked by conflict
◦Has direct and indirect effects on children
Crisis period involves disruption
Vast majority adjust to transition
Important Factors:
Financial and emotional support
Adequate parenting
Minimize additional stress

Remarriage and Blended Families

Simple step-parent families
Complex step-parent families
Younger adolescents may have a harder time adjusting to these changes

CHANGES IN FAMILY NEEDS & FUNCTIONS DURING ADOLESCENCE

1)Family finances likely to be strained
2)Must cope with increasing importance of peer group
3)Family functions change
◦need support more than nurturance;
◦guidance more than protection
◦direction more than socialization
Relationships must be renegotiated, but are still important

PARENT-ADOLESCENT CONFLICT
•Generally greater than in childhood
•Teaches adolescent how to handle disagreements
◦see others’ views; compromise
Relations usually still good
Especially frequent and intense between mothers and daughters

Reasons for Conflict in Early Adolescence Biological Changes

Adolescents grow bigger & stronger
◦More difficult for parents to impose authority by virtue of their greater physical presence
Sexual issues

Cognitive Changes
Makes adolescents better arguers
◦Becomes more difficult for parents to prevail quickly in arguments with their children

Focus of Conflict
1) Social life and customs
e.g. choice of friends & dating partners, curfew, clothes

2) Responsibility
E.g. chores, spending allowance, caring for personal belongings

3) School
E.g. study habits, attendance

4) Family relationships
E.g. fighting with siblings, attitude and respect shown to parents

5) Social conventions
E.g. drinking, smoking, using drugs, sexual behaviour

Autonomy
Capacity to make decisions and complete life tasks without being overly dependent on others
Serve as one’s own source of emotional strength
Point where parents worry about adolescents following negative paths
Parents need to gradually relinquish control; be warm and supportive
Enforce rules
Engage in discussion
Parental monitoring very important
◦Parent doesn’t have to be physically present
◦E.g. extracurricular activities, home activities, chores, etc.

CHILD MALTREATMENT
Intentional abuse or neglect of anyone younger than 18 years of age that endangers their well-being

Categories of Child Maltreatment

Physical abuse: infliction of bodily injury on a child other than by accident
Sexual abuse: sexual or attempted sexual contact between a caregiver or other responsible adult with child
Emotional abuse: persistently rejecting, ignoring, belittling and criticizing a child
Neglect: failure to provide minimum care & appropriate supervision; thwarting of child’s basic emotional needs

Parents of Maltreated Children

Poor self-control, impulse control
Low self-esteem
Problems with substance abuse
Lack social support
May have been abused themselves as children
Have inappropriate expectations of child’s abilities

Consequences of Maltreatment
Have less warm and secure relationships with their parents
Lower self self-esteem
Display less empathy
Those who are treated harshly physically are more aggressive with peers
Perform poorly in school
Adolescence: depression, anxiety, conduct disorder, eating disorder

Preventing Maltreatment
Identifying high-risk families
Resources at the community level
◦Assisting service providers and community organizations in developing and providing effective interventions