Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Comprehensive Study On Microgrid Technology PDF
A Comprehensive Study On Microgrid Technology PDF
‡
Corresponding Author; Ramazan Bayindir, bayindir@gazi.edu.tr, Tel: +90 312 202 8540, Fax: +90 312 212 0059
Abstract- Grid connection capability of distributed generation attracts researchers due to the cumulative demand for electricity
and environment pollution concern as a new emerging technology for providing reliable and clean power supply. A microgrid
comprises distributed generation, energy storage, loads, and a control system that is capable of operating in grid-tied mode
and/or islanded mode. As operation modes are shifted, the microgrid should successfully manage the voltage and frequency
adjustment in order to protect the grid and any loads connected to the system. Facilitation of the generation-side and load-side
management and the resynchronization process is required. This paper presents an overall description and typical distributed
generation technology of a microgrid. It also adds a comprehensive study on energy storage devices, microgrid loads,
interfaced distributed energy resources (DER), power electronic interface modules and the interconnection of multiple
microgrids. Details of stability, control and communication strategies are also provided in this study. This article describes the
existing control techniques of microgrids that are installed all over the world and has tabulated the comparison of various
control methods with pros and cons. Moreover, it aids the researcher in envisioning an actual situation using a microgrid today,
and provides insight into the possible evolvement of future grids. In conclusion, the study emphasizes the remarkable findings
and potential research areas that could enrich future microgrid facilities.
Keywords- Microgrid; Distributed energy resources; Distributed generation technology; Future grid.
Packaged Cost
Electric- Cost-
Cogeneration
Gen.(c/kWh)
Maintenance
Cost ($/kW)
(cents/kWh)
(cents/kWh)
Installation
Emissions
Cost -to-
(g/kWh)
Efficiency(%)
to-Gen.
($/kW)
Costs
Size Range
Foot
(kW)
Electric Overall
Reciprocating Engines
Spark Nox:0.7-42
30-5.000 31-42 80-89 0.28-37 300-700 150-600 7.6-13.0 6.1-10.7 0.7-2.0
Ignition CO:0.8-27
Nox: 6-22
Diesel 30-5.000 26-43 85-90 0.22-0.31 200-700 150-600 7.1-14.2 5.6-10.8 0.5-1.5
CO: 0.1-8
Nox: 2-12
Dual Fuel 100-5.000 37-42 80-85 0.15-0.25 250-550 150-450 7.4-10.7 6.0-9.1
CO: 2-7
Turbines
Non-Recup 14-20 75-85 Nox: 9- 0.15-0.35 700-1.000 14.9-22.5 10.1-15.9 0.8-1.5
125ppm
Microturbines 30-200 250-600
Recup. 20-30 60-75 CO: 9- 0.15-0.35 900-1.300 11.9-18.9 10.0-16.8
125ppm
Nox: 25-
1.000- 200ppm
Industrial Turbines 20-40 70-95 0.02-0.61 200-850 150-250 8.7-15.8 5.8-12.2 0.4-1.0
5.000 CO: 7-
200ppm
Fuel Cells
Nox: 0.007 4.000-
PEM 5-10 36-50 50-75 0.9 400-1.000 21.9-33.3 20.7-33.3 0.19-1.53
CO: 0.01 5.000
2.2. Energy Storage Devices microgrid. The energy storage process plays an important
role in the balance between the generation of power and
Energy storage is a vital factor in order to legitimize energy demanded [7, 13]. The requirements of energy
renewable energy resources as a reliable contributor to storage components in a microgrid are listed below;
main sources and to provide a successful operation of
1096
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
i. Balancing power demand between the generation v. To accommodate the minute–hour peaks in the
side and the load side is the first priority for daily demand curve [16,17]
energy storage devices (since the sources are Energy storage technologies are mainly classified as
intermittent and transient disturbances lacks of electrochemical systems (usually batteries and flow cells),
inertia). kinetic energy storage systems (flywheel energy storage)
ii. Storage of maximum energy demands during off- and potential energy storage (pumped hydro or
peak hours and being able to supply all loads compressed air storage) [16,18,19]. The summary of
when required. existing storage technologies is shown in Table 3. The
iii. To eliminate loaded parts from microgrid that batteries, flywheels and super capacitors are more suitable
helps to meet unpredicted and sudden demands. for microgrid application. Energy storage systems based
iv. To provide smooth transient conditions from grid- on batteries constitute the best solution to ensure
tied to islanded operation or vice versa. sustainability of fixed voltage and frequency operation
while using renewable energy sources (RES) [8, 11, 16].
Table 2. Cost analysis for various type DGs technologies The alternative flywheel method is well suited as a
[14, 15] central storage device due to its ability to absorb and
US average levelized costs (2011 US release energy quickly. However, flywheel method
Dolar/megawatthour) for plants entering service in remains too expensive for large-scale power system
2018 applications when used in an advanced design. In
uninterruptible power supply applications, the storage
(including fuel)
Capacity factor
Variable O&M
levelized cost
Transmission
Total system
Fixed O&M
capital cost
1097
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
Table 3. Overview of existing storage technologies
Technologies
Metal
PH Lead Ni- Fuel
CAES Ni-Cd Li-Ion NaS Zebra VRB ZnBr -air Flywheels SMESb Sup.Cap. TES
ES -acid Mh Cells
Batt.
10 0.01
Power
0- 0.001 to 0.05- 0.001- 0.005- 0.025 0.02- 0.01- 0.001- 0.00000 0.1-
Rating 1-400 0-46 0.1-50 0.002-20
50 -50 ~M 34 1 1.5 -1 10 10 10 1-50 300
(MW)
00 W
10
Discharge - min- 1-
2-100 h s-h s-h 0.1-5 5-8 s-8h s-4h 3-4 s-15min s s s-24+
Duration (h) 10 8h 24h+
0
Gravimetric
0.5
Energy 30- 30- 150- 100- 60- 110- 600- 80-
- 30-60 50-75 75-250 10-75 5-130 0.5-5 0.05-30
Density 50 110 240 140 85 3000 1200 250
1.5
(Wh/kg)
Volumetric
0.5
Energy 50- 140- 200- 150- 150- 30- 500- 0.2- 100000 50-
- 3-6 60-150 15-33 20-80 500-3k
Density 80 435 600 240 280 60 10k 2.5 + 500
1.5
(Wh/L)
Power
75- 250- 150- 130- 50- 400- 500- 500- 10-
Density 150-230 100-5k 5-500
300 2k 230 245 150 1600 2000 5000+ 30c
(W/kg)
70
- 40- 70- 60- 85- 75- 65- 75- 40- 85- 30-
Efficiency 60-70% ~90% 80-99% 97%+ 20-70%
87 80% 92% 66% 90% 90% 85% 80% 60% 99% 60%
%
40
Durability - 20- 5-15
5-20 3-15 5-20 15 8-14 10-20 5-20 - 15-20 20+ 20+ 5-15 10-40
(years) 10 100 (~10)
0
12
Durability k- 30000 500- 1000250 200- 100010 20005 25003 13000 ~200 100- 10000 20001
1000000 100k+ 100-10k
(cycles) 30 + 1200 0 1500 k k k + 0 300 + 4k
k+
60
Capital Cost 0- 400- 300- 500- 10003 150- 600- 700- 100- 200- 100- 200-
12004k 250-350 10000+
(kW/$) 20 800 600 1500 k 300 1500 2500 250 300 300 300
00
5-
Capital Cost 200- 800- 600- 300- 100- 150- 150- 1000- 300- 6000-
10 2-50 10-60 10005k 3-60
(kWh/$) 400 1500 2500 500 200 1000 1k 10k 2000 20k
0
Tech.maturity
level (1 = low, 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 1 4 3 3 2 3-4
5=high)
95 up to
65- 100 99% 99.9% 96- 99.9%
Availability % 99%+ 97%+ 99.98 94% N/A 99.9%+ 99.9%+ 90% 90%
96% % + + 99% +
+ %
The development of an advanced power electronic control interfaces. There are several functions of power
interface (APEI) helps meet various power demands with electronics interface modules such as power conversion,
lower cost compared to DER systems since power power conditioning (PQ), protection of output interface &
converters provide similar functions. Thus, the stability of filters, DER and load control, ancillary services, and
the microgrid is maintained while source variety is also monitoring and control [8,23]. Power electronics are used
accommodated [21,22]. A typical block diagram of a DER to change the characteristics (voltage and current
power electronic system and the power electronics magnitude, phase and/or frequency) of electrical power to
interface in a microgrid are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 suit any particular application.
respectively.
1098
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
numerous power electronics converters, characteristic
interface configurations and methods of power flow
control for DER has been provided in Table 4 and Table 5
respectively [24-27].
4. Stability, Control and Communication Strategies shaft. In DC microgrid systems, there are not any reactive
for Microgrid power interactions, which seems to suggest that there are
no stability issues. System control seems to be oriented
Stability issues are more prevalent in microgrids than toward frequency regulation only in a DC based microgrid.
in large electric grids since the power and energy ratings Power quality is a major issue in microgrid systems as
are much lower, and the analysis of stability issues for AC well as interconnection to DG systems. Power quality
microgrids follows the same concepts as in the main/macro issues related to RESs, hydro, and diesel generators that
grid. Both voltage and frequency need to be regulated are primary sources of DG systems are shown in Table 7
through active and reactive power controls. If sources such [5]. The stability of a microgrid is generally classified as
as traditional generators with an AC output are directly one of two types. The first is frequency stability, including
connected without power electronic interfaces, stability is small signal and transient stability, while the other is
controlled through the torque and speed control of machine voltage stability.
1099
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
Table 5. Typical interface configurations and methods for microgrid [10]. The control operation of a microgrid is
power flow control [8,24] required
Typical interface configurations and methods for power flow i. to add or subtract new micro-sources without any
control for DER modification of components present in the system,
Interfacing Power Flow
Primary Energy Source
Technology Control
ii. for selecting or optimizing operation point of a
Combined
microgrid autonomously as well as manually,
Synchronous AVR and Governor iii. to connect or to isolate a microgrid from the main
heat and
generator (+P, +/-Q)
power grid immediately and smoothly when demanded,
Internal Synchronous iv. for controlling active and reactive power
Conventional DG
wind turbine generator generator, improving the central controller, and agent-
(+P, -Q)
Power
based observing strategies. The independent or namely
Variable Turbine speed and self-governing control provides flexible adaptation of
electronic
speed wind DC link voltage
turbine
converter
control (+P, +/-Q)
existing systems to variable conditions, and increased
(AC-DC-AC) communication infrastructures can be integrated into the
Power system easily. The agent-based observing system allows
Turbine speed and
Nonconventional DG
Micro- electronic
DC link voltage
control of the microgrid remotely or locally in various
turbine converter levels. This method permits exploitation of the robustness
control (+P, +/-Q)
(AC-DC-AC)
of both centralized and distributed control systems [8,10].
Power Maximum power
Photovoltaic electronic point tracking and Table.7 Power Quality issues related to DG systems
(PV) converter DC link voltage
(DC-DC-AC) controls (+P, +/-Q) Power Quality Issues related to DG systems
Micro-
Wind Solar
Power Maximum power Power Quality Issues hydro Diesel
Energy Energy
electronic point tracking and turbine
Fuel cell
converter DC link voltage
(DC-DC-AC) controls (+P, +/-Q) Voltage sag/swell
Under/Over Voltage
Storage (DS)
Long-Term
The analysis methods of small signal stability that are 4.1. Microgrid Control Strategy
based on closed loop controllers are used to cope with A comparison of AC and DC microgrids are tabulated
problems of continuous load switching and managing the in Table 8.
power demand of the micro-sources. Any fault occurring There are several control techniques, which are stated
in one of the subsequent islands affects the microgrid in below that help to manage the component level of a
terms of transient stability. The stability problems in distribution system.
microgrid voltage are mostly produced by limited reactive i. Master and slave control: master fixes the voltage
power, load dynamics, and transient sources such as tap- and frequency values while the slaves control the
changers. The stability on small signals can be enhanced current sources.
by developing additional closed-loop controls, observers, ii. Current and power flow control: this method
and well-suited control strategies. controls the current and power distribution by
The transient stability is improved by using storage using control signals.
devices and adaptive protection devices. Furthermore, iii. Droop control: this method is improved to
voltage regulators, reactive power compensators, load combine with previous methods since the
controllers, and current limiters assure the stability in a converters behave as non-ideal voltage sources
[31].
1100
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
Table 6. Overview of microgrid switch technologies
Microgrid Switch Summary
Po
Open/
Switching DER wer
Close Cost Pros Cons Losses Remarks
Technology Switch Flo
Speed
w
Switchgear/ Circuit 20ms- Low- >Additional >Not suited for repeated No Negligible Acceptable for the insensitive
Circuit breaker 100ms med protection open/close cycles load
breaker based @60Hz not required
Contactor 20ms- Low >Rated for >Requires additional circuit No Negligible Switch has long and random
based 100ms repeated open- breaker for fault current protection response time
@60Hz close cycles
>Lower cost,
common
Static switch SCR based 6ms- Med- >Relatively low >SSR refuses to turn on when the No Significant Relatively more noisy, Less
17ms High frequency inverter mode transfer the efficient, bigger size/weight
@60Hz switching with operation mode because the time than IGBT
phase shift tech. of cross zero point may not occur
>it cannot turn-on or turn-off
>Can handle synchronously in three-phase
many open/close micro-grid system, because the
cycles phase difference of voltage and
current
IGBT 10us- High >High frequency >Requires circuit breaker for fault No Significant Most acceptable switch for
based 100us switching with current microgrid to connect &
@60Hz PWM technology protection disconnect public grid for
>It can clamp the >Expensive and new technology double mode inverter
instantaneous
currents and turn
off in very short
time frames
Power Converter 10us- Very >Most flexible, >Response time depends on Yes Significant Provides the necessary
electronic based 17ms High can handle system dynamic performance adaptation functions to
interface @60Hz AC/DC power >Additional circuit breaker may integrate all different
>Real and require and expensive microgrid components
reactive power
flow can be
controlled
DG Controllers - Monitors and controls each DG unit in order to manage the load - assures transfer of all generated power by
(DGCs) demand in both grid-tied and islanded modes, and controls the the DG to utility grid, and then can return to
transitions through modes with the help of MGCC. islanded mode safely when required.
Islanded Microgrid - controls the power flow of DG (active and reactive), and stabilizes - controls and stabilizes the power flow and
Central voltage and frequency, prevents interruptions by developing strategies load voltage when an error or change occurs
Controller and using management with ESS support. in the load profile and distribution sections
(MGCC) - Initializes local blackstart to maintain reliability of power supply and - picks up the generated voltage in grid-tied
sustainability of service, or islanded modes owing to MGCC features
- interconnects the microgrid to grid-tied mode when the utility grid is
stabilized after a probable fault
DG Controllers - checks all DG units independently in order to assure that the - assists load sharing for each DG units in
(DGCs) generated voltage has been transferred to the load in islanded mode, the islanded and grid-tied modes
and tracks the utility grid to operate in synchronized mode due to
MGC features
4.1.1. Centralized control system network as it presents increased control to the operator
who maintains the entire system. This feature allows the
A centralized control system achieves intelligence manager to define broad control strategies in order to meet
from a particular central location, which depends on the power requirements. However, the centralized control
network type, and could be a switch, a server, or a system requires a single control device that processes all
controller. It is easy to operate a centrally-controlled measured data. This unique controller point could cause
1101
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
several communication problems, and it may lead to of both types of control systems. In order to perform a
several faults that can shut down the entire system. decentralized control, MAS was proposed by various
researchers, and then numerous proposals have been
developed on this concept. The independent structure of
DER is based on this type of control and local controllers
(LC) can be easily developed this way. These controllers
can interact with each other to improve the communication
infrastructure in a wide area where the voltage regulation
is also provided by MAS [21,32,33].
1102
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
Table 10. Analysis of classical droop control technique used different communication protocols and researchers
[19] have been trying to generalize a standard communication
Properties of the classical droop method differences protocol to reduce costs and speed up the development of
microgrids. The communication system design should be
Advantage Disadvantage Possible Solution performed considering the communication model and
Preventing the Selecting just Controlling the restoration application protocol that are unique for microgrids.
communications the voltage periods, additional loops to
regulation or obtain higher gain slopes
load sharing
Table 12. Analysis of a hierarchical control scheme of a
Higher Lower Supplementary loops to control microgrid [21, 31, 36, 37]
flexibility harmonic bandwidth, third harmonic
elimination injection, dynamic impedance Hierarchical control scheme of a microgrid
adjustment, droop coefficients Asp Field/primary Management/secondary Grid/Tertiary
for harmonic elimination, ects level control level control level control
several harmonic elimination Inner control Minimize Area Directing
strategies methods are used Control Error (ACE) that the operation
Increased Inductance Dynamic impedance adjustment to meet the tracks frequency at a of medium
reliability couplings voltage and fixed value, maintains and low
Free laying Impact of Supplementary loops to estimate frequency the power balance, voltage (LV)
overall the grid impedance, control of requirement of maintains P and Q share Control
impedance power flow, DERs. among the generation based on
Various power Lower Droop control for slopes, angle, Controls units, Distribution
ratings response rate adaptive decentralization, applied at Restoration control network
coupling filters; H∞ control source and load that is focused on operator
Interconnection Droop control for nonlinear sides tracking the desired (DNO)
of RES conditions and hybrid MPPT Objectives Generation voltage and frequency of interface
control that the DG Market
Table 11. Analysis of a local control technique [21,34,35] assures Interaction control operator
performance in through the DG sources (MOs)
Local control operation and control methods voltage and and utility grid by using
current modes, error minimization
Operation Operation Mode Control Method Islanding methods such as phase-
Type detection control locked loop (PLL)
Inner control of Controllable AVR and governor control that checks the techniques.
the DERs sources Stall or pitch control of operation mode Optimisation methods
Renewable turbine for that allow choice of
sources Turbine speed and voltage interconnection to operation type regarding
Long term controls utility grid. generation and
storage/short MPPT and voltage consumption
term storage controls Primary Avoiding the voltage Power
State of charge and output, control that and frequency deviation sharing
voltage/frequency controls depends on the caused by first level control to the
State of charge, speed droop control control grid
control method regarding Only low bandwidth connection
Power Autonomous Based on communications the various communication is Tertiary
generation mode Droop methods sources connected required for this control control and
control Grid Power export to DG level. synchronizati
connected (with/without MPPT) Power sharing Synchronization loop on control
AC microgrid control
mode Power dispatch, real and control based on that controls the loops
reactive power support the droop method interconnection through implementati
Islanding Active Based on current injection The virtual the grid-tied and on.
detection methods Sandia National impedance is an islanded modes. Reference
Passive Laboratories algorithm equivalent concept generating
methods Under/over voltage and in applications. for frequency
Utility level under/over frequency Combined and voltage
methods algorithms both concepts values of the
Phase jump algorithms such as P/Q secondary
Based on communication sharing of sources, level control.
signals soft starting Park
SCADA opportunities, and transformatio
low voltage ride- n for a
through (LVRT). general
4.2. Communication Strategies Used in Microgrid impedance
case.
Suitable communication required to perform control Synchronisation Frequency control, Interconn
Islanding microgrids
1103
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
The control processes in a microgrid should be
performed by collaboration of several controllers at
various levels such as distribution, microgrid, and unit
where data acquisition and control signals are transmitted
[5, 8, 38,39]. Microgrid communications systems should
satisfy the following points:
i. Data exchange among all elements in the multi
microgrid as well as within the microgrid
ii. Monitoring and data acquisition from all elements
iii. Must meet the demand of decentralized control
for example hierarchical control
iv. Real-time generation and load shedding control,
e.g. power management
v. Voltage and frequency control coordination Fig. 5. Forecasted microgrid application market in 2022
vi. Communication protocols must be employed for
overall energy management, protection and
control
vii. Must determine whether the microgrids can
provide fast secondary services or not
5. Future of Grids
1104
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
The future grid system needs to be changed to the the RES that could be used to complete prospective.
more efficient use of available energy. Several features of Renewable resources are widely distributed and due to the
prospective grids are given below; intermittent nature of power, such a new distributed
i. Networked, loosely integrated independent system can be provided by various generation approaches
microgrids to obtain the maximum potential energy of the sources.
ii. Harnessed heat and power (CHP) This survey paper has been dedicated to describe the
iii. Allowing demand response microgrid term and the conceptual components are
iv. Avoidance of transmission losses sketched for the different research fields. The possible
v. Integration of the RES research directions have been projected which are essential
vi. Resilience to domino failures for future development of microgrid. Centralized and
vii. Empowerment of consumers and independent decentralized hierarchical controls of microgrids have been
power producers to be proactive players and explained with the MAS decentralized control offers
stakeholders in energy transactions several advantages for example plug&play capability. The
viii. Forecast of load and generation communication system, stability and control issues of
ix. Introduction of several loads for inverter and microgrid have been presented. Finally, the possible
converters feature of future microgrid has been illustrated with the
x. Introduction of distributed generation with DC growth of world distributed generation market.
output for numerous energy sources
xi. Requirements for higher quality power [43-47]. References
[1] E. Hossain, E. Kabalci, R. Bayindir, R. Perez,
6. Commercial Planning of Microgrid “Microgrid testbeds around the world: State of art”,
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 86, pp.
It is necessary to work on several issues to introduce a 132-153, October 2014.
microgrid as a commercial product. Politically, a [2] http://www.gii.co.jp/report/wg291088-stationary-
microgrid may not work because the local utility did not fuel-cells-market-shares-strategies.html?
see the benefit of removing the macrogrid and replacing it [3] Peter Asmus, Alex Lauderbaugh, Kerry-Ann
with microgrids. It might take more time for microgrids to Adamson, “Executive Summary:
become primary agents of power supply. Besides, utility [4] Microgrid Deployment Tracker 4Q12”, Pike
companies still have ownership over wires and Research Report, 2012. Sadrul Ula, T. S. Kalkur,
transmission components. Permission from utilities is Melissa S. Mattmuller, Robert J. Hofinger, Ashoka
needed for transferring power through the macrogrid. K. S. Bhat, Badrul H. Chowdhury, Jerry C. Whitaker,
Moreover, utility operators assume the microgrid as a and Isidor Buchmann, “The Electronics Handbook”,
competitor and they have started investing in the improved Second Edition. Apr 2005 , 1033 -1257 2005.
reliability of macrogrids. [5] Lubna Mariam, Malabika Basu, and Michael F.
Furthermore, the existing grid codes need to be Conlon, “A Review of Existing Microgrid
changed to allow for consideration of microgrids. Architectures,” Journal of Engineering, pp.1-8, 2013.
Localized power will help from a user/energy/environment doi:10.1155/2013/937614.
point of view, but politically, utility companies do not see [6] Changhee Cho; Jin-Hong Jeon; Jong-Yul Kim;
it that way. The state of the industry is going through a Soonman Kwon; Kyongyop Park; Sungshin Kim,
revolution and significant evaluation until pertinent "Active Synchronizing Control of a Microgrid,"
matters have been addressed and decisions have been IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol.26,
made. At present, utility companies are slow to embrace no.12, pp.3707,3719, Dec. 2011
new technology but, unless they release ownership/control [7] Eto, J.; Lasseter, R.; Schenkman, B.; Stevens, J.;
of equipment, microgrids will not be commercially viable. Klapp, D.; Volkommer, H.; Linton, E.; Hurtado, H.;
Still, more research is required to resolve several critical Roy, J., "Overview of the CERTS Microgrid
issues as well as provide encouragement and support for laboratory Test Bed," PES Joint Symposium
microgrids from suppliers to local and federal Integration of Wide-Scale Renewable Resources Into
administrations. the Power Delivery System, pp.1,1, 29-31 July 2009
[8] N.W.A. Lidula, A.D. Rajapakse, “Microgrids
7. Conclusion research: A review of experimental microgrids and
test systems”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
This topic is currently being concerned by the alarms Reviews, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 186-202, January 2011.
on global warming, pollution and carbon footprint [9] Taha Selim Ustun, Cagil Ozansoy, Aladin Zayegh,
emissions. Microgrid systems facilitate remote “Recent developments in microgrids and example
applications and allow access to pollution-free energy and cases around the world—A review”, Renewable and
gives impetus to the use of renewable sources of energy. Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 8, Pages
Moreover, in an event of a power grid failure, a microgrid 4030-4041, October 2011.
is one of the best alternatives. Renewable energy systems [10] Ritwik Majumder, “Some Aspects of Stability in
help to generate clean and sustainable energy as the Microgrids”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
demand for energy continues to rise. Nevertheless, there vol. 28, no. 3, pp.3243,3252, Aug. 2013
are several challenges that need to be tackled to facilitate
1105
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
[11] C. Ma, Y. Hous, “Classified Overview of Microgrids [23] Wei Huang, Miao Lu, Li Zhang, “Survey on
and Developments in China” Energy Tech 2012, Microgrid Control Strategies”, Energy Procedia, vol.
Ohio, pp. 1-6, 29-31 May 2012. 12, Pages 206-212, 2011.
[12] Shouxiang Wang; Zhixin Li; Qun Xu; Zuyi Li, [24] F Katiraei, R. Iravani, N. Hatziargyriou, A. Dimeas,
"Reliability analysis of distributed system with DGs," “Microgrids management”, IEEE Power and Energy
2011 4th International Conference on Electric Utility Magazine, vol: 6, no: 3, pp. 54-65, May-June 2008.
Deregulation and Restructuring and Power [25] Power electronics,
Technologies (DRPT), pp.14-17, 6-9 July 2011. http://medlibrary.org/medwiki/Power_electronics
[13] Resnick Institute Report “Grid 2020 Towards a [26] Muhammad H. Rashid, “Power Electronics
Policy of Renewable and Distributed Energy Handbook”, Academic Press, ISBN-13: 978-
Resources”, September 2012. 0123820365, 2010.
[14] Navigant Consulting Report, “Preliminary [27] Suryanarayanan, S.; Mitra, J.; Biswas, S., "A
Assessment of Regulatory Cost Drivers in conceptual framework of a hierarchically networked
California’s Energy Market”, August 2013, agent-based microgrid architecture," 2010 IEEE PES
http://careaboutenergy.org/wp- Transmission and Distribution Conference and
content/uploads/Preliminary-Assessment-of- Exposition, , pp.1,5, 19-22 April 2010.
Regulatory-Cost-Drivers-in-Californias-Energy- [28] Meiqin Mao; Yinzheng Tao; Liuchen Chang;
Market_16Aug2013.pdf Yongchao Zhao; Peng Jin, "An intelligent static
[15] “The Manageable Risks of Conventional switch based on embedded system and its control
Hydrothermal Geothermal Power Systems : A method for a microgrid," 2012 IEEE Innovative
Factbook Smart Grid Technologies - Asia (ISGT Asia), pp.1,6,
On Geothermal Power’s Risks and Methods to 21-24 May 2012.
Mitigate Them”, Geothermal Energy Association [29] Xisheng Tang; Zhiping Qi, "Energy storage control
(GEA), Feb 2014, http://www.geo- in renewable energy based microgrid," 2012 IEEE
energy.org/reports/Geothermal%20Risks_Publication Power and Energy Society General Meeting, pp.1-6,
_2_4_2014.pdf 22-26 July 2012.
[16] T. Kousksou, P. Bruel, A. Jamil, T. El Rhafiki, Y. [30] Liping Su, Guojie Li, Zhijian Jin, "Modeling, control
Zeraouli, “Energy storage: Applications and and testing of a voltage-source-inverter-based
challenges”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, microgrid," 2011 4th International Conference on
vol. 120, Part A, Pages 59-80, January 2014. Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and
[17] N.S. Chouhan, M. Ferdowsi, "Review of energy Power Technologies (DRPT), pp.724,729, 6-9 July
storage systems," North American Power Symposium 2011.
(NAPS), pp.1,5, 4-6 Oct. 2009 [31] Guerrero, J.M., "Connecting renewable energy
[18] ChaoyongHou; Xuehao Hu; Dong Hui, "Plug and sources into the smartgrid," 2011 IEEE International
play power electronics interface applied in Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), pp.2400-
microgrid," 2011 4th International Conference on 2566, 27-30 June 2011 ISIE 2011, Poland.
Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and [32] Jackson John Justo, Francis Mwasilu, Ju Lee, Jin-
Power Technologies (DRPT), pp.719,723, 6-9 July Woo Jung, “AC-microgrids versus DC-microgrids
2011. with distributed energy resources: A review”,
[19] Shuhui Li; Proano, J.; Dong Zhang, "Microgrid Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 24,
power flow study in grid-connected and islanding pp. 387-405 August 2013.
modes under different converter control strategies," [33] Michael Angelo Pedrasa, Ted Spooner, “A Survey of
2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Techniques Used to Control Microgrid Generation
Meeting, pp.1,8, 22-26 July 2012. and Storage during Island Operation” Proceedings of
[20] Petra de Boer, Jillis Raadschelders, “Flow batteries”, the 2006 Australasian Universities Power
http://www.leonardo-energy.org/sites/leonardo- Engineering Conference (AUPEC'06), pp.1-6,
energy/files/root/pdf/2007/Briefing%20paper%20- Melbourne, Australia, 10 – 13 December 2006.
%20Flow%20batteries.pdf [34] Cheng Ding; Lo, K.L., "Microgrid control and
[21] Estefanía Planas, Asier Gil-de-Muro, Jon Andreu, management of state transition period," Universities
Iñigo Kortabarria, Iñigo Martínez de Alegría, Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), 2012 47th
“General aspects, hierarchical controls and droop International, pp.1,5, 4-7 Sept. 2012.
methods in microgrids: A review”, Renewable and [35] Estefanía Planas, Asier Gil-de-Muro, Jon Andreu,
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 17, pp. 147-159, Iñigo Kortabarria, Iñigo Martínez de Alegría,
January 2013. “General aspects, hierarchical controls and droop
[22] Sudipta Chakraborty, Bill Kramer, Benjamin methods in microgrids: A review”, Renewable and
Kroposki, “A review of power electronics interfaces Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 17, Pages 147-159,
for distributed energy systems towards achieving January 2013.
low-cost modular design”, Renewable and [36] Katiraei, F.; Iravani, R.; Hatziargyriou, N.; Dimeas,
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol 13, no. 9, Pages A., "Microgrids management," IEEE Power and
2323-2335, December 2009. Energy Magazine, vol.6, no.3, pp.54,65, May-June
2008.
1106
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
Ramazan Bayindir et al. ,Vol. 4, No. 4, 2014
[37] Automatic Generation Control Software – EMS,
http://etap.com/energy-management-
system/automatic-generation-control-software.htm
[38] Juan Carlos, “Decentralized Control Techniques
Applied to Electric Power Distributed Generation in
Microgrids”, A dissertation submitted for the degree
of European Doctor of Philosophy, June 10, 2009
[39] Ming Ding; Yingyuan Zhang; Meiqin Mao, "Key
technologies for microgrids-a review," International
Conference on Sustainable Power Generation and
Supply, 2009. SUPERGEN '09., pp.1,5, 6-7 April
2009 , Nanjing China.
[40] Fast Market Research “Microgrid Market, Global
Forecast & Analysis (2012 - 2022) - Focus on
Renewable Power Generation, Solar Photo-voltaics,
Wind Micro-Turbines, Battery, Energy Storage &
Control Systems, By Types, Components &
Technologies”,
http://www.fastmr.com/prod/531733_microgrid_mar
ket_global_forecast_analysis_2012.aspx?dt=s, Jan
18, 2013.
[41] Danny Yu, “From "Cool" to "Cool and Connected":
Why the smart home movement toward connected
solutions will accelerate enterprise smart building
adoption”, 17 January 2014,
http://www.daintree.net/blog/index.php
[42] Toshifumi ISE, “Advantages and Circuit
Configuration of a DC Microgrid”, Symposium on
Microgrids, pp.1-5, Montreal 2006.
[43] Marnay C, Venkataramanan G. Microgrids in the
evolving electricity generation and delivery
infrastructure. In: IEEE power engineering society
general meeting; 2006. p. 5.
[44] Peças Lopes JA, Moreira CL, Resende FO.
Microgrids black start and islanded operation. In:
Proc 15th power system computation conference
(PSCC), Liege, 22–26 August 2005. p. 1–7.
<http://www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/services/stochastic
/pscc05/papers/fp69.pdf>.
[45] Hatziargyriou N. Microgrids – large scale integration
of microgeneration. In:Conference on the integration
of renewable energy sources and distributed energy
sources, Brussels; 2004. p. 1–11.
[46] Lasseter RH, Paigi P. Microgrid: a conceptual
solution. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 35th annual
power electronics specialists conference (PESC 04),
June 2004. p. 4285–90.
[47] Lasseter RH. Microgrids. In: Proceedings of the
IEEE power engineering society winter meeting, vol.
1; 2002. p. 305–8.
1107