HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II

PHIL SAAD

1. Problem 1

[J µν , J ρσ ] = i(g νρ J µσ − g µρ J νσ − g νσ J µρ + g µσ J νρ )
{γ µ , γ ν } = 2g µν × I n×n

1.1. Commutation Relations of L and K.

1
Li = ijk J jk , K i = J 0i
2
1
[L1 , L2 ] = 1jk 2lm [J jk , J lm ]
4
i
= 1jk 2lm (g kl J jm − g jl J km − g km J jl + g jm J kl )
4
i
= − 1jk 2lm (δ kl J jm − δ jl J km − δ km J jl + δ jm J kl )
4
i
= − (1jk 2km J jm − 1jk 2jm J km − 1jk 2lk J jl + 1jk 2lj J kl )
4
i
= − (δ 1m δ 2j J jm + δ 1m δ 2k J km + δ 1l δ 2j J jl + δ 1l δ 2k J kl
4
= −iJ 21 = iJ 3
By cyclic permutations of this
[Li , Lj ] = iijk Lk
1 i
[L1 , K 2 ] = 1lm [J lm , J 02 ] = 1lm (g m0 J l2 − g l0 J m2 − g m2 J l0 + g l2 J m0 )
2 2
i −i 1l2 l0
= 1lm (−g m2 J l0 + g l2 J m0 ) = ( J + 12m J m0 ) = iJ 03
2 2
By cyclic permutations of this

[Li , K j ] = iijk K k

[K i , K j ] = [J 0i , J 0j ] = i(g i0 J 0j − g 00 J ij − g ij J 00 + g 0j J i0 )
i and j run from one to three, so all the terms with g 0i and such drop out. J is antisymmetric so
J 00 = 0, so this is equal to
−J ij = −ijk Lk

Date: July 1st 2013.

1
2 PHIL SAAD

1.2. Lorentz Transformations in terms of L and K.

i
D(1 + δω) = 1 − (δωαβ J αβ )
2
By the antisymmetry of δω and J
= 1 − i(δω01 J 01 + δω02 J 02 + δω03 J 03 + δω12 J 12 + δω23 J 23 + δω31 J 31 )
= 1 − i(δω01 K 1 + δω02 K 2 + δω03 K 3 + δω12 L3 + δω23 L1 + δω31 L2 )
= 1 − iθ · L − iβ · K
Provided we choose δω0i = βi , δωij = ijk θk
1.3. Vector Transformation Matrices.
(J αβ )µν = i(g αµ δνβ − g βµ δνα )
(K i )µν = i(g 0µ δν1 − g 1µ δν0 )
     
0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 i
i 0 0 0 , K 2 = 0 0 0 0
 , K 3 = 0 0 0 0
K1 = 
  

0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0
(L3 )µν = i(g 1µ δν2 − g 2µ δν1 )

(L2 )µν = i(g 3µ δν1 − g 1µ δν3 )

(L1 )µν = i(g 2µ δν3 − g 3µ δν2 )

     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 −i 0  , L2 = 0 0 0 −i , K 3 = 0 0 0 0 
L3 = 
    
0 i 0 0   0 0 0 0   0 0 0 −i
0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0
1 2 3
 
0 β β β
β 1 0 −θ3 −θ2 
Λ = exp β 2 θ3

0 −θ1 
β 3 θ2 θ1 0
It is clear that these reduce to the familiar matrices for rotations and boosts
1.4. Showing that The Lorentz Generators Can Be Written as Generators of SU(2).
1 1
Ai = (Li + iK i ), B i = (Li − iK i )
2 2
1 1
[Ai , Aj ] = [Li + iK i , Li + iK i ] = ([Li , Lj ] + i[Li , K j ] + i[K i , Lj ] − [K i , K j ])
4 4
1 ijk k
= (i L −  K + ijik K k − iijk Lk )
ijk k
4
1
= (iijk Lk − ijk K k ) = iijk Ak
2
1 i 1
[B , B ] = [L − iK , L − iK i ] = ([Li , Lj ] − i[Li , K j ] − i[K i , Lj ] − [K i , K j ])
i j i i
4 4
1 ijk k
= (i L −  K − ijik K k + iijk Lk )
ijk k
4
1
= (iijk Lk + ijk K k ) = iijk Ak
2
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 3

1 1
[Ai , B j ] = [Li + iK i , Li − iK i ] = ([Li , Lj ] − i[Li , K j ] + i[K i , Lj ] + [K i , K j ])
4 4
1
= (iijk Lk − ijk K k − ijik K k − iijk Lk )
4
=0

1.5. Transformation Laws for Spinor and Vector Representations.

1 1
A = (L + iK), B = (L − iK)
2 2
L = A + B, K = −i(A − B)

1 σ σ σ
φL ( , 0) : A = , B = 0, L = , K = −i
2 2 2 2


φL → 1 − iθ · L − iβ · K φL
σ

φL → 1 − · (iθ + β) φL
2

1 σ σ σ
φR (0, ) : A = 0, B = , L = , K = i
2 2 2 2


φR → 1 − iθ · L − iβ · K φR
σ

φR → 1 − · (iθ − β) φR
2
To show how φV transforms we must show how φTL σ 2 transforms.
σ

φL → 1 − · (iθ + β) φL
2

σT
φTL → φTL 1 −


· (iθ + β)
2
σT σT
φTL σ 2 → φTL 1 − · (iθ + β) σ 2 = φTL σ 2 σ 2 1 − · (iθ + β) σ 2



2 2
σT
 
φTL σ 2 → φTL σ 2 σ 2 1 − · (iθ + β) σ 2


2

σ2σT σ2
φTL σ 2 → φTL σ 2 1 −


· (iθ + β)
2
σ 2 σ T σ 2 = −σ so
σ
φTL σ 2 → φTL σ 2 1 + · (iθ + β)


2
T 2


Thus by arranging φV as φR , φL σ , we obtain the transformation law

σ
σ

φV → 1 − · (iθ − β) φV (1 + · (iθ + β)
2 2
4 PHIL SAAD

1.6. Showing that (1/2,1/2) is the Vector Representation. We can put the components of
a two by two matrix that transforms under a right handed spinor rotation from the left and an
inverse left handed transformation from the right. We use this to show that an object in the (1/2,
1/2) representation is a vector. Notice that the matrix is hermitian and has determinant of the
mod squared of the vector. This transformation preserves these properties, as can be seen from the
fact that the right handed and inverse left handed transformations are hermitian conjugates, and
they both have determinant 1, as they are products of a unitary and the exponential of a traceless
hermitian matrix, which are elements of SL(2,C). The fact that multiplication on the left and on the
right by the dagger of an element of SL(2,C) preserves the length of vectors suggests that SO(3,1)
is isomorphic to SL(2,C); however, the same transformation is accomplished by the negative of
a transformation, thus SO(3,1) is isomorphic to SL(2,C) / Z2, which is isomporphic to R3 X S3
/Z2 since any element of SL(2,C) can be decomposed into the product of a special unitary and
exponential of a traceless hermitian matrix, as mentioned before. The space of traceless hermitian
matrices is isomorphic to R3, and SU(2) is isomorphic to S3. From examining the quotient space of
S3/Z2, which is not simply connected, we can see a topological reason as to why spinors transoform
under 2 pi rotations up to a negative sign. Thanks Weinberg for this cool info.
 0
V + V 3 V 1 − iV 2

φV = = V µ σ̄µ
V 1 + iV 2 V 0 − V 3
σ σ
V µ σ̄µ → 1 − · (iθ − β) V µ σ̄µ (1 + · (iθ + β)



2 2
µ Vµ
= V µ σ̄µ + (iθj + βj )(σ̄µ σj ) − (iθj − βj )(σj σ̄µ )
2 2
Vµ
 
µ
= V σ̄µ + iθj [σ̄µ , σj ] + βj {σ̄µ , σj }
2
V0 Vi
   
µ
= V σ̄µ + iθj [I, σj ] + βj {I, σj } + iθj [σi , σj ] + βj {σi , σj }
2 2
Vi
 
µ 0
= V σ̄µ + V β · σ + 2θj ijk σk + 2βj δij
2

= V µ σ̄µ + V 0 β · σ + V · βσ0 − ijk V i θj σk

 
= V σ̄µ + βi g δν − β g δν V ν − ijk V i θj σk
µ 0µ i i iµ 0

 
1 1
= V σ̄µ + βi g δν − β g δν V ν σ̄µ + ijk θk g iµ V j σ̄µ − ijk g jµ σ̄µ V i
µ 0µ i i iµ 0
2 2
   
1
= V σ̄µ + βi g δν − β g δν V σ̄µ + ijk θk g δν − g δν V ν σ̄µ
µ 0µ i i iµ 0 ν iµ j jµ i
2
i
V µ σ̄µ − iβi (J 0i )µν V ν σ̄µ − ijk θk (J ij )µν V ν σ̄µ
2
 
i
= δν − δωαβ (J )ν V ν σ̄µ
µ αβ µ
2
= V 0µ σ̄µ
1 1


Thus an object in the 2, 2 representation transforms as a vector.
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 5

2. Problem 2
2.1. Showing S Satisfies the Lorentz Algebra. Let
i
J µν
1 = S µν = [γ µ , γ ν ]
2 4
i i 1
[S µν , S ρσ ] = [ [γ µ , γ ν ], [γ ρ , γ σ ]] = − [[γ µ , γ ν ], [γ ρ , γ σ ]]
4 4 16
1 µ ν ρ σ
=−(γ γ γ γ − γ ρ γ σ γ µ γ ν − γ µ γ ν γ σ γ ρ + γ σ γ ρ γ µ γ ν
16
−γ ν γ µ γ ρ γ σ + γ ρ γ σ γ ν γ µ + γ ν γ µ γ σ γ ρ − γ σ γ ρ γ ν γ µ )
Using the anticommutation relations on the inner two matrices in each product, we get this.
Notice every factor of 2g αβ is cancelled by another.
1
=− (−γ µ γ ρ γ ν γ σ + γ ρ γ µ γ σ γ ν + γ µ γ σ γ ν γ ρ − γ σ γ µ γ ρ γ ν
16
+γ ν γ ρ γ µ γ σ − γ ρ γ ν γ σ γ µ − γ ν γ σ γ µ γ ρ + γ σ γ ν γ ρ γ µ )
Using the identity {A, B}[C, D] + [A, B]{C, D} = 2(ABCD − BADC)
1
= − ({γ ν , γ ρ }[γ µ , γ σ ] + [γ µ , γ σ ]{γ ν , γ ρ } − {γ µ , γ ρ }[γ ν , γ σ ] − [γ ν , γ σ ]{γ µ , γ ρ }
32
−{γ ν , γ σ }[γ µ , γ ρ ] − [γ µ , γ ρ ]{γ µ , γ σ } + {γ µ , γ σ }[γ ν , γ ρ ] + [γ ν , γ ρ ]{γ µ , γ σ })
Since {γ α , γ β } is proportional to the identity, it commutes with the commutators. Thus we can
simplify to
1
= − ({γ ν , γ ρ }[γ µ , γ σ ] − {γ µ , γ ρ }[γ ν , γ σ ] − {γ ν , γ σ }[γ µ , γ ρ ] + {γ µ , γ σ }[γ ν , γ ρ ])
16
By the anticommutation relations
1
= − (g νρ [γ µ , γ σ ] − g µρ [γ ν , γ σ ] − g νσ [γ µ , γ ρ ] + g µσ [γ ν , γ ρ ])
8
= i(g νρ S µσ − g µρ S νσ − g νσ S µρ + g µσ S νρ )
Thus S αβ satisfies the Lorentz algebra
2.2. Proving That The Gamma Matrices Must Be 4 Dimensional. To prove that the
matrices satsifying the Clifford algebra in Minkowski spacetime must be four dimensional, we first
prove that they must be even dimensional.
For µ 6= ν
γ µ γ ν = −γ ν γ µ , det(γ µ γ ν ) = det(−γ ν γ µ )
det(γ µ )det(γ ν ) = det(−I)det(γ ν )det(γ µ )
det(−I) = 1
This is only true for even dimensions.
To show that two dimensions does not work, we must show that the pauli matrices plus another
matrix cannot work. This is done by showing that the pauli matrices plus the identity form a basis
for two by two complex matrices. Then any other matrix that we suppose anticommutes with the
pauli matrices must be a linear combination of the the pauli matrices and the identity.
Consider an abritary complex two by two matrix, and some linear combination of the identity
and the Pauli matrices.
   
a b α + δ β − iγ
, = αI + βσ 1 + γσ 2 + δσ 3
c d β + iγ α − δ
6 PHIL SAAD

We can solve for α, β, γ, and δ in terms of a, b, c, and d and write any two by two matrix as a linear
combination of the sigma matrices and the identity. Now to show that this implies that there are
no other matrices that anticommute with all three Pauli matrices.
Let A be an arbitrary two by two matrix

{σ i , A} = α{σ i , I} + β{σ i , σ 1 } + γ{σ i , σ 2 } + δ{σ i , σ 3 }

With α, β, γ, and δ not all zero.

= 2(ασ i + βδ i1 + γδ i2 + δδ i3 )
If α is zero, than A is just a linear combination of the sigma matrices, which obviously does not
work. If α is nonzero and the rest are zero, than A is just the identity and that obviously doesn’t
work. If α and the rest are nonzero, than we still cannot get this anticommutator to zero, since no
linear combination of the identity and each sigma can be zero. Thus two dimensions does not work
and the gamma matrices in Minkowski spacetime must be at least four dimensional.
2.3. Unitarily Equivalent Gamma Matrices. Let aµ = U −1 γ µ U be a set of four matrices.
Then

{aµ , aν } = αµ αν + αν αµ = U −1 γ µ U U −1 γ ν U + U −1 γ ν U U −1 γ µ U

= U −1 γ µ γ ν U + U −1 γ ν γ µ U = U −1 ({γ µ , γ ν })U
= U −1 (2g µν I)U = 2g µν I
Thus any matrices related to the gammas by a unitary transformation satisfy the Clifford algebra
We can actually make a stronger statement: any matrix represtation of the Clifford algebra is
related to the weyl representation by a similarity transformation. The crux of this proof is in Schur’s
lemma, which states that if γµ and γm 0 are two n and n’ dimensional irreducible represntiations

such that

γµ S = Sγµ0
for some n by n’ matrix S, than S is invertible or the zero matrix. We begin the proof by
discussing the sixteen gamma matrices that form a basis for 4 by 4 matrices. We call these the γr

γr = 1, γµ , γµ γν (µ 6= ν), γ5 γµ , γ5
With γ5 = γ0 γ1 γ2 γ3 . For each class of matrices in the γr ’s, the square is proportional to the
identity, with the proportionality constant being plus or minus one, depending only on the class.
We now need to use the fact that the trace of two anticommuting matrices is zero. This is easily
proven, using the linearity of the trace and the fact that it is unchanged under cyclic rotations of
the matrices. With A and B anticommuting,
Tr(AB) = Tr(BA) = Tr(−AB) = −Tr(AB) → Tr(AB) = 0
We now want to show that all the γr ’s except 1 are traceless. This can be done by writing them all as
products of anticommuting matrices. We already have γµ γν and γ5 γµ as products of anticommuting
matrices. We can also write, with µ 6= ν

γµ = γ ν γν γµ = −γ ν (γµ γν ) = (γµ γν )γ ν
And
γ5 = γ0 (γ1 γ2 γ3 ) = −(γ1 γ2 γ3 )γ0
Thus all the γr ’s except 1 are traceless.
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 7

Now we want to show that they are linearly independent. Suppose

X
cr γr = 0
r
Then, multiplying by γs and taking the trace
X
cr Tr(γr γs ) = 0
r
For s 6= 1 this is equal to X
c1 Tr(γs ) + cr Tr(γr γs ) = 0
r6=1
Since the γr ’s are traceless and anticommute, what remains is the trace of the square of γs , and
the square of the γr ’s are plus or minus one times the identity. Thus
cs Tr(±I) = 0 → cs = 0
For s = 1, this reduces to X
c1 Tr(I) + cr Tr(γr ) = 0
r6=1
c1 Tr(I) = 0 → c1 = 0
Thus the γr ’s are linearly independent and form a basis for 4 by 4 matrices. Now we continue with
the proof by defining the matrix S
X
S= γr0 F γr (±1)r
r
Where F is an arbitrary matrix and thr ±1 is the sign of the square of the matrices for r. We now
mulitply on one side by γs0 and on the other by γs
X X
γs0 S = γs0 γr0 F γr (±1)r , Sγs = γr0 F γr γs (±1)r
r r
From the anticommutitivity of the γr ’s and the fact that any combination is another γr
γs γr = sr γt ,
γs0 γr0 = sr γt0
With  being the antisymmetric symbol. It is also true that
γt (±1)t = γt−1
Since γt squares to (±1)t . Also
γt = sr γs γr → γt−1 = sr γr−1 γs−1 = sr (±1)r γr γs−1
We then obtain X X
γs0 S = γs0 γr0 F γr (±1)r =  − srγt0 F γr (±1)r
r t
And X X
Sγs = γr0 F γr γs (±1)r = γt0 F γt γs (±1)t
r t
X X X
= 0
γt F (γt (±1)t )γs = γt0 F (γt−1 )γs = γt0 F sr (±1)r γr γs−1 )γs
t t t
X
= sr γt0 F γr (±1)r
t
Thus
γs0 S = Sγs
8 PHIL SAAD

And since F is arbitrary and the γr ’s are linearly independent, we can always make it nonzero.
Thus by Schur’s lemma, S is invertible and the irreducible representations of the Clifford algebra
in 4 dimensions are equivalent.

2.4. Proving That The Weyl Representation Works. Suppose

σi

  
0 1
0 i 0
γ = ,γ =
1 0 −σ i 0
Then
  
0 10 1
{γ 0 , γ 0 } = 2γ 0 γ 0 = 2 = 2g 00 × I4×4
1 01 0

σi σj σj σi
     
i j 0 0 0 0
{γ , γ } = +
−σ i 0 −σ j 0 −σ j 0 −σ i 0

−σ i σ j −σ j σ i {σ i , σ j }
     
0 0 0
= + = −
−σ i σ j 0 −σ j σ i 0 {σ i , σ j } 0

= −2δ ij × I4×4 = 2g ij × I4×4

σi σi 0 1
     
0 1 0 0
{γ 0 , γ j } = +
1 0 −σ i 0 −σ i 0 1 0
 i   i 
−σ 0 σ 0
= + = 0 = 2g 0i × I4×4
0 σi 0 −σ i

3
3.1. Gamma Matrix Transformations.
i i
[γ µ , S αβ ] = [γ µ , [γ α , γ β ]] = (γ µ γ α γ β − γ µ γ β γ α − γ α γ β γ µ + γ β γ α γ µ )
4 4
i
= ({γ α , γ µ }γ β + γ β {γ α , γ µ } − {γ β , γ µ }γ α − γ α {γ β , γ µ })
4
Since the anticommutator is proportional to the identity
i
({γ α , γ µ }γ β − {γ β , γ µ }γ α ) = i(g αµ γ β − g βµ γ α ) = i(g αµ δνβ − g βµ δνα )γ ν
2

= (J αβ )µν γ ν
So then

δωαβ S αβ + O(δω 2 ) µ δωαβ S αβ + O(δω 2 )

Λ−1 µ
1 γ Λ 1 = (1 + i )γ (1 − i )
2 2 2 2
δωαβ µ αβ δωαβ αβ µ ν
= γµ − i [γ , S ] + O(δω 2 ) = γ µ − i (J )ν γ + O(δω 2 )
2 2
= Λµν γ ν
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 9

3.2. Inverse Spinor Transformations. It is clear that in the Dirac representation,

γ 0† = γ 0 , γ i† = −γ i
So
−i 0 0 i † 0 −i 0 0 i 0 −i i 0
γ 0 S 0i† γ 0 = γ [γ , γ ] γ = (γ γ γ γ − γ 0 γ i γ 0 γ 0 ) = (γ γ − γ 0 γ i )
4 4 4
i
= [γ 0 γ i ] = S 0i
4
−i 0 i j † 0 i
γ 0 S ij† γ 0 =
γ [γ , γ ] γ = (γ 0 γ i γ j γ 0 − γ 0 γ i γ j γ 0 )
4 4
i i j 0 0 i
= (γ γ γ γ − γ j γ i γ 0 γ 0 ) = [γ 0 γ j ] = S ij
4 4
Where from the third line to the fourth, I anticommuted the γ 0 past both γ i and γ j , picking up
two negative signs. Thus

γ 0 S µν† γ 0 = S µν
So

δωµν S µν†
γ 0 Λ†1 γ 0 = γ 0 (1 + i + O(δω 2 ))γ 0
2 2
δωµν γ 0 S µν† γ 0 δωµν ]S µν
=1+i + O(δω 2 ) = 1 + i + O(δω 2 )
2 2
= Λ−11
2

4. Peskin and Schroeder 3.4 -Majorana Field

4.1. Relativistic Invariance of the Majorana Equation And Connection to the Klein
Gordon Equation. From problem 1 we know that ΛR σ̄µ V µ Λ−1 ν µ
L = Λ µ V σ̄ν . This applies for all
V so

ΛR σ̄µ Λ−1 ν
L = Λ µ σ̄ν
ΛR σ̄ µ Λ−1 µ ν
L = Λν σ̄
ΛR σ̄ µ = (Λ−1 )µν σ̄ ν ΛL

We use this fact to show that the Majorana equation

iσ̄ · ∂χ − imσ 2 χ∗ = 0
is relativisticly invariant.
Under a lorentz transformation,
χ(x) → ΛL χ(Λ−1 x)

∗ ∗ −1
 
∗ ∗ ∗ −1 σ
χ (x) → ΛL χ (Λ x) = exp − · (iθ + β) χ (Λ x)
2
σ∗
 
2 ∗ 2

∗ −1
σ χ (x) → σ exp − · (−iθ + β) χ (Λ x)
2
Since σ 2 σ ∗ = −σσ 2
 
2 ∗ σ
2 ∗ −1
σ χ (x) → exp − · (iθ − β) σ χ (Λ x)
2
10 PHIL SAAD

= ΛR σ 2 χ∗ (Λ−1 x)
Let’s look at how the first part of the equation transforms.

iσ̄ · ∂χ(x) → iσ̄ · ∂ ΛL χ(Λ−1 x)

= iσ̄ µ (Λ−1 )νµ ∂ν ΛL χ(Λ−1 x)

 
= i σ̄ (Λ ) µ ΛL χ∂ν (Λ−1 x)
µ −1 ν

= ΛR iσ̄ · ∂χ(Λ−1 x)

Now let’s look at how the whole equation transforms

iσ̄ · ∂χ − imσ 2 χ∗ → iσ̄ · ∂χ0 − imσ 2 χ∗

= ΛR iσ̄ · ∂χ(Λ−1 x) − ΛR iσ 2 χ∗ (Λ−1 x)


 
0 2 0∗
= ΛR iσ̄ · ∂χ − imσ χ =0

Now we must show that this equation implies the Klein-Gordon equation. Taking the complex
conjugate of the majorana equation, we get
 ∗
2 ∗
iσ̄ · ∂χ − imσ χ = −iσ̄ ∗ · ∂χ∗ + imσ 2∗ χ = 0

Multiplying by σ 2∗ on both sides yields

iσ 2∗ σ̄ ∗ · ∂χ∗ − imχ = 0
Now we solve for χ∗ from the original Majorana equation

1 2
iσ̄ · ∂χ = imσ 2 χ∗ , χ∗ = σ σ̄ · ∂χ
m
Plugging this into the complex conjugate equation,

1 2
iσ 2∗ σ̄ ∗ · ∂


σ σ̄ · ∂χ − imχ = 0
m
σ 2∗ σ̄ µ∗ σ 2 σ̄ ν ∂µ ∂ν χ − m2 χ = 0
−σ̄ µ∗ σ 2 σ̄ ν ∂µ ∂ν χ − σ 2 m2 χ = 0
σ̄ µ∗ = 1, −σ 1 , σ 2 , −σ 3 ), so σ̄ µ∗ σ2 = σ 2 , σ 2 σ 1 , σ 2 σ 2 , σ 2 σ 3 = σ 2 σ µ Then,

−σ 2 σ µ σ̄ ν ∂µ ∂ν χ − σ 2 m2 χ = 0

σ µ σ̄ ν ∂µ ∂ν χ + m2 χ = 0
Since partial derivatives commute
σ (µ σ̄ ν) ∂µ ∂ν χ + m2 χ = 0

(∂ 2 + m2 )χ = 0
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 11

4.2. Action for the Majorana Equation. The action for the Majorana equation can be written
as
Z  
im T 2
d4 x χ† iσ̄ · ∂χ + χ σ χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗


S=
2
To show that the action is real, we take the complex conjugate of it
Z  

∗ im T 2
∗
S∗ = d4 x χ† iσ̄ · ∂χ − χ σ χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗
2
Let’s look at the second part

∗
χT σ 2 χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗ = χ† σ 2∗ χ∗ − χT σ 2∗ χ = − χT σ 2 χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗

Thus the second part of the action is real.

Let’s look at the first part
   ∗
†

∗ (σ̄ · ∂χ)1
χ∗1 χ∗2


χ iσ̄ · ∂χ = i
(σ̄ · ∂χ)1
 ∗
∗ ∗
= −i χ1 (σ̄ · ∂χ)1 + χ2 (σ̄ · ∂χ)2
 
∗ ∗
= −i (σ̄ · ∂χ)1 χ1 + (σ̄ · ∂χ)2 χ2

= −i(σ̄ · ∂χ)† χ = −i∂χ† · σ̄χ

Where in the last line I used the fact that the sigma matrices are hermitian.
Now let’s look at the difference between the action and its conjugate
Z   Z  
∗ 4 † † 4 † µ
S−S = d x χ iσ̄ · ∂χ + i∂χ · σ̄χ = d x i∂µ χ σ̄ χ = 0

So the action is real. Now we must show that this action yields the Majorana equation. We
want to use the Euler Lagrange equations for χ∗ , so let’s write the second part of the second part
of the action in components, as the first part of the second part contains no terms with χ∗ .

−iχ∗2
 
† 2 ∗
−χ σ χ = − χ∗1 χ∗2 = iχ∗1 χ∗2 − iχ∗2 χ∗1
iχ∗1
We can rewrite this for taking derivatives in these two forms

= 2iχ∗1 χ∗2 , = −2iχ∗2 χ∗1

Now using the Euler Lagrange equations for χ∗1 and χ∗2
∂L
= (iσ̄ · ∂χ)1 − mχ∗2 = (iσ̄ · ∂χ)1 − im(σ 2 χ∗ )1 = 0
∂χ∗1
∂L
= (iσ̄ · ∂χ)2 + mχ∗1 = (iσ̄ · ∂χ)2 − im(σ 2 χ∗ )2 = 0
∂χ∗2
Thus we recover the Majoraja equation
iσ̄ · ∂χ − imσ 2 χ∗ = 0
12 PHIL SAAD

4.3. Dirac Lagrangian With Majorana Spinors. We can rewrite the Dirac spinor as two left
handed spinors
   
ψL χ1
ψ= =
ψR iσ 2 χ∗2
So we can rewrite the Dirac lagrangian as
   
0 1 −m iσ · ∂ χ1

/ † T 2
L = ψ̄(i∂ − m)ψ = χ1 −iχ2 σ
1 0 iσ̄ · ∂ −m iσ 2 χ∗2
   
iσ̄ · ∂ −m χ1
 
= χ†1 −iχT2 σ 2
−m iσ · ∂ iσ 2 χ∗2
iσ̄ ∂µ χ1 − imσ 2 χ∗2
  µ 
= χ†1 −iχT2 σ 2
−σ µ σ 2 ∂µ χ∗2 − mχ1
= iχ†1 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ1 + iχT2 σ 2 σ µ σ 2 ∂µ χ∗2 − im(χ†1 σ 2 χ∗2 − χT2 σ 2 χ1 )
= iχ†1 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ1 + iχT2 σ̄ µ∗ ∂µ χ∗2 − im(χ†1 σ 2 χ∗2 − χT2 σ 2 χ1 )
Let’s check out the second term there. We can use integration by parts to rewrite it as (excluding
a divergence)
iχT2 σ̄ µ∗ ∂µ χ∗2 = −i∂µ χT2 σ̄ µ∗ χ∗2 = iχ†2 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ2
Where the last step involved splitting into components, anticommuting them, and rewriting. So
the Lagrangian is

L = iχ†1 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ1 + iχ†2 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ2 − im(χ†1 σ 2 χ∗2 − χT2 σ 2 χ1 )

Looking at the mass term, we can see that it is very similar to the mass term in the Majorana
Lagrangian if we set χ1 = χ2 . In fact, this is just twice the Majorana Lagrangian if χ1 = χ2
4.4. Symmetries. We can see that the action for part 3 is invariant under the transformations
χ1 → eiθ χ1 , χ2 → e−iθ χ2 . We could use the standard procedure for finding conserved currents, or
we could realize that this is just the same as saying ψ → eiθ ψ in the Dirac equation, which yeilds
the conserved current J µ = ψ̄γ µ ψ. Writing this out we obtain

0 σµ
   
0 1 χ1

J µ = χ†1 −iχT2 σ 2
1 0 σ̄ µ 0 iσ 2 χ∗2
 µ  
σ̄ 0 χ1

† T 2
= χ1 −iχ2 σ
0 σµ iσ 2 χ∗2

= χ†1 σ̄ µ χ1 + χT2 σ 2 σ µ σ 2 χ∗2 = χ†1 σ̄ µ χ1 + χT2 σ̄ µT χ∗2

= χ†1 σ̄ µ χ1 − χ†2 σ̄ µ χ2
To show that this current vanishes, I need the equations of motion.
∂L ∂L
∂µ = =⇒ ∂µ χ†1 σ̄ µ = mχT2 σ 2
∂ ∂µ χ1 ∂χ1
∂L ∂L
∂µ = =⇒ ∂µ χ†2 σ̄ µ = mχT1 σ 2
∂ ∂µ χ2 ∂χ2
And their daggers,

σ̄ µ ∂µ χ1 = mσ 2 χ∗2

σ̄ µ ∂µ χ2 = mσ 2 χ∗1
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 13

Now, using the equations of motion, I’ll show explicitely that the divergence of this current
vanishes.

∂µ J µ = (∂µ χ†1 )σ̄ µ χ1 + χ†1 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ1 − (∂µ χ†2 )σ̄ µ χ2 − χ†2 σ̄ µ ∂µ χ2

= mχT2 σ 2 χ1 + mχ†1 σ 2 χ∗2 − mχT1 σ 2 χ2 − mχ†2 σ 2 χ∗1
= mχT2 σ 2 χ1 + mχ†1 σ 2 χ∗2 − mχT2 σ 2 χ1 − mχ†1 σ 2 χ∗2
=0
µ † µ
The next current, J = χ σ̄ χ, is supposed to be for the majorana field
Z  
4 † im T 2 † 2 ∗


S = d x χ iσ̄ · ∂χ + χ σ χ−χ σ χ
2
This would come from a U)1) symmetry of the field, but we can see that with the mass term,
this is not a real symmetry. Let’s calculate the divergence of this current using the equation of
motion σ̄ · ∂χ = mσ 2 χ∗ , ∂χ† · σ̄ = mχT σ 2

∂µ J µ = (∂µ χ† )σ̄ µ χ + χ† σ̄ µ ∂µ χ = mχT σ 2 χ + mχ† σ 2 χ∗

We can see that this does not vanish unless m=0, as expected.
Constructing a theory of N majorana fields with O(N) is simple; we just take N copies of the
Majorana equation.
Z  
4 † im T 2 † 2 ∗


S = d x χa iσ̄ · ∂χa − χa σ χa − χa σ χa
2
Where a runs from one to N and labels the field number. With O ∈ O(N ) and χ a vector of
components χa , daggered and transposed appropriately,
χ → Oχ
χ → (Oχ)T = χT O−1
T

σ 2 χ → σ 2 Oχ = Oσ 2 χ
σ̄ · ∂χ → σ̄ · ∂Oχ = Oσ̄ · ∂χ
Thus S → S
The transformations involving passing O through sigmas and derivatives can be seen more ex-
plicitely component-wise, with µ being a vector index, α, β being spinor indices, and a, b being
group indices.
µ µ µ
σ̄ · ∂χ = σ̄αβ ∂µ χaβ → σ̄αβ ∂µ Oab χbβ = Oab σ̄αβ ∂µ χbβ = Oσ̄ · ∂χ
4.5. Quantization of the Majorana Field. To Quantize the Majorana field, we must first find
the general solutions so we can express the field as a sum of modes. The book suggested that we
compare the Majorana field to the first two components of the Dirac field. So we should write out
the left handed components of the Dirac field.

d3 p
Z X
ap,s usL (p)e−ipx + b†p,s vLs (p)eipx

ψL (x) = 3
p
(2π) 2Ep s
with
√ √
usL (p) = p · σξ s , vLs (p) = p · ση s
and    
s 1s 0
ξ ,η = ,
0 1
14 PHIL SAAD

We expect that this will work as a solution to the Majorana equation under certain conditions,
probably that η s = −iσ 2 ξ s∗ , since if you take the Dirac lagrangian and replace ψR with iσ 2 ψL
you get the Majorana lagrangian. Let’s test this by plugging our test solution into the Majorana
equation.

iσ̄ · ∂ψL = imσ 2 ψL∗

d3 p √ √
Z X
ap,s p · σ̄ p · σξ s e−ipx − b†p,s p · σ̄ p · ση s eipx

iσ̄ · ∂ψL = p
(2π)3 2Ep s
Since (p · σ)(p · σ̄) = m2 this reduces to

d3 p √ √
Z X
ap,s p · σ̄ξ s e−ipx − b†p,s p · σ̄η s eipx

m 3
p
(2π) 2Ep s
This must be equal to
d3 p
Z X
imσ 2 ψL∗ = im † 2 ∗ ξ s∗ eipx + b 2 ∗ η s∗ e−ipx
p p 
p a p,s σ p · σ p,s σ p · σ
(2π)3 2Ep s
So
d3 p √
Z X
s 2 ∗ η s∗ e−ipx
p

m p ap,s p · σ̄ξ − ibp,s σ p · σ
(2π)3 2Ep s
√
− b†p,s p · σ̄η s + ia†p,s σ 2 p · σ ∗ ξ s∗ eipx = 0
p


The square root of the conjugate of sigma is giving us trouble, we need to convert this to something
else. Notice that

σ ∗ = σ 2 σ̄σ 2
so
p · σ ∗ = σ 2 p · σ̄σ 2
and by inserting σ 2 between successive powers of p · σ̄
(p · σ ∗ )n = σ 2 (p · σ̄)n σ 2
√ √
So we can replace p · σ ∗ with σ 2 p · σ̄σ 2 and
d3 p √ √
Z X
s 2 s∗ −ipx


m p ap,s p · σ̄ξ − ibp,s p · σ̄σ η e
(2π)3 2Ep s
√ √
− b†p,s p · σ̄η s + ia†p,s p · σ̄σ 2 ξ s∗ eipx = 0


√
d3 p p · σ̄ X 
Z
s 2 s∗ −ipx † s † 2 s∗ ipx



m p a p,s ξ − ibp,s σ η e − b p,s η + ia p,s σ ξ e =0
(2π)2 2Ep s
We can see that this is satsified if ap,s = bp,s and η = −iσ 2 ξ ∗ , as suspected
Thus we can write the Majorana field as

d3 p X 
√ † √
Z
s −ipx 2 s∗ ipx
χ(x) = p ap,s p · σξ e − iap,s p · σσ ξ e
(2π 3 ) 2Ep s
Notice that it is its own antiparticle. We must now find the anticommutation relations of the
creation and annihilation operators given the anticommutation relations of the fields. Furthermore,
the chosen basis spinors, ξ s , are real, so we can get rid of the conjugate there.

{χa (x), χ†b (y)} = δab δ(x − y)

 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 15

I’ll expand out the expression for the anticommutator and postulate the anticommutations for the
creation and annihilation operators. If this gives the correct result for the anticommutator of the
fields, than the postulated anticommutation relations for the creation and annihilation operators
must be correct. With a, b, c, d, e, and f being spinor indices,

d3 p d3 q
Z
{χa (x), χ†b (y)}
X
p = p
(2π)3 2Ep (2π)3 2Eq s,r
  
√ s −ipx † √ 2 s ipx † †r √ iqy †r 2 √ −iqy
ap,s p · σ ac ξc e − iap,s p · σ ac σce ξe e aq,r ξd q · σ db e + iaq,r ξf σf d q · σ db e
  
√ √ √ √
a†q,r ξd†r q · σ db e iqy
+ iaq,r ξf†r σf2d q · σ db e −iqy
ap,s p · σ ac ξcs e−ipx − ia†p,s p · 2 s ipx
σ ac σce ξe e

Multiplying out and combining terms with the same creation and annihilation operators we get
d3 p d3 q X √ √
Z
= 3
p
3
p {ap,s , a†q,r }e−i(px−qy) p · σ ac ξcs ξd†r q · σ db
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r
√ √ √ 2 s †r √
+i{ap,s , aq,r }e−i(px+qy) p · σ ac ξcs ξf†r σf2d q · σ db − i{a†p,s , a†q,r }ei(px+qy) p · σ ac σce ξe ξd q · σ db

√ 2 s †r 2 √
+{a†p,s , aq,r }ei(px−qy) p · σ ac σce ξe ξf σf d q · σ db

Well this is just awful. Fortunately I have wizard powers and can forsee what the anticommuta-
tion relations of the creation and annihilation operators must be to make this work. Voila!

{ap,s , a†q,r } = (2π)3 δsr δ(p − q), {ap,s , aq,r } = {a†p,s , a†q,r } = 0
Let’s impose these relations and watch our field anticommutation relations emerge. Our anti-
commutator of the fields is now

d3 p d3 q X √ √
Z
3
p
3
p (2π)3 δsr δ(p − q)e−i(px−qy) p · σ ac ξcs ξd†r q · σ db
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r

3 i(px−qy) √ 2 s †r 2 √
+(2π) δsr δ(p − q)e p · σ ac σce ξe ξf σf d q · σ db

Now we apply our Kroneker delta to the spin terms and integrate over q to get rid of our Dirac
deltas.
d3 p X 
−ip(x−y) √ s †s √ ip(x−y) √ 2 s †s 2 √
Z
= e p · σ ac ξc ξd p · σ db + e p · σ ac σce ξe ξf σf d p · σ db
(2π)3 2Ep s
Much more manageable, but these spinor terms look pretty nasty. Fortunately, the sum over s lets
us simplify this a lot more, since

ξas ξb†s = δab

X

s
Our field anticommutator becomes

d3 p
 
−ip(x−y) √ √ ip(x−y) √ 2 √
Z
2
e p · σ δ
ac cd p · σ db + e p · σ σ δ σ
ac ce ef f d p · σ db
(2π)3 2Ep
d3 p
 
−ip(x−y) √ √ ip(x−y) √ 2 2 √
Z
= e p · σ ac p · σ cb + e p · σ ac σce σed p · σ db
(2π)3 2Ep
16 PHIL SAAD

And since σ 2 squares to one,

d3 p
 
−ip(x−y) √ √ ip(x−y) √ √
Z
= e p · σ ac p · σ cb + e p · σ ac δcd p · σ db
(2π)3 2Ep
d3 p
Z  
−ip(x−y) ip(x−y)
= e (p · σ) ab + e (p · σ) ab
(2π)3 2Ep
(p · σ)ab = Ep δab − pi σab
i , so we get

d3 p d3 p
Z   Z  
−ip(x−y) ip(x−y) i i −ip(x−y) ip(x−y)
= δab e +e − p σab e +e
2(2π)3 (2π)3 2Ep
The second integral over the pi is odd, so it vanishes. We are left with
d3 p
Z  
−ip(x−y) ip(x−y)
δab e +e = δab δ(x − y)
2(2π)3
So our postulated anticommutation relations work! Big surprise, provided x0 = y0 (I really should
have imposed this earlier but I don’t want to go back and change it)
Now we need to find the Hamiltonian for the Majorana field. The Lagrangian density is given
by
im T 2
L = χ† iσ̄ · ∂χ + χ σ χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗


2
im T 2
= χ† i∂0 χ − χ† σ i ∂i χ + χ σ χa − χ† σ 2 χ∗


2
∂L
π= = iχ†
∂ ∂0 χ
im T 2
H = π∂0 χ − L = χ† iσ i ∂i − χ σ χ − χ† σ 2 χ∗


Z Z  2 
3 3 † i im T 2 † 2 ∗


H = d xH = d x χ iσ ∂i χ − χ σ χ−χ σ χ
2
Now for the fun part....plugging the field into the Hamiltonian and simplifying the gory mess that
results. I’ll do this term by term to avoid clutter. First let’s look at
Z
d3 xχ† iσ i ∂i χ

Keeping in mind that these fields are at t = 0 and letting px be the 3-vector dot product, we get
d3 p X 
√ † √
Z
s ipx 2 s −ipx
∂i χ = p ipi ap,s p · σξ e − pi ap,s p · σσ ξ e
(2π)3 2Ep s
So our first term becomes
d3 p d3 q X 
−iqx †r √ iqx †r 2 √
Z
3 †
d x p p aq,r e ξ q · σ + iaq,r e ξ σ q · σ
(2π)3 2Ep (2π)3 2Eq s,r
 
i √ s ipx † √ 2 s −ipx
iσ ipi ap,s p · σξ e − pi ap,s p · σσ ξ e

d3 p d3 q X √ √
Z
= d x 3
3
p
3
p a†q,r ap,s e−ix(q−p) ξ †r q · σσ i pi p · σξ s
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r
√ √ √ √
+ia†q,r a†p,s e−ix(p+q) ξ †r q · σσ i pi p · σσ 2 ξ s + iaq,r ap,s eix(p+q) ξ †r σ 2 q · σσ i pi p · σξ s

† ix(q−p) †r 2 √ i i√ 2 s
−aq,r ap,s e ξ σ q · σσ p p · σσ ξ
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 17

I can integrate over x to simplify this a bit.

d3 pd3 q X √ √
Z Z
† i
3
d xχ iσ ∂i χ = 3
p a†q,r ap,s δ(p − q)ξ †r q · σσ i pi p · σξ s
2(2π) Ep Eq s,r
√ √ √ √
+ia†q,r a†p,s δ(p + q)ξ †r q · σσ i pi p · σσ 2 ξ s + iaq,r ap,s δ(p + q)ξ †r σ 2 q · σσ i pi p · σξ s

† †r 2 √ i i√ 2 s
−aq,r ap,s δ(p − q)ξ σ q · σσ p p · σσ ξ

Then integrating over q gives us this, and when I write −p i mean (Ep , −p)
d3 p X √ √
Z
a†p,r ap,s ξ †r p · σσ i pi p · σξ s
2(2π)3 Ep s,r
√ √ √ √
+ia†-p,r a†p,s ξ †r −p · σσ i pi p · σσ 2 ξ s + ia-p,r ap,s ξ †r σ 2 −p · σσ i pi p · σξ s

† †r 2 √ i i√ 2 s
−ap,r ap,s ξ σ p · σσ p p · σσ ξ

It doesn’t seem like theres much else I can do here right now, so let’s move on to the next part
Z
d3 xχT σ 2 χ

d3 p d3 q X
Z p p 
3 iqx T r T † −iqx †r 2T T
= d x p p aq,r e ξ q · σ − iaq,r e ξ σ q·σ
(2π)3 2Ep (2π)3 2Eq s,r
 
2 ipx √ s † −ipx √ 2 ∗s
σ ap,s e p · σξ − iap,s e p · σσ ξ

d3 p d3 q X √
Z p
3 ix(p+q) T r
= d x 3
p
3
p a q,r ap,s e ξ q · σ T σ 2 p · σξ s
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r
p √ p √
−iaq,r a†p,s eix(q−p) ξ T r q · σ T σ 2 p · σσ 2 ξ ∗s − ia†q,r ap,s e−ix(q−p) ξ †r σ 2T q · σ T σ 2 p · σξ s

2√
p
† † −i(p+q) †r 2T T 2 ∗s
−aq,r ap,s e ξ σ q · σ σ p · σσ ξ

We can simplify this a bit first by recalling that ξ ∗ = ξ, σ 2T = −σ 2 , and σ T = σ 2 σ̄σ 2 . Then this
term in our Hamiltonian is equal to

d3 p d3 q X
ix(p+q) T r 2 √ √
Z
= d3 x 3
p
3
p aq,r a p,s e ξ σ q · σ̄ p · σξ s
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r
√ √ √ √
−iaq,r a†p,s eix(q−p) ξ T r σ 2 q · σ̄ p · σσ 2 ξ s + ia†q,r ap,s e−ix(q−p) ξ †r q · σ̄ p · σξ s
−i(p+q) †r √

† † √ 2 s
+aq,r ap,s e ξ q · σ̄ p · σσ ξ

Then we integrate over x to get some delta functions

d3 pd3 q X
T r 2√ √
Z
= p a q,r ap,s δ(p + q)ξ σ q · σ̄ p · σξ s
2(2π)3 Ep Eq s,r
√ √ √ √
−iaq,r a†p,s δ(p − q)ξ T r σ 2 q · σ̄ p · σσ 2 ξ s + ia†q,r ap,s δ(p − q)ξ †r q · σ̄ p · σξ s
†r √

† † √ 2 s
+aq,r ap,s δ(p + q)ξ q · σ̄ p · σσ ξ

And we integrate over q to get rid of those delta functions. Again, when I write −p I mean (Ep , −p).
18 PHIL SAAD

d3 p X
T r 2√ √
Z
a -p,r ap,s ξ σ −p · σ̄ p · σξ s
2(2π)3 Ep s,r
√ √ √ √
−iap,r a†p,s ξ T r σ 2 p · σ̄ p · σσ 2 ξ s + ia†p,r ap,s ξ †r p · σ̄ p · σξ s
†r √

† † √ 2 s
+a-p,r ap,s ξ −p · σ̄ p · σσ ξ
Now let’s look at the last part of the Hamiltonian
Z
d3 xχ† σ 2 χ∗

d3 p d3 q X 
−iqx †r √ iqx †r 2 √
Z
3 †
= d x p p aq,r e ξ q · σ + iaq,r e ξ σ q · σ
(2π)3 2Ep (2π)3 2Eq s,r
 
2 † −ipx s +ipx 2 s
p p
σ ap,s e ∗
p · σ ξ − iap,s e ∗
p·σ σ ξ

d3 p d3 q X
−ix(p+q) †r √
Z
† †
= d3 x 2
p · σ∗ξs
p
3
p
3
p a q,r ap,s e ξ q · σσ
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2Eq s,r
√ √
−ia†q,r ap,s e−ix(q−p) ξ †r q · σσ 2 p · σ ∗ σ 2 ξ s + iaq,r a†p,s eix(q−p) ξ †r σ 2 q · σσ 2 p · σ ∗ ξ s
p p

i(p+q) †r 2 √ 2 2 s
p
aq,r ap,s e ξ σ q · σσ p · σ σ ξ ∗

Doing our usual tricks with σ 2 and such, then integrating over x and q, and keeping in mind what
I mean by −p, we get that this is equal to
d3 p X √ √
Z
= 3
a†-p,r a†p,s ξ †r −p · σ p · σ̄σ 2 ξ s
2(2π) Ep s,r
√ √ √ √
−ia†p,r ap,s ξ †r p · σ p · σ̄ξ s + iap,r a†p,s ξ †r σ 2 q · σσ 2 p · σ̄σ 2 ξ s
†r 2 √ √

s
a-p,r ap,s ξ σ −p · σ p · σ̄ξ
Now we’ve got all the parts to our Hamiltonian, so let’s put them together. Using the fact that
−p · σ = p · σ̄ and −p · σ̄ = p · σ

d3 p X m√ √
 
†r √ i i√ √ m√
Z
†
H= a a p,s ξ p · σσ p p · σ + p · σ̄ p · σ + p · σ p · σ̄ ξs
2(2π)3 Ep s,r p,r 2 2

m√ √
 
† †r 2√ i i√ 2 √ m√
+ap,r ap,s ξ − σ p · σσ p p · σσ − p · σ̄ p · σ − p · σ p · σ̄ ξ s
2 2
√
 
√ im im
+a†-p,r a†p,s ξ †r i p · σ̄σ i pi p · σσ 2 − p · σσ 2 + p · σ̄σ 2 ξ s
2 2
2√
 
†r i i√ im 2 im 2
+a-p,r ap,s ξ iσ p · σ̄σ p p · σ − σ p·σ+ σ p · σ̄ ξ s
2 2
First, let’s try to get rid of the terms with 2 creation or 2 annihilation operators. Notice that
p · σ̄ − p · σ = −2pi σ i . We can also express σ i pi as 12 (p · σ − p · σ̄), so
√ √ 1 √ 3 3√
m
p · σ̄σ i pi p · σ =


p · σ̄(p · σ) 2 − (p · σ̄) 2 p · σ = p · σ − p · σ̄
2 2
i i
= mσ p
 HW 3 DIRAC EQUATION PART II 19

Thus the coefficients of the double creation or double annihillation operators become (ignoring the
ξ’s and σ 2 ’s)
imσ i pi − imσ i pi = 0
√ √
Now we must deal with the other parts of the Hamiltonian. First, we use the fact that p · σ̄ p · σ =
√ √
p · σ p · σ̄ = m. Then we do the same trick with σ i pi
√ √ 1
p · σσ i pi p · σ = (p · σ)2 − m2 )
2
pi pj i j
(p · σ)2 = (Ep − pi σ i )2 = Ep2 − 2Ep σ i pi + pi pj σ i σ j = Ep2 − 2Ep σ i pi + {σ σ }
2
= Ep2 − 2Ep σ i pi + p2 = 2Ep2 − m2 − 2Ep σ i pi
so
√ √
p · σσ i pi p · σ = Ep2 − m2 − Ep σ i pi
And the coefficient for the combinations of creation and annihilation operators becomes
ξ †r Ep2 − m2 − Ep σ i pi + m2 ξ s = δs,r Ep2 − Ep σ i pi

Our Hamiltionian then becomes

d3 p
Z X
2 i i

† †


H= Ep − Ep σ p ap,s ap,s − a p,s a p,s
2(2π)3 Ep s
The integral over Ep σ i pi is odd in p so we can get rid of this term.
d3 p
Z X
a†p,s ap,s − ap,s a†p,s


H= 3
Ep
2(2π) s
Using our anticommutation relations on the second term and chucking the delta function, we arrive
at our final Hamiltionian,
d3 p
Z X
H= Ep a†p,s ap,s
(2π)3 s