GOOD

WORD

GUIDE
 GOOD

WORD

GUIDE

Editor

A
Martin H. Manser

Consultant Editors

Jonathon Green and Betty Kirkpatrick

Compilers

Rosalind Fergusson, David Pickering, and Jenny Roberts

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the Publishers.

First published in 1988.

Third edition published as Bloomsbury Guide to Better English.

Fourth edition published in 1997.

Fifth edition published in 2003.

Copyright # 1988, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2003 by

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc,
38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB

www.bloomsbury.com/reference

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

British Library Cataloguing in Publication

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 0 7475 6524 4

eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0339-5

The moral right of the author has been asserted

Acknowledgments

The editor expresses his thanks to the following: the late John Silverlight
for his helpful comments as Consultant Editor on earlier editions,
Rosalind Desmond and Gloria Wren for their careful editorial checking,
Kathy Rooney and Faye Carney, of the publishers, for their encouragement
at every stage of the book's production, and on the first edition, Sarah Peasley
for help in compiling the text and Margaret McPhee for advice on
Australian English.

All papers used by Bloomsbury Publishing are natural, recyclable products

made from wood grown in sustainable, well-managed forests. The manufacturing
processes conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.

Typeset by Hewer Text Limited, Edinburgh

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

GOOD WORD GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TABLES:

Animals (male, female, young) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Collective nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Collectors and enthusiasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Countries and peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Eponymous words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Foreign words and phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Non-sexist terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Phobias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Prefixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Similes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Smileys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Text messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Verbs (irregular verbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

INTRODUCTION

hese days the term `communicative skills' has become a vogue expression, being
T much in evidence in situations vacant columns and playing an important role in
educational rethinking. In common with many voguish expressions of the age overuse
has left it in danger of not being taken seriously. This is a great pity since the
phenomenon which the term describes is of paramount importance in modern life.
Failure to communicate effectively is at the root of many social ills and misfortunes,
from war to missed career opportunities, from industrial strife to broken relation-
ships. If only we had been able to persuade the other party of our real intentions, what
misunderstandings and conflict might have been averted.
Nowadays there is little excuse for poor communicative skills in those with a basic
education, even in those who feel that they missed out at school in this particular area
of education. Articulacy is not necessarily inborn; it can be acquired. Never before has
there been such a wealth of self-help English language material available to ease the
process of this acquiral.
The proliferation of English language reference books is a relatively recent
occurrence. Not long ago the average family bookshelves probably stocked, if any
reference books, an ancient Bible, a dog-eared, somewhat elderly dictionary, and
perhaps a set of out-of-date encyclopedias. In many cases this state of affairs must have
changed radically, judging from current sales of English language reference books.
Something of a revolution hit reference book publishing, brought about partly by
the arrival of computerization and new technology and partly by the realization
among publishers that reference books, although expensive to produce, represented
less of a risk than other branches of publishing. There was probably also an element of
response to demand as people came to realize the need for articulacy in the modern
world.
For whatever reasons, bookshop shelves have become positively crammed with a
wide range of attractive, up-to-date English language reference books, most of them
extremely reasonably priced. At first most of these were English language dictionaries
but soon a wider selection of books joined them. The net result was that the
promotional activities involved in bringing these reference wares to the notice of the
public made it difficult for people not to be aware of an important fact ± that language
is subject to change. Newspapers revelled in providing their readers with selected lists
of the `new English', the more bizarre the better.
The speed at which new words are added to the language nowadays is over-
whelming, but it is not only the vocabulary that is subject to change. As attitudes and
conventions change other areas of language change with them ± stylistics, usage, and
even, in some cases, pronunciation.
It is all too easy to feel marooned in this sea of change. While the importance of
Introduction viii
communicative skills cannot be denied, many people find it difficult to set about
acquiring them. Getting to grips with something as amorphous as the English
language can be a daunting task, particularly for those whose formal education
omitted to convey much about the structure or grammar of the language.
Dictionaries obviously provide a great deal of self-help with regard to language but
their contribution is frequently restricted to meaning, spelling, or pronunciation.
People seeking to extend their competence in the use of English require more varied
and in-depth assistance.
Thesauruses are another great boon to those wishing to improve their standard of
articulacy but here again they are far from providing all the solutions. Although
would-be writers or speakers will undoubtedly find in thesauruses a wide range of
inspirational words with which to clothe ideas, they might well feel in need of some
guidance as to how exactly these words should be used.
In the present age much more emphasis than hitherto is placed on the importance
of being able to produce a high standard of English, whether oral or written.
Formerly this aspect tended to be neglected in favour of highly developed reading and
interpretative skills but this is now being rectified in these days of mass commu-
nication.
Participation in the communication media, for example, is no longer restricted to a
few highly educated experts. Audience participation has extended from the realms of
the stage to the realms of radio and television and beyond them to the dizzying
heights of chat rooms and web forums on the Internet. Indeed one wonders what local
low-budget radio stations would do without the phone-in contributions of the man/
woman in the street, not to mention the chat show featuring the local celebrity who
has published a first novel, climbed Everest, or lost more weight than anyone else in
the community. All manner of things are of interest to the media.
In order to improve one's oral and written skills it is important to have more than
just a dictionary and a thesaurus as self-help material. Of immense help are books that
offer guidance in the use of language, particularly those which show language in
action by including example sentences or phrases.
Such books provide very valuable ground rules on which to base one's own English
usage. Few of us can rely entirely on instinct or even on memory when it comes to the
English language for it is full of quirks and inconsistencies. Even the most educated
benefit from having a standard authority to fall back on.
Language reference books these days are less didactic than they were. In general we
have moved on from the times when they were entirely prescriptive in their
comments on language. Now most of them adopt a more descriptive role, restricting
themselves to stating what is actually happening in language rather than dictating
what ought to be happening.
Inevitably there are people who are unhappy with this change of emphasis. There is
a school of thought prevalent mainly among older people which seeks to impose a
kind of restriction on language that is no longer imposed on other areas of life. It is as
if, in an age of uncertainty and kaleidoscopic change, they look to language to provide
a safe, unchanging structure.
 ix Introduction
This places an impossible burden on language. It does not exist in a vacuum but
simply reflects what is happening in society and the world around. If we do not like
the words, we probably do not like the events but it is difficult to hold back the tide of
change.
At the very least we cannot stem the flow of vocabulary additions which are created
in response to new inventions, new discoveries, and new concepts. New labels have to
be found and so are born camcorders, E-numbers, genetic engineering, and teleshopping,

to name but a few of the new words that are invading the language from every area of
human activity. The development of the World Wide Web and the revolution in
communications it has brought about has proved a particularly powerful engine for
linguistic innovation, spawning hosts of new acronyms, technical terms, and slang
words, as well as promoting creative attitudes towards the use of grammar and
symbols.
Language change is not confined to new vocabulary additions. Sometimes the old
gets recycled in a new form as words alter their meaning in some way. The classic
example is, of course, the word gay, which has almost entirely lost its `merry'
associations ± except in literature written before the present day ± in favour of
the modern meaning of `homosexual'.
There are, however, a growing number of other instances of language change,
several based on misconception or error. Hopefully was an early example when it came
to mean `it is to be hoped that' as well as `with hope'. Now disinterested is frequently to
be found meaning `not interested' as well as `unbiased'. There is now a very fine line to
be drawn between error and alternative usage ± and sometimes the former becomes
the latter.
Data, for example, as the plural of datum should come accompanied by a plural verb
but it is now frequently seen in the presence of a singular verb, particularly in the field
of information technology. The same fate has befallen media. It is no longer thought of
as simply the plural of medium but as a word in its own right. As such it is increasingly
accompanied by a singular, rather than a plural, verb.
Educational trends frequently have an effect on the state of the language. With the
virtual demise of the teaching of classics in schools a knowledge of Latin and Greek in
relation to the English language is now quite a rare phenomenon among younger
people. So is born the puzzlement over medium/media and datum/data and the
confusion over stadia/stadiums and referendums/referenda.

The creative writing phase in primary schools was the forerunner of many spelling
problems and even more grammatical problems. It is, of course, a good thing to
encourage creativity and self-expression, but some knowledge of the structure of the
language is necessary if one is to use it with confidence and skill. With the
introduction of such measures as the Literacy Hour in schools, significant attempts
have been made in recent years to restore good standards in reading and writing,
including the correct use of grammar, but what is done cannot be undone and there
remain generations to whom formal knowledge of linguistic principles is a closed
book.
This has undoubtedly affected modern English as it is used by the man/woman in
Introduction x
the street. It may offend purist ears but less bottles of milk is challenging fewer bottles of

milk for supremacy in terms of frequency.

Then there is the nervousness about me and I. There is a general ± and erroneous ±
feeling that I is much more polite and more correct than me in all contexts. This
accounts for the between you and I which so offends those brought up on a diet of parts
of speech and parsing.
Prepositions in English are the source of much confusion. Should it be different from

or different to? For that matter should accompanied be followed by with or by? Is either
possible and, if so, which is correct in which context?
As formal language training has diminished and public communication has
increased, language has become less and less rigid and the distinction between the
linguistically correct and the linguistically incorrect has become blurred. But we are
not yet at the stage where anything goes; let us hope we never reach it. I think that
most of us would prefer a few guidelines to a linguistic free-for-all.
The trouble is that it is difficult to establish such guidelines when the language is in
a state of flux. As has already been suggested it is difficult to pigeonhole language into
the correct and the incorrect. The categories are often too black and white; some
shades of grey are sometimes necessary.
In any area where extremes are involved it is often advisable to take the middle
course. So it is with language, provided the rationale and the terms of reference are
clearly explained. By taking such a course and explaining the options you may not
please everyone but, on the other hand, you are unlikely to offend everyone.
The Good Word Guide, one of the most wide-ranging English language reference
books available, presents the reader with the facts associated with the relevant words
and makes recommendations rather than laying down didactic rules. Where a
supposed alternative is in fact still generally considered wrong this is clearly stated,
but where acceptable alternatives exist these are also stated together with the
justifications for these.
Sometimes distinctions have to be made between the habits of the consciously
careful users who wish to achieve absolutely correct and elegant English and those of
the run-of-the-mill users who simply wish to get their basic message across as speedily
and as painlessly as possible. A distressing number of us fall into this latter category
although on special occasions, when we are out to impress, we try to mend our ways.
The said special occasions are usually formal occasions when we dress up not only
ourselves but our language also. Forms of language associated with particular social
situations are called registers. Thus in a formal situation a formal register of language
is used.
Many of the entries in the Good Word Guide distinguish between formal and
informal registers. The formal/informal distinction is often, although not always,
between written and spoken English. We tend to be at our most formal, linguistically
speaking, when we are writing letters of a business nature, while informal English is
kept for chatty written or keyed communications with friends and family or everyday
conversation. It is important to remember that informal English is neither incorrect
nor less correct as long as it is the appropriate register for the context.
 xi Introduction
The Good Word Guide takes language as it finds it and acts as a navigator through
the many potential hazards. All problematic areas are dealt with and explained in a
way that is readily understandable by all users. Giving help with language is of very
little use if the help itself is more difficult to comprehend than the original linguistic
problem.
It tackles two types of spelling difficulty ± words that for some reason present
problems in themselves and words which are problematic because they are likely to be
confused with other words that resemble them. Into the first category come such
words as antihistamine, disappoint, innocuous, privilege, and wilful, while the second
category covers such duos as bloc/block, dual/duel, principal/principle, and stationary/

stationery. This edition of the Guide also includes words and expressions of foreign
origin which frequently present spelling and pronunciation problems. Examples
include à te noire
be and à te-a
te à te.
Á -te

Of course the Guide does not confine its help with pronunciation to foreign words.
The editor has been conscious of the fact that knowing how to pronounce words
correctly is essential for confident public speaking, whether in the area of business or
leisure. Thus words such as Celtic, dynasty, flaccid, irrevocable, status, and many more
are listed to save you from red-faced stumbling.
Many people find difficulty with punctuation and so hesitate to launch into print.
The Good Word Guide gives advice on many aspects of this from the basic comma and
paragraph to the more esoteric semicolon. Potential authors will find it invaluable.
Grammar is a cause of nervousness in many, mostly because they have never been
taught the rudiments of it. One of the great advantages of this book is that the
grammatical information is presented in an easily comprehensible, rapid-to-use form
as it unfolds the mysteries of the preposition, the conjunction, and the rest.
If your particular linguistic problem centres on usage you will find that the Good

Word Guide gives sensible answers to a wide range of possible queries, often
incorporating examples of the particular words showing the usual context. Should
you use converse or inverse, impinge or infringe, soluble or solvable? A quick scan
through the alphabetical listing will reveal the answer. Although mindful of the fact
that print gives a kind of credence to any statement, the editor has sensibly given
examples of incorrect usage on occasion to contrast with the correct form.
One of the most innovative features of this book is the concentration on what are
known as buzz words or vogue words, expressions which, however much we may
deprecate them, suddenly leap into fashionable prominence in the general language,
often from specialist sources. In many cases objections to buzz words lie not with the
words themselves but with their overuse, the user rather than the word being at fault.
Too many of us jump on the linguistic bandwagon and reach for the vogue word of the
day instead of spending time and effort in finding the more appropriate expression.
What is to be done with buzz words? Should we ignore them and hope they will
fade rapidly? Should we embrace them enthusiastically and risk heaping criticism on
ourselves? Should we take the middle course and use them sparingly and effectively?
The choice is of course yours but this particular volume advocates this last course of
action. Appreciate their merits but do not abuse them by overusing them.
Introduction xii
If you find yourself tempted by any of them put temptation behind you by
consulting the Guide for suggested suitable alternatives. Armed with it you will have
no excuse for peppering your prose with the bottom line, catalyst, gravitas, downsizing,

leading-edge, parameter, matrix, online, and so on unless the context demands it. Many
of them are best left to their specialist use. A severe head injury is traumatic; missing a
bus is just annoying.
This latest edition of the Good Word Guide has fourteen tables: Animals (showing
words for the male, female, and young), Collective nouns (do you know the collective
noun for a group of crows?), Collectors and enthusiasts (what is a sericulturist interested
in?), Countries and peoples (what is the adjective derived from Burkina Faso?),
Eponymous words (showing words derived from the names of people), Foreign words

and phrases (for those looking for that certain je ne sais quoi), Non-sexist terms (e.g.
firefighter instead of fireman/firewoman), Phobias, Prefixes, Similes, Smileys, Suffixes,

Text messaging and Verbs (irregular verbs).

The Good Word Guide is a book for everyone and truly is an invaluable ready
reference to English today. Whether you are using it for guidance with spelling,
punctuation, pronunciation, or usage ± or simply to settle or cause language disputes ±
you will quickly come to regard it as an old friend. Just remember one thing. Do not
blame the book for what is happening to the language.

Betty Kirkpatrick
Edinburgh
GUIDE TO
PRONUNCIATION

a as in bad m as in mad
Æ as in arrest
a n as in nod
ah as in father ng as in sing
air as in dare n(g) as in restaurant
ar as in carpet o as in hot
Æ r as in burglar
a Æ as in cannon
o
aw as in saw Å as in no
o
ay as in may oi as in boy
b as in bed oo as in zoo
ch as in cheese oor as in cure
d as in dig or as in tore
dh as in these Æ r as in doctor
o
e as in get ow as in now
Æ as in open
e p as in pat
ee as in see r as in rim

eer as in here rr as in marry

er as in bird s as in sat
Æ r as in butcher
e sh as in ship
ew as in few t as in take
ewr as in pure th as in thin
f as in fit u as in up
g as in go Æ as in crocus
u
h as in hat uu as in push
i as in it v as in van
Æõ as in pencil w as in water
õÅ as in try y as in yes

j as in jam yoo as in unite

k as in keep yoor as in urine

kh as in loch yr as in tire
ks as in mix z as in zoo

kw as in quiz zh as in treasure
l as in lie

stressed syllables are shown in

Æ r]
italics: [siste
 A
a or an? is the form of the indefinite not: . .
C.S. Lewis .Thereshouldbenofull
A S Byatt
stop if a capital letter does not stand for a whole
A

article used before words or abbreviations

that are pronounced with an initial con- word: one should not write (television) or T.V.
sonant sound, regardless of their spelling; (
D.N.A. deoxyribonucleic acid ) as and tele- deox-
are not complete words. There are usually
. . .
is used before words that begin with a yribo-
no full stops in the abbreviations of weights and
an

. . . . measures: . . and never in chemical

vowel sound: a light an LCD screen a

. . . . symbols: . . .
unit an uncle a horse an heir a one- km oz

. . .
Fe Cu
Apostrophes are no longer generally used for
armed bandit an ostrich a seat an SOS a

shortenedformsthatareingeneraluse: . .
an IOU.

The use of before words that begin with an

ewe an egg a UFO

. . . .
◆ an h bus flu
sound and an unstressed first syllable, such as
Mostabbreviationsformtheirpluralswithan : .
phone photo vet
etc., is op-
. . A few abbreviations form their plurals
hotel, historic, hereditary, habitual, s
tional. Nowadays, the preference is increasingly
by doubling: . (pages) . (lines).
JPs PhDs
to use followed by , etc., with the
a hotel h pp ll
sounded, rather than followed by , etc.,
an hotel Most abbreviations (except for acronyms) are
with the not pronounced.
h pronounced by spelling out the letters. When
and are usually unstressed. The pronuncia- preceded by the indefinite article, those abbrevia-
tions [ay] and [an] are used only for emphasis: . tions that begin with a vowel sound take : .
A an

.
He an an
In andthosebeginning
with a consonant sound take : . .
told you to take a biscuit, not the whole plateful! EC directive an LSE graduate
this example would be pronounced [ay].
a a a DBE a UDR

abbreviations spokesman .
Abbreviations are useful
See also ACRONYMS.
aberration
space-saving devices. They are used heavily

.
both in informal writing and in technical or This word, meaning `deviation
specialized writing, but less in formal writ- from the norm': a temporary mental

ing. Some abbreviations stand for more aberration, is sometimes misspelt. Note
than one thing, and it is better to spell the spelling: a single b and -rr-, as in error.

.
these out unless the context makes the
ability CAPABILITY
see , CAPACITY or ABILITY?
-able -ible
meaning clear. He was a CO in the war

is confusing, as the abbreviation means or ? Both forms of this suffix are

both `commanding officer' and `conscien- added to words to form adjectives, -able

. .
tious objector'. being the suffix that is productive and the
◆ The main problems with abbreviations concern
.
more frequently used:
punctuation. The modern tendency is to omit full
washable com-

stops whenever possible: . . .

collapsible.
The form is always used for words com-
fortable

. , and so on. Full stops are increas- posed of other English words: .
BBC AD D H ◆ -able
;
ingly being omitted from capital abbreviations: . being used for some words of Latin origin: .
Lawrence Prof drinkable -ible

. , and they are always omitted from . .

acronyms: . .
USA EU credible defensible
NATO . When an abbre-
UNESCO On whether to retain the silent final in words -e
viation is a contraction (i.e. the final letter of the such as , see SPELLING 3 and individual
lik(e)able
abbreviation corresponds with the final letter of entries.
the word) there is usually no full stop: . . . Mr Dr The suffix may be active or (more fre-
-able
. There is more likely to be a full stop when the quently) passive in usage. In such words as
abbreviationisjustthefirstpartoftheword: .
Rd wash-
, etc. it has the passive
. , although here too the modern trend is to
Rev. able, eatable, dispensable
Feb. meaning of `able to be washed, eaten, dispensed
omit it. Abbreviated names can take a full stop or (with), etc.'. In the adjectives changeable, perish-
abled 2
able , etc. it has the active meaning of `able (or . .
likely) to change, perish, etc.'. The suffix is fre-
plane flew above the clouds The aeroplane

.
quently used to produce new words, such as ◆ In many contexts the two words are inter-
flew over Southampton

, meaning `able to be cooked in changeable: .

..
microwav(e)able Hang the picture above/over the
a microwave oven', and . Some
photocopiable mantelpiece Our bedroom is above/over the
people dislike the overuse of words coined in this . kitchen
way, preferring to
can it be found? , The use of
is it findable? as a noun or adjective, with
above
for example. reference to something previously mentioned, is
abled The term is sometimes used as disliked by some users but acceptable to most: .
abled

..
You will need several items in addition to the
a synonym for `able-bodied'; it is also used
above Please quote the above reference num-

capped': . .
in alternatives for `disabled' or `handi-
.
ber on all correspondence

abridgment abridgement
differently abled Marshall rejects

the term `disabled' for these children . . . She or ? This word,

calls them `uniquely differently abled' (Daily meaning `a shortened version of a work
Telegraph). Users feel that such phrases such as a book', may be spelt abridgment or
project a more positive image of people abridgement. Both spellings are fully accep-
with disabilities, but these alternatives are table.
widely disliked as much by the supposed
beneficiaries as by the public at large. abscess This word, meaning `a collection

See also ABLEISM; CHALLENGED; DISABLED; of pus surrounded by inflamed tissue', is

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. often misspelt. Note the sc at the beginning

ableism The term ableism refers to discri-

of the second syllable.

absence This word is sometimes misspelt,

mination against people with disabilities,
especially in employment and in the provi- the most frequent error being the substitu-
sion of facilities in public places. tion of -sc- for the -s-, as in abscess. Note also
See also POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. the -ence ending.

Aboriginal or Aborigine ? Either noun absolutely Some users dislike the frequent
may be used in referring to a member of use of absolutely in place of yes. Others feel

.
the indigenous people of Australia who that the adverb is overused as an intensifier,
settled there prior to the arrival of Euro- in the sense of `completely': it's absolutely

pean settlers, but is now gener-

◆ The pronunciation of varies according
Aboriginal disgraceful!

ally preferred to by the people absolutely

to its meaning. In normal adverbial use it is stressed
Aborigine

on the first syllable [ soÆlootli]; in the sense of `yes'

themselves.

abound The verb abound

.
is followed by
ab
it is stressed on the third syllable [absoÆ li]. loot

absolve
the preposition with or in: The river

.
abounds with [or in] salmon. The verb absolve is followed by

about Care should be taken in using about

the preposition of or from:
of [or from] blame.
They absolved us

absorption
in describing the essential characteristics of
something or as an intensifier after a ne- Note the spelling of this word.

.
gative, as many people consider such usages The final -b of the verb absorb changes to
acceptable only in informal contexts: -p- in the derived noun.

ances. .
Being a teenager today is all about appear-
She was not about to give in to his
abstention or abstinence ? Both these
nouns are derived from the verb abstain,
demands at this late stage.
See also AROUND or ABOUT? meaning `refrain' or `refrain from voting'.

above over .
The noun abstention is chiefly used in the
or ? The preposition above second of these senses: 24 votes for the

means `at a higher level than'; over means motion, 16 against, and 5 abstentions. Absti-

. .
`vertically or directly above', `on top of' or nence refers to the act or practice of abstain-

. .
`across': He raised his hand above his head. ing, often from something that is enjoyable

. .
She held the umbrella over her head. There's but possibly harmful: abstinence from

.
a mark on the wall above the radiator. I've alcohol total abstinence from sexual inter-

put my towel over the radiator. The aero- course.

 3 access
abstractedly abstractly
or ? is throne, meaning `to become king (or queen)'.
Compare , meaning `to
Abstractedly

.
derived from the adjective abstracted, to succeed to the throne
meaning `lost in thought': be the next person to become king or queen,
especially as an inheritance'.
He stared

abstractedly out of the window. The adverb

abstractly, meaning `in the abstract', is less
frequent in usage.
accelerate The word accelerate, meaning

abuse misuse
`speed up', is sometimes misspelt. Note the
or ? The noun abuse denotes -cc- and single l.
wrong, improper, or bad use or treatment;
accent accentuate
or ? Both verbs can be

.
the noun misuse, denoting incorrect or
used in the sense of `to emphasize'. Accent

. .
unorthodox use, is more neutral: the
usually refers to the act of stressing a sound

.
abuse of power child abuse the misuse
in speech or music, whereas accentuate is
misuse of the club's funds.

◆ The same distinction applies to the verbs

of words

. .
used in a wider range of visual and abstract

:. .
abuse
and misuse to abuse a privilege to misuse one's
contexts:
.
He accented the word `life'. to

time. accent the first beat in the bar to accentuate

In some contexts the two words are inter- ◆ Theword .

isstressedonthesecondsyllable
an outline/a problem

changeable: . [ak ] when it is used as a verb and on the first

The misuse of drugs among teen-
sent
accent

. syllable [ seÆnt] when it is used as a noun.

agers is but one aspect of drug abuse currently
ak

accents
being examined by government bodies. He
predicted that it would not lead to an upsurge Accents are sometimes used on
in alcohol misuse . . . But Action on Alcohol Abuse words that are now accepted into English,
attacked the move at a time of increased medical though the tendency is increasingly to omit
concern about excessive drinking ( Daily Tele- them.
graph). ◆ Accents are generally used when they show the
The word also refers to insulting lan- pronunciation of the word: the cedilla in cË
guage: .
abuse fa ade
. shows that the is soft, the acute accent on
.
The president was abused by the crowd c clicheÂ
The pickets shouted abuse at the strikebreakers. shows that the word is pronounced [ shay] not klee
As in the word , the final [s] sound of the
use [kleesh]. A circumflex accent on the of is o role
nouns abuse [aÆ ] and
bews [mis ]
misuse ews unnecessary and is usually omitted.
changes to [z] in the verbs. accentuate ACCENT ACCENTUATE?
SUBSTANCE ABUSE SUBSTANCE see or

accept except
See also or
MISUSE? or ? These two verbs should

abysmal . This word, meaning `very bad;

not be confused, being virtually opposite in
meaning. Accept means `receive' or `admit';
dreadful': abysmal weather, is sometimes

.
except, used in formal contexts, means `ex-
misspelt. The word comes from abyss,

.
clude' or `leave out': She was accepted for
hence the y in the spelling.

academic
the job. He was excepted from the team.

.
The adjective academic is widely Accept only exists as a verb, whereas except

.
used in the sense of `theoretical': an may also be used as a preposition, meaning
academic question of academic interest only, `excluding', and as a conjunction, meaning

. .
but some people object to its frequent use `it if were not for the fact that' or `otherwise

.
in place of irrelevant: Whether he wins this than': Everyone had to attend except heads of
race or not is academic, because he is already department. She did not pause except to pick

several points ahead of his nearest rival. up her hat. The two words are similar but

accede exceed
or ? Accede, used in formal
not identical in pronunciation: accept is
pronounced [a Æ ksept] and except is pro-

.
contexts, means `agree'; exceed means `go
nounced [iksept].

. access
beyond' or `be greater than': They will
accede to our demands. Do not exceed the The use of the word access as a verb
speed limit. is best restricted to the field of computing,
◆ The two verbs are similar in pronunciation but
.
where it means `gain access to (stored
quite different in spelling: [ak ] ends in
accede seed information or a computer memory)':
;
-ede exceed [ik ] ends in .
seed -eed
The verb is usually followed by ; it can
Customers will shortly be able to access this

accede to
also be used in the expression
information with minimum delay through
to accede to the personal computer or mobile phone.
access 4
◆ The extended use of the verb in general contexts
is disliked by many users: .
the verb accompany means `go somewhere
We often receive with someone as a companion; escort', in
requests to `access' our membership lists and these the second it means `supplement'.
( ). is also used with the active verb
:.
are almost always refused Club Lotus News ◆ With accom-

access or accession ? The noun access

pany
of impatience
He accompanied his words with a gesture
.
. accountable
refers to the act, right, or means of ap-
proaching, reaching, entering, or using: The adjective accountable,
restricted. The
.
Access to the laboratory is meaning `answerable', should be applied
noun is derived from the verb
.
accession only to people: Union leaders are account-
accede (see ACCEDE or EXCEED?) and is most able to the rank-and-file members. We were

.
frequently used in the sense of `becoming accountable for their welfare.
king (or queen)': In other contexts the adjective is often better
:.
Elizabeth II's accession (to ◆
the throne) in 1952. replaced by its synonym responsible An unex-

access excess pected fall in demand was responsible [not ac-

or ? The noun access means
]
countable for the company's financial problems .
.
`entry' or `opportunity to make use of
The noun is best avoided where
accountability
something':
.
He obtained access to the
would be adequate or more appro-
priate: .
responsibility
building. We hope to promote access to
[not
the individual responsibilities ac-
further education. It should not be confused
] .
countabilities of the directors

.
with excess, which variously means `surplus'
or `unrestrained behaviour':
ment has an excess of materials. .
The depart-
He aban-
accumulative cumulative or ? The adjec-
tive cumulative refers to something that

Note that in the stress falls on the first . .

doned himself to a life of excess. gradually increases with successive addi-
◆ access
syllable, while in the noun it falls on the
tions: the cumulative total a cumulative
excess
second syllable.
effect. It should not be confused with accu-
mulative, an adjective that is derived from

accessible The adjective accessible, mean- the verb accumulate but is rarely used.

ing `easy to use, enter, or approach', is acetic see AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC?
sometimes understood to have particular
relevance to access for people whose mo- achieve This word is often misspelt. Note
the spelling, which conforms to the rule
.
bility is impaired, specifically for people in -ie-

`i before except after c'.

.
wheelchairs: The site is fully equipped with e

accessible toilets. The brochure includes See also SPELLING 5.

information about accessible holidays.
acknowledgment acknowledge-
accessory accessary ment
or
or ? In British Eng- ? This word may be spelt with or

.
lish, the spelling of this word in the sense without the e after the g; both spellings are
`supplementary attachment' is accessory: fully acceptable.
car accessories.

◆
acoustics The word
In the legal sense of `a person who incites spelt, is often mis- acoustics

another to commit a crime', the spelling is usually doubling of the first .

the most frequent error being the

,
accessory accessary being an older variant: . ◆ For the use of an
as a singular or plural
c

accessory before the fact. noun see -ICS.

acoustics

In American English, is the spelling in

acquaint The verb
accessory
all senses. is best avoided acquaint

accommodation The word accommoda-

where
appropriate:
tell
.
would be adequate or more
He acquainted me with his
tion is often misspelt. Note the -cc- and
plans, for example, may be more simply
-mm-.

accompany
expressed as he told me his plans.
The passive form can often
be replaced by : .
The passive verb to be accom- ◆ be acquainted with
may be followed by the preposition know I am not acquainted with
.
panied

.
or with, depending on the sense in which the rules
Note the spelling of and its deriva-
by

.
it is used: acquaint
tives, particularly the presence and position of
She was accompanied by her

friend.
the letter .
His words were accompanied with/by
a gesture of impatience. In the first example c

acquiesce The word acquiesce,
`agree or consent to something (especially
against one's inclination)', is sometimes
misspelt. Note the -uie- in the middle of
the word and the -sce ending. The word is
pronounced [akweees].
5 actual
meaning ASH (Action on Smoking and Health) . MAD
(mutual assured destruction). It sometimes seems
almost as though organizations and systems are
made to fit the acronyms, rather than vice versa: .
In 1984, Holmes, the Home Office Large Major
Enquiry System was set up. In spite of its name,

acquirement acquisitionor ? In the sense

Holmes is not an electronic version of the master
detective, but a means of investigating crimes
of `something acquired' acquirement is lar- (
through computers The Times ).
gely restricted to abilities or skills and The development of electronic communications
acquisition, the more frequent word, to
. in recent years has greatly increased the number of
material things or people: Fluency in
acronyms in daily use (see E-MAIL; NETSPEAK; TEXT
spoken and written
.
Japanese is one of her
MESSAGING).
many acquirements. He showed me his
See also DINKY; NIMBY; YUPPIE.
latest acquisition.
◆ Both nouns may be used to denote the act of acrylic This word is sometimes misspelt.
acquiring: . Note particularly the , not in the middle
.
the acquirement/acquisition of spe- yl il

cialist knowledge of the word.

the acquisition/acquirement of
wealth . act or action? Both these nouns mean
Note the spelling of and
acquirement acquisi-
- before the - -.
tion, particularly the -c
`something done', but
qu
tends to em- action

.
phasize the process of doing whereas act

acquit The verb acquit is followed by the

increased. .
denotes the deed itself: Terrorist action has

It was an act of terrorism.

preposition of or on
.
in the sense `acquit a
◆ The use of the word as a verb, meaning
action
person of (a charge)': She was acquitted of
`take action on' or `put into action', is disliked by
[or on] all charges, and
.
of in the sense `acquit
many people, including Fritz Spiegl ( Daily Tele-
a person of (a crime)': She was acquitted of
graph ), who criticized `the many new verbs
manslaughter.
spawned by the Caring Industry. They no longer
acronyms An acronym is a word formed do things. They ``action'' them.'
.
from the initial letters or syllables of other
activate actuate
or ? Both words, meaning

.
words: OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
`make active or operative', are acceptable,
Exporting Countries) radar (radio detect-

.
but careful users reserve actuate for more
ing and ranging).
◆ The punctuation of acronyms varies. The usual
.
formal or technical contexts: The young

styleiscapitalswithoutfullstops: . . ,WHO NICAM

scientist activated the machine. The govern-

although some of the better-known acronyms are .

ment decided to activate the dormant security

sometimes seen with only an initial capital: . unit. The system is actuated by a series of

/ . / . Acronyms which refer to

NATO Nato AIDS Aids
switches. Actuate is preferred to
.
activate

some piece of technical equipment, rather than an when referring to personal motivation:

organization: . (sound navigation and ran- The old man's interest in the girl's welfare was

ging) . . (light amplification by stimu-

sonar
actuated by greed.

latedemissionofradiation) . (self-contained active

radar laser
scuba An active verb is one in which the
underwater breathing apparatus), become so ac- SUBJECT
.
performs the action of the verb
cepted that they are written in lower-case letters (compare PASSIVE). The sentence
like ordinary words and many people do not even
The
contains the active
realize that they are acronyms. Other acronyms
mechanic mended my car

verb mended.
have become so well-known that it is rare to hear Most clauses and sentences containing an active
their full names: . . transitive verb can be converted into the passive: .
◆
Naafi (theatre of
Tomcat
operations missile continuous-wave anti-tank My car was mended by the mechanic , but the
weapon). result is sometimes clumsy or needlessly compli-
Recently there has been a tendency to make cated.
acronyms correspond with actual English words: . actor actress? NON-SEXIST TERMS.
(sea-air-land (US Navy)) . (Police and or see

actual
SEAL PACE
Criminal Evidence Act). The more appropriate the
word to the organization or concept the better: .
Many people object to the frequent,
redundant use of the adjective actual
actualize 6
. The abbreviations are always written in capital
.
simply for emphasis:
letters (small capitals are sometimes used in
This is the actual

printed texts), with or without full stops (see also

place where the crash happened. That is an

◆ The word may, however, be used per- ABBREVIATIONS).

actual Picasso.

actual
fectly legitimately in, for instance, comparing real Some contemporary writers prefer to use
andprojectedtotals: .
BCE
(Before the Common Era) and (Common Era),
The actual figure is probably CE
much lower. or (Present Era), to avoid the Christian connota-
PE

actualize The verb tions of and . BC AD

address
, meaning
actualize

`make actual', is disliked by some users Note the spelling of this word,
as an example of the increasing tendency particularly the -dd- and the -ss ending.
LETTER WRITING 1.
.
to coin new verbs by adding the suffix -ize See also
to nouns and adjectives:
tualized their plans.
They have ac-
adequate The adjective adequate
.
is fol-

See also ±IZE or ±ISE? lowed by the preposition to or for: Their

actually
income was no longer adequate to [or for]
Many people object to the fre- their needs.

quent use of the adverb actually where it

adherence or adhesion ? Both these

. .
adds nothing to the meaning of the sen-
nouns are derived from the verb adhere,
tence: Actually, I prefer coffee to tea. We
meaning `stick'. Adhesion is largely confined

.
weren't actually very impressed by his perfor-
to the literal sense of the word, whereas
mance. She doesn't live here, actually.
◆ In some contexts, however, may serve `loyalty' oris`obedience':
actually
.
used for the figurative senses of
adherence

the useful purpose of contrasting what is actual or .

the adhesion of the

real with what is theoretical or apparent: . . I know

tape to the fabric

.
their adherence to the cause

◆ In medical contexts is the abnormal

strict adherence to the rules

.
how to make a souffle but I've never actually made
one . . union of usually separated body tissues,
It sounds difficult but it's actually quite easy
for exam-
adhesion

See also IN FACT.

ple as a result of inflammation.
actuate see ACTIVATE or ACTUATE? ad hoc
acumen
The Latin phrase ad hoc denotes
In the traditional pronunciation of something that is made or done for a

.
this word, which means `the ability to make particular purpose, rather than as a general

. .
good judgments': sound business acumen, rule. It is most frequently used as an
the stress falls on the second syllable [aÆkyoo- adjective: an ad hoc decision on an ad
Æ n]. The pronunciation with the stress on
The phrase is also used as an adverb: .
me hoc basis.

the first syllable [akyoomeÆn] is, however, ◆ The

more frequently heard. . Itis not
committee will meet ad hoc, as needs arise

acute CHRONIC usually written or printed in italics.

ad infinitum
see .

AD BC and The abbreviation AD, which

tum means `endlessly': .
The Latin phrase ad infini-
This series of events
stands for Anno Domini, is traditionally
repeats itself ad infinitum.

adjectives
placed before the year number; BC, which

. . .
stands for before Christ, always follows the An adjective is a word which

. . . .
year number: The custom dates back to AD provides information about a noun: fat

1462. The city was destroyed in 48 BC. dirty. The main

◆ In modern usage sometimes follows the year division of adjectives corresponds to the
blue happy intelligent

number: .
AD
. position that they take. Attributive adjec-
It is strictly tautological to precede with , tives come before a noun: .
The battle took place in 1127 AD

literally means `in the year of Predicative adjectives follow a verb: .

AD in .
since
a stupid boy

Anno Domini
the Lord', but the omission of is generally
the

considered to be unidiomatic: . noun: .

in . Postpositive adjectives follow a
sky is grey

He died in AD .
◆ Of course, some adjectives can be used in all
the chairman elect

and are also applied to centuries, threepositions: . . .

1042.
BC AD a long walk the sides are long
although the use of for this purpose is disliked . Most can be used attributively and
by some people and is often unnecessary: . predicatively: . .
AD two yards long
.Some
. . adjectives can only be attributive: .
since sweet tea The tea is sweet
the fourth century BC until the ninth century AD the principal
 7 adrenalin
, not . Some can only admission admittance
be predicative: .
reason The reason is principal or ? Both these
The baby is awake , but not the nouns mean `permission or right to enter'.
. Some are used only in the postposi-
tive position: .
awake baby is the more frequent,
.
Admission admittance

. .
There were drinks galore being largely restricted to formal or official
Nouns can sometimes be used as attributive
adjectives: . . . .
contexts: Admission is by ticket only. No

a glass bowl a Meissen plate admittance.

, and adjectives can be used as nouns:

He presents the picture of a boy

. . .
cotton shirts
.
for whom an early admission could well be

Adjectives are also used in the place of adverbs: .

the poor the accused the quick and the dead advantageous. . . . Education officials say they

.. .Such
blocked his admittance because class sizes at

words as: . . . function as both

They sell their goods dear It tastes delicious (Sunday Times).

Of the two words only may be used to

the school were too large

fast late early ◆ admission

adjectives and adverbs. denote the price charged or a fee paid for en-
Absoluteadjectivesaresuchwordsas: . . trance.
. . , which cannot be used in
entire
The noun also means `confession' or
`acknowledgment': . .
extreme total unique admission
the comparative or superlative, and cannot be an admission of guilt by her
modified by words like , or
very, utterly .
totally own admission .
They can, however, be modified by or admit
:. .
almost
In the sense of `confess' or `acknowl-
nearly an almost total disaster a nearly perfect
. Other absolute adjectives cannot be mod- edge'
.
admit
.
is generally used as a transitive

ified in any way: . .

round

.
verb: He admitted his mistake. I admitted
a postgraduate student a
deciduous tree , but it is occasionally possible to that I had lied. Do you admit writing this

modify an apparently absolute adjective for effect: ◆ The insertion of the preposition
letter?

in such
. He looked very dead . contexts is disliked by many users: .
to

The overuse of adjectives should be avoided, ..

He admitted

particularlywhentheyaretautologous: . true facts

to his mistake Do you admit to writing this

(see TAUTOLOGY). Care should be taken with letter?

is followed by in the sense of `allow to
choice of adjectives and the less informative ones enter' or `give access': .
Admit to

should be avoided. tells one very

He's a nice man
..
We were not admitted to
. In the
little about a man; he might be good-natured,
the club This gate admits to the garden
formal sense of `be open to' or `leave room for'
sympathetic, witty, attractive, respectable , or none is followed by : .
of these. Long strings of adjectives should also be admit of
.
The phrase does not

avoided in ordinary speech or writing unless they admit of a different interpretation

are needed for a precise description: . a small admittance see ADMISSION or ADMITTANCE?
. In poetry several adjec- ad nauseam
tives can be used to good effect: .
brown one-eyed mongrel
The Latin phrase ad nauseam
A poor, weak,
palsy-stricken, churchyard thing (Keats). is used to refer to something that happens,

See also COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE; .

is said, etc., again and again so that it is

NOUNS. boring or irritating: to discuss politics ad

adjourn This word, which means `stop for

nauseam.
◆ Literally, the phrase means `to a sickening de-
a short time' and `go', is sometimes mis- gree'.
spelt. Note the
our, as in journey.
d in front of the j, and the
adolescence This word is sometimes mis-

administer administrate
or ? Either verb
spelt. Note particularly the

adopted adoptive or ?
sc

The
and the

adjective
nc.

may be used in the sense of `manage',

is applied to children who have
.
`supervise', `control', or `direct', with refer- adopted

.
ence to the work of an administrator: She been adopted; adoptive relates to adults who

.
has administered/administrated the company adopt another person's child: their adopted

since the death of her father. her adoptive parents.

also means `give', `apply', or `dis- ◆ Careful users maintain the distinction between
daughter

pense': . to . the two words.

◆ Administer
administer first aid to administer
justice. Administrate is not used in such contexts. adrenalin or adrenaline? Both spellings
admissible This word, meaning `accepta- of this word, denoting a hormone secreted
ble' or `having the right to be admitted', is by the adrenal glands, are acceptable. In
sometimes misspelt. Note the -ible ending. British English adrenaline is preferred; in
adult 8
American English, adrenalin (also a trade- adverbs Adverbs modify other parts of

. .
name). Another US alternative is epineph- speech and answer questions such as

. .
rine. how? (adverbs of manner): quietly

adult The noun adult may be stressed on

greedily, when? (adverbs of time):
.
then

.
tomorrow, where? (adverbs of place): there
either syllable, but the pronunciation

◆ They can modify verbs: .

outside.
[aduÆ lt] is heard more frequently than
,
adjectives: . , other adverbs: .
She wrote neatly
Æ dult] in British English.
[a
The adjective , which principally means , whole clauses or sentences: .
extremely hot fairly

`mature' or `of or for adults': .

◆ adult
well Anyway, it

.
an adult approach
, is often used as a euphemism , or can be used to link clauses
or sentences: .
doesn't matter now

for`pornographic': . . ..
adult education
I dislike him; nevertheless, I feel
adult videos an adult film
. Adverbs are frequently
formed by adding - to an adjective: . .
responsible for him
There is a demand for commercial sex (from pros-

, but this does not apply to all adverbs: .

ly darkly
titution, through massage parlours and blue mo-

.
wisely to
vies to strip shows and `adult' magazines) which
( ). work late to jump high .
will not go away . . . if repressed The Guardian
It is usually acceptable to place an adverb be-
adultescent tween parts of a verb: . I have often spoken about
, but adverbs should not come between
The noun adultescent refers to
the matter
a verb and its direct object. Whether the adverb is
an adult who continues to enjoy childish

positioned after the object or before the verb

pastimes. The word, resulting from the

depends on the length of the object clause: .

combination of the words adult and ado-

. ..
lescent, is a relatively recent coinage and is
best restricted to informal contexts. Many They tortured the prisoners cruelly They cruelly
tortured the political prisoners who had been
.
games for PCs are designed to appeal to
arrested for demonstrating against the regime
Careful positioning of the adverb is sometimes
adultescents as well as to younger players.

KIDULT.
necessary in order to avoid ambiguity in a sen-
See also
Note the spelling of , particularly the
tence: . . If
◆ adultescent
in the middle of the word. She disliked intensely sentimental films
relates to it should be placed
-sc-

advance or advancement ? The noun

intensely
before the verb.
disliked

ADJECTIVES; SENTENCE ADVERB; SPLIT

.
advance means `forward motion' or `pro- See also
gress': the advance of the enemy. The noun INFINITIVE.
advancement is chiefly used in formal con-
adversary The pronunciation of this word
.
texts to refer to `promotion' or `increased
Æ dversa
with stress on the second syllable [a Æ ri]
status': opportunities for personal advance-
ment. The two nouns are sometimes con- is disliked by many users, who prefer the
traditional pronunciation with stress on the
.
fused in the context of progress in
first syllable [adveÆrsa
Æ ri].
.
development:
STRESS.
advances in medical science

the advancement of medical science. Here, See also

advancement refers to the act of assisting
progress or development.
adverse averseor ? Adverse, meaning `un-
favourable', `antagonistic', or `hostile',

advantage vantage .
or ? Advantage means
usually precedes an abstract noun;
meaning `disinclined', `unwilling', or `hav-
averse,

.
`superiority' or `benefit': to have the ad-
ing a strong dislike', usually relates to
vantage over one's rivals the advantages of

. .
people and is never placed before the noun
co-education. Vantage is chiefly found in the

.
it qualifies: adverse criticism an adverse
phrase vantage point, meaning `a place that

.
effect These working conditions are adverse
affords a good overall view'.
◆ In tennis, the words and are some- .
to efficiency. The committee was not averse
vantage van
times used as shortened forms of the scoring term to the proposal.
.
Her father is not averse to

advantage :. .
(ad)vantage Smith
using violence. They are averse to all

advantageous
publicity.
This word is sometimes ◆ The two adjectives are sometimes confused in
misspelt, the most frequent error being the sense of `opposed'.
the omission of the -e-. Note also the Averseis often preceded by and may be not
pronunciation of this word, stressed on followed by or , being preferred in
to from to
Æ ntayju
the third syllable [adva Æ s]. modern usage.
 9 affect
Adverse may be stressed on either syllable, but aegis This word, meaning `authority' or
the pronunciation [ vers] is more frequent than `protection', is sometimes misspelt. Note
is always stressed on the second the at the beginning of the word. .
ad
[aÆd ].
vers Averse
syllable [aÆ ].
ae-

vers The committee operates under the aegis of the

advertise This word, meaning `promote ◆ is pronounced [ jis]. state legislature.

or publicize': .
Aegis ee

aerial
a brochure advertising holi-
days, is sometimes misspelt. This is one of This word, meaning `of the air; from
the words ending in -ise that cannot be spelt an aircraft' and `device that receives or
-ize; see also -IZE or -ISE? sends out broadcast signals', is sometimes

advise The use of the verb advise as a

misspelt. Note particularly the
beginning of this word.
ae- at the

synonym for `tell', `inform', `notify', etc.,

COMMERCIALESE and is aero air or ? Both these words may be used
.
is widely regarded as

.
adjectivally or as prefixes in the sense of
.
best avoided in general usage: Please advise

. . . .
us of your new address. I told [not advised] `relating to aeroplanes or aircraft': aero-

. . .
him that the meeting had been cancelled. batics airliner aerodrome airport an aero

The of should not be replaced by in airspace.

In some American words the prefix is
◆ s advise z engine the air force aerospace

British or American English. ◆ aero-

COUNSEL or ADVISE?; -IZE or -ISE? replaced by : the nouns
air- and aeroplane aerofoil ,
for example, are rendered as and in
See also

adviser advisor or ? This word, meaning American English.

airplane airfoil

`person who gives advice', may be spelt

either or advisor. Adviser is preferred aeroplane see AERO or AIR; PLANE.
aerosol
adviser

in British English but advisor is more fre- Note the spelling of this word,
quent in American English. particularly the ae- at the beginning and the

advisory This word, meaning `for the

-ol at the end. An aerosol

dispensed from a pressurized container; the

is a fine spray

purpose of giving advice', is sometimes

noun may refer to the container or the
misspelt. Note the ending.
◆ In American English may also be used as contents.
-ory

a noun to denote advance warning of something, aesthetic, ascetic or acetic? These three
advisory

especially of severe weather: . hurricane advisory.

words should not be confused. The adjec-

-ae- and -oe- In such words as archaeology

tive aesthetic
good taste': .
means `relating to beauty or
aesthetic value. An ascetic is a
and amoeba, the vowel combinations -ae-
person who practises self-denial; acetic acid
and -oe- were once represented by the
is the main component of vinegar.
characters ñ and ú. They are now usually
Note the spelling of ◆ , particularly the aesthetic
written or printed as separate letters and
; the variant spelling
ae- is restricted to esthetic
there is an increasing tendency for the
American English.
-a-

and to be omitted.
◆ In American English such words as
-o-
and are not identical in pronun-
Ascetic acetic

, , and are spelt ciation. The

haemor-
middle syllable of is pro- ascetic
rhage oestrogen
, , and
anaesthetic
nounced with
he-
the short
, although, whereas the middle syllable of [e] sound of , set
morrhage
conversely,
estrogen anesthetic
is not usually preferred to is usually acetic

. In British English the has already pronounced like the word .

esthetic
seat

affect or effect? The noun

aesthetic -o-
been dropped from (formerly
ecumenical oecume- means
) and the and are gradually disappear- `result'; the verb
effect
nical -a- -o- means `influence' or
ing from , , , `have an effect on', hence its frequent con-
affect
medi(a)eval encyclop(a)edia f(o)etus
etc. This process of simplification, which is parti- fusion with the verb , which means
cularly associated with scientific and technical `bring about' or `accomplish': .
effect

contexts, is disliked and resisted by some users.

The new

The ending of such plural nouns as ..

legislation may have an effect on small busi-

. .
-ae vertebrae
and (see PLURALS) should not be reduced
nesses The new legislation may affect small
formulae
to .
businesses We have effected a number of

.
-e . and
improvements are often
Affect effect
See alsoARCHAEOLOGY; ENCYCLOPEDIA or misused, one in place of the other:
ENCYCLOPAEDIA?; FOETUS OR FETUS? etc. Officials said yesterday the downturn could
affectation 10
.
effect the future of the scheme (The Guar- gatory overtones, and is often used in place
dian). `It will have very little affect,' says . . . of BLACK.
Equivalent coinages recorded in other countries,
◆
such as , are known but are not
the chief economist at the merchant bank

( ). African Canadian
◆ The verb is largely restricted to formal yet widely familiar.
Morgan Grenfell The Times
effect
contexts. The verb is also used in the sense AfricanCaribbean
of `assume', `pretend', or `feign': .
affect
is the African Caribbean

. .
I affected an air
of indifference. . descent who live in or come from the
She affected to despise them
term generally applied to people of African

He affected ignorance .
affectation affection
Caribbean. The alternative Afro-Caribbean
or ? Affectation is is equally acceptable to most people.
false behaviour that is intended to impress;
Afro-American AFRICAN AMERICAN
see .

Afro-Caribbean AFRICAN CARIBBEAN

affection means `fondness' or `tenderness'.
The two nouns are related to different see .
meanings of the verb affect and should
afters DESSERT SWEET PUDDING
see , , or
not be confused.
AFTERS
affinity
?

the noun
The use of the preposition
affinity, in the sense of `liking' or
for with
afterward afterwards
or ? In British Eng-
lish afterwards is the usual form of the

.
`attraction', is disliked by some users but
adverb meaning `subsequently', the variant
acceptable to most: He has a natural

.
afterward being more frequently used in
affinity for lost causes.
◆ Those who object to this usage restrict the noun . .
American English: I'll do the washing-up

to the meaning `reciprocal relationship or similar- afterwards His foot was sore for days

ity', in which sense it is followed by or See also. -WARD or -WARDS? afterwards

:. .
between

again This word is pronounced

with the affinity between the two friends her
affinity with her brother . either

afflict inflict
or ? To afflict
.
is to distress or
Æ gen] or [a
[a Æ gayn]. The first of these is
probably the more frequently used.

. aged
trouble, to inflict is to impose: He afflicted

. . .
the prisoners with cruel torture. He inflicted This word is pronounced [ayjid] in

.
cruel torture on the prisoners. Egypt was the sense `very old': his aged uncle looking

.
afflicted with a plague of locusts. A plague of after the aged. When the word is used with a
locusts was inflicted on Egypt. specific age: She was aged twenty, it is
◆ The direct object of is the sufferer; the pronounced [ayjd].
afflict
direct object of is the suffering. The two ageing or aging? This word, meaning
inflict
verbs should not be confused.
affront effrontery
`(the process of) becoming old', may be
or ? Affront may be spelt ageing or aging.

`insult': .
used as a noun or as a verb, meaning
an affront to his pride . I felt
ageism Ageism is discrimination against
people on the grounds of age, especially

.
affronted. The noun effrontery means `im-
in employment, or the offensive use of
pudence': She had the effrontery to suggest
stereotypical images of old people. In the
we were mistaken.

aficionado
first sense the noun is not restricted to old
This noun, meaning an expert age: any job advertisement that puts an
on or devotee of something, is sometimes upper (or lower) limit on the age of appli-
misspelt. Note the single and the in the cants may be described as ageist.

In the second sense, the noun refers to the

f -c-

middle of the word. ◆

◆ The word can be pronounced [aÆfishyaÆ doÅ] or assumption that all people over retirement age are
nah
[aÆfisyaÆ doÅ]. The original Spanish pronunciation dependent, unproductive, intolerant, conservative,
nah
[aÆfithyaÆ doÅ] is best avoided.
nah infirm, senile, unhappy, poor, etc. Such stereo-
African American types are best avoided wherever possible in speech
is the
African American
and writing.
term now generally applied to Americans
See also POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.
agenda
of African descent. It has been preferred to
Afro-American since the late 1980s, when The word agenda is used as a
the latter term was judged to have dero- singular noun, with the plural form agen-
 11 agreement
. Note that is preceded by the past tense and
.
das: ◆ ago
by the present tense in sentences of this type.
The agenda for tomorrow's meeting has

been changed. since

The first example could be more simply expressed
This item has appeared on a

as: .
number of previous agendas.

Originally the plural form of the singular noun The

adverbial use of for this purpose: .
◆ I posted the letter a fortnight ago.
agendum , literally means `things to be
agenda since I posted
done'. The singular form remains in
agendum , is regarded as very old-
the letter a fortnight since
occasional very formal use in the sense of `item fashioned.
on the agenda'. The word is also used as a preposition: .
since

aggravate We have lived here since 2001. If a period of time

The use of the verb aggravate
rather than a specific time is mentioned the pre-
and its derivatives in the sense of `annoy',
`irritate', or `exasperate' dates back to the
position should be substituted for : .
for since We
have lived here for three years.

agoraphobia
early 17th century but is still disliked by
some people. It is therefore best restricted to This word, describing a fear

.
informal contexts and the offending word of open spaces or public places, is some-

.
replaced by one of its synonyms: I was times misspelt. Note the after the ag-.
The word originates from the Greek word ,
o

. ◆ agora
aggravated by the noise. She has a number of
aggravating habits. His lackadaisical attitude `marketplace'. should not be con-
Agoraphobia
fused with , which means `fear of
The principal meaning of is `make heights'.
is a constant source of aggravation. acrophobia

worse': .
◆ aggravate

problem. .
Your resignation will aggravate our
The child's suffering was aggravated
agreement and person Modern English
lacks any formalized system under which
by the intense heat.
Note the spelling of aggravate , particularly the the form of a verb changes in order to agree

-gg- and the single . -v-

with the subject. Verb endings rarely in-

aggressive The use of the adjective ag-

dicate whether the subject is the person
speaking (the first person), the person being
gressive in the sense of `assertive' or `force- addressed (the second person) or someone or
ful' is best avoided where there is a risk of something else being spoken about (the

.
confusion with its principal meaning of third person). This simplified approach

.
`belligerent' or `hostile': an aggressive makes matching verb endings with their

Thederivednoun maybeusedfor
salesman an aggressive approach. subject relatively straightforward, with the
◆ aggressiveness
bothsensesoftheadjectivebut ,withits
only changes relating to the third person
aggression
connotationsofhostility,shouldberestrictedtothe
present singular, which requires the addi-

principal meaning: .
tion of a final -s to the verb, and such

.
the aggressiveness of the exceptions as to be, which retains such forms
salesman's approach an act of aggression.
Note the spelling of and ,
as am (first person singular) and are (second
aggressive aggression
particularly the and . .
person singular, and first, second, and third
-gg- -ss-
.
person plural):
aging AGEING AGING
It remains a question to be

Thelackofdistinctiveverb endingsinEnglishcan
see or ? resolved. We are going to town.

agnostic atheist
or ? An
lead
agnostic is, strictly
◆
to confusion in the case of multiple subjects,
speaking, a person who holds that knowl-
especially where one of them is in the third person.
edge of a Supreme Being, a first cause of
Thus,both Neither she nor I know where it will lead
everything, etc., is impossible. In general
and may
Neither she nor I knows where it will lead
usage, however, the word is often
be
agnostic
used, although some users will match the verb
used in the broader sense of `a person who
with the subject closest to it.
See also NEITHER.
doubts the existence of God', in contrast to
an , `a person who denies the exis-
atheist
People may also disagree over the choice of
was coined in 1869 by the may refer topronoun
matching in the case of nouns that
tence of God'.
◆ The word .
agnostic
English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825±95). either gender:
). .
How to keep your
(
ago since .
child and his phone safe The Times Always let

.
or ? It is wrong to place ago and your baby adjust to her new surroundings in her

.
since side by side: It was a fortnight ago that own time. Let your toddler have its own way now
[not since] I posted the letter. It is a fortnight and then.
[not a fortnight ago] since I posted the letter. See also HE or SHE.
-aholic 12
-aholic The suffix -aholic (or -oholic), de- air AERO AIR
see or ?
rived from the noun alcoholic, is being
airman airwoman
or ? see NON-SEXIST
attached to an increasing number of words
TERMS .

. . air miss near miss

to denote a person who is obsessed by or

. .
addicted to something: golfaholic shop- or ? An air miss is the
chocoholic. near collision of two aircraft in the sky.
The noun , coined in the late 1960s,
aholic spendaholic

.
◆ workaholic Such a situation is traditionally called a
is now firmly established in the English language,
near
miss, and both terms are in current use:
but more recent examples are best avoided in
formal contexts.
The Civil Aviation Authority has launched an

.
investigation into a near miss 33,000 feet over

aid The noun aid is specifically used to

Exmoor (Daily Telegraph). The Civil Avia-
tion Authority is investigating an air miss over

. .
denote a tangible source of help, assistance,
(BBC South Today).
The expression is also used figuratively
Sussex this morning

.
or support, such as a device: hearing aid

to describe something that almost succeeds: .

◆ near miss
teaching aids audiovisual aids or money,
It

.
supplies, equipment, etc., given to those in
was a near miss failing by just 1%; better luck next
need: overseas aid.
In the second sense the word was used in a time!

series of fund-raising campaigns inspired by the aisle This word is sometimes misspelt, the
◆

rock musicians of (1984) and the im- most frequent mistake being the omission
Band Aid
mensely successful rock concert (1985): of the silent . Note also the initial .
.
Live Aid s a-
Live Aid raised millions for the starving in
Africa.
aÁ la carte On a menu in a restaurant Á la
a

The noun also occurs in certain fixed expres- dishes, in contrast to a complete meal
aid
carte refers to a range of individually priced

sions, such as , and , but

itsuse as ageneral synonym for `help',`assistance', charged at a fixed. price: .
legal aid, first aid in aid of
We only have

or `support' is disliked and avoided by many users. ◆ The expression comes from French, and means
Á la carte menu
an a

The spelling of should not be confused with literally `according to the card'.
that of , a noun meaning `assistant': .
aid
aide
See also TABLE D'HO
one of
à TE.
alcopop
the president's aides.

Aids This acronym, for Acquired Immune This word, describing a ready-
mixed soft drink with an alcoholic content,
Deficiency Syndrome, was originally written
with capital letters when first identified in is best restricted to informal contexts. The
the early 1980s as a serious disease of the formal name for such drinks is FAB (fla-
immune system. It is now generally ren- voured alcoholic beverage), although this
dered in the form Aids, although both term is largely unknown outside the drinks
versions are acceptable. industry and alcohol pressure groups, etc.
◆ Care should be taken not to confuse with alibi The use of the noun as a syno-
Aids
HIV , the abbreviation for Human Immunodefi-
alibi

ciency Virus , the infective retrovirus from which nym for `excuse' or `pretext' is disliked by

the full-blown disease may or may not sub- formal contexts: .

many people and is best restricted to in-

sequently develop. .
Aids
.
He used the power cut as
Her son was diagnosed HIV- an alibi for not finishing his essay. Her illness
positive five years ago but has not yet displayed

◆ The word , which literally means `else-

provided her with an alibi to leave early.
any of the symptoms of full-blown Aids.

ain't As a contraction of
alibi
where', is principally used in law to denote a
defendant's plea (or evidence) that he or she
are not, is not, have

or is wrong. It is however
was somewhere other than the scene of a crime:
not, has not, ain't

jocular expressions as: . .

generally widely used in speech and in such

.
I have an alibi for the afternoon of the robbery ± I
.
Things ain't what
was at a conference in Birmingham
◆ As a contraction of is regarded by align This word, meaning `bring or come
they used to be. You ain't heard nothing yet.
am not, ain't
some users as slightly more acceptable, especially into line; support', is sometimes misspelt.
in informal American English in the interrogative Note the single and also the silent .
form , which is replaced in British English by l g

and in formal all The use of the preposition between

ain't I
the grammatically irregular aren't I of all

contexts by the full form .am I not and , or a possessive

the, this, that, these, those
 13 allusive
adjective is optional, being preferred in ◆ Allude should not be confused with elude (see
AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE?).
all

.
British English and all of in American
See also ALLUSION, ILLUSION or DELUSION?;
. .
English: All (of) the birds have flown away.

ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE?

.
I can't carry all (of) that. Do all (of) these
books belong to you?

right-handed. .
All (of) her children are

They spent all (of) their leave

allure lure or ? Both these words may be
used as a noun or as a verb. The verbs allure

is used alone before nouns that are not

in France.
and lure are virtually synonymous in the

etc.: .
◆ All
preceded by sense of `entice', `tempt', or `attract', but
.
.
the, these, my, their, All birds
is lure is by far the more frequent: They tried

alwaysusedbeforepersonalpronouns: . .
have wings. All leave has been cancelled. All of
to lure her away. The verb allure is most
all of us

.
frequently found in the form of the present
all of it.
ALL RIGHT or ALRIGHT?; ALL TO-
See also
participle, used as an adjective: an alluring

GETHER or ALTOGETHER?; NOT. proposition.

◆ The nouns and share the meaning

allege
allure lure
The verb allege, meaning `state `attraction', but they are used in different contexts.
without proof', is sometimes misspelt, the Lure refers to the act of attracting, whereas allure
refers to the attractiveness of the person or thing
concerned: . .
most frequent error being the substitution
of for the ending. the lure of the gambling table the
.
-edge -ege

alliteration allure of show business

allusion illusion delusion

Alliteration, the use of succes-
sive words of that begin with the same or a , or ? An allusion

similar sound, can be employed to striking is an indirect reference (see ALLUDE); an

is a false or misleading impression
.
effect in poetry or newspaper headlines, for illusion

.
or perception; a is a false or mis-
.
instance, but should never be overused. delusion

. .
Round the rugged rock the ragged rascal ran. taken idea or belief: an allusion to his

.
(Shakespeare,
. .
Full fathom five thy father lies schooldays at Eton an optical illusion to

The Taming of the Shrew). Down in the destroy one's illusions delusions of grandeur

(The Guardian). to labour under a delusion.

The nouns and are confused
deep dark dell

allowed aloud? or
because
These words are occa-
of their
◆
similarity in pronunciation,
allusion illusion
illusion
sionally confused, as they are pronounced
and because of their similarity in mean-
delusion
in the same way.
: .
is the past parti-
Allowed
ing.
ciple of the verb allow Such behaviour
and are virtually interchange-
Illusion delusion
should not be

, meaning `audible': .
. It should not be
allowed
able in some contexts but careful users maintain
confused with aloud
the distinction between them where necessary. An
She did not dare to voice her concerns aloud.
is often pleasant and harmless; a
all ready see ALREADY or ALL READY? may be a sign of mental disorder: .
illusion delusion

.
the illusions of

all right or alright? The spelling is

. An
all right
childhood the delusion that she is Queen Eliza-
temporarily deceives the senses
beth I illusion

, arguing and is sometimes known to be false; a is a

correct; the spelling is wrong.
◆ Some users defend the spelling
alright
delusion

are analogous spel- strongly held opinion that is not easily eradicated.
alright
that altogether and already
lings. Such users want to distinguish , `sa- See also ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE?
tisfactory or acceptable': . allusive, elusive or illusive? The adjec-
alright

:.
The play was alright for
children from all right , tives
The answers were all right and relate to the nouns
i.e. all the answers were right.
allusive illusive
and respectively (see ALLU-
allusion illusion

all together see ALTOGETHER or ALL TO- SION , ILLUSION or DELUSION?); elusive means

GETHER ?
`difficult to catch, find, achieve,
.
describe,
.
allude .
define, remember, etc.': an allusive style

The verb means `refer indir- an elusive quality.

and are identical in pronunciation
allude an illusive hope

.
ectly'; it should not be used in place of the ◆ Elusive illusive
verb itself: [i siv];
loo differs only in the pronunciation
allusive
of the first syllable [aÆ siv].
refer He was alluding to the

.
loo
Of the three adjectives is the most fre-
death of his father when he spoke of the loss of

a lifelong friend. [not alluded] elusive

quent. is rarely used and is usually
She referred
Allusive illusive
replaced by its synonym .
to `the spectre of redundancy' in her speech on

unemployment. illusory
alma mater 14
alma mater The Latin phrase alma mater
.
by many users, especially in formal writing:
is a formal expression used to refer to one's Please send me a copy of your new catalogue
school, college, or university. [not . . .
The phrase, which is sometimes written with
and a list of local stockists a copy of

◆ . . .].
capital initials , literally means `boun- ◆ The combination , however, is generally
your new catalogue, also a list

teous mother'. It is pronounced [almaÆ eÆr] or acceptable: .

Alma Mater and also
maht Please send me a copy of your new
[almaÆ eÆr].
mayt catalogue and also a list of local stockists.

almond This word is sometimes mispro- tioned In some sentences must be carefully posi-
in order to convey the intended meaning: .
also

nounced. The is silent, as in calm; the

-l-

.
She also [as well as someone else] was carrying an
Æ nd].
correct pronunciation is [ahmo

alone loneor ? Alone and lone are both

umbrella.
well as something else]. .
She was carrying an umbrella also [as
She was wearing a
used in the sense of `solitary' or `by oneself', raincoat and she was also carrying an umbrella.
NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.
. .
but alone is always placed after the verb and See also
lone

lone cyclist .
before the noun: She was alone.

The house stood alone. . a lone

a
altar alter
or ? These words are sometimes

tree. Lone tends to be used more in literary confused. An altar is a place where sacri-

or poetic contexts. There is also some fices are offered to a god and also the table

.
difference in meaning: alone is more likely on which the bread and wine are blessed in

to suggest loneliness or a desire for solitude, Communion services: The priest ap-

.
whereas lone usually describes a person or proached the altar. Alter with an e means

thing that simply happens to be on his/her/ `change': a scheme for radically altering the

whole tax system.

its own.
When The different words both have the same pro-
is placed directly after a noun or ◆nunciation
◆ alone
pronoun it means `only': . .
He alone can help us
[ teÆr]. awl

Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity when alternate or alternative? The adjective
alone is used in this sense: . She drinks whisky
probably means that she drinks no other by turns'; the adjective
means `every other' or `occurring
alternate
alone
alcoholic liquor, but it could imply that she drinks `offering a choice' or `being an alternative':
means alternative

in solitude. . . .
along with In the phrase .
on alternate Saturdays alternate layers

.
is often superfluous: . ◆ The use of in place of is
, the
along with alternative routes an alternative suggestion
alternate alternative
acknowledged by most dictionaries but disliked by
word along The

could be changed to: . many users. should not be used in

package was delivered along with the rest of
Alternative
place of .
the mail The package
alternate
Note the difference in pronunciation between
was delivered with the rest of the mail with-

the adjective [awl naÆt] and the verb

out affecting the meaning.

aloud see ALLOWED or ALOUD? [ teÆrnayt].

alternate ter

already or all ready? The adverb

alternate awl
The adjective is used with increasing
alternative
frequency in the specific sense of `not conven-
already

tional' or `not traditional': . .

should not be confused with the phrase all

. .
ready , as both have distinct meanings. Al- alternative medicine
variously means `at a time earlier than alternative comedy alternative technology
. This usage is best avoided
ready

where there is a risk of ambiguity: .

expected' or `by or before a particular time', alternative energy

complete readiness': .
whereas means `in a state of I decided
.
all ready

.
to buy an alternative newspaper
The noun traditionally denotes either
Have you finished

.
alternative
of two possibilities, or the opportunity of choosing
your homework already? They are already

◆ The use in American English of as an between them, but is widely used with reference
in the building. Is everything all ready?

intensifier following an exclamation, command, or to three or more options or choices: .

already

otherstatementisbestrestrictedtoinformaluse: .
Are the
(
. ). .
current alternatives to the dole effective? Daily
Enough already! Get over here already! Telegraph If the campaign against terrorism is

alright see ALL RIGHT or ALRIGHT? not successful within a few months the only alter-

also
natives will be surrender, negotiation, or a long
The use of the adverb in place of . Criticism of this usage
drawn-out war of attrition
on etymological grounds ( is derived
also

the conjunction and is disliked and avoided alternative

 15 ambiguous
from the Latin word , meaning `other (of (1778±1829), although he had originally proposed
alter
two)') is dismissed by most authorities as pedantry. . By analogy with the names of such other
alumium

alternative medicine see COMPLEMENTARY elements as and , the name

potassium sodium

MEDICINE or ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE? was also suggested and this is now

aluminium
the standard form in British English.
although however
or ? The conjunction
alumnus The word alumnus, meaning
although should not be treated as inter-
changeable with the adverb however, which `former pupil or student', is reserved for
males but note that the plural form alumni

.
is used to introduce contrasting information.
The team should do well although they have
may refer to former students of both sexes.

been hit by injuries; their opponents, however,

The equivalent for a female student is
alumna [plural alumnae].

Note that is usually followed by a a.m. and p.m. Full stops are often retained
are unlikely to make much impression.
◆ however
comma, but although is not. in the abbreviations (for ,
although though
a.m. ante meridiem

or ? As conjunctions, meaning `before noon') and p.m. (for post

meaning `despite the fact that', although meridiem, meaning `after noon') to distin-
guish from the verb am.

. The use of capital letters is acceptable but rare.

and though are interchangeable in most a.m.

contexts: ◆
See also ABBREVIATIONS.
We bought the table, although/

The abbreviation refers to the hours from

though it was damaged.

is slightly less formal but more versatile a.m.

midnight to midday; refers to the hours from
◆ Though
than : it may be used in combination with
midday to midnight: .
p.m.
is five minutes
although
for extra emphasis; in the phrase
after midnight; .
12.05 a.m.
is five minutes after
even as though
(see AS IF or AS THOUGH?); after an adjective; and 12.05 p.m.

asaninformalsubstitutefortheadverb .. midday. Such phrases as 8.15 a.m. in the morning

and are tautological; either
however
11.45 p.m. at night

.. or and either or
We bought the table, even though it was da-
a.m. in the morning p.m. at night

.. should be omitted.
maged We bought the table, damaged though
it was Ground coffee tastes better than instant
coffee; it's more expensive, though. Although is amanuensis This word, meaning `person
not used in any of these contexts.
and (less frequently) are also employed to take dictation or copy manu-

used in the sense of `but' or `and yet': .

Though although scripts', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

..
They
single and the n in the middle of
-ue-
applauded, though not enthusiastically It's pos-
sible, though unlikely . the word.
, pronounced [aÆmanyoo sis], is
The shortened forms , and
altho', altho, tho'
◆
best
tho restricted
Amanuensis
to formal contexts. The plural form
en

are best avoided in formal writing. is , pronounced

amanuenses [aÆmanyoo seez]. en
See also IF.

altogether all together

or ? The adverb
amateur This word, meaning `person who

.
follows an activity as a pastime rather than
altogether means `in all' or `completely'; all
as a profession': an amateur golfer, has

. .
together means `at the same time' or `in the
several pronunciations, the most frequent

.
same place': She has nine pets altogether.
Æ te
Æ ].
being [ama The pronunciations

.
Your system is altogether different from ours .
[amaÆ cheÆ], [amaÆ tewr], and [amaÆ ter] are also

.
They disappeared altogether. They arrived
heard.
all together. We keep our reference books all

together on a separate shelf. ambience Some people object to the fre-

aluminium Note the spelling of this word,

quent use of the noun
tentious synonym for `atmosphere':
ambience
.
as a pre-
the
which refers to the silvery-white metallic
ambience of the restaurant.
element: -inium in British English.
The French spelling
In
◆ and an anglicized
ambiance
American English, the spelling is
form
alumi-
of the French pronunciation are sometimes
.
◆ In British English, the stress falls on the third
num
used in English. The English pronunciation of
syllable; in American English on the second sylla- is [ Æ
bie ns].
ambience am

ble. ambiguous or ambivalent? Ambiguous

Aluminum was the name given in 1812 by its means `having two or more possible inter-
discoverer, the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy pretations or meanings' or `obscure';
ameba 16
may be shortened
.
means `having conflicting emo- ◆ The United States of America
to , or (in
ambivalent

:.
tions or attitudes' or `indecisive': the United States, the USA, the US
informal contexts)
The

.
phrase `a French horn player' is ambiguous. the States I often go to
the States on business. USA and are sometimes
US
written or printed with full stops (see also ABBRE-
Many people are ambivalent about the issue

VIATIONS).
of disarmament: they recognize the impor-

Like , the adjective is largely

tance of the nuclear deterrent but feel that

America American
restricted in general usage to the meaning `of the
the money spent on nuclear weapons could be
put to better use.

◆ Careful users maintain the distinction between USA'. The abbreviation may be used adjectiv-
ally to avoid ambiguity: .
US
the two adjectives, avoiding the temptation to use . There is no
a US actor
ambivalent in place of . In some con-
ambiguous single noun that specifically denotes a native or
texts, including the above example, citizen of the USA, but is generally used
for this purpose: .
be ambivalent American
may be better replaced by or
have mixed feelings The book was written by an
be in two minds . American .
ameba see AMOEBA or AMEBA? American Indian see NATIVE AMERICAN.
amen The word amen, meaning `so be it', Americanisms For many years American
may be pronounced [aymen] or [ahmen]. English has had a significant influence on
Both pronunciations are correct. British English. Although many British
amend or emend ? Of these two verbs purists dislike American English, in some
respects its differences arise from greater
amend, meaning `correct', `improve', or

. .
`alter', is the more general, emend being conservatism than British English. Such
words as: (autumn), as well
.
restricted to the correction of errors in a gotten fall

printed or written text: The ambiguous as many American spellings, were origin-
ally the British forms and have changed in
. .
wording of the opening paragraph has been

amended. They have amended the rules. Britain but not in the United States. Amer-
The manuscript was emended by an eminent ican English is also a fertile ground for new
scholar. words and idioms and there is no reason
◆ The pronunciation of [aÆ ] is very
amend mend why British English should not borrow the
similar to that of [i ]. Their derived . .
more striking ones. Such American words
.
nouns, however, are quite different: .
emend mend
as: have
.
an amend- truck commuter teenager

ment .
an emendation become part of British vocabulary. Other

amenity The noun amenity is ultimately

words of American origin that have been
widely transmitted elsewhere reflect the
derived from the Latin word for `pleasant'.
country's particular cultural influences,
A few users prefer to restrict the term,
. . .
such as that exerted by Native American
which is generally used in the plural form
culture:
The most noticeable differences between Amer-
moccasin squaw prairie.
amenities, to what is conducive to comfort
◆
or pleasure, objecting to its extended ap-
ican and British English are those of vocabulary.
venient: .
plication to what is merely useful or con-
Most British people are familiar with the better-
known American equivalents: .
The amenities of the hotel include a
(pave-
. . .
sidewalk
sauna, swimming

. .
pool, licensed
ment)
restaurant,
(lift) (biscuit)
(holiday) . (crisps) . (chips) .
elevator cookie vacation
and 24-hour room service The town lacks
chips fries hood
some of the basic amenities, such as public
(bonnet). It is when the same word or phrase is
is usually pronounced [a niti], with a arises. If an American meanings
used with different that confusion
toilets and a rubbish dump .
◆ Amenity mee
long , but the pronunciation [a iti], with a says: . I put on my vest

short , is an accepted variant and is usual in might think of him washing, antheEnglish person
e men
and pants and washed up
e
American English. dishes in his
underwear, while in fact he had put on his waist-
America The word is most fre- coat and trousers and washed his hands.
There are various differences between British
America

and American spellings: . .

quently used with reference to the United

.
States of America, although it strictly de- tyre ± tire mould ±
notes the whole landmass comprising Ca- mold . Many words
connection ± connexion
ending in in British English have the ending
inAmericanEnglish: . .
nada, the USA, Central America, and -re
South America. -er ± centre center theatre
 17 amount
± theater . ;manywordsendingin-
fibre ± fiber our quently used as a noun, in the phrases
in British English have the ending - in American
in

English: . ± .
or the midst of, meaning `in the middle of' and
.British
.
colour color humour ± humor in our/their/etc. midst, meaning `among us/
English has in most cases resisted American spel-
.
them/etc.':
lings, such as (for ) and (for
in the midst of the election
traveler traveller analyze There is a traitor in our midst.

), although the American tendency to drop

campaign

analyse
the or in words like
o a or foetus is
encyclopaedia
amoeba ameba or ? There are two possi-

growing increasingly familiar in British spelling. ble spellings for this word, which refers to a

See also -AE- and -OE-; SPELLING 1.

very small single-cell organism. The first is

The significant differences in grammar include a more frequent in British English, but both

few past tenses like the American (dived) or forms are used in American English.

andtheAmericantendencytosay: . -AE- and -OE-.

dove
See also

where the British would say: .

gotten Do you
have . . .?
you . . .? or: . Speakers of
Have you got . . .?
Have amok amuck
or ? The word amok, pro-
Æ muk] or [a
Æ mok] and used espe-
British English generally tend to use less direct
nounced [a

forms of approach than Americans, preferring

cially in the phrase run amok, `behave in a

such forms as: . or .

violent manner; go berserk', has the rarer
Would you mind if . . .? Æ muk].
and may find more direct
variant spelling amuck, pronounced [a
I'm afraid that . . . The word derives from Malay , `frenzied
American approaches lacking in politeness. Amer-
◆ amoq
attack'.
icans in turn may consider such Briticisms forced
and overly formal. among amongst
or ? The words among

QUOTATION MARKS; SHALL or WILL?;

See also and amongst are interchangeable in all
SUBJUNCTIVE; TENSE.
.
contexts, among being the more frequent
Differences in pronunciation between British in modern usage: They hid among/amongst

and American English can lead to confusion even .

over identical words, as for instance in the cases of ◆ Some users prefer before a consonant
the bushes

(pronounced [ sõÅl] in British English but sound and . before a vowel sound: .
among
amongst
.
missile mi
[ sil] in American English) and
mi (pro-
laboratory among strangers amongst ourselves

nounced [la raÆtree] in British English but [ braÆ-

bo See also
la BETWEEN or AMONG ?
tree] in American English). amoral or immoral?
Much as many British people deplore the adop- concerned means `not Amoral

tion of suchAmerican words and phrases as . with morality' or `having no

. .
laid-
(instead of moral standards'; means `not con- immoral

), and . (instead of ) , it can be

back no way cookbook cookery

assumed that such words will continue to cross the cepted .moral standards': . .
forming to morality' or `infringing ac-
book truck lorry
an amoral

Atlantic and that they will continue to be absorbed .

matter
.
an amoral politician immoral

into British English. behaviour an immoral young man Some

amiable amicable
people consider vivisection to be immoral,

or ? means others have an amoral attitude to the issue.

Careful users maintain the distinction between
Amiable
`friendly', `pleasant', `agreeable', or `conge- ◆
the two adjectives, both of which can be used in a
.
nial'; means `characterized by
derogatory manner.
amicable

. .
friendliness or goodwill':
The first syllable of may be pronounced
an amiable

.
amoral
as a long [ay rraÆl] or a short [a rraÆl];
man an amicable agreement She smiled
a mo a mo
is pronounced [i rraÆl]. Note the spel-
at me in an amiable manner. The dispute

was settled in an amicable manner. immoral mo

The two adjectives should not be confused. lings of the two words, particularly the single of m
and the - - of .
◆

amid amidst mid midst amoral mm immoral

amount number
, , or ? Amid and
amidst are synonymous, and are used in or ? The words amount

formal or poetic contexts, but amidst is used and number are not synonymous. Number

. .
more rarely. Both mean `in the middle of' refers to a countable quantity and is pre-
or `among': amid the crowd amidst the ferred to amount in reference to plural

.
waving reeds. The word mid also means `in nouns, while amount refers to something

. .
the middle of'; in modern usage it is chiefly uncountable: a large number of volunteers.

.
found in combination with nouns:
Note that while it is correct to talk about a
mid- any amount of rubbish.

September mid-air. Midst is most fre- ◆ large

amuck 18
or number or amount, some people consider
small be an effective way of drawing attention to
it less correct to talk about a or number or
big little what follows.
amount. ◆ Two or more subjects joined with are used and

amuck see AMOK or AMUCK? with a plural verb unless they represent a single
concept.
an see A or AN? See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?
For the use of a comma before in a series
anaemia or anemia? There are two pos- of three or more items see COMMA 1. may and
And
sible spellings for this word, which refers to also be preceded by a comma in other contexts,
a medical condition resulting from a defi- especially in complex sentences or where there is
ciency in red blood cells in the blood. a risk of ambiguity: .
..
Jenny owns the red car, and
Anaemia is the accepted spelling in British the black car belongs to her brother He un-
English, while is the usual form in
..
anemia locked the door with the key that he had found
American English. inside the stolen purse, and went in She has

anaesthetic This word, meaning `a sub- been to Spain, Portugal, and Italy, and hopes to
. The omission of the first
visit Greece next year
stance that produces a loss of feeling', is
in the last example and similar sentences is a
and
sometimes misspelt. Note the in the
frequent error.
-ae-
middle of the word.
◆ In the American English spelling, the second is
The use of in place of is best avoided in
contexts: . ..
and to

dropped: . . formal a
We'd better try and find it I'll
anesthetic
See also -AE- and -OE-.
.
come and see you tomorrow
AND/OR; I or ME?
analogous
See also

avoided where
The adjective analogous

similar, equivalent, compar-

is best
and/or The phrase and/or should only be

.
used where three possibilities are envi-

.
able, corresponding, like, etc., would be ade-
saged: cash and/or postage stamps, for
quate or more appropriate: The new
example, means `cash, postage stamps, or
system is analogous to that used in the elec-
both'.
◆ The phrase should not be used where or
tronics industry.
◆ The usual pronunciation of is [aÆ oÆ- would
analogous
be adequate:
nal
.
and or

gouÆs], with the hard of and g goat , not

analogue
[not ] . .
This food is suitable for

the soft of and

g gem . analogy
hamsters and
[not ] .
and/or gerbils The bank is not

analyse The of
open on Saturdays or and/or Sundays
s should not be
analyse is best restricted to official, legal, or
And/or
commercial contexts and replaced elsewhere by
a slightly longer phrase: .
replaced with in British English,
z analyze
being the American spelling of the word. The casserole may be
See also -IZE or -ISE? [not
served with potatoes or carrots or both po-
].
. anemia
Some people object to the use of the verb tatoes and/or carrots
analyse in place of discuss, examine, etc.:
ANAEMIA or ANEMIA?
see

anesthetic see ANAESTHETIC.

Your proposal will be analysed at the next

committee meeting. The frequent use of the

noun analysis in general contexts is also
disliked, especially the phrases in the last
angle Some people object to the frequent

.
use of the noun angle in place of point of
analysis, in the final analysis, and in the
view, standpoint, etc.: The report has been
ultimate analysis, which can usually be re-

implies alackof objectivity: .

written from a unilateralist angle.
placed by
mately, etc.
in the end, at last, finally, ulti-
◆ The verb angle The

analysis
play was angled to make the audience sympathize
see ANALYSE. with the criminal .
ancillary .
This word, meaning `supplemen- angry The adjective angry is followed by

.
tary or subsidiary': ancillary services, is the preposition about or at in the sense
sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the c, `angry about something': She was angry
the -ll-, and the ending -ary, not -iary. about [or at] the way they had treated him,

and The use of and at the beginning of a

and with
person': .
in the sense of `angry with a
Are you angry with me?

ANIMALS
sentence is disliked by some users but
acceptable to most. And it can sometimes ± see table, page 19
 19 ANIMALS
ANIMALS
For collective nouns used with animals, see COLLECTIVE NOUNS.
Animal Male Female Young
antelope buck doe kid
badger boar sow cub
bear boar sow cub
bird cock hen chick nestling fledgling
or or
bobcat tom lioness kitten
buffalo bull cow calf
camel bull cow calf
caribou stag doe fawn
cat tom queen kitten
cattle bull cow calf
chicken cock hen chick
cougar tom lioness kitten
coyote dog bitch puppy
deer stag doe fawn
dog dog bitch puppy whelp
or
duck drake duck duckling
eagle eagle eagle eaglet
elephant bull cow calf
falcon tercel falcon eyas
ferret hob jack
or jill kit
fish cock hen fry
fox dog vixen kit
giraffe bull cow calf
goat billy-goat nanny-goat kid
goose gander goose gosling
hare buck doe leveret
hartebeest bull cow calf
horse stallion mare foal colt filly
or or
kangaroo buck doe joey
leopard leopard leopardess cub
lion lion lioness cub
owl owl owl owlet
ox bullock cow calf
pheasant cock hen chick
pig boar sow piglet
pigeon cock hen squab
rabbit buck doe kitten
rhinoceros bull cow calf
seal bull cow pup
sheep ram ewe lamb
swan cob pen cygnet
tiger tiger tigress cub
weasel boar cow kit
whale bull cow calf
wolf dog bitch whelp
zebra stallion mare foal
annex 20
annex or annexe ? In British English -ant is the usual form for the noun and -ent

annex is a verb meaning `add' or `appro- for the adjective (see CONFIDANT or CONFI-
DENT?; DEPENDANT DEPENDENT?; PENDANT
.
priate'; annexe is a noun that denotes a or
or PENDENT?).
.
building built or used as an extension:
. ◆ It may be useful to remember that nouns and
The variant spelling of the noun withoutthe final adjectives formed from verbs ending in take
to annex a state a room in the annexe

is largely restricted to American English. It is the suffix rather than : . .

◆ -ate

wrong to spell the verb with a final : . . .

-e -ant -ent predominant
-e He had no .
stimulant tolerant mutant
ambitions to annexe the Department of Transport
(
The Guardian ). ante- or anti-? These two prefixes are
annual biennial perennial . . .
sometimes confused. , from Latin, Ante-
, or ? An annual means `before': antenatal anteroom

. .
plant, e.g. the marigold, completes its life antecedent. Anti-, from Greek, means

. .
cycle in only one growing season. A bien- `against; opposite to': anti-apartheid

plant, e.g. the strawberry, germinates anticlockwise.

In British English, both prefixes are pronounced
nial anti-aircraft anti-American
and accumulates food reserves in the first ◆
year and flowers, fruits, and dies during the [ ti]; in American English
an is pronounced
anti-
second year. A plant, e.g. a woody [ tõÅ] or [ ti], [ ti].
an an ante- an
IninformalspokenEnglish, issometimesused
perennial

as a preposition, meaning `opposed to': .

tree and a herbaceous plant such as the anti

or as an adjective: .
foxglove, grows for more than two years, He's very
sometimes lasting for several years and anti politics .
He's very anti
usually having a new growth of flowers
each year.
antecedent An antecedent is a word,

◆ Note the -nn- spelling in these words. .

phrase, or clause to which a subsequent

anonymous
word refers: She passed the book to him and

.
This word, meaning `of un- he took it (in which the book is the ante-
known origin or identity': an anonymous cedent). Care should be taken to avoid

.
donor, is sometimes misspelt, the most fre- confusion over the antecedent being re-
quent error being to replace the y with an i. ferred to: She passed the book through

anorak The word anorak, referring origin-

the window and he

antecedent could be either

opened it (where the
the book or the
ally to a thick, waterproof hooded coat, has
window).

antennae antennas
been used since the early 1980s as a dero-
gatory term for a person who is obsessively or ? The noun anten-

interested in something generally consid- na has two plural forms, antennae and
ered unfashionable or boring. In this sense, antennas. The plural form antennae, pro-

.
the word is best restricted to informal nounced to rhyme with my or tree, is used
contexts. He's one of those anoraks who to denote an insect's or crustacean's feelers;
hang around railway stations recording train when antenna is used to mean `aerial' (this
sense being of American origin) the plural
The word also has the derived adjective
numbers.

◆ anoraky form is preferred.

or .
antennas

anorakish
anti- ANTE- ANTI-?
anorexic anorectic
see or

rexic and
or
anorectic
? The words
are interchangeable.
ano-
anticipate The verb anticipate
.
is widely

.
used as a synonym for `expect': We do not
Either may be used as a noun or as an
anticipate that there will be any problems.
adjective to describe a person suffering
Oil prices showed their expected leap yester-
from the disorder anorexia nervosa,
day. . . . But the rally was not as strong as
although anorexic is used more frequently.

-ant -ent
some traders anticipated (Daily Telegraph).

or ? The suffixes -ant or -ent, This usage is disliked by many people, who
identical in pronunciation, cause frequent restrict the verb to its accepted more formal

. . .
spelling problems. Either suffix may be senses of `forestall', `act in advance of', etc.:

. . .
used to form nouns and adjectives: the Preventative medicine anticipates disease.

.
defendant a superintendent a defiant child They anticipated the attack by boarding up
an irreverent remark. However, in many their doors and windows. You must learn to

cases where both -ant and -ent forms exist, anticipate his needs.
 21 apophthegm
◆ The verb is best avoided altogether where there type a singular verb is preferred if is used in the any
is a risk of ambiguity, as in such sentences as sense of `any one' and a plural verb if implies
I any
anticipated her resignation and `some'.
The driver antici-
pated the accident . See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?

antidote The noun . is followed by AmericanuseEnglish

antidote
The of in place of
but should be
is used in
avoided
any
in British
at all

the preposition or
to : for
English:
Alcohol should not
. .
Her manners haven't improved any
be used as an antidote to [or ] for .
depression
ANYBODY or ANYONE?
antihistamine
See also
The word
which denotes a medicinal substance that
antihistamine,
anybody anyone or ? The pronoun any-
body and its synonym anyone are inter-
is used to treat allergies, is sometimes mis-
changeable in all contexts.
spelt. Note the third syllable,
Both are used with a singular verb but are
-hist- (not
◆
-hyst-), and the -ine ending.
sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun
antique or antiquated? The adjective or possessive adjective (see THEY): . Has anybody/
is used to describe a piece of fur- ? anyone finished their work
Note the difference between the one-word
antique

valuable: .
niture or a work of art that is old and
. The compound and the more specific two-
anyone
word form , both of which may be applied
a beautiful antique vase

to people: . ..
adjective , meaning `old-fash-
antiquated any one

. .
ioned' or `obsolete', is usually derogatory: Anyone could have started the fire
.
Only the two-word compound is used of things: .
an antiquated washing machine anti- Any one of the tenants could have started the fire
quated procedures.

antisocial, asocial, unsocial or unsocia- .

These tables are not reserved, so you can sit at any

ble? These four adjectives are sometimes one you like

confused. Both antisocial and unsociable anymore any more

or ? This word, var-

.
can mean `unfriendly', describing some- iously meaning `any longer' or `nowadays',
body who avoids the company of others: is generally rendered any more in British

.
Our new neighbours seem rather antisocial/ English and careful users avoid anymore,

unsociable. Antisocial is the stronger of the the accepted form in American English:

. anyplace
two and may also describe behaviour that She does not live there any more.

causes harm or inconvenience to others:

an antisocial act/habit. Asocial, a much rarer
or any place ? This word is
usually rendered any place in British Eng-
word, implies a deeper hostility to or

.
lish and careful users avoid anyplace, the
withdrawal from society; unsocial is chiefly
accepted form in American English: Have
used in the phrase unsocial hours, referring
you seen my jacket any place? British English

.
to the time when most people are not at
in any case tends to prefer anywhere.

anytime any time

work: You must be prepared to work
unsocial hours. or ? This word is usual-
See also SOCIABLE or SOCIAL? ly rendered any time in British English and

antonym An antonym is a word that has

.
careful users avoid
form in American English:
anytime,
.
the accepted
Come round

.
the opposite meaning to another word:
any time.

apartheid
right (the antonym of wrong) quick (the
antonym of slow). It yields the adjective The name of the former South
antonymous, but this is less familiar in daily African political system apartheid may be
use than SYNONYMOUS, which signifies two pronounced in several different ways.
words with the same meaning, and is best Some users prefer the pronunciation
avoided in informal contexts. Æ parthayt] following the Afrikaans origi-
[a

any The use of a singular or plural verb

nal. Other frequently used pronunciations
Æ parthõÅt] and pronunciations in which
are [a

.
with the pronoun any depends on the sense
the h Æ partõÅt] and [a
is not sounded: [a Æ partõÅd].

. apophthegm
and context in which it is used: Is any of

the furniture damaged? Ask him if any of his This word, meaning `aphor-
children watch/watches the programme. ism', is sometimes misspelt. Note the
In the first example , like , must be
-ph-

◆ any furniture in the middle of the word and the

usedwith a singular verb. In example of thesecond
-egm
ending. It is sometimes rendered apothegm
apostasy 22
. ). Apostrophes are also sometimes
used to indicate missing numbers: .
in American English: This truth is ex- Casterbridge
the genera-
The word is pronounced [ paÆthem]. .
pressed in a pungent apophthegm.
◆ a tion who were young in the '60s

apostasy Apostrophes are no longer generally used for

This word, meaning `renuncia-
shortened forms that are in general use: . .
. .
flu
tion of a religious or political belief, cause,
phone photo plane.
See also CONTRACTIONS; DATES; -ING forms;
or allegiance', is sometimes misspelt. Note
the -asy ending.
ITS or IT'S?; POSSESSIVES.
apostrophe The apostrophe is used
appal Note the spelling of this verb, espe-
. .
mainly to denote possession and other re-
cially the -pp- and (in British English) the
.
lationships: Angela's house the Church of
single l.
. is◆ The usual American English spelling of the word
England's doctrines the rabbits' warren, and

. .
to indicate omitted letters in contractions:
. In British English the final - is doubled
appall l
there's.

◆ Difficulties with the possessive use of the apos-

can't you're
before a suffix beginning with a vowel, as in
trophe centre on its presence or absence and its and appalled (see also SPELLING 1).
appalling

position before or after the (for the basic rules see apparatus This word is usually pro-
s
'S or S'?). Advertisers are particularly guilty of sins nounced [apaÆ tuÆs] or [ aÆraytus], though
of omission: . . . the pronunciation [apaÆ tuÆs] is also some-
ray ap
mens clothes last years prices
, and market stalls are par- times heard.
rah
special childrens menu
ticularly prone to forming plurals with apos-
trophes: . . . Other examples appendixes or appendices? The noun
recorded in recent years have included: . .
potato's apricot's
has two accepted plural forms,
.
cres's appendix

. Units of measure and .

often have their apostrophes omitted; it should be: ◆ The use of the plural form is largely
gateaux's Beware of the dog's appendixes appendices

. restricted to the anatomical sense of the word: .

appendixes
. 50 years' service . a six months' stay in America
With well-known commercial organizations and During his early years as a surgeon he removed

products the tendency is now to drop the apos- .

countless tonsils, adenoids, and appendixes

trophe: . . . In the sense of `supplement (to a book, docu-

Possessive personal pronouns do not take apos- ment, etc.)'Æ the plural form , pro-
Barclays Bank Macmillans Pears soap.
appendices

trophes . . . , but nounced [a diseez], is preferred by most

. users: .
pen

indefinite pronouns do: .

: his book its name it is ours
anybody's guess no One of the appendices lists foreign words

one's fault . Purists have maintained that as is else and phrases in general usage.

not a noun or pronoun it cannot take an apos- applicable In the more traditional pronun-
trophe, and have used the form: . ,
someone's else
but someone else's is now generally acceptable. ciation of this word, the first syllable is

There are a few exceptions to the rule that the second syllable
stressed [ lika Æ bl]. The pronunciation with
ap

apostrophes cannot be used for plurals. They probably more frequently stressed [a Æ aÆ bl] is plik

can be used to indicate the plurals of individual See also STRESS. heard, however.

letters,words, andnumbersinexpressions like: .

.. apposition A noun or phrase that is in
It

..
takes two l's in the past tense She often begins
sentences with and's and but's apposition supplies further information
He writes his 7's
in the continental way . The apostrophe is also about another noun or phrase. Both nouns
sometimes used for the plural of some abbrevia- or phrases refer to the same person or
tions: . , but this usage is becoming less thing; they are equivalent in meaning. In
the sentence .
MP's
frequent. Mary Jones, an accountant,

Apart from the use of the apostrophe to indicate

, , (for : . are in apposition. In the phrase .
, the phrases
was elected and Mary Jones an

contractions such as shouldn't I'm 'n' and accountant

salt 'n' vinegar flavour crisps ), it is used to indicate the accusation that he had stolen the car, the

missing letters in poetic forms such as , in

e'er, o'er and
accusation are
that he had stolen the car

terms such as o'clock, will-o'-the-wisp , and in in apposition.

names like O'Connor . It might also be used when ◆ Like relative clauses (see CLAUSE), appositive
writing dialogue to indicate Cockney or dialect nouns or phrases may be defining or non-defining.
speech: . .. ... The phrase . is non-
definingin .
'E was goin' to 'Ackney 'tis said that he had stolen the car
'a was a poor parish 'prentice (Hardy, The Mayor of The accusation, that he had stolen the
 23 arbiter
and defining in . appropriate The adjective
. followed by the preposition or : .
car, was untrue The accusation is appropriate

that he had stolen the car was the most upsetting

Many names and titles are made up of two
to for
[or ]
nouns in apposition; for example, and
language that is appropriate to for the

in . in . approval The noun

Lake Gen- .
or and
situation in which it is used
eva Lake Geneva Prince Charles
Prince Charles . Longer titles are better placed after the : .
is followed by approval

the proper noun with which they are in apposition: preposition or of for They expressed

. [or ]
their approval of . for our plan

(the insertion of before managing director is a priori The Latin phrase

Mr Green, managing director of the company
the , which a priori

optional). literally means `from the previous', is ap-

See also COMMA 3. plied adjectivally to deductive or presump-

appraise apprise apprize

, or ? To appraise
tive reasoning, arguments, statements, etc.
◆ The phrase is usually pronounced [ay prõÅ õÅ], the or
is to assess the quality or worth of some-
. pronunciation [ah pree ee] being an accepted
or
thing; apprise
.
means `inform': She ap-
variant.
praised their work.
details. Apprize
He apprised me of the
is listed in some dictionaries apropos As a preposition meaning `with
.
.
as a less frequent variant spelling of apprise;
regard to', apropos may be followed by of:

apropos (of ) your enquiry apropos (of ) the

it is also an archaic verb meaning `appraise'.
◆ The verb apprise is largely restricted to formal new development.

In formal contexts is also used as an

contexts. ◆
adjective, meaning `appropriate', and as an ad-
apropos

appreciate The frequent use of the verb verb, meaning `incidentally': .

..
Your remark was

disliked by a few users: .

appreciate in place of or realize is
understand not quite apropos Apropos the contract, is it

..
I appreciate that the concluded?
child's parents were unaware of the risk Do is always written as one word in Eng-
Apropos
lish, unlike the French phrase , from which
◆ The principal senses of are `be grateful it is derived. Note that the initial is followed by a
you appreciate our problem? aÁ propos
appreciate
for',`recognizetheworthof',and`increaseinvalue': single .
a

. ..
p
The pronunciation of this word is [aproÆ ]: the
..
He would appreciate some assistance She does po s
not appreciate good wine is not sounded.
Their house has appre-
.
ciated considerably during the past six months
apt see LIABLE or LIKELY?
apprehend comprehendor ? These two
aqueduct The noun aqueduct, describing a
verbs are sometimes confused when they
structure that carries water, is often mis-
have the meaning `understand'. Compre-
spelt. Note that the word begins aque-, not
hend implies a complete understanding,
aqua- (as in aqualung, aquaplane, etc.).

. Arab Arabian Arabic

sometimes emphasizing the mental activity
needed to come to such knowledge: They , or ? The adjective
did not fully comprehend the motives that lay Arab relates to the people of Arabia and
behind her decision. Apprehend, which is their descendants, Arabian to Arabia itself,

. .
used fairly rarely in this sense, implies a and Arabic to the language of Arabia and

. .
perception ± not always complete ± of the other Arab countries: an Arab sheikh the

. . .
essential quality or significance of some- Arab nations the Arabian peninsula the
thing: to apprehend the nature of beauty.

◆ Both verbs have other meanings.

Arabian Sea an Arabic numeral Arabic

means `arrest' and is used in formal contexts: .

Apprehend literature.

All three words are used as nouns,

being a rare variant of : .
to ◆ Arabian
. In formal contexts
..
apprehend a criminal compre- Arab His sister married
hend means `include', in which sense it is more an Arab .
Arabic is the official language of Egypt
frequently found in the form of the adjective The word is also applied to a breed of
Arab
(see COMPREHENSIBLE or COMPRE- horse that is used for riding; the is a
HENSIVE?) .
comprehensive Arabian Nights
. The noun
a comprehensive survey collection of oriental tales; and (note
gum arabic
comprehension means `understanding'; appre- the lower-case ) is a gum obtained from certain
a
hension is rarely used in this sense. acacia trees.
apprise apprize APPRAISE, APPRISE arbiter arbitrator
apprize
, see or or ? An arbiter is a
? person who has the power to judge or
arbitrarily 24
.
.
who has absolute control; an arbitrator is a Argentine flag an Argentinian/Argentine ship

. .
person who is appointed to settle a dispute: Her stepfather is an Argentinian/Argentine.
The word may be pronounced [
.
◆ Argentine ar-
jeÆntõÅn] or [ jeÆnteen], rhyming with or .
an arbiter of fashion an arbiter of human

ar mine mean
The republic of Argentina is sometimes called
destiny The arbitrator's decision proved

:.
.
◆ The general term may be used in place of
acceptable to both parties

arbiter the Argentine They lived in the Argentine for

the more specific arbitrator , but the two nouns are .
several years
not fully interchangeable. argument
arbitrarily
Note the spelling of this word.
The adverb should be
arbitrarily The final -e of the verb argue is dropped
Æ reÆli].
stressed on the first syllable [arbitra when the suffix -ment is added to form the
◆ The pronunciation [arbi rreÆli], in which the
tre noun.
primary stress shifts to the third syllable, although arise or rise?
unacceptable to many people, is the most fre- being', `originate', or `result';
means `come into Arise

quently used. `get up', `move upwards', or `increase': .

means rise

arbitrator ARBITER ARBITRATOR? .

. .
see or A problem has arisen. The quarrel arose from

arch- archi-
and The prefixes arch- and
a misunderstanding.
The water level is rising.
He rose to greet her.

archi- are both derived from a Greek word ◆ may be substituted for in some senses
Arise rise
meaning `to rule'. In words beginning with of the latter, but this usage is largely restricted to
the prefix arch- the sound is soft, as in
-ch-
formal or poetic context and is generally regarded
choose ; in words beginning with the prefix
: .
as old-fashioned.
archi- the -ch-
Æ p] .
sound is hard, as in chord
The verb is followed by the preposition
or : .
arise

◆ The word
archbishop [arch o
bish [ itekt].
[ aynjeÆl] is an exception
architect ark
from out of [or ]issues arising from out of the
archangel ark
to this rule. In the suffixes and the . discussion
See also RAISE or RISE?
sound is always hard: . [ triark] . aristocrat
-arch -archy -ch-
patriarch pay
anarchy an[ aÆrki]. In British English this word is

archaeology This word, describing the

usually stressed on the first syllable [ ris-
Æ krat].
to
a

study of the material remains of ancient ◆ Some speakers stress the second syllable [aÆ ris-
cultures, is spelt with the vowels -aeo- in toÆkrat], but this is disliked by many people,
the middle of the word in both British and although standard in American and Scottish Eng-
American English. lish.
◆ The alternative spelling is occasion- around or about? In British English
archeology
ally encountered in American English. about

See also -AE- and -OE-. is preferred to in the sense

.
around of

archetypal The adjective archetypal is best

`approximately':
200 employees. . He
We have
left
about/around
at about/around
avoided where typical, characteristic, classic, eleven o'clock.
◆ Many people regard the use of in this
.
original, etc., would be adequate or more around
appropriate: sense as an Americanism.
an archetypal Yorkshire village.

archi- see ARCH- and ARCHI- In the sense of `here and there' and
are interchangeable in most contexts: .
around

aren't The use of this informal contracted .

about
run around/about . sitting around/about all day
to

form of is widely avoided in formal

are not . In the
toys scattered around/about the room
contexts. sense of `surrounding' is less frequent than
◆ Note that in questions may also be used in
about
aren't (in American English) and (in British
. English). In the sense `concerning', both British
informal contexts as a contraction of
around round

.
am not: I'm and
American English use :.
.
next, aren't I? Aren't I clever? around He has issues

Argentine Argentinian
or ? Either word
around his childhood. A lot of people have
expressed worries about the threat of biological
may be used as an adjective, meaning `of
terrorism.
Argentina', or as a noun, denoting a native or
See also AROUND or ROUND?
around round
inhabitant of Argentina. Though purists

.
prefer Argentine, Argentinian is more fre- or ? Around and round are
quent in both senses: the Argentinian/ synonymous in most of their adverbial and
 25 as from
The construction is sometimes ambig-
uous: .
prepositional senses, around being pre- as . . . as

. .
ferred in American English and in She loves the child as much as her hus-
, for example, may mean `she loves the child
round

.
British English: I turned round/around. band
as much as her husband does' or `she loves the
.
The wheels went round/around.
child as much as she loves her husband'. In such
They sat
round/around the table.

cases the missing verb may be inserted for clarity.

She wore a gold

chain round/around her ankle.

AROUND or ABOUT? The substitution of for in

negativeconstructions isoptional: .
See also so . . . as as . . . as

arouse rouseor ? Arouse means `stimulate'

. clever as his sister
He is not so/as
. When the construction is fol-
or `excite'; rouse
.
means `wake' or `stir':
lowed by an infinitive with , however, is
preferred: .
to so . . . as

.
Their curiosity was aroused. The ban on
I would not be so careless as to leave
smoking has aroused widespread opposition.
. my car unlocked .
The noise of the aeroplanes roused the child.
When the construction is followed by a
as . . . as
I was roused to anger by his accusations.

The direct object of is usually an abstract comparative adjective or adverb, the second is as
◆ arouse
noun; the direct object of is usually a person sometimes omitted in informal contexts but is
or animal. The substitution of
rouse
for in retained by careful users in formal contexts: .
the sense of `wake' is acceptable but rare.
arouse rouse
Her car is as old (as) or older than mine .. He
dances as badly (as) or worse than you .
arpeggio This word, meaning `the notes of The use of the construction when
as . . . as
alone is required, in the sense of `though', is widely
as

disliked in British English: . [not

a chord played in succession', is sometimes
Tired as he was As
], .
misspelt. Note the -gg- in the middle of the
tired as he was he finished the race
The dialectal use of in place of or
word.
is pronounced [ah eeoÅ].
should be avoided in formal contexts: .
◆ Arpeggio pej as that who

artefact artifact
or ? Both spellings of this know that [not ] ..
as I agree [not ]
the man who
I don't
as
noun, referring to an object made by a cleans our windows .
person, e.g. a tool with special historical See also AS FAR AS; AS FROM; AS IF or AS
interest, are correct. Artefact is probably THOUGH?; AS PER; AS TO; AS WELL AS; AS YET;
more frequent in British English and arti- BECAUSE, AS, FOR or SINCE?; COMPARATIVE AND
fact in American English. SUPERLATIVE; LIKE; SUCH AS or LIKE?
articles A AN see or ?; THE. ascent see ASSENT or ASCENT?
artifact ARTEFACT
see or ARTIFACT? ascetic see AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC?
artist artiste
or ? An artist is a person who as far as The phrase as far as . . . is

.
is skilled in one or more of the fine arts, concerned can often be replaced by a simple
such as painting or sculpture; an artiste is a preposition: The course is a waste of time

. .
professional entertainer, such as a singer or for the more experienced students [not as far as
dancer: the Dutch artist Vincent Van Gogh the more experienced students are concerned].

In its extended sense of `skilled person' the noun as follows The phrase
the music-hall artiste Marie Lloyd.
should be as follows
◆
artist may be substituted for , which is enumeration. Note that
used when introducing a list or other
artiste
becoming less frequent. Both nouns can be ap- the retains follows

plied to people of either sex. succeeds a singular or plural noun: .

ending regardless of whether it
-s

as
The

.
The as . . . as construction may be conditions demanded by the hijackers are as

.
followed by a subject pronoun or an object follows. The result is as follows.
pronoun:
.
She loves the child as much as he
as for see AS TO.
as from
[as much as he does]. She loves the child as

[as much as she loves him]. The phrase is best avoided

In informal contexts the subject pronoun is
much as him as from

.
◆ where from, on, at, etc., would be adequate
sometimes replaced by the object pronoun, espe-
ciallyinsimplecomparisons: . . .
or more appropriate: I shall be available for
as tall as me as old [not as from] next Monday.
. This usage, which is unacceptable to
work from

.
as them [not as from] 1
many people, should be avoided in formal con-
Sunday deliveries will cease on

November.
texts.
The increase will come into
effect at [not as from] midnight.
Asian 26
◆ As frommay serve a useful purpose in the assent or ascent? These two words are
context of retrospective payments, agreements, sometimes confused, being identical in pro-
etc.: . nunciation. The noun
The reduced interest will be payable as means `agree-
.
assent

from last July ment' (see ASSENT or CONSENT?); the noun

Asian or Asiatic ? Either word may be

ascent means `the act of ascending', `a
.
.
climb', or `upward slope': She gave her
used as an adjective, meaning `of Asia',
assent. the ascent of Everest.

assent consent
or as a noun, denoting a native or inhabi-
tant of Asia. Asian is preferred in both or ? Either word may be
senses, the use of Asiatic with reference used as a verb, meaning `agree', or as a

. .
to people being considered racially offen- noun, meaning `agreement'. The verb con-

. .
sive: an Asian/Asiatic country an Asian sent sometimes implies greater reluctance

.
[not Asiatic] doctor an Asian [not Asiatic] than assent: They readily assented to our

living in Europe. plan. After hours of persuasion they con-

See also INDIAN. sented to end the strike.

◆ The word may be pronounced [ shaÆn] or ◆ The noun

Asian ay has connotations of acceptance
assent
[ zhaÆn], although [ shaÆn] is more common or acquiescence, whereas the noun de-
notes approval or permission: .
ay ay consent
among younger people.
.
with the assent of

as if or as though? and my colleagues . without her parents' consent

. assertion assertiveness
As if are as though

.
interchangeable in most contexts: The car or ? An assertion is
looked as if/though it had been resprayed. a positive statement or declaration; asser-

. . .
She trembled, as if/though aware of our pre- tiveness is the state of being dogmatic or
sence. He opened his mouth as if/though to aggressive: to make an assertion asser-

is preferred in emphatic exclamations: .

speak. tiveness training. Careful users maintain the

.
◆ As if As distinction between the two nouns.
if it mattered! As if I needed their advice! ◆ The use of assertion in place of assertiveness is
SUBJUNCTIVE; WERE or WAS?
See also probably due to confusion with the noun self-
asocial see ANTISOCIAL, ASOCIAL, UNSOCIAL or assertion , which means `putting oneself forward
UNSOCIABLE? in a forceful or aggressive manner'.
as of see AS FROM. assignation or assignment? Both these
as per .
nouns may be used to denote the act of
The use of the phrase as per in place assigning: the assignation/assignment of
COM-
MERCIALESE: . .
of is widely regarded as household chores.

has the additional meaning of `se-

according to

also means `task': .

◆ Assignation
cret meeting';
as per instructions as per the

.
specifications. assignment an
◆ The use of the jocular expression in
as per usual assignation with her lover having completed his
place of is best restricted to informal . The two words are not inter-
contexts: .
as usual first assignment
The train was ten minutes late, aschangeable in either of these senses.
.
(per) usual
assimilate This word, meaning `absorb or
asphalt This word, used to describe a integrate', is often misspelt. The only dou-
material used in road-surfacing, is often ble letters are the -ss-.
misspelt. Note particularly the sph. The ◆ The verb should not be confused with
assimilate
preferred pronunciation is [asfalt], although simulate (see DISSEMBLE, DISSIMULATE or SIMU-
[ashfalt] is also heard. LATE?; SIMULATE or STIMULATE?).
asphyxiate This word, meaning `suffo- assist The verb assist
.
is followed by the
cate', is sometimes misspelt. Note particu- preposition in or with: He assisted her in [or
larly the phy, as in physics. with] her research.

assassinate .
This word, meaning `murder assonance Assonance, meaning `the repeti-
an important person': The president was tion of similar sounds in successive words',
assassinated, is often misspelt. Remember can be employed to striking effect in head-

. .
the -ss-, which occurs twice. lines or poetry, etc., but overuse is best
◆ The nouns and
assassin assassination follow the avoided:
same spelling pattern.
History's greatest mystery.
light-stifling night.
 27 as yet
assume or presume ? In the sense of as to Many people object to the unneces-

.
`suppose' or `take for granted' the verbs sary use of as to before whether, what, why,

. .
assume and presume are virtually inter- etc.: There is some doubt (as to) whether she

changeable: I assume/presume you will is suitably qualified. He offered no explana-

accept their offer. tion (as to) why he was late.

◆ In some contexts may suggest a hypoth- ◆ is also best avoided where , , ,

a con- etc., would be adequate or more appropriate: .
assume As to of about on
esis postulated without proof and
clusion based on evidence: .
presume

..
He assumed that she Please give me your opinion as to the efficiency of

..
was an experienced player and did not offer her the system They received no warning as to the
any advice From her performance in the opening . risks involved
game he presumed that she was an experienced The phrase (or ) may serve a useful as to as for
. purpose at the beginning of a sentence, in the
Both verbs have a number of additional senses. sense of `with regard to' or `concerning': .
player

means `undertake', `feign', or `adopt': .

As to/

. ..
Assume for the results of the survey, they will be published

.
to assume responsibility to assume an air of in next month's magazine As for his sister, she
.
means `dare' or `take advantage of': .
astonishment to assume a new name. Presume survived the accident

presume to contradict him .. astrology or astronomy? These two

They presumed on
I did not

our hospitality. nouns are sometimes confused. Astrology

assurance insuranceor ? Both

is the study of the movements of the planets
assurance and their effect on human affairs; astron-
and insurance are used to denote financial omy is the scientific study of the universe.

. . astronomical
protection against a certainty, such as the
death of the policyholder: life assurance
The use of the adjective

.
life insurance.
astronomical in the sense of `very large' is

◆ Of the two nouns only is used with

insurance
best restricted to informal contexts:
.
an

reference to financial protection against a possi- astronomical increase in crime astronomical

bility, such as fire, accidental damage, theft, or prices.

◆ This usage probably originated in the very high
medical expenses: . . figures required to express measurements in as-
. .
motor insurance household
insurance travel insurance .
health insurance
tronomy.
The noun has a number of other
assurance
meanings derived from the verb , such as astronomy ASTROLOGY or ASTRONOMY?
`guarantee' and `confidence': .
assure see

help . an air of assurance .

an assurance of
as well as When two or more verbs are
See also ASSURE, ENSURE or INSURE? linked by the phrase as well as, in the sense

assure ensure insure

, or ? To assure is to
of `in addition to', the verb that follows
well as is usually an -ing form: . The burglar
as

state with conviction or to convince; to

.
broke a valuable ornament, as well as stealing

.
ensure is to make certain; to insure is to
all my jewellery. As well as weeding the

.
protect financially: He assured me that the
borders, the gardener pruned the roses and

.
carpet would not be damaged. Please ensure
mowed the lawn.
that you do not damage the carpet.
For the use of a singular or plural verb after
I insured
◆

is some- AL? linked by

nouns see SINGULAR or PLUR-
the carpet against accidental damage.
◆ In American English the word
as well as
insure
times used in place of . ensure
is best avoided where there is a risk of
See also ASSURANCE or INSURANCE?
confusion with the literal sense of the phrase: .
As well as

asthma This word, which describes the mean `both Mark and Peter play,golf' for example, may
Mark plays golf as well as Peter
or `Mark and
disorder that makes breathing difficult, is
sometimes misspelt, the most frequent er- Peter are equally good at golf'.
ror being in the combination of the con-
sonants sthm.
as yet The phrase as yet, meaning `up to

◆ It is not easy to pronounce the word in its .

now' or `so far', is best avoided where yet

entirety, and [ maÆ] is probably more frequently

as
would be adequate:
.
Have you sold any

heard than the full pronunciation [ maÆ]. asth

tickets yet [not
.
as yet]? I haven't sold any

as though .
tickets (as) yet. No tickets have been sold (as)

see AS IF or AS THOUGH? yet. Only a few tickets have been sold as yet.
at 28
at The word at features in many e-mail
.
which there is the greatest difficulty or
addresses and is conventionally represented danger: football referees at the sharp end

.
by the symbol @, usually placed between a of violence on the field and also criticism from

.
person's name and their organization or the media `Nurses' . . . a repeat of the
Internet service provider: Please send your [television] series on life at the sharp end of

(The Guardian).

The symbol @, again representing (and pro- Care should be taken to avoid overusing
reply to fsmith@infocenter.com. the National Health Service

◆
nounced) , may also be used in other technical this expression, which is best restricted to
contexts: . .
at
200 packets @ £4 each. informal contexts.
2,000 miles @
and increasingly in nontechni- ◆ The expression is a figurative extension of the
cal contexts: .
23 miles per gallon
term
Come to a party @ our house. , nautical slang for the bows of a
sharp end

at or in? is traditionally used before the ship.

at this moment in time
At
name of a village or small town, in before Many people

. .
the name of a large town, city, country, etc.: object to the frequent use of the cliche at
.
. .
He lives at Great Snoring. They stayed at this moment in time in place of now: I am
Keswick. She works in Southampton. We not in a position to comment on the situation
have a house in Scotland. at this moment in time.
may be replaced by when the speaker or
writer is referring to his or her own place of attribute
◆ At in
The verb , meaning `as- attribute

residence, work, etc.: . . tion : .

cribe',
I live in Southbourne
is generally used with the preposi-

In other contexts generally indicates a more . .

to They attributed the accident to

exactorspecificpositionthan : .
at

.
careless driving To what do you attribute

.. ..
in He lives in North
? your success The idea was attributed to his

..
Street He lives at 27 North Street She works in
. .

ate This word, which is the past tense of the sense of `credit', iswith
◆ The use of the preposition , in
colleague
a bank She works at Barclays Bank

wrong: .
attribute with
His colleague was
the verb eat, is pronounced [et] or [ayt] in [not ]credited . attributed with the idea
British English. Note the difference in pronunciation between
◆ In American English the usual pronunciation is the verb [aÆ ewt] and the noun
[ayt], the pronunciation [et] being considered non- [ ribewt].
attribute trib attribute

standard.
at
See also STRESS.
-ate A number of words ending in -ate
attributive ADJECTIVES
see .
may be used as adjectives (and/or nouns)
and verbs. In these adjectives and nouns the au fait .
Au fait means `familiar', `informed',
ending -ate is pronounced [-aÆ t]; in verbs it is or `competent': Are you au fait with the

◆ The phrase is of French origin and is

pronounced [-ayt]. For example, the adjec- procedure?

au fait
sometimes written or printed in italics in English
tive animate is pronounced [anima Æ t],

texts. It is pronounced [ ].
whereas the verb is pronounced [animayt],
and the noun delegate is pronounced [deli- oÅ fay
Æ t], whereas the verb is pronounced [de-
ga
ligayt].
aural oral
or ? These two words are some-
times confused, partly because they both
atheist see AGNOSTIC or ATHEIST? Æ l].
often have the same pronunciation [awra

attach This word, meaning `join or fasten',

Aural means `of the ear or the sense of
hearing', oral means `of the mouth; ex-
is sometimes misspelt. Note the -tt- and the
pressed in speech'. An aural comprehension
-ch. There is no t before the -ch.

attempt
tests a person's ability to understand a
The noun attempt is followed by spoken language; an oral examination is

.
the preposition at in the sense `trying to do one in which the questions and answers
something': are spoken, not written.
◆ In order to distinguish and , the variant
Her first attempt at setting up a

.
business ended in failure, and in the sense aural oral
pronunciations [ raÆl] for and [ ral] for
on

`trying to kill someone': ow aural o oral

are sometimes used.
He had survived
two earlier attempts on his life.

at the sharp end To be at the sharp end of Australianisms There are fewer differ-
an activity is to be involved in the area in ences between Australian and British
 29 awake
English than between American and Brit- dience to authority as opposed to individual

.
ish English, probably because until com- freedom'; authoritative means `having

. .
paratively recently nearly all settlers in authority' or `official': an authoritarian

. .
Australia were British or Irish. The words father an authoritarian regime an author-

. . .
that were adopted by the early settlers from itarian policy an authoritative voice an

the Aboriginal languages: an authoritative source.

◆ The word , which is also used as a

koala boom- authoritative article

erang, are now in general use, and most authoritarian

British people are familiar with those Aus- noun, usually has derogatory connotations,
tralian words which were coined in the whereas is generally used in a com-
authoritative
plimentary manner.
settlement: . . .
context of the early days of European
is often misspelt, the most fre-
. .
Authoritative
quent error being the omission of the third or
outback bushranger swag-
.
◆ Although the speech of many Australians is not fourth syllable.
man digger walkabout

markedly different from British forms, for most avenge see REVENGE or AVENGE?
British people Australian English is associated with
the pronunciation known as Broad Australianor averse see ADVERSE or AVERSE?
Strine . In the amusing book , pub- avoid, evade or elude?
Let Stalk Strine
lished in 1965, examples are given of this char- away from'; means `keepAvoid

acteristic pronunciation: . (air cunning or deception': and

.
evademean `avoid by
elude

conditioner) .
egg nishner
(couple of minutes) ..
He avoided the police

.
garbler mince
chee semmitch (cheese sandwich). ..
by turning down a side street He evaded the

Australian English seems particularly adapted to police by hiding in the cellar He eluded the

informal use (the very formal British ◆ Allthreeverbs haveothersenses anduses: .

good day
.
police by using a series of false names

becomes the informal Australian greeting ) ..

She

and it abounds in colourful slang. Although .

g'day

.
managed to avoid damaging the car He is trying

(mate) . (perfect) and . .

to evade his responsibilities Your name eludes
cobber dinkum chunder
(vomit) are now dated, other Australianisms, such The . me

as . (aBritishperson) . (woman)and . and taxdifference, both

pom sheila
between the terms tax
of which relate to methods
avoidance

rubbish (as a verb, see NOUNS) remain widely of reducing or minimizing evasion
tax liability, is that tax
familiar in Britain. Slang words are often formed is legal and tax is not.
byadding or toanabbreviatedword: . avoidance evasion

(barbecue) . (refuse collector) . (day avoidance see AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE?

-ie -o barbie

taken off work for real or invented illness) .

garbo sickie

(can of beer). await or wait? is principally used as

tinnie
Await

Australian spelling has traditionally been iden- store for';

a transitive verb, meaning `wait for' or `be

tical to British. In recent years, however, Australian intively, is chiefly used intransi-
wait

spelling, as well as pronunciation and vocabulary, `remain in readiness or expectation':

often followed by
.
, in the sense of
for

has been influenced by American English. They

Australoid .
awaited the verdict of the jury with trepida-

.
This word, describing a member tion. I wonder what adventures await you in

.
of the indigenous aboriginal population of your new career. She asked us to wait

Australia and the southern Pacific, is avoided outside. He waited for the rain to stop.

by careful users because of its potentially In the sense of `wait for'

◆ is largely re- await
offensive racial connotations. stricted to formal contexts, where its direct object
ABORIGINAL is
is usually an abstract noun. In other contexts
is preferred: .
one of the preferred alternatives. wait
[not ]
author The use of the word as a author .
for
a taxi
We're waiting for awaiting

is used as a transitive verb in the phrase

avoided by careful users in all contexts: .
verb, in place of , is disliked and
write Wait
and similar expressions. The phra-
wait one's turn
[not ] sal verb means `serve'; its use in place of
is disliked by many people: .
She has written authored a number of wait on
. or
◆ On the use of , see -ESS; NON-SEXIST
books on the subject wait for await
authoress .
TERMS.
They're waiting on the results

awake, awaken, wake or waken? All

authoritarian authoritative
or ? The ad- these verbs may be used transitively or
jective authoritarian means `favouring obe- intransitively in the literal senses of `rouse
award-winning 30
.
.
or emerge from sleep' and the figurative young people: `What was the party like?'

.
senses of `make or become aware': Please `Awesome!' In formal contexts it should be

. .
waken me at six o'clock. He wakes earlier in restricted to the sense of `inspiring ad-

.
the summer. Her sister's plight awakened her miration or dread': an awesome respon-
to the problems faced by single parents. They sibility.

awoke to the dangers of drug abuse. Wake

waken are preferred in literal contexts and awful

and
see AWFULLY.
, which is more frequently used awfully
and in figurative contexts.
The verb
awake awaken
The use of the adverb awfully as

.
◆ wake
than , is oftenfollowed by : .
an intensifier is best restricted to informal
.
..
waken up Don't wake
the baby up I woke up in the middle of the night . contexts: I'm awfully sorry. It's awfully

Woke and woken respectively are the usual forms difficult to decide which to buy.
◆ The substitution of for in this sense
of the past tense and past participle of , wake
is wrong.
awful awfully

although waked is also used from time to time. Ultimately derived from the noun
Waken is a regular verb. and are rarely used in their literal senses
awe, awful

and (less frequently) are also awfully

(`being inspired or filled with awe') today. Their
used in the sense of `arouse': .
Awaken awake
His absence from
. The principal meanings in modern usage are `bad' or
work may awaken/awake her suspicions
usual forms of the past tense and past participle `badly': . ..
The weather is awful They played

of the verb are and respec- awfully in yesterday's match .

awhile a while
awake awoke awoken
tively, awaked being an accepted variant. Like or ? and a while,
, is a regular verb.
Awhile
waken awaken both referring to a brief period of time, are
The word is also used as an adjective,
meaning `not asleep' or `alert': . .
awake used in different grammatical contexts.

.
Did the children Awhile is an adverb: Come inside awhile,

.
manage to stay awake? The police are awake to but is a noun phrase, usually pre-
.
a while
the situation ceded by `for': Sit still for a while. Awhile is

award-winning The adjective award-win-

often preferred in poetical contexts.

ning, which is frequently used in advertis- axe In JOURNALESE the verb axe is frequently

.
ing, is meaningless unless the nature of the
.
used in the sense of `dismiss', `terminate',

.
award is specified: an award-winning
`remove', etc.: Britain's biggest teaching
an award-winning writer.

It is therefore best avoided or replaced with a

design
union, the National Union of Teachers, is to
◆
more precise synonym, such as or
excellent re- .
axe a third of its head office staff (Sunday

markable . Times). Coloroll, the wallpaper and furnish-

.
(Daily
aware
ing company, is to axe 120 jobs Tele-

The use of the adjective aware graph). Saturday Review, the BBC's current

before the noun it qualifies, in the sense arts magazine programme . . . will be axed

after a final series starting in October (Sunday

.
of `knowledgeable' or `alert', is disliked by
Times).

. ◆ This usage is best avoided in general contexts.

many users: one of our more aware students

.
Aware is usually placed after a noun or pronoun axes is the plural of or : .
financially aware individuals

and is often followed by : .

◆
.
Axes axe axis axes
of I am aware of the
need for secrecy . for chopping wood the horizontal and

awesome
. The plural of
vertical axes is pro- axe

The adjective awesome is used nounced [aksiz] and the plural of axis is
as a slang term of approval, especially by pronounced [akseez].
 B
-babble Many people dislike the increasing used for so long that they are no longer
.
. .
use of the suffix -babble to coin new words recognized as back formations: edit (from

. . . .
for particularly incomprehensible types of editor) laze (from lazy) burgle (from

.
jargon: burglar) (from enthusiasm).
Back formations often arise as a result of false
technobabble psychobabble enthuse
ecobabble. ◆
assumptions about the composition of a word.
Eurobabble

See also -SPEAK.

People hearing the word
babe is a slang term frequently ap- incorrectly might assume scavenger
Babe
that the noun comes from a verb sca-
plied approvingly to a sexually attractive
and so come to
venge use this verb. Often, how-
young woman or (increasingly) man. Be-
ever, the removed affix is not a genuine affix at all.
cause it focuses on a person's superficial
The 19th-century writer on obesity and slimming,
intelligence, the word may cause offence: .
attributes, without reference to character or
William Banting, invented a system of diet which
became known as , which in
the banting system

.
He walked in with a long-legged babe on each
turn gave rise to the verb . to bant
arm. Her brother is a real babe.
New verbs are regularly being formed in this
bachelor way: . . . . .
man': .
This word, meaning `unmarried televise automate explete euthanase
, is sometimes
a confirmed bachelor Many, like (from ), are disliked when
liaise liaison
misspelt. The most frequent error is to newly coined, but when such verbs are created
insert a before the
t . ch from a genuine need for them in the language,
back This word can be a cause of confusion they tend to be retained.
when used in relation to time. When re- background Some people object to the use

.
ferring to the past, back refers to a change of the word background to mean `the cir-
to an earlier time: The date of the temple cumstances that relate to, lead up to, or
has been pushed back 1000 years [i.e. 1000 explain an event or experience', preferring
years earlier than previously thought]. to use such words as circumstances, condi-

.
When referring to the future, back refers tions, context, or instead.
Recently has also been used for a
setting
to a change to a later time: Because of this ◆ background
person's work or professional experience and
training: .
difficulty, hopes of a successful Mars landing
have been pushed back another 20 years [i.e. The successful applicant will probably
20 years later than previously expected]. ( ).
have a building background Executive Post

back burner The phrase on the back burner backlash Backlash is used metaphorically to
is often used, especially in informal con- describe a strong adverse reaction to a recent

.
texts, in the figurative sense of `deferred' or
`postponed': `People are examining things
on a long-term basis, not on an expedient
basis,' a London Underground spokeswoman
said. `Priorities will be made, and some things
will be put on a back burner.' (The
dian). Care should be taken not to overuse
this phrase.
.
event or political/social development or ten-
dency: the backlash against the Government's
radical new changes in education policy.
◆ The metaphor suggests a sudden reaction, but
in fact the word is often used in describing a
gradual reaction, perhaps over years: .
Guar- The phi-
losophy of the New Right can be seen as a back-
lash against the pacifism and permissiveness of the

back formation 1960s .

back of
Back formation is a way

.
of creating new words, usually verbs, by The phrases back of and in back of,

.
removing an affix from an existing word: meaning `behind', are largely restricted to
donate (from donation) extradite (from American English and are avoided else-
extradition). Many such words have been where, although the opposite phrase, in
backward 32
front of, is universally accepted:
.
. The car baited bated or ? These two words are
was parked in back of the hotel. A bomb had occasionally confused. Baited means `pro-
been placed back of the building. voked or teased' or `hooked or trapped

backward backwards or ? In British Eng-

with food to attract a fish or animal'.
is used only in the expression
Bated
with bated
lish backward is principally used as an

.
breath, meaning `tense with anxiety or ex-
adjective, backwards being the usual form
citement': They waited for news of the

. .
of the adverb meaning `towards the back'
missing child with bated breath.

. . balance
or `in reverse': a backward step a back-

ward child walking backwards written Some people dislike the frequent
backwards. use of the noun in the sense of
The adverb is more frequently used in
balance

.
◆ backward `remainder', especially in nonfinancial con-
American English. texts: The balance of the work will be
See also -WARD or -WARDS? completed by the end of the month.

bacteria The term bacteria refers to all bale BAIL BALE

see or ?
microorganisms exhibiting certain charac-
teristics. They are thought of as disease- baleful baneful
or ? The adjective
.
baleful

bearing, but in fact many are harmless and means `harmful' or `menacing': a baleful

some essential to human life, although stare. It should not be confused with the
adjective baneful, meaning `destructive' or
is a plural noun so expressions like: . `fatal', which is very rare in modern usage.
others do cause disease.
◆ Bacteria I
think it's caused by a bacteria are incorrect; the balk or baulk? Either spelling may be used
singular term is .
bacterium
for this word: .
.
[or ]
bad
He balked baulked at

.
The adjective bad is used as a slang paying such a high price. The horse balked

term of approval, especially by young peo- [or baulked] at the fence. As usual she was

ple. The potential ambiguity of this usage is balked [or baulked] in her ambitions by a

obvious. man.

See also WICKED. ball game or ballpark? Both these terms

◆ This sense derives originally from American black have
English. informal idiomatic uses, of American

bade
origin. In the phrase a whole new ball game,

.
Bade is a form of the past tense of the ball game means `state of affairs'; in the
verb bid: He bade them farewell. Its phrases in the right ballpark and not in the

.
traditional pronunciation is [bad], but same ballpark, ballpark means `range' or
[bayd] is also acceptable. `area': a ballpark figure is an estimate

baguette The noun baguette, describing a

or approximate figure. The two terms

.
are sometimes confused, producing such
long narrow French loaf, is sometimes
expressions as: It was a completely new
misspelt. Note the -guette ending.

bail bale
ballpark.

or ? The spellings of these words

are often confused. The primary senses of
balmy barmyor ? These words are some-

.
times confused. Balmy means `mild and
these words are as follows. Bail is the
pleasant': a balmy evening. Barmy, an
security deposited as a guarantee of the

.
informal word in British English, means
appearance of an arrested person; a bale
`foolish': I've never heard of such a barmy
is a large quantity of hay, old newspapers,

derives from , a plant with fragrant

idea!

.
etc. The associated verbs also follow these
◆ Balmy balm

.
spellings: Davies was released on £10,000
leaves that is used for flavouring foods and for
.
bail.
.
His friends bailed him out for £10,000.
scenting perfumes. The word derives from the
to bale hay.

In the senses of scooping water out of a boat,

bales of old papers
Latin balsamum `balsam'. comes from the
Barmy
◆
helping someone out of a difficult situation, and Old English `the yeasty froth of fermenting
beorma

escaping from an aircraft in an emergency by using beer'.

aparachute,either or canbeused. In American English and sometimes in British
The
bail out bale out
are the two crosspieces over the English, is the main spelling for both senses.
balmy

baneful see BALEFUL or BANEFUL?

bails
stumps in cricket.
 33 bath
banister A banister, a handrail supported The plural of both and is but the
base basis bases
by posts fixed alongside a staircase, has the plural of is pronounced [ siz] and the plural
base bay
less common variant spelling bannister. of [ seez].
basis bay

baptismal name see FIRST NAME, CHRISTIAN base bassor ? The noun base means `a
NAME, FORENAME, GIVEN NAME or BAPTISMAL foundation, substructure, or support'; the
NAME?
.
noun bass means `a voice, instrument, or

barbarian barbaric barbarous

, or ? Bar-
sound of the lowest range':
has been established on a sound base.
The company
. He

.
baric means `crude, primitive, uncivilized':
sings bass in the local choir. The two words
They discovered a barbaric tribe living in
are pronounced the same [bays]. The fish

.
the bush; or sometimes merely `uncultured,
bass is pronounced [bas].
unsophisticated':
baric tastes in music. Barbarian
Most teenagers have bar-

as a noun basically The literal sense of basically is

.
means `someone living barbarically' and as `concerning a base or basis, fundamentally':

.
an adjective is synonymous with barbaric. His argument has a superficial persuasive-

ness but it is basically flawed.

.
Barbarous means `cruel, harsh, or inhu- I believe she is

basically a good person.

◆ It is often used to mean no more than `impor-
man': Torture is condemned as a barbarous

is often used with the same condem- tantly': .

practice.
It is basically the case that fats can cause
; and it has recently become fashion-
◆ Barbaric
natory meaning as , although it can be heart disease
used approvingly: . able to put it at the beginning of a sentence,
barbarous

where its presence is often wholly superfluous.

The dance had a barbaric
.
This usage is disliked by some: .
vitality

barbecue The word is often mis-

barbecue
.
think he should have been offered the job
Basically, I don't

spelt. The most frequent error is the sub-

stitution of -que for the -cue ending, perhaps basis BASE
see or BASIS?
influenced by advertisements that use the bass BASEsee or BASS?
nonstandard phonetic spelling bar-b-q.
bastard
bare bear
This word, meaning `person born
or ? Care should be taken not to to unmarried parents', should be used with
confuse the spelling of the adjective bare, caution as many people find it offensive
meaning `naked' or `simple', with that of when used in this original sense. In its
the noun bear, referring to the animal, and alternative use as a slang term for a despic-
the verb bear, meaning `support', `with- able or unlikable person bastard is, how-
stand', `give birth to', etc. All three words ever, increasingly considered a relatively

.
are pronounced the same: [bair]. mild term of abuse, especially when refer-

barely HARDLY see .

ring to something inanimate: That ma-

barman barmaid NON-SEXIST TERMS

chine can be a real bastard to control. It is

.
or ? see . equally likely to be encountered as a term

barmy BALMY BARMY

see or ?
.
of jocular affection or sympathy: You

base basis
lucky bastard! He lost all his money on
or ? Both base and basis mean `a the horses, poor bastard.
foundation, substructure, or support'. Base
bated BAITED
see or BATED?
. bath bathe
is usually used to refer to the bottom
support of a tangible object: the base of or ? In British English the verb

. .
a pillar, while basis is used for abstract or bath means `have a bath (in a bathroom)', or

.
theoretical foundations: on the basis of all `wash someone else in a bath': bath the

.
the evidence received The new pay scale baby, while the noun means `the vessel in
provides a sound basis for the new contract which one baths, or the act of washing in a
on a daily basis. Careful writers avoid the bath'. Bathe means `immerse in liquid,
overuse of basis. apply water or soothing liquid to (a
is also used to mean `a principal ingredi-
ent': . .
◆ Base wound)', or `swim, usually in the sea, for
, and `a
centre', as in: .
The cocktail has a whisky base pleasure': Who's coming for a bathe? In

. can be used asa verb: .

We used the flat as our London American English bathe is used to mean

,and asan adjective: .

base Base The company is `have a bath' and does not have the tran-
based in Sheffield . base unit sitive use of bath.
bathos 34
◆ Bath is pronounced [bahth] and [baydh].
bathe . .
The past tense of both verbs is and the
He beat the eggs She has beaten the

bathed .
present participle , but the pronunciation ◆ The use of as a variant form of the past
champion
bathing beat
differs: : [bahtht], [ thing]; : [baydhd], participle is largely restricted to the informal phrase
.
bath bah bathe
[ dhing].
bay , meaning `exhausted'.
dead beat

bathos pathos
or ? Bathos means `anticli- beat beet or ? These two words are occa-
max' and is used in literary criticism to sionally confused since they are pro-
describe a sudden change from something nounced in the same way [beet]. The
serious or grand to something absurd or verb and noun beat should not be confused
commonplace. The word pathos is used with the noun beet, which refers in British

.
more frequently and in less specialized English to sugar beet and in American

. .
contexts to refer to a quality that evokes English to beetroot: He beat the iron into

pity or compassion: the play highlights the a rough circle. The following year the field
pathos of pain and mortality.

Both words are Greek in origin; means

was planted with beet.

means `suffering, experience, tobeautiful

◆ bathos
`depth'; pathos
the senses': . .
This word, meaning `delightful

emotion'. The derived adjectives are bathetic

a beautiful woman a

and .
pathetic
, is sometimes misspelt. Note
beautiful sunset

bathroom see TOILET, LAVATORY, LOO or ◆ The word derives from the Old French word
particularly the first letters . beau-
biau
BATHROOM? and comes ultimately from the Latin , mean- bellus

battalion The word ing `pretty'.

because
, denoting a
battalion

.
military unit, is sometimes misspelt. Note The conjunction because means
the consonants -tt- and -l-, which are the `for the reason that': You're cold because
same as those in the word battle. you need warmer clothes.

◆ It is often used incorrectly in such constructions

baulk seeBALK or BAULK? as: .
BC
The reason her accent is so good is because
see AD and BC. , which should be:
her mother is French Her accent

BCE see AD and BC.

, or:
is so good because her mother is French The

be
reason for her accent being so good is that her
. Another mistaken use of
dialects in place of other parts of the verb: . istomean`thefactthat': .
The infinitive is used in some British
be mother is French be-
cause Because he's deaf
.
. .
It be a fine day. In standard speech it is used doesn't mean he's daft
mainly in imperatives: Be quiet!, after to: See also NOT; REASON.
iliary verb: .
You ought to be careful, and after an aux-
He should be home soon.
because as for since
, , or ? All these words

Two common uses after an auxiliary verb con- reason for whatever has been said in the
are used to introduce clauses which give the

cern age and money: . ..

◆
She'll be 40 tomorrow
is often used to mean ◆mainandclause. are similar in use, although is
`become': .
That'll be £10 exactly. Be
As since since
rather more formal. They are used more often at
What do you want to be when you
grow up?
the beginning of a sentence than , and
beach or beech? These two words are tend to be used when the reason is already well
because

known or when the reason is considered not as

important as the main statement: .
occasionally confused since they are pro-

..
nounced in the same way [beech]. The As you're only
noun means `strip of sand or pebbles
beach staying a little while, we'd better have tea now
on a shoreline'; the noun beech refers to a He refrained from smoking between courses, since

. ..
species of tree with greyish bark and shiny he knew that was generally thought to be impo-

.
leaves. lite As/Since we went there in the summer, the
tends to put
There were hundreds of tourists on

the emphasis on the cause: .

the beach. The old beech fell during the weather was gloriously hot. Because
He married her
is also sometimes
storm.

bear see BARE or BEAR? used to introduce a reason for stating a fact: .
because she was rich. Because

beat or beaten? is the past tense and.

You
must have forgotten to invite him, because he
would be better here although
Beat
beatenthe past participle of the verb : beat didn't turn up. For
 35 below
it would have a more formal sound. always preposition : .
. .
For
comes between the elements it joins and places
by Begin by mixing the dry

equal emphasis on the main statement and the

ingredients He began by thanking the

reason: .
. visiting speaker

to Greece soon afterwards

beg the question To
She never saw him again, for he returned
. is beg the question

Ambiguity in the use of should be avoided, sometimes used as if it meant `evade the

since it can mean both `while' and `because': . question

as
skilfully' or `raise the question'. Its
As
principal meaning, and the only one ac-
Hugh went out to do the shopping, Sandra looked
after the baby . cepted by some people, is `base an argu-

because of DUE TO OWING TO

ment on an assumption whose truth is the
see , or BECAUSE very thing that is being disputed'.
OF ? ◆ For example, to argue that God must exist

beech BEACH BEECH because one can see evidence of his creation in
see or ?
the natural beauties that surround us is
been there, done that
begging
This phrase, ex- the question , for the premise that these natural
pressing a blase response to some sugges- beauties are evidence of God's creation is un-
tion or invitation to do something, is of proved, and dependent on the truth of God's
relatively recent coinage but has already existence, which is supposed to be the conclusion
acquired cliche status and many people of the argument.
avoid using it for this reason: . Aquaboard-
behalf To speak or act on behalf of some-
ing? Been there, done that. It is occasionally

heard in its fuller form
bought the tee-shirt.
.
one else is to act as the representative of
been there, done that,
that person or those people: I am speaking

beer bier
on behalf of my union.
or ? These two words are occa- ◆ In American English is also used and
in behalf of
sionally confused since they are pro- a distinction is sometimes drawn between on
nounced in the same way [beer]. The behalf (acting for) and (in the interest
in behalf
of). A frequent mistake is to use instead
:.
noun refers to the alcoholic drink on behalf
of
beer
made from hops; the noun describes on the part That was a serious error on behalf
.
bier

the platform or stand upon which a coffin of the Government

.
or corpse may be placed before burial or
beige This word, describing a very pale

.
cremation: The waiter brought them two
brown colour, is sometimes misspelt. Note
pints of beer. The princess's lifeless body was
the ei and the soft g.
placed upon a bier in the chapel.
SPELLING 5.
beet BEAT
See also
see or BEET? bells and whistles
befriend
The phrase bells and
Some people dislike the increas- whistles is used in informal English to refer

.
ing use of the verb befriend in the sense of to the nonessential facilities and special
`make friends with': She soon befriended features that are used to promote sales of

.
her new neighbours. The traditional mean- a particular computer, software package, or

.
ing of the verb is `act as a friend to (by similar product: This system's got fewer
giving assistance or showing kindness)': bells and whistles, but it's half the price. The
They befriended me when I first came to work phrase should not be overused.
at the hospital.
beloved
beggar
This word, meaning `dearly
This word, describing a person loved', may be pronounced [biluvid] or
who begs, is sometimes misspelt. Note [biluvd]. Either is acceptable.
the ending
◆
-ar, not -er.
below, beneath, under or underneath?
This spelling is different from other `doer' words These
such as , , and .
hunter miner writer
words all mean `lower than', and the

begin The verb

distinctions between them are subtle.
is followed by the ◆ are often synonymous;
Below and under below
is contrasted with , and with .
begin

thing at the beginning': .

preposition in the sense of `have some- above under over
alone is used to refer to written material
with

following: .
Below
, and is more
The word `knee'

often used in comparison of levels: .

begins with the letter `k' . When referring to See chapter 5 below

..
doing or saying something as the first part She lives in
of an activity, begin is followed by the the flat below is
He was below me in rank. Under
beneficent 36
used in reference to being subject to authority: . other than': .
is used
He's interested in nothing

He served under Montgomery. Underneath

mainly for physical situations, and often suggests ◆ This last use is always inclusive, not exclusive as
besides cricket.

proximity: . with
She kept her savings underneath her :. except Besides Ben, my colleagues are all
mattress. Beneath can be synonymous with implies that Ben is Jewish; while
under- Jewish Except for
but sounds either old-fashioned or poetic; it . . . implies that he is not.
is now used mainly to mean `unworthy of': . best or better? Careful writers prefer
neath Ben

beneath contempt .
beneficent beneficial BENEVOLENT
when comparing two persons or
better
, see , BE- things, reserving best for comparisons be-
NIGN BENEFICENT BENEFICIAL
.
, or ? tween a larger number of persons or things

benefit .
Note the single -t- in the spelling
or in idiomatic contexts:
.
On the night they

.
proved the better of the two teams. This

.
of the past tense: benefited and the present
painting is the best in the exhibition. She had
participle: benefiting.
The is not doubled, because the syllable con- decided to keep the best till last.

taining this consonant is not stressed. The verb See also COMPARATIVE or SUPERLATIVE.
◆ t

benefit is followed by or : . from best-before date see SELL-BY DATE.

by Most old age
[or ]
pensioners will benefit from
best-selling
by these changes
is the adjective Best-selling
in taxation.
See also SPELLING 1. derived from best-seller, which is applied

benevolent benign beneficent bene-

to anything which has sold very well, but

ficial .
, , or particularly a book which has sold a great
? These are all adjectives suggestive of number of copies: Stephen Hawking,

.
doing or intending good. Benevolent means author of the best-selling book A Brief His-

.
`disposed to do good; charitable': a donation tory of Time. The term best-selling is ap-
from a benevolent well-wisher. Benign means plied to the author as well as the books:

.
`kind, mild, and well-disposed' and can be best-selling novelist, Frederick Forsyth.
used of things as well as people: a benign
bet betted
or ? Bet
.
is the usual form of the

.
climate; it is also used as a medical term
past tense and past participle: They bet me
meaning `non-cancerous': a benign tumour.
£10 I wouldn't do it.
Beneficent means `doing good; promoting
is a much rarer word, preferred in more
generalintransitivecontexts: .
◆ Betted
good' and is used of people, while beneficial
He has never betted

.
means `promoting good or well-being' and is
, but even here a phrase such as
is more common: .
in his life place a
often used of things: The waters are said to be
bet He has never placed a bet
beneficial to one's health.
.
bereft
in his life

with
Bereft

bereaved
was formerly synonymous
but is now used mainly to
beÃte noire A Ã te noire
be
.
is something that a
person fears or hates: Rock music is her

.
suggest loss or deprivation of any nonma-
à te noire.
be The phrase is of French origin
terial thing: He was now bereft of all hope.
◆ When used of death, suggests the des- and
bereft
is sometimes written or printed in

olation of loss more forcefully than does : ◆ Note the spelling of the phrase, particularly the
italics in English texts.

.
bereaved

. It should not be used accent on the first - - and the - ending of .

A year after his death she still wandered through

is formed by adding to both words: .

e e noire
the silent house, bereft
merely as a synonym for `without', with no sense The plural s

ofloss,asin: . What are your beÃtes noires?

betted
I was unable to help, being bereft of
any mechanical skill. see BET or BETTED?
beside besides.or ? Beside means literally better The phrase
.
had better means `ought

.
`by the side of ': Come and sit beside me, to' or `should': You had better close the

.
and is also used in the expression beside window. She'd better stay here. Careful
oneself, meaning `extremely agitated': He users do not drop the word had (or its

. .
was beside himself with grief. Besides can contraction 'd), even in informal contexts:

.
mean `moreover': I won't be able to go; I'd better apologize, not I better apologize.

besides, I don't want to, `as well as': Besides This last form, without had or 'd, is com-
the usual curries, the restaurant offers some mon in informal speech, but it should be
unusual tandoori specialities, and `except for; avoided when writing.
 37 billion
The negative form of the phrase is Bible bible
:.
◆ had better or ? The noun is spelt
, but
Bible

isalsoheardininformal speech: . .
not He had/He'd better not be late better with a capital B when it refers to the sacred

.
hadn't He better writings of the Christian religion:
.
the first

hadn't be late book of the Bible a Bible reading. When the

See also BEST or BETTER? noun refers to a copy of the book contain-

between The preposition

.
between is used
lower case b-: .
ing these writings, it may be spelt with a
I bought her a bible for
either before a plural noun: the interval
Christmas. The noun is also spelt with a

.
between the acts or in conjunction with and;

.
lower-case b- when it refers to an author-
it should not be used with or: You must
itative book on a particular subject: the
choose between your family life and [not or]
gardener's bible.
◆ The adjective biblical is usually spelt with a
your work.
should not be used with or lower-case -: . .
followed by a singular noun: .
◆ Between each every
b in biblical times

bid
There is a gap of
one foot between the skittles[not between each The noun bid, normally meaning `an
].
skittle offer', takes on a new meaning in popular
I or ME?
.
See also journalism, where it is used, particularly in

between among or ? Between is tradition-

Athlete's bid for title .
headlines, to mean `an attempt or effort':
Rescue bid fails .
ally used when speaking of the relationship
Vicar's bid to cut family breakdowns.

. biennial ANNUAL BIENNIAL

of two things, and among of three or more:
PERENNIAL?
.
There was a clear hostility between George see , or
and Henry.
bier BEER BIER
There was dissent among the
see or ?

is accep- big bang

committee members.
However, in current usage
:.
◆ between The is a cosmo-
table as a substitute for
big-bang theory

among agreement logical theory that suggests that the uni-

between the NATO countries , although verse originated in an explosion of a mass
among
is still only used for several elements. is of material.
Between
also used when discussing the joint activities of a ◆ The was also used to describe the
group: .
Big Bang
The carol-singers collected £50 be- radical reorganization of the London Stock Ex-
, and in the expression change which took place in 1986.
, meaning `in confidence': .
tween them between
The term is increasingly used in general contexts
to denote any sudden radical change or reform: .
ourselves Between
ourselves, I think he's heading for a nervous
breakdown . the big-bang approach to solving the problems of
See also AMONG or AMONGST? .
the National Health Service

bi- The prefix bi- always means `two' but

.
big brother The phrase big brother refers

. .
sometimes in the sense of doubling: to a person or organization that observes
bicycle bifocal, and sometimes halving: and controls the lives of others. It was
bisection. This is particularly confusing coined by George Orwell in his book Nine-
with words like biweekly, which sometimes teen Eighty-Four (1949), describing a tota-
means `every two weeks' and sometimes litarian state, and was subsequently applied
`twice a week'. It is probably best to avoid to any action by a government or similar
biweekly and bimonthly and express in a body that is considered to be an invasion of
fuller form what is intended. privacy, such as the installation of CCTV
◆ Biannual means `twice a year', while biennial cameras or the monitoring of personal
means `every two years'. Internet use and e-mail communications.
A (or
bicentenary ) is a 200th anni-
bicentennial The phrase was substantially revived in the
versary. is used more frequently in
Bicentennial late 1990s through the television show
American English and can also be used as an
Big

adjective: .
Brother, which was seen in many countries
.
bicentennial celebrations around the globe.

bias The doubling of the final s of the word billion Billion has traditionally meant `one
bias before a suffix beginning with a vowel million million' in Britain. However, in the
is optional. Most dictionaries give biased, United States it means `one thousand mil-
with biassed as an acceptable alternative. lion' and this usage has been increasingly
See also SPELLING 1. adopted in Britain and internationally.
bio- 38
◆ When used with specific figures the word is
not used: .
of and are also considered offen-
, not
gro Negress

Five billion dollars five billion of sive.

. When used informally to mean `a great is used in many words and phrases, usually
issometimes used: . having negative connotations: . .
dollars ◆ Black
number',
.
billions of Billions of black magic
people are living in poverty . blackleg . Someblackpeople resent
black market
has replaced
Trillion as the word for one
billion the association of the colour black with evil and
million million, or 10 to the power of 12. The word unpleasantness and, while it is difficult to find
trillionsmay be treated as synonymous with bil- synonyms for established words like , it
blackmail
when referring to an otherwise unspecified is desirable to avoid such possibly offensive terms
largenumber: . as: . . .
lions
There were trillions of wasps in the a black look an accident black spot blacken
nest. someone's name .
bio- The prefix bio- comes from the Greek black hole The term black hole, originally
word bios, meaning `life', and words begin- used in astronomy, is increasingly found in

. . . .
ning with it have a connection with life or figurative contexts, where it is used with a
living organisms: biology biography variety of meanings: If a region of the UK
biopsy.

◆ There are several recently coined words having

gets into trouble through high wages, under-

the prefix: . `the application of knowl-

investment or because it is regarded by busi-
bio- bionic
edge about living systems to the development of
ness as an economic black hole, Whitehall can

artificial systems' .
( ).
`able to decom- ◆ In astronomy, a is a hypothetical
bail it out with grants The Guardian
biodegradable black hole
pose organically without harming the environ- region of space with such a high gravitational field
ment' . biorhythms `supposed regular cycles in that nothing can escape from it.
human physiological processes that affect emo- blame
tions and behaviour' . `study of moral
bioethics
on': .
, as a verb, means `hold re-
Blame

problems connected with issues like euthanasia, sponsible; place responsibility He was

surrogate motherhood, genetic engineering, etc.'

`statistical analysis of biological data' is disliked by: .some careful users, who
blamed. The expression
for the accident

. blame (it) on They all blame it on me

.
biometrics
`a missile or other weapon contain- would substitute: .
ing harmful bacteria' .
bioweapon
`the employ- or:
bioterrorism
They blame me for it

ment of biological warfare by terrorists'. . However, the

They put the blame on me

bivouac
usage is well-established and is acceptable

.
The verb bivouac adds a -k- before in all but very formal contexts.
the suffixes -ed
halfway up the mountain.
and -ing: We bivouacked
blanch blench or ? Both these verbs mean

See also SPELLING 1. `make or become white' or `make or be-

bizarre
come pale'. Blanch may be applied to peo-

.
Note the spelling of this word, ple or things and is more frequently used as

.
meaning `eccentric or odd', particularly a transitive verb: The sun had blanched the

the single and the -rr-. rug.

Do not confuse with , `a type of
-z- Her face was blanched with fear.
◆ bizarre bazaar is chiefly applied to people and is
market'.
Blench

.
more frequently used as an intransitive

black Black is the word now usually ap-

verb:
◆
He blenched with shock.

In this sense the verb is a variant of

blench
plied in British English to dark-skinned
blanch , which is derived from the Old French blanc
people of Afro-Caribbean origins, some-
`white'. There is an unrelated verb , mean-
blench
times extended to include other non-white
ing `recoil (in fear)', which is derived from the Old
races. It is broadly acceptable to most black
AFRICAN AMERICAN English `to deceive'.
blencan
people, although has re-
In cookery, the verb refers to the process
blanch
placed it to a substantial degree in Amer-
of immersing vegetables, nuts, etc., in boiling
.
ican English among people of African
. water: . blanched almonds .
blatant flagrant
descent: black power black consciousness.
Coloured is considered offensive as it groups or ? Blatant and flagrant

all non-white people. Under the former are both concerned with overtly offensive
policy of apartheid in South Africa it behaviour but their usage is not identical.

.
was a technical term used to refer to South Blatant means `crassly and conspicuously
Africans of mixed descent. The terms Ne- obvious': The article was blatant propa-
 39 blue-sky
◆A on a radar screen is the sharp peak or flash
.
means `conspicuously blip
of light that indicates the position of something.
ganda. Flagrant

shocking or outrageous': The European

parliament sees the tougher measures

`flagrant violation of human rights and justice'

as a
bloc block
or ? The noun bloc denotes a

.
group of people or nations that have poli-

can be used of a person: .

(Sunday Times).

◆ Blatant ,
a blatant liar
tical aims or interests in common: the

but flagrant is used only of abstract things and Communist bloc. It should not be confused

carries a stronger suggestion of moral disapproval. with block,

.
which has a wide range of
.
blench .
meanings and uses: a block of wood a
see BLANCH or BLENCH? mental block a block of flats.

blends A blend, also known as a portman- blond blondeor ? These two spellings of
teau word, is a new word that is formed by the word meaning `light in colour' are
joining parts of two other words, usually sometimes a cause of confusion. As a noun,

. .
the beginning of one and the end of the blonde is generally reserved for a girl or
other, such as: brunch (breakfast + lunch) woman with fair hair, while blond may
motel (motor + hotel). Many of these words refer to fair-haired people of either sex. As
fill a genuine gap in the English language; an adjective, the distinction between blond
others are best restricted to informal con- and blonde is frequently ignored and both
texts. may be employed for either sex, although
Some people dislike the increasing number of
neologismscoinedinthisway: . ([video] . . .
◆ is more common in British English:
blonde

era + re ) . .
camcorder
( mentary +
She is a blonde A blond man entered the

).
cam corder docudrama docu
( rmation + enter
room. Both brother and sister have blonde

). ) . blue The verb

drama infotainment info tain-
( anese +
hair.
ment Japanimation Jap animation
( ce + influen ).
affluenza affluen za
`squander': .
has the slang sense blue

blessed
He blued the prize money on

This word sometimes causes pro- drink. It is synonymous with the verb blow,

. .
blems with pronunciation. The word used in the slang sense `spend freely or
blessed, the past tense of the verb bless: recklessly': She blew her inheritance. The

.
He blessed the child, is pronounced [blest]. two verbs are virtually interchangeable;
The noun or adjective blessed: the Blessed neither should be used in formal contexts.
Sacrament, is usually pronounced [blesid] Ambiguity or confusion may arise from the
but is occasionally pronounced [blest]. fact that blue (present tense of blue) and

blind Because of its negative associations,

blew (past tense of
pronunciation.
blow) are identical in

blue-chip
and because there are many different de-
grees of visual impairment, the word blind Blue-chip is originally a Stock
is increasingly avoided by careful writers in Market term referring to a share issue

.
general reference to people who have dif- which is considered to be both reliable
ficulties with their eyesight. It is especially and profitable: a blue-chip investment.
It is extended to companies and any extremely
worthwhile asset or property: .
important to avoid the impersonal plural ◆
form the blind. Preferred terms, depending one of the world's
upon the loss of vision involved, include most successful manufacturers . . . with a blue-
( ). The meaning has
.
impaired, challenged, chip reputation Sunday Times
now become further extended, to `fashionable
visually visually un-

and exclusive' or `of the highest standard': .

sighted, and partially sighted: The hotel

).
polo,
(
has been redesigned throughout to accommo-
date the needs of visually impaired guests. the blue-chip sport Daily Telegraph Parents in

blip Blip, a term used in radar, has devel-

Britain believe they are entitled to blue-chip facil-
ities when they go out and about with their
oped the figurative sense of `sudden change
children ( ). Many people dislike
Daily Telegraph
or interruption; temporary minor pro-
the use of the word in this way.
blue-sky
blem'. It became a vogue word in the late
1980s when the Chancellor of the Exche- This is a vogue term describing

.
quer, Nigel Lawson, dismissed a sudden wild, ambitious, or purely theoretical re-
rise in the Retail Price Index as a `tempor- search, thinking, etc.: One day, childcare
ary blip'. The word should not be overused could be up there along with health, education

in this figurative sense. and transport as one of the government's big

blueprint 40
.
spending departments. But that's blue-sky singular noun, meaning `good faith, sincer-
thinking for now. (The Guardian). It should ity, honest intention': He had no docu-
not be overused in formal contexts. mentary proof but we did not doubt his bona

blueprint A blueprint is literally a print

fides.
is also sometimes used to mean
`authentic' as in: .
◆ Bona fide
used for mechanical drawing, engineering,
It's not a reproduction; it's a
and architectural designs. The word is used
bona fide Matisse .
.
metaphorically to mean any plan, scheme,
Bona fide is pronounced [boÅnaÆ fõÅdi] in British
.
or prototype: a blueprint for a successful life
English, but sometimes [boÅnaÆ fõÅd] in American
the London launch of a policy document, `A
English. is pronounced [boÅnaÆ eez].
Bona fides fõÅd

bored of bored with

Blueprint for Urban Areas' (The Times).
Although a literal blueprint is a finished or ? Careful users
plan, the metaphorical use, very popular as avoid the construction bored of except in

.
a jargon and journalistic term, is just as very informal contexts, preferring bored

.
often applied to preliminary schemes. Care with or bored by: He was soon bored with
should be taken, however, not to overuse tidying up. Modern audiences are bored by

this word. old-fashioned farces.

blush flush See also BOARD or BORED?

born borne
or ? Both these verbs mean `go
red in the face'. To blush may be a sign of or ? These two spellings are

.
modesty, embarrassment, shame, or guilt; sometimes confused. Borne is the past par-

.
to flush may indicate any of these emotions ticiple of the verb bear: They had borne

.
as well as stronger feelings, such as anger, enough pain. The following points should be

.
or the effects of alcohol or physical causes. borne in mind.
The verb is also used transitively, often in
His account is simply not
◆ flush borne out by the facts. airborne supplies. In
the passive or in the form of the past participial
adjective: . .
the sense of `giving birth', is used in
. To be
borne
He was flushed with rage phrases where the mother is the subject:
may also indicate excitement or be the
result of exertion or illness: . .
flushed She has borne six children, and also in the
You look flushed ± passive with by: borne by her. Born is used
? cannot be used
. .
have you got a temperature Blush for all other passive constructions without
in this way.
. .
by: He was born in Italy. Twins were born

board bored
or ? The noun board variously
to her.
wife.
a born leader his Burmese-born

born-again
denotes a flat piece of wood or other

.
material, a group of people chosen to head The term born-again was ori-

. .
an organization, daily rations of food, etc.: ginally confined to the context of evange-

.
a sheet of board over the window suggestions lical Christianity, to mean `converted': a

born-again believer.

The term is now often used generally to refer to

put before the board to set out in search of

. a conversion to any cause or belief, particularly

board and lodging. It should not be confused ◆
with bored, past participle of the verb bore:
when accompanied by extreme enthusiasm or
fervour: . .
She quickly grew bored with the work.

boat shipor ? The use of boat or ship is

a born-again conservationist
declared himself born again as a Republican, he set
Having

mainly a matter of size. Boat is usually

.
about nurturing old contacts within the party
applied to smaller vessels, especially those
. Occasionally, is also used to mean
`renewed; fresh, new, or resurgent': .
born-again

.
that stay in shallow or sheltered waters: a

.
a born-

.
rowing boat lifeboat, and ship to larger

.
again car born-again post offices with refur-

.
vessels that travel the open seas: steamship
bished premises the mini-skirt appears to have
warship.
The rule is by no means invariable: cross-Chan- been born again.

nel ferries are informally described as . Most theTheBible.

origin of the term is John 3:3 in
◆
born again
boats
sailing expressions refer to ships even when ap-
plied to boats: . .
amidships .
aboard shipborne see BORN or BORNE?
The
fishing boat was shipwrecked . borrow Besides its literal meaning of `take
bona fide Bona fide is an adjective mean-
.
something for a limited period with the
.
ing `of good faith; genuine or sincere': I intention of returning it': I borrowed this

will accept any bona fide offer. Bona fides is a book from the library, borrow can also be
 41 bow
.
used metaphorically to refer to words, the final line registers the net profit or loss.

.
ideas, etc., taken from other sources: It can mean `the most important or primary

.
Wagner borrowed this theme from Norse point or consideration': The bottom line is

.
mythology. Some American slang is bor- that we have no more resources for the project ;

, not someone: .
rowed from Yiddish. or `the final result':
One borrows
The bottom line was

◆ from off I bor- their divorce. Care should be taken not to

rowed it off my friend is generally considered overuse this phrase.
wrong. ◆ It is also sometimes used as an adjective to mean
See also LEND or LOAN? `having a pragmatic concern for cost and profit': .
both Both is used as an adjective, a pro-
.
He has a bottom-line approach to running the
company .
. . bottom out
noun, a conjunction, and an adverb: Both

.
legs were amputated. I like both. He is both To bottom out was formerly

.
an artist and a writer. The room has both hot used to describe a levelling out of some-
and cold water. It should not be used where thing that has reached its lowest point:

.
more than two elements are involved, as in: Industrial output is now bottoming out. It is

Theconstructions .
She's both selfish, mean, and malicious.
.
now often used to suggest that the low

and .
◆ Both his parents are teachers point is prior to an upsurge:
are equally
The market
Both of his parents are teachers
acceptable. However, in possessive constructions
has now bottomed out and is expected to

improve by the spring.

with , etc., it is usually necessary to use : bough bow
.
us, them of
the opinion of both of them , not both of their
or ? The noun
.
bough denotes a

opinions . large branch of a tree: a large bough fell on

When two things are being considered sepa- the lawn during the storm. It should not be

rately, it is often better to use to avoid confused with bow, which describes the

ambiguity. .
each

.
front of a boat or ship or refers to bending
We were both given a box of choc-
olates might involve two boxes or one shared box. as a sign of respect: She greeted the duke

In general one should be careful about placing the with a bow.

Both words are pronounced [bow].
word in order to avoid ambiguity: .
both He has
◆
BOW.
might See also

bought brought
insulted both his aunts and his grandmother
suggest his two aunts . or ? As the past tense and
as a conjunction goes with , and as
.
Both and past participle of the verb buy, bought is
with all such pairs of conjunctions must link gram-
matically similar things. So one can say: .
correct: I bought [not brought] the dress in
She is the January sales.
but not is the past tense and past participle of
:.
both charming and intelligent She is both
.
◆ Brought
charming and an intellectual theverb .
is often used redundantly, when some
bring She brought an umbrella with her
Both
other phrase in the sentence conveys the same bouquet This word is usually pronounced

sense: . They are both identical .. Both of them are

Å kay], but some users prefer
[bookay] or [bo

. to stress the first syllable.

bourgeois
equally to blame

bottleneck A bottleneck is a term originally

.
class':
This word, meaning `middle
a bourgeois mentality, is sometimes
applied only to narrow stretches of road
which cause traffic hold-ups. It is now misspelt. Note the first syllable bour and
the which softens the in the second
.
extended to anything that holds up free e g

syllable.
The word comes from the Old French word
movement or progress: A bottleneck at the
◆
, meaning `burgher or merchant'.
Traffic Area Office is resulting in long waits
for driving tests. borjois

◆ As a vogue word it is sometimes overworked bow The word

and its literal meaning forgotten. The original tions. has two pronuncia- bow

metaphor refers to the narrowness of the neck the bending of (part of) the body
The noun and verb , referring to bow

of a bottle, which makes such phrases as: . of respect, etc., are pronounced toas rhyme
a sign

. . with . The same pronunciation is used

an
enormous bottleneck an increasing bottleneck
reducing the bottleneck absurd. how

bottom line
for the noun meaning `front of a boat or
Bottom line is a vogue expres- ship'. The noun bow, meaning `looped
sion, taken from financial reports where knot', the bow that is used as a weapon,
boy 42
the that is used to play a violin, etc., stop falls outside the second bracket. The onlytime
when a full stop appears inside brackets is when
bow

and the verb bow, meaning `curve', are

pronounced to rhyme with toe. the parenthetic material in brackets comes be-
In the adjective and the noun tween two sentences, rather than within a sen-
tence: .
◆ bow-legged bow
window , the word bow is pronounced to rhyme He came from a humble background. (His
with .toe mother was a charwoman.) Yet he mixed with
See also BOUGH or BOW? people of all classes .
boy Round brackets are also used for letters or
A boy is a male child or adolescent.
numbers in a series: . The Chartists demanded

.
The use of the noun as a synonym for `man'
(1) annual elections, (2) universal manhood suf-

. .
is largely restricted to informal contexts:
. . . . They are also
usedtoindicatealternativesorbriefexplanations: .
frage, (3) equal electoral districts
one of the boys a local boy the new boy a
night out with the boys.
(meaning `boy' or `boys') .
boycott . .
boy(s) it cost 15 euros
This word, meaning `refuse to (roughly £10) the payment of VAT (value added
deal with': boycott the Olympic games, is tax).
Square brackets are used for brackets within
brackets: .
sometimes misspelt. Note the -tt at the end
of the word. Browning's wife (the poet Elizabeth
◆ The term originates from the name of Charles Barrett Browning [1806-61]) was an invalid . They
Cunningham (1832±97), an Irish land are also used to indicate editorial comment or
explanation in quoted matter: .
Boycott
agent who was ostracized for refusing to grant
.`
The Young Visi-
reductions in rent. ters [sic] '. To
who would fardels [burdens] bear

bracket use ordinary round brackets implies that the words

Some people object to the frequent
inside them are part of the original quotation.
. . brake break
use of the noun bracket in place of group,

level, range, etc.: the 25±35 age bracket a or ? These words are some-

.
lower income bracket. times confused. A brake is a device to slow

brackets The most frequently used kind of

something down: the handbrake on a car.

.
Break has many meanings including `(cause
brackets are round brackets, also known as

. .
to) fall into pieces', `stop', and `transgress':
parentheses. They are used to enclose sup-
break a vase break for lunch break the law.

. bratpack
plementary or explanatory material that
interrupts a complete sentence: William The noun bratpack, often spelt

.
James (1842±1910) was the brother of the brat pack, is a slang term applied (especially
novelist Henry James. He asked his scout (as by the media) to any group of young
college servants are called in Oxford) to wake people, usually precociously rich and fa-
him at nine. The material in parentheses mous, noted for their rowdy or ill-man-
could be removed without changing the nered behaviour.
meaning or grammatical completeness of The term, originally applied to a group of up-
◆
the sentence. Round brackets are used, in and-coming American film stars in the mid-1980s
preference to commas or dashes, when the (modelled on the `ratpack' of Hollywood stars
interruption to the sentence is quite a including Frank Sinatra who appeared regularly
marked one. in the headlines in the 1950s), should not be
◆ Punctuation within brackets is that appropriate overused.
to the parenthetic material, but even if it is a bravado, bravery or bravura? These
complete sentence, capital letters and full stops three nouns are sometimes confused.
are usually not used. Punctuation of the sentence Brav-

containing the brackets is unaffected, except that outward

means `courage'; ery is a false or bravado

any punctuation which would have followed the display of courage or daring; bra-

word before the first bracket is placed after the daring,is an ostentatious or brilliant display of
vura

second bracket: . skill, etc.

breach breech
Worst of all, their confidence is
undermined by a lurking fear of the meaningless- or ? The word breach

.
ness of those basic questions in themselves (is this means `the breaking or violating of a rule
,
good? is this right?) which yet they find them- or arrangement': a breach of the peace.
selves unable to cease from asking(Richard Hog- should not be confused with breech,

gart, ). If the parenthetic

Breach

.
The Uses of Literacy `the rear part of the body' and `the part of a
material comes at the end of a sentence the full gun behind the barrel': a breech birth.
 43 broach
◆ The nouns and
breach are pronounced
breech (Daily
[breech], but the plural noun , meaning
motorway service area south of Paris

breeches Telegraph). The informal term is

`knee-length trousers', may be pronounced [
Britisher
bree- chiefly used by people of other English-
chiz] or [ iz].
brich speaking nations, not by the British them-

bread bred. selves.

Britain
or ? The word bread refers to
the foodstuff: a loaf of bread. Bread should The expression Britain is often used
vaguely, sometimes as a substitute for
.
not be confused with bred, the past parti- Great

ciple of the verb to breed: This species has Britain, sometimes for the United Kingdom

been bred for speed. or the British Isles. As an abbreviation of

◆ Both words are pronounced [bred]. Great Britain it means England, Scotland,

break BRAKE
see or BREAK? and Wales.
The includes Northern Ireland
breakthrough
◆ United Kingdom
as a metaphor as well as England, Scotland, and Wales. The
includes all the United Kingdom, to-
Breakthrough
meaning `a sudden advance in (particularly British Isles
scientific or technological) knowledge' has gether with the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of
become something of a journalistic clicheÂ. Man, and the Channel Islands.
One reads, for example, of: . a major
Briticisms British English is the basis on
breakthrough in cancer research so frequently which the English of America, Australia,
that it has lost all impact.
is also sometimes used to mean New Zealand, South Africa, the West In-

`success': .
◆ Breakthrough dies, and the rest of the English-speaking

or `new idea': .
Olympic breakthrough for British ath-
world is built. To greater or lesser degrees
letes The Great Borrowing Break-
through (advertisement for a loan company). the English of these countries has gone its
own way, producing distinct varieties of
bred BREAD BRED
see or ? English, while the English spoken in Brit-

breech breeches BREACH

, see or BREECH?
ain has its own characteristics, known as
Briticisms.
bridal bridle
or ? The word bridal◆ Specifically British, usually in contrast to Amer-
ican, .
usage of grammar, spelling, and so forth, is
means

discussed under various headings in this book. It is

`of or relating to brides or weddings': a

vocabulary and idiom that mark the speaker or

bridal veil . Bridalshould not be confused

writer of British English. A sentence like: .

with bridle , used as a noun meaning `har-
ness for a horse's head' and as a verb I rang
you from a call box but the line was engaged
. marks the speaker as British; in other English-
meaning `restrain' or `show resentment':

. speaking countries it would have been:

The soldier slipped the bridle over the horse's
I called
.
.
◆ Both words are pronounced [ daÆl].
head. to bridle one's tongue

. .
you from a phone booth but the line was busy
Suchfamiliarwordsorphrasesas:
brõÅ

bring or take? The verbs and bring .take . .

bank holiday

.
fortnight white coffee spring onion Father
differ in meaning. generally denotes
Bring
(in the
Christmas senses of both
roundabout

the speaker: .
the fetching of something and carrying it to merry-go-round and traffic junction) are peculiarly
;
Please bring me that book take
British uses.
to a more distant location: .
generally denotes the removal of something Of course there is no one standard form of
English spoken throughout Britain; marked differ-
Take this

◆ Note that is the correct past tense and ences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and
rubbish with you.

is incorrect: regionsareof Britain.

usage found in the different countries and
brought
past participle of and that
.
bring brung
He brought the money with him.
See alsoDIALECT; AMERICANISMS.
Brit The noun Brit, meaning `British per- Britisher, Briton see BRIT.
son', is often used derogatorily. It should be
restricted to informal contexts. A British
Brittany Brittany, the English name of a
region of northwest France, is often mis-
person may be called a Briton, but this term
spelt. Note the -tt- and single -n-, unlike
.
is most frequently found in newspaper
Britannia.

broach brooch
reports about the British abroad: A coach

.
carrying 58 Britons . . . was preparing last or ? A brooch is a piece of
night to spend a third night trapped in a jewellery that is pinned to a garment: a
brochure 44
diamond brooch. Broach, a rare variant second syllable is unstressed; the -ark end-
spelling of this noun, is most frequently ing has the same pronunciation as the -ock

.
used as a verb, meaning `introduce' or ending of hillock.

`mention': to broach a subject. Both words

are pronounced [broÅ ch].
buoy The noun and verb buoy, meaning

◆ To a barrel or a bottle is to open it in derived adjective `type of float' or `keep afloat', and the

ordertousethecontents: .
broach
, are sometimes buoyant
We broached a second
bottle of champagne . misspelt. The most frequent mistake is to

In nautical contexts, means `to swerve order.

broach
place the and the in the wrong
-u- -o-

dangerously in a following sea, so as to lie broad- ◆ should not be confused with the noun
side to the waves'. Buoy
BOY, which is identical in pronunciation in British
brochure This word is usually pronounced English. In American English is pronounced buoy
[ Å
bro sheÆr], although the French-sounding [ ]. booi
[bro Åshoor ] is also possible.
◆ Note also the , not ch in the spelling.
sh
bureaucracy Note the spelling of this
word: the first , the vowels , and the
brooch BROACH
u eau

see or BROOCH? suffix -cracy (not -crasy).

brought BOUGHT see or BROUGHT? burgle rob steal

, or ? To steal is to take

brownie points Brownie points are no- sion: .

other people's possessions without permis-
He stole her jewellery. Burgle is a back
tional marks of approval for an action or
.
formation from burglar and means `break
achievement, especially something that is into a building in order to steal': Their

.
deliberately or ostentatiously done to win house was burgled when they were on holiday.

.
favour: You should get some brownie points Burglary always involves unlawful entry.
for that.

.
There are political brownie points in To rob is to steal money or property from a
(The Guardian).

The phrase may be spelt with a capital or with .

opening hospitals person or place, often with violence: rob a
◆ B-
a lowercase . It is best restricted to informal .
bank rob an old lady. Rob is sometimes
b-
contexts. The expression derives from the erro-
incorrectly used in place of steal: to rob a

neous belief that Brownie Guides receive points

car is to take things from a car, not to take

for doing something good.

the car itself.
◆ The verb burglarize is chiefly confined to Amer-
buffet ican English.
.
In the senses `a counter where food is

.
served' and `food set out on tables': a buffet burned burnt or ? Either word may be

.
car a buffet lunch, buffet is pronounced used as the past tense and past participle of
[buufay]. In the sense `strike sharply': buf- the verb burn. In transitive contexts burned
feted by the wind, the pronunciation is [bufit]. is preferred in American English and burnt

bulk Bulk
.
means `thickness, volume, or
in British English; in intransitive contexts
.
.
burned is the preferred form in both: We
size; a heavy mass': the vast bulk of the

.
burnt/burned the letters. He has burnt/

.
castle walls. It is also used in the expression

.
burned his hand. She burned with anger.
in bulk to mean `in large quantities': We
The fire had burned all night.

is frequently used to mean `the greater See alsois ±ED or ±T?

buy rice in bulk.

part, the majority': .

◆ Bulk

and American English: .

also used as an adjective in
Burnt
The bulk of the population
. Some people object to British
the application of to anything other than .
burnt toast
support the new legislation
. a burnt offering
bulk
mass or volume, but this usage is well-established [bernt]; may be pronounced [bernd] or
Burned

and generally acceptable. is always pronounced [bernt].

burnt

bulletin. This word, meaning `statement of

bus Although the noun bus was originally
short for omnibus it is now never spelt with
news': No further bulletin will be issued this
an apostrophe.
evening, is sometimes misspelt. Note the -ll-
◆ The word was rarely used as a verb until the
and single t, as in bullet.
1960s, when the controversy in the United
bulwark This noun, meaning `fortifica- States over the practice of sending schoolchil-
tion', is sometimes mispronounced. The dren by bus to different districts in order to
 45 by the same token
achieve a racial balance in the schools gave rise double negative. When used with in help cannot
to the need for such a verb. The problem of how (or ) a triple negative is formed, but
in fact the expression is used positively: .
can't help but
to spell the various forms of the verb has not I can't
been wholly resolved. Traditional British spelling help but regard your attitude as hostile. The phrase
rules dictate and
bussed , but the Amer-
bussing is awkward and should be avoided; the expres-
ican preference was for and and sions and can also be re-
phrased: .
bused busing can but cannot but
these spellings have now been widely accepted
..
I can only regard your attitude as
in Britain. hostile I can't help regarding your attitude as

business hostile.
See also CONJUNCTIONS; HELP; NOTHING BUT;
This noun, meaning `occupation',
`commercial activity', or `matter', is some-
NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.
buyout
times misspelt. The most frequent mistake
is the omission of the letter -i-, which is A buyout is the purchase of a

is a two-syllable word, pronounced .

silent in speech. company, often by a group of managers:
◆ Business MFI Furniture, the independent company

[ nis]. It should not be confused with the noun

.
biz resulting from the management buy-out from

busyness , meaning `the state of being busy', which Asda-MFI (The Guardian). And . . . cer-

has three syllables and is pronounced [ inis]. biz tainly in the UK . . . management buyouts are

businessman businesswoman
or ? see
currently a very popular flavour (The Book-

NON-SEXIST TERMS .
seller).

The word is most commonly printed or

but
◆ buyout
There are various problems with the written without a hyphen.
usage of the word but.
used to link two opposing ideas: .
As a conjunction it is
He lives
buzzword A buzz word is a vogue word or
expression, especially one that is first used

.
in Surrey but works in London. It should not
in technical jargon and subsequently enters
be used to link two harmonious ideas: She
everyday language, usually in a figurative
is not British-born but originates from Kenya,
sense. Examples of buzz words that are
and should not be used in a sentence with
dealt with in this dictionary are: bottom line,

.
however, which conveys the same meaning:
gravitas, matrix, traumatic.

by and large by in large

But their suggestions for improvement,

.
however, were ill-received. Careful users or ? The correct

. .
avoid inserting a comma after but: I rendering of this phrase, meaning `in the
agree but I have reservations. That's a good main' or `on the whole', is by and large: We
were content with the decision, by and large.

◆ The problem with used to mean `except' is by or bye? These spellings are sometimes
point but not an original one.

but
this: is it functioning as a conjunction or as a confused.
preposition and should it be followed by an object ing compounds and expressions: .
Note the spelling of the follow-

or subject pronoun? Is it (conjunctional)

all but he
) .
by-elec-

or all but him(prepositional)? There is no absolute (sometimes,

(occasionally,
) .
tion
.
bye-election by-law

rule here but a rough guide to natural usage is to . .

bye-law bypass by-product

use the object when it falls at the end of a clause erally') . (`later')(occasionally,
by and by (`gen- by and large

and the subject when it comes in the middle: . `incidentally') . in sports, and . by the bye , by the by

They had all escaped but her .. All but she had
a bye bye-bye

escaped . (informal for ).

◆ Further problems may arise from confusion with
goodbye

The use of at the beginning of a sentence is

but
and , which are pronounced the same [bõÅ].
disliked by some users. But it is acceptable to most buy bi-

and can be used to good effect. by the same token is an By the same token

The expressions and are expression meaning `for the same reason; in
slightly formal and old-fashioned but still used: a similar way': .
can but cannot but

.
Middle-aged men should

setting a standard others can but hope to follow avoid overworking because of the effects of

(advertisement, Sunday Times ). The oddity is that stress on the heart; and by the same token they

the expressions mean much the same thing, for . Care should be
should avoid fatty foods

the ofnot cannot combines with the to form a taken to avoid overusing this phrase.
but
 C
cache cash or ? Cache means `secret store'
.
coffee. Note the spelling of the word,
or `place where valuables are concealed': especially the -ff- and the vowel sequence
For years he had suspected her of keeping a -ei-. It is an exception to the `i before e' rule
money. It should not be (see SPELLING 5 ).
is a rare variant spelling of the word.
secret cache of
confused with cash, which means `ready ◆ Caffein

banknotes': .
money' or `money in the form of coins and
He paid for the car in cash.
calendar calender colander
, or ? These

◆ Both words are pronounced [kash]. words are often confused. A calendar tells

cadre
the date, a calender is a machine used to
Note the pronunciation of this noun, smooth paper or cloth, and a colander is a
which means `unit or nucleus of personnel'. perforated bowl used for draining food.
Of French origin, is usually pro- ◆ The first two words are pronounced in the same
way [ indeÆ]. is pronounced [ aÆndeÆ]
cadre

nounced [kahdeÆ], rhyming with larder, in kal Colander kol

British English. The variant pronunciation or [ eÆndeÆ]. This second pronunciation of
kul colan-
[kahdreÆ], which is closer to the French der is reflected in the variant spelling . cullender
original, is less frequent but not incorrect.
callous callus
Caesarean
or ? Callus is a noun, denot-
This word, meaning `of or ing a hardened or thickened area of skin,
relating to any of the Caesars', is used especially on the hand or foot. The adjec-
particularly in the expression Caesarean tive callous is related to this noun, but is
section, `the surgical operation for the de-
.
most frequently used in the figurative sense
livery of a baby by cutting through the wall of `unfeeling' or `insensitive': a callous
of the mother's abdomen and into the attitude to the poor.
womb'. The variant spellings
and, in American English,
Caesarian,

Cesarean or calorie Note the spelling of this word,

Cesarian, are also used. Note, too, that which is a unit for measuring the energy
value of food and also a measurement of
.
any of these spellings may be written with
a lower-case c: She had a caesarean.
heat.

The word derives from Julius , who, it is

traditionally thought, was born by this method. calvary see CAVALRY or CALVARY?
◆ Caesar

cafe cafeteria cameraman camerawoman

or ? see NON-
or ? The noun Â
cafe refers to
SEXIST TERMS.
camouflage
any small restaurant or coffee-bar serving

. .
nonalcoholic drinks, snacks, light meals, This word, meaning `dis-
etc.: Â.
a seaside cafe The noun cafeteria is guise': The trees provided excellent camou-

.
more specific, meaning `self-service restau- flage, is sometimes misspelt. Note the ou

rant': There is a cafeteria on the third floor. and the soft g.

◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the acute can or may? The verb
cafeÂ
accent, which should never be omitted. The noun permitted' means `be can

may be pronounced [ fay] or [ fi].

ka ka
or `be able'; the verb means may

should not be confused with the noun `be permitted', is preferred in formal
Cafeteria
`be permitted' or `be likely'. In the sense of

, denoting a type of coffee-pot with a contexts

cafetieÁre
may

plunger, in which coffee can be brewed and formal contexts: and

.
is best restricted to in-
can

served. The grave accent on the second - - of . e

Can I come to your party?

is optional in English.
cafetieÁre
◆ The negative contraction is disliked by
May I borrow your pen, please?

caffeine many people and is usually replaced with : .

mayn't
, pronounced [ een], can't
[ Mayn't]
Caffeine kaf

is a stimulant substance found in tea and Can't not she stay?

 47 capital letters
Both verbs can be ambiguous: . may -cap The suffix relates to restrictions
mean `he is permitted to go' or `he is able to go'; . imposed by central government on local
He can go -cap

He may go may mean `he is permitted to go' or `he council spending and taxation. Under the
is likely to go'. and , the past tenses of system of domestic rates, councils could be
and respectively,areequallyambiguous: .
Could might

..
can may ; the introduction of the com-
. munity charge (or poll tax) led to such
rate-capped

She said he could go She said he might go

and are also used in polite requests: terms as
. , ? times used independently: .
Could might . The verb is some-
charge-capping
Could/Might I have another cup of tea please The government

See also BUT; CANNOT and CAN'T; HELP; MAY threatened to cap a number of councils.
or MIGHT? capability capacity ability
candelabra
, or ? These
The word candelabra, mean- words all refer to the power to do some-
ing `a branched candlestick or lamp', was
.
thing. Capability suggests having the qua-
originally a plural noun, from the singular lities needed to do something: She has the

.
candelabrum. Purists therefore consider it
.
capability to handle the work. Capacity sug-

.
incorrect to speak of: a valuable candelabra gests being able to absorb or receive:
or to say: There were candelabras in every Children are born with the capacity to acquire
room, although such usage is widespread.
.
language. can sometimes suggest
are often confused with ,
Ability
◆ Candelabra chandeliers above-average skills:
which hang from the ceiling, while
He has considerable

hasseveralothermeanings:`volume': .
candelabra mathematical ability.
stand on surfaces. ◆ Capacity
cannon canon , `(maximum)
output': .
The pot has a capacity of two litres
or ? These two words are
,
`aparticularrole': .
The factory is working at (full) capacity
sometimes confused. A cannon is a large
I am speaking in my capacity as
gun and a shot in billiards, a canon, with a
. It is also used as an adjective in the
journalistic phrase: .
treasurer
single n, is a ruling laid down by the
a capacity crowd at the
church, or a title given to a clergyman.
◆ Both words are pronounced [ naÆn]. ka
ground .
cannot and can't In American English can capital capitol
or ? Capital denotes the seat
.
not is sometimes written as two words but of government of a country or state:
in British English cannot is standard. It may Tokyo is the capital of Japan. Capitol refers to
the building housing a state legislature,
.
be necessary to write can not when the not is

.
often specifically to the headquarters of
.
stressed: No, I can not lend you any more
money, or in sentences like: It can not only the US Congress: The party's control of

blend vegetables but also grind coffee beans, the Capitol is no longer in question.

where the
can.
not goes with only, rather than
capital letters Capital letters are used to

Care should be taken when using in draw attention to a particular word. There

constructionslike: .
◆ cannot
are some generally accepted rules for their

..
Her work cannot be too highly
praised You cannot put too much pepper in, use, but some areas where it is a matter of

where ambiguity can arise. Was her work excellent choice.

Capitals are used to mark the first word of a
or poor? Should a large or small amount of pepper ◆
sentence, a direct quotation, or a direct question
be put in? within a sentence (see also QUESTION MARKS;
The contraction is normally used in speech
can't
QUOTATION MARKS; SENTENCES). They are some-
and often in writing. The standard British English times used after a colon (see COLON). They are
pronunciation is [kahnt]. used for the first word of each line of poetry: .
BUT; CAN or MAY?; HELP.
See also
/ /
canon see CANNON or CANON?
Forewarned of madness In three days time at dusk
The fit masters him (Robert Graves), and for the
can't see CANNOT and CAN'T. major words of titles of literary, musical, or artistic
works: . . .
canvas canvass .
The Mill on the Floss Peter and the Wolf
Capitals are used for proper nouns and most
. adjectivesderivedfromthem: . .
or ? Canvas is a certain

. . . .
type of woven cloth: a canvas bag a John Brown New

. .
painting on canvas. Canvass, with -ss at the York Sainsbury's OxfordStreet French Jewish
end, means `solicit votes': Freudian. If an adjective is not closely connected
with its original proper noun it does not usually
He canvassed for
the Labour Party.
carat 48
takeacapital: . .
brussels sprouts , carburettor Note the spelling of this word,
french windows
and capitals are not used for verbs derived from particularly the - -, the - -, and the -
proper nouns: . . (see also ending.
u tt or
anglicize boycott
EPONYMS; TRADE NAMES). Titles of people or ◆ The spelling in American English is . carburetor
places are capitalized when part of a proper name carcass This word, which describes the
butnotwhenusedalone: . . . body of a dead animal: .
. . may
my aunt Aunt Jane
, a chicken carcass

.
redbrick universities Cambridge University a
professor of history . For
Professor Thomson
be spelt or in Britishcarcass carcase

institutions the rule is that capitals are used in English.

◆ In American English only is used.
specificreferences but not in generalones: . carcass

.
many
care The verb is followed by the
. . .
world governments the Government has agreed care

.
he goes to a Baptist church St Mark's Church preposition for or about in the sense `feel
the Church of England . The pronoun always takes
I affection': Most people care for [or
.
about]

a capital, but no other pronouns apart from those their family, and for in the sense `like': I

referring to God, where some people choose to don't care for foreign food.
.
In the sense `look
capitalize , , .
He Him His after' it is followed by for: He cared for the

Capitals are used for days of the week, months, fox, and in the sense `be con-
.
holidays, and religious holidays: . .
wounded
cerned' it is followed by about:

. .
Monday She doesn't

, but not for care about the cost.

Some people avoid using the phrase to
February Easter Yom Kippur
seasons. They are used for historical, cultural, ◆ in care
and geological periods: . . describe a person whose welfare is the responsi-
. . bility of the social services, believing this carries a
the Restoration the

stigma: .
Enlightenment the Spanish Civil War the Stone
. Both children have been in care since the
. They may, however, be
Age
Capitals should never be used for emphasis; arrest of their parents
italics should be used for this purpose: . an equally reluctant to use such suggested alterna-
enormous [not ENORMOUS] r bea ! tives as the voguish :.
looked-after You will chair
In recent years the conventions relating to capi- child protection case conferences and reviews of
tals have been considerably relaxed in the context Looked After Children . . . ( , job
The Guardian
of electronic communications, simply because it is advertisement).
quicker and easier to type lower-case characters
than upper-case ones. It is usually not necessary to
caret carat
see or CARET?
distinguish between capital and lower-case letters Caribbean This word, referring to the

in e-mail addresses and Internet searches, and region extending from the southeastern

computer users have accordingly fallen into the tip of Florida to the northern coast of South

habitofusinglower-caseletterstoopensentences, America, is often misspelt. Note the single

writenames,etc.: . joe did u get my message about

-r- and the in the middle of the word.
is pronounced [kari aÆn] in British
-bb-

the new york trip? The same tendency has been ◆ Caribbean
English and [kaÆ beeaÆn] in American English.
bee

observed in other contexts, such as company ri

names, in conscious imitation of the abbreviated, caring .

has been used in recent years
.
simplified writing styles associated with modern
Caring

in such phrases as:

electronic communications.
the caring professions
the caring services, to describe people pro-
ABBREVIATIONS; COLON; EAST, EAST
See also fessionally involved in various kinds of
or EASTERN?; E-MAIL; HYPHEN; NORTH, NORTH social work, sometimes also including
or NORTHERN?; SOUTH, SOUTH or SOUTHERN?; health care and education.
WEST, WEST or WESTERN? ◆ It combines the idea of `taking care of' and the

carat caret
or ? These words are some-
idea of `concerned': . The welfare state itself, and
all the caring professions, seemed to be plunging
times confused. A carat is a unit for mea-
into . . . uncertainty, self-questioning, economic
suring the weight of precious stones and a
(Margaret Drabble,
crisis ).
The Middle Ground
unit for measuring the purity of gold; in
The noun is used to denote a person who
looks after a sick or old relative: .
carer
this second sense, the spelling karat is
The new benefit
usually used in American English. A caret,
.
is payable to carers and their dependants

carpal .carpel
spelt with an e, is a character used in
written or printed matter to indicate that or ? Carpal refers to a bone in
an insertion should be made. the wrist: The x-ray revealed an abnormality
 49 CE
in the carpal. . carpal-tunnel syndrome. It catastrophic The adjective catastrophic

should not be confused with carpel, which comes from catastrophe which was origin-

.
refers to the female reproductive organ in a ally used in Greek drama to describe the
flower: These blooms are notable for their denouement of a tragedy. The word should

.
prominent carpels and colourful petals. be applied to extremely severe disasters and
◆ Both words are pronounced [ paÆl]. kah tragic events: the catastrophic earthquake in

carte blanche The French phrase carte

Mexico City.
It is often used informally for quite minor dis-
asters: .
◆
blanche means `complete freedom or
Do you remember that catastrophic dinner

.
authority to do whatever one thinks is
party when I burnt the casserole?

catch-22
right'. He was given carte blanche to do

what he wanted. In Joseph Heller's novel

The literal French meaning of is
Catch
◆ carte blanche 22, published in 1961, the catch in question
`blank document'. was that airmen could be excused from

case Case is very often loosely used to mean

flying missions only if they were of un-
sound mind, but a request to be excused
`state of affairs, the truth' in sentences
from flying missions was a sign of a
where it is either redundant or could be
concern for personal safety in the face

.
replaced by simpler or more specific word-
of danger and therefore evidence of a

.
ing: Is it the case that you are his aunt?
rational mind, so it was impossible to
could be changed to: Are you his aunt?
escape flying missions. A catch-22 situation
Teenage pregnancies are now less common
is any such circular dilemma or predica-
than was the case ten years ago could be
ment from which there is no escape, and is
changed to: . . . than they were ten years ago.
often extended to any situation or problem

.
The expression is acceptable in sentences
where the victim feels that it is impossible

is used as a conjunction: .
like: This rule applies in your case.
. torightgaindecision.
a personal benefit or make the

, with no clause: .
◆ In case in case it rains
The use of
is acceptable only in informal cater The verb
just in case Take your
,
.
mac just in case is followed by the
contexts.
cater

preposition to or for: The leisure centre

cash CACHE CASH? caters to [or for] the needs of the local people.

Catholic catholic
see or

caster castor
or ? For the senses `a swivel-
or ? The word
with a lower-case c-, is an adjective mean-
catholic,

ling wheel on furniture' and `a container

.
ing `general, wide-ranging, or comprehen-
from which sugar may be shaken', the
sive': It is a catholic anthology which
spelling may be either castor or caster.
includes poems by Shelley, Auden, and Allen
Finely granulated white sugar is usually
Ginsberg. Catholic, with a capital, as a noun
caster sugar, although the spelling castor

. .
or adjective, usually refers to the Roman
sugar is also found. The medicinal or lu-
Catholic Church: He's a good Catholic.
bricating oil, castor oil, is, however, always

◆ As some `high' Anglicans prefer to refer to

They go to a Catholic school.
spelt with an o.

catalyst A is a scientific term that themselves as Catholics, it is advisable to use

the term when speaking in a
catalyst

applies to a substance which speeds up a Roman Catholic

chemical reaction though itself remaining specifically theological context.
chemically unchanged. It is also used as a
cavalry or Calvary ? These words are

.
metaphor to apply to a person or event that,
sometimes confused. Cavalry is used to
by its action, provokes significant change:
refer to soldiers trained to fight on horse-
The shooting of Archduke Ferdinand acted as
back and the branch of the army that uses
the catalyst for the outbreak of World War I.
armoured vehicles. Calvary is the hill near
Overuse of the word catalyst is disliked by
Jerusalem where Christ was crucified.

caviar caviare
some.

catarrh This word, which describes an

or ? Both of these spellings
are acceptable for the word which describes
inflammation of the throat and nasal pas-
the salted roe of the sturgeon.

CE
sages, is sometimes misspelt. Note particu-
larly the single t and the rrh. see AD and BC.
cede 50
cede seedor ? These two verbs, which are centigrade scale, on which water freezes at 0 and
pronounced the same, should not be con- boils at 100, is now known as the Celsius scale, to
avoid confusion with other units of measurement.
.
fused. means `surrender' or `give way
and should always begin with
Cede

.
to': Celsius Fahrenheit
a capital letter, being the surnames of the scientists
The defending champion ceded the
It
who devised the scales.
match. The President ceded the point.

should not be confused with seed, which

.
means `scatter seed in', `initiate', or `rank a
Celtic The word Celtic, referring to a
.
sportsperson as a seed': The farmer seeded
language or people of Scotland, Wales,
.
the field. This money will help to seed
Ireland, or Brittany, is usually pronounced
economic recovery. seeded tennis players.

ceiling
[keltik], with a hard initial C-.
Ceiling is frequently used, particu- ◆ The variant pronunciation [ tik], with a soft
sel
initial -, is most frequently associated with the
.
larly in economic jargon, to mean `an upper C
limit': The organization is urging the Scottish football team of that name.
Government to put a ceiling on rent rises.

As the word ceiling, in its literal meaning, is censure censor, or censer ? The verbs

in constant use, it can sound odd to speak of censure and censor are often confused. Cen-

.
sure means `blame, criticize strongly, or
.
increasing or reducing a ceiling, an unwork-
able ceiling, and so on: Sir Gordon Borrie
condemn': The judge censured them for

the brutality of the attack. Censor means

. . . said, `If money and manpower ceilings
were to become too tight in relation to the
`examine letters, publications, films, etc.,

demands put upon my office, then the taxpayer

and remove any material which is consid-

.
. . . would be likely to pay the price in other
ered obscene, libellous, or contrary to gov-

ways' (The Guardian).

ernment or official policy': All prisoners'

celeb This abbreviated form of celebrity

mail is censored. The person who examines
letters, etc., in this way is also known as a
has been heard with increasing frequency censor.
since the 1990s but remains essentially a ◆ The adjective from is censor and from
censorial

.
slang term and should be avoided in formal ,
censure censorious .
contexts:
.
The usual posse of celebs turned up Censorshould not be confused with the noun
for his birthday bash. She's a bit of a celeb censer, meaning `a vessel used for burning in-
around here. cense'.
celibate Celibacy means `the state of being centenary centennial
or ? Both centenary
unmarried, often because of a religious
.
and centennial are used to mean a hundred-
vow'. Celibate is used as a noun to describe year anniversary: 1982 was the centenary of

.
a person living in a state of celibacy and, by Joyce's birth. Centennial is used more fre-
implication, chastity: As celibates, priests

.
quently in American English and can also

.
find it difficult to give advice on marital
be used as an adjective: a centennial
problems, and as an adjective: She never
celebration.
married but chose a celibate life.
◆ The recommended pronunciation of is
The word is sometimes used to mean `abstaining [sen aÆrõÆ], although some people pronounce it
centenary

from sexual intercourse': .

◆ teen
After twenty years of [sen aÆrõÆ].
ten is pronounced [sen õÆaÆl].
Centennial ten
marriage, they decided to live a celibate life to-
gether . Careful users consider this usage to be centigrade CELSIUS see , CENTIGRADE or FAH-
incorrect. RENHEIT?
Celsius centigrade
, or Fahrenheit ? All centre middleor ? Centre and middle
.
are
these terms denote scales of temperature. sometimes used virtually synonymously:

.
The Celsius and centigrade scales are the Put it in the centre/middle of the table. Centre

same; the degree Celsius is now the prin- is used as a precise geometrical term: the

cipal unit of temperature in both scientific centre of the circle, whereas middle is more
and nonscientific contexts. often used generally in situations where the
The Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at geometric centre is not obvious or measur-
32 and boils at 212, remains in informal use, able: .
◆

particularly with reference to the weather: . ◆

.
is also used to mean a place where
the middle of the sea

. The activity is concentrated: .

Centre
The temperature reached the eighties today . shopping centre Middle
 51 chain reaction
is used to mean the point equally distant from osity: .
extremes, either literally: . , or fig-
She presided over the dinner table with

uratively: .
middle name .
.
a ceremonious air
middle-of-the-road politics
certainty or certitude? Both these nouns
centre on centre around
or ? The verb mean `the state of being certain'. Certainty

. .
centre can be used with on or upon or (of a is by far the more frequent, and is used in a

. .
place) at: His argument centres on Marxist wider range of contexts: a feeling of
theory. The European Parliament is centred certainty the certainty of death. Certitude

at Brussels. is a formal or literary word, largely re-

The expressions and
:. who is certain: .
◆ centre round stricted to the state of mind of somebody
centre

..
around The film centres around the Vietnam
are
Nothing could disturb his
War Her hobbies centred around the arts .
frequently used, although they are disliked by ◆ may also be used as a countable noun:
certitude

many careful users as being illogical, because, it .

Certainty
, . is
She may win but it's not a certainty Certitude
is argued, a centre cannot be anything. not used in this sense.
around
Since this usage is so widely objected to, it is
best avoided. One alternative is to use the more cervical There are two pronunciations for

acceptable instead:
revolve around . this word, both of which are perfectly
Everything
acceptable: [ vika Æ l] and [seÆr ka Æ l].
ser võÅ
revolves around the children in this house.

centrifugal There are two pronunciations

cession cessation
or ? These two nouns
should not be confused. Cession is derived
for this word. The traditional pronuncia-
from the verb cede, meaning `yield'; cessa-
tion stresses the second syllable [sentrifyoo-

. .
tion is derived from the verb cease, meaning
gaÆ l], but the alternative pronunciation
Æ l] is widely used in contem- `stop': the cession of territory the cessation
[sentrifyooga
of warfare.

◆ Both words are largely restricted to formal

porary English.

centuries People often become confused contexts.

about when centuries start and end and See also CESSION or SESSION?
how one should refer to them. As there was
cession sessionor ? Cession is the act of
no year AD 0, we calculate in hundred
years from the year AD 1. This means that
yielding (see CESSION or CESSATION?); a session

.
is a meeting or a period of time devoted to a
the twentieth century ended on 31 Decem-

. .
specific activity: the cession of rights/prop-
ber 2000 and the twenty-first century began

.
erty a parliamentary session a recording
on 1 January 2001.
◆ Despite the reckoning above, 31 December
The court is in session.

1999 was popularly accepted as marking the ◆andTheshould

two nouns are identical in pronunciation
session

not be misspelt;
end of the twentieth century and 1 January frequent in usage. is the more session

2000 the beginning of the twenty-first century.

See also MILLENNIUM. cf. ff.
or ? The abbreviation
.
cf. (from Latin

cereal or serial ? These two words are

confer)

47.
means `compare':
The abbreviation ff.
cf. table on page

stands for `folios

.
sometimes confused. A cereal is a plant

.
following' and means `see subsequent pages
that produces grain for food: breakfast
or lines': For more details, see page 172 ff.

. chafe chaff
cereals. A serial is a novel or play produced
in several parts and at regular intervals: a or ? The verb chafe means
television serial.
. .
`rub'; the old-fashioned verb chaff means

ceremonial ceremonious
or ? The adjec-
`tease': These boots chafe my ankles.

was chaffed by her colleagues. The two verbs

She

tives ceremonial and ceremonious are some-

should not be confused.
times confused.
.
Ceremonial means `marked
◆ Chaff is also a noun, meaning `husks (of wheat,
by ceremony or ritual': The Queen wears
etc.)', and is used figuratively in the phrase to
her crown only on ceremonial occasions like
separate the wheat from the chaff , meaning `se-
the opening of Parliament. Ceremonious
parate the good from the bad'.
chain reaction
means `devoted to formality and ceremony'
and usually carries a slightly pejorative Chain reaction is an expres-
suggestion of overpunctiliousness or pomp- sion from scientific terminology that refers
chair 52
to a chemical or nuclear reaction which changeable
.
This word, meaning `liable to
creates energy or products that cause change': changeable weather, is sometimes
further reaction. It is now more often used misspelt. Note the e of change which is
to mean any series of events where each one retained before the suffix -able.
SPELLING 3.
.
sets off the next one, though this usage is See also
disliked by some: The shooting started a

chain reaction which culminated in the street

chaperon chaperone
or ? An older wo-
man who accompanies a young unmarried
riots.

chair
woman on social occasions is known as a
The noun chair is sometimes used to chaperon or a chaperone. The noun, and its
denote a person presiding over a meeting, derived verb, may be spelt with or without
committee, etc., to avoid the potentially the final e.
sexist terms and ◆The usual pronunciation for both spellings is
[ eÆroÆn].
chairman chairwoman

.
and the controversial neologism chairper- shap
son:

◆ This usage is disliked by some people. character The word

The new chair will be elected next week.
can be used character

See also NON-SEXIST TERMS; PERSON.

of the distinguishing qualities that make up

The verb , meaning `preside over', is ac- individual people or things, of people with

ceptable to most users: .

chair
unusual traits, of people portrayed in works
The leader of the Union
chaired the conference . tegrity: .
of fiction, and of moral firmness and in-

challenge .
Such behaviour did not seem con-

Some people object to the fre- sistent with what I knew of her character. It

.
quent use of the word challenge in the sense is a lively town with a great deal of character.

. .
of `stimulate' or, as a noun, `something that Everyone know him ± he's a real character.

. .
is stimulating or demanding': Gifted Mrs Gamp is a minor character in Martin
children need challenging work. The job Chuzzlewit. Anyone who takes this job on
presents a challenge. will need character and determination.

The verb sometimes means little more ◆ is often used vaguely in such phrases
than `interest; excite': . as: . .
◆ challenge Character

.
The film challenged us the strange character of this declaration
visually and musically . programmes of an intellectual character the

challenged . Where it
intimate character of our conversation
Challengedis a vogue word
is used to mean no more than `type' or `quality',
.
used to form euphemisms for disability
would be better
character replaced.
charisma
or disadvantage: .
physically challenged
See also ABLED; POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. The word was origin-
The use of this term is widely satirized by ally used only in theological contexts to
charisma

◆
opponents of political correctness, who have refer to supernatural spiritual gifts of heal-
coined such phrases as , ing, speaking in tongues, etc. A
follicularly challenged
`balding'. It is often used facetiously or ironically:
charismatic

.
is one where emphasis is placed on
...
church

Robert Lindsay is about to play the nasallythe exercise of these gifts. and Charisma

). .
challenged Cyrano de Bergerac in the West End are now often used to describe a
(
charismatic

Daily Telegraph The Borrowers are a verticallyperson with unusual qualities of leadership,
± , (
). .
challenged family 6in tall to be exact Sunday personal appeal, and magnetism, though

these words: .
Times Financially challenged souls cannot affordcare should be taken to avoid overusing
to cast aside the clothes that have been key fash-
(
Lange is planning to run a

). .
ion investments over the past three years Daily presidential-style election campaign, based on
Telegraph The usual assumption made about ( ).
± ◆ The word is sometimes used more
his own charisma Sunday Times

those still watching the TV of their youth that charismatic

, ( loosely to mean `charming or showing a confident
efficiency': .
they're sad socially challenged creatures Sunday
Times ). Our client . . . is looking for two

chamois This word may cause problems (advertisement,

charismatic sales managers Daily
).
Telegraph

charted chartered
with pronunciation and spelling. The ante-
lope chamois is pronounced [shamwah]. The or ?A chartered accoun-
leather chamois made from the skin of this tant/surveyor/engineer/etc. is a person who
animal or a sheep is usually pronounced has the required professional qualifications
[shami]. and experience. A chartered yacht is a hired
 53 childish
yacht. Chartered should not be confused cheque check?or A cheque is an order to a

.
with charted (derived from the word chart): bank to pay money from a person's ac-
charted territory. count. is the spelling preferred in
Similarly, the adjective , describing American English, but is never preferred
Check

◆ uncharted
something that has not been mapped or surveyed: to
.
in British English.
, should not be misspelt as ◆ Both spellings are pronounced [chek].
cheque

uncharted waters
unchartered . chequered Note the spelling of this ad-
chat . The verb chat is followed by to or jective, meaning `varied; marked by many
with: chatting to [or with] his friend on the changes in fortune', most frequently used
telephone. in such phrases as a and
The advent of on the Internet,
chequered career

◆ chat rooms . In British English the ad-

enabling people to communicate directly with jective is spelt
chequered past
; is the
others via a computer network, has brought a American English spelling.
chequered checkered

whole new linguistic dimension to , with par- chiaroscuro This word, meaning `light
chat
ticipants adopting a radically abbreviated style of and
writing that makes much use of coded phrases and ings shade' (usually in reference to draw-

symbols: . got to go ttyl:-) (meaning `got to go, and paintings), is often mispro-

talk to you later', followed by a symbol indicating nounced. The correct pronunciation is

happiness). [kiaros Å ].
o kyoor

See also E-MAIL; SMILEY; TEXT MESSAGING. chick chicken

or
.
? A chick is a young bird: .
chattering classes The chattering classes
The chicks have hatched. eagle chicks. A

.
chicken is a type of domestic fowl and
are educated middle- and upper-class lib-

.
chicken is the meat of this fowl: He keeps

.
erals who frequently air their opinions in
geese and chickens. roast chicken. Either
the media: [Rupert] Murdoch is contemp-

.
noun may be applied to the young of a
tuous of the views of those to whom he and
domestic fowl: a hen and her chicks [or
. . . Andrew Neil obsessively refer as the
chickens].
`chattering classes' (The Bookseller). This
◆ Chick is also used offensively as a slang term for
vogue term is generally used in a deroga-
a young woman. This is now dated, although the
tory manner.
derivatives and , respectively
chauvinism
chick flick chick lit
denoting a film and book aimed at a female
audience, are relatively recent coinages: .
The word chauvinism means
`excessive or fanatical patriotism' and It's a
comes from Nicolas Chauvin, a soldier of romantic chick flick that won't appeal to many
Napoleon's army who was noted for his men. These phrases are considered derogatory by
overzealous patriotism. It is used more some women.
loosely to describe any prejudiced belief
in the superiority of a group or cause,
chihuahua Note the unusual spelling of
this word, which denotes a breed of tiny

.
particularly in the term male chauvinism:
dog. These dogs are named after the state
The media . . . fanned the flames of male
of Chihuahua in Mexico; the noun is some-
chauvinism, stereotyping all women who took
times written with a capital C-.
a serious interest in the issues as bra-burners
◆ Chihuahua is usually pronounced [chi wah] wah
(Elaine Storkey, What's Right with Femin-
or [chi waÆ].
wah

Some people, encountering the word for the chilblain A sore that is caused by exposure
ism).

◆
first time in the context of male chauvinism, to the cold is known as a . The
wrongly assume to be synonymous with word is sometimes misspelt, the most com-
chilblain

:.
chauvinist
sexist . The mon error being to retain the second of
Her husband's an awful chauvinist
word should not be used in this sense unless
l

which has been lost in the formation of

preceded by .
chill
male this compound noun.

cheat The verb cheat

.
is followed by the childish or childlike ? Childish is almost
preposition of or out of: She had been always used in a pejorative sense to indicate

.
cheated of [or out of] her inheritance. To immaturity and the less endearing charac-
cheat on one's husband or wife is to be teristics of childhood: She refused to
unfaithful to them. tolerate his selfish behaviour and childish
chill 54
outbreaks of temper. . The drawings looked chronic Chronic
.
means `long-standing; per-

.
like childish scribbles. Childlike is usually manently present': She has suffered from

.
applied to the attractive qualities of child- chronic asthma all her life. Malnutrition is a

hood, such as enthusiasm and innocence:
At 85, she retains a childlike curiosity about
.
her environment.
chronic problem in the Third World.
It is often confused, in its medical context, with
◆
, which means `intense and of sudden onset':
acute

chill This word, meaning `relax' or `take [not ]

I suddenly got an acute chronic pain in my
. Because is so
shoulder often used of pains
chronic

probably coined in imitation of COOL: .

time out', is a vogue term of 1990s origin,
and illnesses that are very bad it is also sometimes
used in informal British English to mean `bad' or
I

plan to stay at home tonight, just chilling. It is

`dreadful': . ` '
Drank! My word! Something chronic
best restricted to informal contexts.
◆ It is often encountered in the form , in (Shaw, ). Pygmalion

which case it may also mean `calm down': . chute or shoot?

chill out

.
means `slide' or Chute

is a `parachute': .
Everyone needs to chill out occasionally. `slope' and is also an abbreviated form of
Stop
A
.
yelling at me and chill out. chillout room
quiet, restful place in a club where dancers may
Three sacks of grain came down

relax.
the chute. He opened the chute as soon as he

.
means `to fire a weap-
left the plane. Shoot

Chinese Chinese
.
as an adjective means `of times at his enemy .
on', `to travel quickly', etc.: He shot several

The dog shot out of the

or from China': Chinese writing; it is also

Both words are pronounced [shoot].

pipe.

.
used as a singular or plural noun for a ◆

. chutzpah
person or people of Chinese nationality: I
took a party of Chinese around London. Chutzpah or chutzpa is a Yiddish
There is a Chinese studying at my college. expression now in general use which, in
◆ The singular expression sounds odd to
a Chinese one word, conveys `cheek, gall, effrontery,
some people, who prefer to say a Chinese man/ audacity, cool nerve, brazen self-confi-
. The term is out-of-date, dero- dence, arrogance'.
◆ In , Leo Rosten writes `Chutz-
woman Chinaman
gatory, and offensive. The Joys of Yiddish
pa is that quality enshrined in a man who, having
chiropodist This word, describing a per- killed his mother and father, throws himself on the
son who treats and looks after people's feet, mercy of the court because he is an orphan.'
may be pronounced [kiropo Æ dist] or [shiro- It is pronounced [ paÆ].
khuuts
Æ dist],
po although the first of these is pre-
ferred by many users. circumstances In the circumstances and

cholesterol This word is sometimes mis-

under the circumstances

different ways.
are used in slightly
In the circumstances is more
spelt. The most frequent error is the omis-
.
general, and merely acknowledges the ex-
sion of the second e, often silent in speech. istence of a situation:
Remember also that the first syllable is - and
In the circumstances
◆ chol
not - as in .
you had better do nothing. Under the circum-
chlo chlorine
.
stances suggests more of a connection be-

chord cord or ? These spellings are some-

tween the circumstances and the action:
He was starving and under the circumstances
times confused. In the musical or mathe-
cannot be blamed for stealing food.
matical senses the spelling is chord. Chord is
is more often used than in a negative
context: .
◆ Under in

.
also used when describing an emotional
.
Under no circumstances will I allow it

. . cirrhosis
reaction: He struck the right chord. In
the anatomical sense: umbilical cord This word, denoting a disease of
spinal cord, either spelling is acceptable, the liver, is sometimes misspelt. Note par-
although in vocal cords the word is nearly ticularly the -rrh- combination.
always spelt without the h. The word
cite, site, or sight ? These words may
.
which describes any type of string is spelt
occasionally be confused since they are all
cord: nylon cord.
pronounced in the same way [sõÅt]. Cite
Christian name see FIRST NAME, CHRISTIAN .
means `to give something as an example',
NAME, FORENAME, GIVEN NAME or BAPTISMAL
.
`to order', or `to praise': The prisoner cited

NAME? several cases in his defence. The two men

 55 clause
◆ This last use was at one time disliked, having no
.
means `to
connection with the recognition of rights, but it is
were cited for their bravery. Site

locate something':
now widely used and accepted. It should, how-
The memorial will be

.
means `to see
ever, be avoided when the assertion is not parti-
sited in that corner. Sight

someone or something':
cularly forceful or controversial, when ,
They sighted a
maintain
, , or sometimes just , is often
ship on the far horizon.

city townor ? In general a city is a place

allege contend
better.
say

. clandestine
that is larger and more important than a
town: She had only lived in small towns This word, meaning `secret',
before and was apprehensive about moving to is generally stressed on the second syllable
the city. [klandestin], although it is acceptable to
◆ The British `rule' that the possession of a cathe- stress the word on the first syllable [
dral confers city status on a town is misleading. It is deÆstin].
klan-

the monarch who grants a town the right to call

itself a city, and though cities very often do have classic or classical? There is some overlap
cathedrals this is not always the case. Cambridge, in the meanings of and , but classic classical

for example, was granted city status and has no they have distinct separate meanings. Clas-

cathedral. . .
means `typical of or unusually fine in its
sic

civic civil
, or civilian ? These words all
class': classic symptoms of diabetes
example of 1960s pop art. Classical
a classic
essentially

.
refer to citizenship but have different means `of the classics, i.e. the literature,
meanings. Civic means `of a city': civic

.
history, and philosophy of ancient Greece

.
centre, or is used of the attitudes of citizens and Rome': a classical education.
to their city: a sense of civic pride. Civil
is also used to mean `elegant and unlikely
. .
◆ Classic

city: .
relates to citizens of a state, rather than a to date': , and
.
a classic dress classic design

criminal, religious, or military: .

, or is used as distinct from
civil rights
. `definitive, absolute': Your behaviour was a dirty

.
civil law
( ).
trick of classic dimensions . . . The Guardian
civil marriage .
civil defence refers While
Civilian
the are the works of ancient
classics Greece
to a person who is not a member of the and Rome, is any work of high standard
whatever its date: .
a classic

formed state organization: .

armed forces, police, or other official uni- and enduring quality, the jazz
The major had
.
classic `St Louis Blues'
been a bank manager in civilian life . , too, can suggest elegance, but there is
is also used to mean `polite or courteous': . a definite link with the standards
Classical
◆ Civil
. and forms of
The proprietor was very civil to us ancient Greece and Rome. , in its Classical music

clad or clothed? means the same as narrowest

Clad sense, is the music of about 1750±
1830, which is characterized by its formal beauty.
The term is, however, widely applied to all serious
clothed but, except in expressions like thinly

music, as distinct from jazz, folk, and popular

clad or , is considered archaic or
ill-clad

clothes: . music.
poetic. It can be used of things other than

. clause
, or of clothes
rose-clad trellises
where the note of archaism is appropriate:
A clause is a group of words, in-

.
clad in armour, but for ordinary dress,
cluding a finite verb, within a compound or
clothed is used: She was clothed completely
complex sentence. A main clause can stand
in black.
, not , may be used as the opposite alone as a sentence in its own right; it is

:.
◆ Clothed clad
of naked With that paunch, he looks sexier
expanded by a subordinate clause. A relative

clothed these days . clause modifies the subject or object of a

claim In the sentence .

sentence.

.
The verb means `demand ◆ She stayed at home because it
, is the main clause
claim

something as a right': was raining She stayed at home

and is the subordinate
The dismissed work-

clause. The sentence .

ers are claiming redundancy pay; `take some- because it was raining

. .
thing one rightfully owns or that is one's She stayed at home but
due': He claimed his father's estate. her sister went out contains two main clauses.
Relative clauses may be defining (identifying)
She

prize, and `assert forcefully,

or non-defining (non-identifying). They are
claimed the

.
especially when faced with possible contra-
diction': usually introduced by , etc. A
that, which, who
defining clause provides essential information; a
He claims that there have been no
composers of genius since Beethoven.
claustrophobia 56
non-defining clause provides parenthetical infor- clicheÂs The word Â, referring to a
mation. The clause is non-
cliche

defining in the sentence .

who lives in India phrase or idiom that has become stale

.
My sister, who lives through overuse, is almost always used
and pejoratively. Examples of clicheÂs are:
defining in . . .
in India, is coming home for Christmas
My sister who lives in India is
. The first sentence
from time immemorial as old as the hills

coming home for Christmas last but not least.

implies that she is the only sister the speaker ◆ Not all fixed phrases are necessarily bad. Some
has; the second sentence implies that the clicheÂs were quite apt when first used but have
speaker's other sisters are not coming home become hackneyed over the years. One can
for Christmas. hardly avoid using the occasional clicheÂ, but
See also COMMA 3; THAT or WHICH? clicheÂs that are inefficient in conveying their
claustrophobia The fear of being in con- meaning should be
or are inappropriate to the occasion
avoided.
fined spaces is known as .
claustrophobia
There are various categories of clicheÂ. There are
Note the claustro- in the spelling.
overworked metaphors and similes: .
clean or cleanse? While functions as .
leave no
, overused
idioms: . .
clean stone unturned as good as gold

, the clicheÂs of public speakers: .

adjective, noun, adverb, and verb, is
cleanse to add insult to injury a blessing in

.
used only as a verb. The two words are disguise someone

.
almost synonymous but has more of who needs no introduction in no uncertain terms
, and the quotation (or
cleanse

which also purifies: .

a suggestion of very thorough cleaning without fear or favour
usually misquotation) from the Bible or Shake-
.. speare: . .
I'll just clean the flat
pride goes before a fall a poor thing,
. Journalists are perhaps the worst
quickly The wound must be cleansed before

. but mine own

has a more formal sound than and offenders. To them all countries at war are
a dressing is applied
◆ Cleanse clean strife-
is sometimes used figuratively to mean `purify', as , all battles are , and all denials
it is in the older translations of the Bible; .
torn pitched cate-
.
Wash gorical
me throughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse me Many clicheÂs have become such through many
from my sin (Psalm 51:2). years of use. But it can take a very short time for a
cleft lip newly-coined phrase to become a clicheÂ. Some
Cleft lip , referring to a congenital
modern examples are: .
. .
sixty-four thousand dollar
split in the upper lip, is preferred to the

. . .
question at the end of the day at this moment in
former term harelip, which is now consid-
time keep a low profile a level playing field a
ered offensive and should be avoided.
.
clench clinch
game of two halves
or ? These two words are
client customer
or ? A client is someone

.
sometimes confused. The verb clench
who receives the services of a professional

.
means `close tightly' or `grasp firmly':
person or organization, while a customer is
to clench one's teeth She clenched the key in

.
someone who buys goods from a shop or
her hand. The verb clinch is most frequently

.
other trading organization: The solicitor

.
used in the figurative sense of `settle defi-
had several showbusiness clients. She was a
nitely': to clinch a deal.
◆ The literal meaning of the verb is `secure regular customer at the fish market.

by bending over the protruding point of a driven ◆andA collective noun for regular clients is ,
clinch
clientele

nail'. is also used as a noun and verb to refer this word is also sometimes used for custo-
to two people holding each other tightly with the mers, particularly if there is a suggestion of super-
Clinch

arms in boxing or wrestling or in an amorous iority in the shop or its customers: . The customers

embrace. at the Co-op have less exacting tastes than the

. The rather formal word
clergyman or clergywoman? see NON-
clientele of Harrods pa-
is also sometimes used in place of
tron , customer
SEXIST TERMS. when they are regarded as bestowing the favour
clever The adjective of their custom on an establishment.
clientele
is followed by
clever

.
the preposition at in the sense `clever at a The preferred pronunciation of
CLIENT
.
subject, an activity, etc.': He's not very this word, which means `clients' (see
CUSTOMER?):
.
clever at maths, and by with in the sense or an exclusive clientele, is
`clever with a tool, one's hands, etc.': She's [kleeontel]. Note also the spelling, particu-
clever with a needle. larly the -ele (not -elle) ending.
 57 coherent
climactic climatic
or ? These two words not interchangeable: .
. .
a close shave . a closed-

.
have completely different meanings. shop agreement at close quarters closed-circuit
.
Cli-
is the adjective from climax: television
In all these compounds is pronounced
mactic This

.
close
[kloÅs] and is pronounced [kloÅzd].
aria marks the climactic point of the opera.
Climatic is the adjective from climate: The closed
climatic conditions are unsuitable for outdoor

activities.
close proximity Proximity
.
means `being

◆ Both words should be distinguished from the close or near in space or time': Its proxi-

noun , which means `a crucial stage in

climacteric
mity to the station made the house particularly

life; the menopause or corresponding male equiva- convenient. As `close' is part of the meaning

lent'. .
of the word, it is never necessary to add

climate
close before proximity: His close proximity
The word climate has been ex- made me feel uneasy.
tended in meaning to embrace not just TAUTOLOGY.
See also
the atmosphere as regards the weather,
but atmosphere in general: . a climate of
clothed see CLAD or CLOTHED?
hope. It is used rather more specifically of
the prevailing state of affairs or the atti-
clout Some people object to the overuse of

. .
the noun clout to mean `influence; political

. .
tudes and opinions of people at a particular power': financial clout The union doesn't
time: the economic climate the change in
carry much clout with the government. This
the moral climate of America (Franklin D. usage is best restricted to informal contexts.
Roosevelt).

climatic see CLIMACTIC or CLIMATIC? co- The prefix co- is increasingly attached
without a hyphen in modern usage. Some
clinch see CLENCH or CLINCH? users prefer to retain the hyphen when the

clique The noun clique, often used pejora-

o-: . .
prefix is attached to a word beginning with
co-ordinate (see also HYPHEN
co-operate
tively to denote a small exclusive group of
people, may be pronounced to rhyme with
1). Some dictionaries retain the hyphen in
jointly with another: .
words referring to a person who does
or tick.
The first of these pronunciations, [kleek], is .something, but
teak
co-author
◆
closer to the French original and is preferred by etc., are acceptable.
the spellings
co-star coauthor, costar,

many users.
clone Clone is a word taken from genetic
coarse course
or ? These words are some-

. .
times confused. Coarse means `rough or
science, where it means `the asexually,
crude': coarse behaviour coarse cloth.
and often artificially, produced offspring

.
The noun course means `progression of
of a parent, which is genetically identical

.
events': in the course of time, or `route':
to the parent, or a group of such off-
The ship steered a difficult course. The verb
spring, which are genetically identical to
course means `hunt or pursue'; coursing is
each other'. Despite the dislike of some
the sport in which hares are hunted with
people, the word is now used popularly to
dogs.

.
suggest anything very similar to some-
◆ Coarse [not ] course is the activity of
fishing
thing else: Marketing the Arts is a new
catching freshwater fish other than salmon or
magazine, tabloid size, a clone of Campaign
trout.
. cocoon
(Daily Telegraph). It is also used synony-

.
mously with lookalike: a dozen Elvis This word, which means `protec-
Presley clones. tive covering': The butterfly emerged from

close closed
or ? Confusion between these
its cocoon,

second c
is sometimes misspelt. Note the
and the -oo-.

coherent cohesive
two words sometimes arises when they are
used in compounds, especially close/closed or ? Coherent and co-

season (the period of time when the killing hesive have the same roots in the verb to
of certain animals, birds, or fish is forbid- cohere, but they are used differently. Co-

. .
den). In British English close season is pre- herent means `logically consistent; compre-
ferred; in American English, closed season. hensible': a coherent argument coherent

◆ In most other compounds close and closed are speech. Cohesive means `clinging or sticking
cohort 58
together': . A can only be of lions; a pride only of fish school
and other aquatic animals. Others, such as ,
the cohesive properties of the

mortar, but is more frequently used figura- herd

have a more general use.
unity: .
tively of anything that holds together or has
The main problem with collective nouns is
whether to treat them as singular or plural. With
Union members should think of
.

cohort This word, meaning `united group some nouns there is no choice. Class collectives
themselves as a cohesive group

always take a singular verb: . My luggage is

of people', is encountered with increasing
.Words for people in generalor a particular
. .
missing

individual supporter or accomplice: .

frequency in the singular, referring to an
class of person: , take a plural
verb: .
folk the police
He
. It is with
. . .
The clergy are up in arms about it
has emerged as a loyal cohort of the President.
groupnounssuchas: audience jury committee
This usage is more common in American
that problems arise. American English treats them
English than in British English and is
as singular: . but
The Government is undecided
avoided by careful users.
◆ A
British
is also a group of people sharing a plural: .English treats them as either singular or
particularstatisticalcharacteristic: .
cohort
. For
The Government is/are undecided
the use of singular and plural verbs see individual
to compare the

entries and SINGULAR or PLURAL?

exam results of children within the various cohorts.

coiffure This word, meaning `hairstyle', is

usually pronounced
should be clearly distinguished from the
[kwahfewr]. This COLLECTIVE NOUNS
pronunciation of meaning `hairsty- a herd of antelopes
a shrewdness of apes
coiffeur
list' [kwahfer].
◆ Note the different endings of these nouns and a pace of asses
also the - - in the spelling. a cete of badgers
a battery of barracudas
ff

colander CALENDAR CALENDER

see , or COLAN- a sloth of bears
DER? a colony of beavers
collaborate cooperate a swarm of bees
or ? Both collabo-
a singular of boars
rate and cooperate
.
mean `work together for
a herd of buffaloes
a common purpose': The two scientists
a caravan of camels
have collaborated/cooperated for years on var-
a clowder of cats
ious projects. Collaborate has the extra sense
a drove of cattle
of working with or assisting an enemy,
a brood of chickens
.
particularly an enemy occupier of one's
a chattering of choughs
country: The French politicians who had
a covert of coots
collaborated with the Nazis were discredited
a flight of cormorants
after the war.

is more likely to be used of a a bask of crocodiles

◆ Collaborate
cooperative enterprise of an intellectual or artistic a murder of crows
nature: people might in writing a book a herd of deer
but
collaborate
in organizing a party. a pack of dogs
cooperate
The verb is followed by the preposi- a school of dolphins
tion or : .
collaborate
[or ] a dole of doves
in on
.
They have collaborated in on a
a team of ducks
number of musicals
a convocation of eagles
collective nouns The term
. .
collective noun
.
a parade of elephants
applies to such nouns as: flock gang a gang of elks
a business of ferrets
.
troop, which are usually followed by of and
a charm of finches
.
another noun: a flock of sheep, to other
a shoal of fish
. .
nouns which apply to groups, such as:
audience orchestra crowd, and to `class' a skulk of foxes
an army of frogs
. . .
collectives, which include various things of
a gaggle of geese
.
a certain kind: furniture underwear
cutlery. a tribe of goats
Some collective nouns have very restricted uses.
greengrocery

◆ a cloud of grasshoppers
 59 COLLECTORS
a bazaar of guillemots COLLECTORS AND ENTHUSIASTS The
a husk of hares right-hand column lists the field of activity
a cast of hawks that is referred to by the formal descriptive
an array of hedgehogs term for the relevant collector or enthusiast
a brood of hens given in the left-hand column.
a siege of herons
a bloat of hippopotamuses aerophilatelist airmail stamps
a string of horses ailurophile cats
a pack of hounds antiquary antiquities
a troop of kangaroos arachnologist spiders
a kindle of kittens arctophile teddy bears
a desert of lapwings argyrothecologist money boxes
an exaltation of larks audiophile sound recording
a leap of leopards balletomane ballet
a pride of lions bibliomane collecting books
a plague of locusts bibliopegist bookbinding
a tittering of magpies bibliophile books
a sord of mallards cagophilist keys
a labour of moles campanologist bell-ringing
a troop of monkeys canophilist or
a barren of mules cynophilist dogs
a watch of nightingales cartophilist cigarette and
a family of otters chewing-gum cards
a parliament of owls coleopterist beetles
a pandemonium of parrots conchologist shells
a covey of partridges copoclephilist key-rings
a muster of peacocks cruciverbamorist crossword puzzles
a rookery of penguins cumyxaphilist matchboxes
a nye of pheasants deltiologist picture postcards
a litter of pigs ecclesiologist churches
a congregation of plovers entomologist insects
a school of porpoises ephemerist diary-keeping
a bevy of quails epicure good food and drink
a bury of rabbits errinophilist non-postage stamps
a colony of rats ex-librist bookplates
an unkindness of ravens fusilatelist phonecards
a crash of rhinoceros gastronome good eating
a building of rooks gemmologist gems
a pod of seals gourmet good food and drink
a flock of sheep herpetologist reptiles
a walk of snipe hippophile horses
a host of sparrows hostelaphilist pub signs
a dray of squirrels iconophilist engravings, prints,
a murmuration of starlings and pictures
a flight of swallows incunabulist early printed books
a mutation of thrushes labeorphilist beer bottle labels
an ambush of tigers lepidopterist butterflies and moths
a knot of toads medallist medals
a rafter of turkeys myrmecologist ants
a turn of turtles notaphilist banknotes
a gam of whales numismatist coins and medals
a rout of wolves oenophile wine
a fall of woodcocks omnibologist buses
a descent of woodpeckers ophiophilist snakes
a zeal of zebras orchidophilist orchids
colon 60
ornithologist birds colonnade Note the spelling of this noun,
paroemiographer proverbs meaning `row of columns', particularly the
peridromophilist transport tickets -l- (as in column) and the -nn-.
philatelist postage stamps coloration
phillumenist matchbox labels Note that the u of colour is

philologist language and literature omitted in this derived form of the word,

philometrist postmarked envelopes .

which refers to a pattern or arrangement of

phonophilist gramophone records colours: the distinctive coloration of the

plangonologist dolls feathers.

The same principle applies to the noun

pteridophilist ferns ◆
, derived from the verb .
disco-

sericulturist silkworms loration discolour

speleologist caves coloured see BLACK.

steganographist climbing buildings colourize
stegophilist cryptography The verb colourize refers to the

tegestologist beer mats .

process of adding colour to black-and-

ufologist UFOs white films: the controversial practice of

vexillologist flags colourizing classic films. Note that the verb is

spelt -our- in British English (the American

colon A colon introduces a clause or word

spelling is
ize,
colorize), unlike the verb
meaning `remove the colour from',
decolor-

.
which amplifies, interprets, explains, or
which is spelt -or- in British and American
reveals what has gone before it: He
English.

. columnist
was beginning to be anxious: they had been
gone for five hours. Only one party cares: The n of this word is sometimes

.
Labour. Its other main uses are to introduce not sounded in speech. The pronunciation
lists: The Thames Valley Police Authority Æ mnist] is strictly correct, but [kolu
[kolu Æ mist]
covers three counties: Berkshire, Buckingham- Æ-
is becoming increasingly common; [kolu
shire, and Oxfordshire, and to introduce mist] reflects the pronunciation of column,

lengthier quotations, often when quotation with its silent n.

marks are not used and the quoted material

is indented.
come The tendency to follow the verb

◆ The clause preceding a colon should usually be come with and is avoided by some users
.
able to stand on its own grammatically. and is best restricted to informal contexts:

Capitals should be used after colons only if the Come and tell me all about it.

word following is a proper noun; if the first word comedian comedienne

or ? see NON-SEXIST
of a quotation is capitalized; if the colon follows a TERMS.
formal salutation or brief instruction: . comic comical
. .
To whom it
may concern: Note: Warning:or sometimes if or ? Comic and comical are

the material following the colon is a whole sen- not quite synonyms. Comic means `of

tence or sentences expressing a complete .

comedy, intended to cause laughter or
.
thought. amusement': a comic actor a comic poem.

Colons are also used to introduce speech in Comical

.
means `having the effect of causing

plays .
: Cecily: Are you called Algernon? Alger-
laughter or amusement': a comical sight.

Something can be , in that it is intended to

. They are used between titles be funny, even if it fails actually to arouse mirth: .
◆ comic

and subtitles: .
non: I cannot deny it
Men Who Play God: The Story of
; in biblical references be- .
His comic songs did not raise a smile Comical is
tween chapter and verse: .
the Hydrogen Bomb
; in often used in cases where the humour is uninten-
businesscorrespondence: . .
James 2:14±17
andto tional: . It was comical to see their attempts to

showthe relationship of one number to another: .

To: Reference:
appear sophisticated .
The ratio was 2:1 . Colons are also used in books comma Of all the punctuation marks, the
such as this to introduce examples. comma is the most likely to cause confusion
The use of the dash following a colon is re- or ambiguity through its misuse, overuse,
stricted to lists, usually where each item starts on a or omission. Some of the conventions that
new line and is indented. Even then the practice is formerly governed its use are now re-
old-fashioned and not recommended. garded as optional; it is important, how-
See also DASH. ever, to be consistent within a single piece
 61 commandant
enthetical commas can alter the meaning of a
sentence: .
of writing. Excessively long sentences con-
taining many clauses separated by commas My daughter Elizabeth is a doctor
implies that the speaker has two or more daugh-
ters, one of whom is called Elizabeth; .
are best divided into shorter units; short
sentences that require many commas for My
clarity should be reworded if possible. The daughter, Elizabeth, is a doctor implies that the
principal uses of the comma are listed speaker has only one daughter.
See also APPOSITION; BRACKETS; CLAUSE;
1 The individual items of a series of three or
below.
DASH; RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE; THAT or WHICH?
4 The use of the comma or commas to separate
◆
more are separated by commas; the final comma
preceding or is optional: . such words and phrases as
..
and or We have invited however, therefore,
, and
..
Paul, Michael, Peter, and Mark She plays tennis, nevertheless, of course, for example on the
from the rest of the sentence is op-
tional: .
hockey and netball He doesn't like cabbage, other hand
.
..
carrots, or beans I wondered, however, whether he was
The same conventions apply to series of longer
units: .
right The holiday will include visits to some of the

..
I closed the window, drew the curtains, local attractions, for example the caves and the
and went to bed . Omission of the final comma pottery We could go by train or of course we
may cause confusion if the last or penultimate item .
contains : . 5 Commas are always used to separate terms of
could use the car
and They only serve pies, fish and chips,
. address, interjections, and closing question tags
2 The use of a comma between adjectives that from the rest of the sentence: .
and beefburgers

..
I'm sorry to have
precede the noun they qualify is optional in most
cases: . . ..
troubled you, madame Please sit down, Mr

.
a large, red, juicy tomato a small round Smith, and tell me what happened Oh, what
?
6 The main clause of the sentence may be
black button. a beautiful garden! It's cold today, isn't it
When thefinal adjective has acloser relationship
with the noun, it should not be preceded by a separated from a preceding subordinate clause
comma: . . or participial phrase by a comma. The comma is
. oftenomittedafterashortclauseorphrase: .
a picturesque French village an im-
pertinent little boy an eccentric old woman . After
In the following examples, omission of the
comma could cause ambiguity or confusion: .
loading all their luggage into the car and locking

. ..
up the house and garage, they set off on their
bright, blue curtains a freshly ironed, neatly holidays .
When it stops raining we will go out
. DANGLING PARTICIPLES.
3 Commas separate non-restrictive (or non-de- 7 Two or more main clauses linked by a co-
folded shirt See also

fining) or parenthetical clauses and phrases from ordinating conjunction ( , , , etc.) may be
the rest of the sentence: .
and or but
separated with a comma if necessary. The comma
The mayor, who is very
is usually omitted if the clauses have the same
.. subject or object: .
fond of gardening, presented the prizes at the

..
flower show My diamond necklace, a valuable Tom washed the dishes and
family heirloom, has been stolen . Sarah dried them He shut the door but forgot to
It is important to ensure that both commas are . If the clauses are fairly short the
comma is optional: .
turn out the light
present (unless the clause or phrase falls at the end
..
The lorry overturned but the
of the sentence) and that they enclose the appro- driver was uninjured The hotel is very comfor-
priate information: it should be possible to remove .
table, and the food is excellent
the words between the commas without affecting Between longer or more complex main clauses,
the basic message of the sentence. As a general a comma is often necessary to avoid ambiguity or
rule, the subject of a sentence should not be confusion. (Where such clauses are not linked by a
separated from its verb by a single comma, coordinating conjunction, they should be sepa-
although this rule is being flouted with increasingrated by a SEMICOLON rather than a comma.)
frequency when the subject is a long phrase: . 8 A comma may be used in place of a repeated
verb in the second of two related clauses: .
A
man killed by an inter-city express train at Hadden- She
ham station two weeks ago, was one of the speaks French and German; her husband, Spanish
county's leading bridge players ( ).
Bucks Herald . and Italian
Commas are not used around restrictive (or defin- See also DATES; LETTER WRITING; NUMBERS;
ing) or essential clauses or phrases: . QUOTATION MARKS.
..
The classical

commandant, commander or comman-

guitarist AndreÂs Segovia has died The skirt that I
.
In some cases, the removal or insertion of par- deer?
bought last week has a broken zip
and
Commandant are
commander
commemorate 62
nouns; commandeer is a verb. The noun commissionaire . This word, meaning `at-
commandant refers to an officer in com- tendant in uniform': the commissionaire at
mand of a particular group or establish- the theatre, is sometimes misspelt. Note the
ment, such as a military academy or -mm-, -ss-, single -n-, and the -aire ending.
prisoner-of-war camp; the noun ◆ Do not confuse this word with , commissioner
meaning `an important official of a government,
comman-

etc.': . .
der refers to an officer in command of a
military operation, ship, etc. is a high commissioner the police commis-
.
Commander
also the name of a rank in the Navy and is sioner
used in nonmilitary contexts to denote any-
body who is in command: . the commander
commitment The sense of commitment

.
which means `loyalty to a cause or ideology'
of the expedition. The verb commandeer

.
is an increasingly popular one: a genuine

.
means `seize, especially for military or

.
Christian commitment his commitment to
public use': They commandeered our car.

commemorate
the animal rights movement As my commit-

.
This word, meaning `re- ment to the struggle for a racial justice in-

member with a ceremony': They comme- tensified, I wanted to go further in my

morated the 50th anniversary of the relationship with the black community (Jim
revolution, is sometimes misspelt. Note par- Wallis, The New Radical). Many users dis-
ticularly the -mm- followed by a single m. like this word's overuse.

commence ◆ Note the - - and single of

mm . The - is
t commit t
Commence means the same as
not doubled in , unlike
commitment , committed
begin or start but should be used only in
committing, etc.
. committee
formal contexts, where its opposite is con-

.
clude, rather than end: The meeting will The noun committee may be

. .
commence at 9.30 a.m. and conclude at noon. singular or plural:
It sounds affected or pompous if one uses
The committee meets on

◆ com-
in contexts where or is appro-
Thursdays The committee were unable to

priate: . . . See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR or

mence begin start . reach a unanimous decision

I shall commence my new job tomorrow

The car commenced making a rattling noise . PLURAL?
is the noun from
and should be used in similar contexts: .
Commencement Note the spelling of
commence , particu- committee
larly the - -, - -, and - .
the
. It has a common see MUTUAL, COMMON or RECIPROCAL?
mm tt ee

commencement of the financial year

special meaning in the United States, where
is the ceremony at which students communal This word, meaning `of a com-
Com-

munity': .
mencement
receive degrees. , has two dif- communal living

commensurate Commensurate means

ferent pronunciations. Both [komyuuna
and [koÆ mewna
Æ l]
Æ l] are widely used. Careful

.
`equal in measure or extent; proportionate':
speakers, however, prefer the first of these
The rent charged is commensurate with the
pronunciations.

. communicate
flat's current value. The word is frequently
used in connection with job salaries: The verb communicate is

.
Remuneration will be commensurate with the followed by the preposition with or (some-

.
importance of this key role (Executive Post). thing) to: They communicated with each

commercialese Commercialese is a usually

other through an interpreter.
nicated the news to her staff.
She commu-

community
pejorative term applied to the jargon used
in the business and commercial world. has become a vo-
Typically such jargon is found in business letters
Community

and includes such abbreviations as: . . (this

◆ gue word in two different ways. The ap-

month) . . (last month) . . (next month), as .

inst plication of the word to a recognizable

well as such phrases as: . . .

ult prox group within a larger society: the Jewish

. .
Please find enclosed community the black community, has given

.
Further to your letter I beg to remain your the word an association with minority
esteemed favour .
your communication to hand racial groups, and now a
Unlike other forms of jargon, commercialese is
Council for Com-

munity Relations, a
becoming distinctly old-fashioned and most mod-
community relations of-
ficer, and so on, are those that deal with the
ern companies prefer to conduct their correspon- problems of black and Asian minorities in
dence in plain English. Britain.
 63 compete
◆ The community is also used in a much vaguer phrases like: . one of the more promising of
sense to mean `society in general'. When psychia- the new novelists , when it is clear that more than
tric patients are discharged from hospital and are two things or people are being compared, and the
recommended to be it
cared for in the community use of or - when only two things or people
most est
usually means no more than that they are to live in are being compared: We have two sons; Tom is the
society. youngest . A (possibly deliberate) mistake much
comparable used by advertisers is the use of the comparative
The traditional pronunciation
when it is unclear what is being compared: .
.
X
of this word is [kompa Æ ra
Æ bl]. The variant
washes whiter and cleaner! ,
Y gives you a better
Æ mparra
[ko Æ bl] is avoided by careful speakers.
STRESS. , and the unbridled use of super-
latives: .
closer shave!
See also

comparative superlative
The most luxurious holiday ever!
and The Finally, a frequent mistake is the misspelling of
as , probably based on
com-

form of an adjective or adverb is comparative comparitive

.
parative

.
used when two things or people are com- comparison
pared:
the
Anne is smaller than her sister,
superlative is used as the highest degree
while
comparatively Comparatively means `rela-
.
tively, as compared with a standard': It

.
of comparison between three or more
was comparatively inexpensive for vintage
things: Anne is the smallest girl in her class.

◆ The two main ways of forming comparatives and champagne.

◆ It is often used as a synonym for `rather, fairly, or

superlatives are by adding the suffixes - and - , somewhat', with no question of comparison: .
or preceding the word with or . sad±
er est
It is

± . ±
more most:
± a comparatively small resort , but many people
sadder saddest eager more eager
. One-syllable words always take - and
most
dislike this usage.
- , as do two-syllable words ending in - : . compareto comparewith
eager er

.
est y or ?
. Two-syllable words
Compare to

big±bigger pretty±prettiest and are not interchangeable.

ending in - , - , - sometimes also take - and
compare with

- :. ± . . ± .
le ow er er is used when things are being
±
Compare to

est little littlest shallow shallower clever likened to each other:

. Other two-syllable words and all words of
He compared her

threeormoresyllablestake and : .
cleverer skin to ivory. Compare with is used when

. .
more most more things are being considered from the point
. Most
compound adjectives can use either form: . .
abject most horrific most interesting of view of both similarities and differences:

.
fairer
. There are two well-
Tourists find London hotels expensive com-
minded more fair-minded pared with those of other European capitals.

known words with irregularly formed compara-

tives and superlatives: . ± ± . .
When compare is used intransitively, with
good/well better best should always be used:
± ± .
His direction

bad/badly worse worst compares with early Hitchcock.

More is used instead of - , even with one-
er ◆ In American English and
compared to compar-
syllable words, in certain contexts: when two are frequently used where is appro-
priate: . ..
able to with
adjectives are being compared with each other: ,
.
Compared to my brother I'm poor It's
; and when the , and
aptnessofanadjectiveisbeingchallenged: .
He's really more shy than aloof not comparable to the home-made version
She's these uses are coming into British English.
no more fat than a stick insect!
Absolute adjectives (see ADJECTIVES) cannot be compel impel or ? Both these verbs mean

used in comparative or superlative forms. One `force', but they differ in usage. Compel is

cannot say or
more total . It is, however,
emptier
used with human and non-human subjects
.
possible to use comparative forms when suggest- and implies strong obligation:
.
They com-

ing a closer approximation to perfection: . A fuller

pelled us to take part. Financial necessity

description will be given tomorrow . compelled him to accept the job. Impel is

Mistakes concerning comparatives and super- chiefly used with non-human subjects

latives include the use of the comparative in .

and implies an urge rather than an obliga-
.
phrases like: , tion: She felt impelled to protest. Fear

, instead of: . .
three times wider ten times more
impelled him to turn back.

compete
expensive three times as wide ten
, although when an actual
measure is specified it is appropriate to say: . .
times as expensive The verb compete is followed by

.
the preposition or against:

.
with We found

three feet wider ten pounds more expensive [or against] three
Another mistake is the use of or - in
ourselves competing with
more er other companies for the contract.
competent 64
competent The adjective competent
.
is fol- and a verb, complement suggests the addi-

.
lowed by the preposition at or in: Appli- tion of something necessary to make some-

.
cants must be competent at [or in] word thing whole or complete: a ship's

processing. complement The flowers complemented

competition contest or ? Competition and

the room's decor perfectly.

used as a noun and verb to refer to an

Compliment is

contest both involve rivalry with an oppo-

.
expression of praise, respect, or admiration:

.
nent or opponents and can be synonymous:

.
She complimented her host on the excellent
At 18 she won a contest/competition for
meal. with the compliments of the manage-
young musicians. However, contest is re-
ment. To avoid mistakes remember the e of
stricted to the sense of organized compe-
is also in complete.
The derived adjectives and
complement

.
titive events or exertions to achieve victory
◆ complementary com-
over opponents: the contest for nomination
plimentary are also confused, particularly when
as candidate. Competition
.
is used more gen-
is used in the sense of `given free':
.
complimentary
erally of rivalry: There will be keen
[not ]
.
a complimentary complementary copy of
competition for tickets, and is also used of
his latest book [not
two complimentary com-

.
the people or organization against which
]
plementary tickets to the exhibition .
complement supplement
one is competing: We must assess the
strengths and weaknesses of the competition. or ? Comple-

complacent complaisant
or ? A compla-
ment and supplement have a distinct differ-
ence in meaning. Both as noun and verb,
cent person is smug or self-satisfied; a
complement suggests the addition of some-
complaisant person is obliging or willing

.
thing necessary to make something whole
.
to comply. Both adjectives may be applied
or complete: The closures were forced by the

.
to the same noun: `We can't lose,' she said
hospital's inability to recruit 92 nurses out of
with a complacent smile. He opened the door

) .
its full complement of nearly 800 (Daily
with a complaisant smile.

◆ The two words should not be confused. They are Telegraph . The music complemented the

similar in pronunciation but quite different in tion to something that is suggests an addi-
mime aptly. Supplement

spelling: [koÆm seÆnt] ends in - ; .

complacent play cent
already complete:

complaisant [koÆm zaÆnt] ends in - .

play sant
.
Her fees for private tuition supplemented

Complacent is the more frequent word, com-

her teacher's salary. Most Sunday newspapers

plaisant being rather old-fashioned. publish a colour supplement.

complement complementary medicine alternative

medicine
The complement of a clause or
or sentence provides essential additional ? Complementary medicine is the
information about the SUBJECT or OBJECT. treatment of illnesses by such techniques
A complement may be a noun, adjective, and systems as osteopathy, acupuncture,
pronoun, or phrase. and homoeopathy. The term complemen-

◆ A subject complement usually follows such verbs suggests that the treatments
tary medicine

as , , , , , , , and and therapies complement ± fit in with and

. In the sentence .
be become turn look appear seem feel
, work alongside ± orthodox scientific med-
is the complement. In .
sound He became a teacher a
teacher icine; the term
They felt disap- , used for alternative medicine

, is the complement. The treatments such as herbalism and naturo-

clause .
pointed disappointed
where we live is the complement of pathy, emphasizes that such treatments are
the sentence .
This is where we live completely different from those of `conven-
An object complement usually follows the direct tional' medicine.
object of such verbs as , , , , complete When used to mean `total' com-
and . In the sentence .
make find declare elect

plete is an absolute adjective (see ADJECTIVES)

is the complement. In .
call You made me very
,
proud very proud The
,
judges declared him the winner the winner is the and
of it: .
many people dislike any modification

complement. .
We were in almost complete darkness

See also COMPLEMENT or COMPLIMENT?;

.
However, complete also has the meaning of

COMPLEMENT or SUPPLEMENT? `thorough': a complete overhaul, and in

complement compliment .
that sense can be modified with more or
or ? These two most: This is the most complete study of the

words are often confused. Both as a noun period yet published.

 65 computerate
complex The noun complex is taken from three bedrooms, a living room, kitchen, and
.
psychoanalysis, where it means `a set of bathroom. Its use in place of constitute:
subconscious repressed ideas and emotions Eleven players comprise a team is not gen-

. . .
which can cause an abnormal mental con- erally considered acceptable; its use in place
dition': an Oedipus complex an inferiority of compose: The team is comprised of eleven

complex. The term has been taken up and players is wrong.

used popularly to mean any behavioural See alsoCONSIST OF or CONSIST IN?; INCLUDE
problem or obsession, even if it is comple- or COMPRISE?
. . compound
tely conscious. This usage is disliked by
A compound is a word that
some. She's got a complex about spiders.
consists of two or more other words joined
`You're crazy,' Clevinger shouted . . . `You've

. . .
together, with or without a space or hy-
got a Jehovah complex' (Joseph Heller, Catch
phen: breakdown forget-me-not dining
22).
◆ Complex is also used to mean `something made ◆ There are no absolute rules governing the use of
room.

up of interrelated parts' and this is now often spaces and hyphens in many compounds (see
applied to a group of buildings as in: . HYPHEN 2).
.
shopping
complex housing complex . The plural of a compound noun is usually
complex or complicated? and
Complex formed by making the noun element plural: .
. sons-in-law.
complicated are very similar in meaning passers-by
and the differences in usage are subtle ones. See also PLURALS.
The coining of new compound verbs, such as
are intimately combined': .
Both mean `consisting of many parts which
or drug-test , is disliked by some
rubber-stamp
people
This is a com-
. .
emphasizes the fact that the multi- See also VERBS.
plex/complicated problem

◆ Complicated
faceted nature of a thing makes it difficult to solve As a noun or adjective, the word is compound
or understand, and there is sometimes a negative stressed on the first syllable [ pownd]; as a verb kom
connotation to it ± a suggestion that it could it is stressed on the second syllable [koÆmp ].
possibly be simpler: .
ownd

comprehend see APPREHEND or COMPRE-

Compared with Scottish

is more neutral and HEND?

procedure, housebuying in England is unnecessa-
.
emphasizes the intricacy of the combination of comprehensible or comprehensive?
rily complicated Complex

parts rather than the resulting difficulties: . These two adjectives are derived from
The
blood-clotting system is a complex mechanism . different senses of the verb comprehend

compliant The word compliant, meaning

(see APPREHEND or COMPREHEND?). Compre-
hensible means `understandable'; compre-
`acquiescent' or `complying', may be used

.
hensive means `including all or most
in combination with other nouns to indi-

.
things': The explanation must be compre-

.
cate that something conforms to a parti-
hensible to the average reader. fully com-

.
cular system, set of rules, etc.: This
prehensive car insurance.

comprise COMPOSE COMPRISE

program is fully web-compliant. We have
checked that the machine is industry-compli- see , or CONSTI-
ant. TUTE INCLUDE COMPRISE
?; or ?

compliment complimentary COMPLE-

, see compulsive compulsory or ? Both these
MENT or COMPLIMENT? adjectives are derived from the verb com-

compose comprise constitute

, or ? All
pel, meaning `force'. Compulsive

something that one is forced to do by an

refers to

these verbs are concerned with parts mak-

internal or psychological urge; compulsory
ing up a whole. Compose and constitute are

.
refers to something that one is forced to do
both used to mean `come together to make

.
by an external rule or law: a compulsive

.
(a whole)' but compose is usually used in the
gambler a compulsory payment.

. computerate
passive and constitute in the active: The

team is composed of several experts. the The word computerate

commodities that constitute the average house- means `able to operate a computer; experi-

.
hold diet. Comprise can only be used to enced in computing'. It is a blend of the
mean `consist of': The house comprises synonymous phrase computer literate (see
concede 66
LITERAL, LITERARY LITERATE?)
. .
or and is often hence the possible confusion with condemn:

used in job advertisements: Applicants The association does not condone reckless
must be computerate and able to work under driving.

pressure.
condition precondition
concede
or ? A condition is

.
This verb, meaning `admit' or a requirement or stipulation on which an
`yield', is sometimes misspelt. Note the agreement or contract depends: I will let

-cede ending, as in the verb cede, which you go on condition that you are back before

is similar in meaning. midnight. While a condition can be fulfilled

concept The precise meaning of concept is

either before or after the agreement is
made, a precondition is a requirement that
`an idea of a category or thing which is
.
must be satisfied in advance of an agree-
formed by generalization from particular ment being made: Assent to the manifesto
instances'. The meaning has widened to was a precondition of membership.
embrace ideas in general, and is often now can be used, not just of agreements,
and states of being: .
◆ Condition

cular thing': .
used to mean `an accepted idea of a parti- but also of situations
.
the
the concept of alternative
condition of the world . in good/poor condition
medicine . It is frequently used very loosely The words and condition are used precondition
to mean little more than `an idea or notion', synonymously to mean anything which has to be
dislike this usage: .
particularly in advertising. Many people true or occur before something else can happen: .
a new concept in slim-
The establishment of a just society is an essential
ming .
means `form a concept' or `inter- .
condition/precondition for peace

pretconceptually': .
◆ Conceptualize
condone see CONDEMN or CONDONE?
The Greeks conceptualized all
their experiences in terms of the gods. It should conducive The adjective
not be used to mean `think', `imagine', or `visua- lowed by the preposition : . is fol- conducive

lize'. .
ment conducive to mental concentration
to an environ-

concerned The adjective concerned may be conduit This word, which describes a pipe
followed by about or for when it means or channel conveying liquid, has various

.
`anxious' and by with when it means `on the pronunciations. The most widely used is

.
subject of': We are very concerned about [kondyuuit], but [kondit], [kundit], and

.
pollution. The article is concerned with [kondwit] are also heard.

.
pollution. They are concerned for his health.

The organization is concerned with public

confidant confident
or ?A confidant, fem-
health.
inine confidante, is someone in whom one
◆ For discussion of the phrase as far as . . . is can confide. Both words are pronounced
concerned , see AS FAR AS. either [konfidant] or [konfidant]. These

concerning .
means `relating to,
nouns should not be confused with the

.
Concerning adjective confident which means `assured
on the subject of, or about': The head or certain': a confident young man.
teacher is available to talk to people concern-
ing their career choices.
confide The verb
.
confide is followed by the

◆ It is normally used between two clauses rather

..
preposition in or to: He confided in his

than at the beginning of a sentence and is rather sister He confided his problems to his sister.

more formal than . about conform The verb conform

.
is followed by

condemn condoneor ? These words are

the preposition
not conform with
with

[or
or to: The results did

to] our expectations.

confrontation
opposite in meaning. To condemn means

.
`declare something to be unacceptably bad A confrontation is a face-to-

or evil' or `give a punishment to someone':
to condemn the atrocities/terrorist activities
The prisoners were condemned to death.
condone behaviour that is wrong means to
accept it, or turn a blind eye to it, con-
sidering it harmless or unimportant.
done is sometimes used with a negative,
. .
face meeting, especially in the context of
opposition, challenge, or defiance: St
To George's confrontation with the dragon. Pop-
ular journalism has now weakened the
meaning so that any disagreement or con-
Con- flict of ideas is now inevitably referred to as
a confrontation.
 67 connote
◆ Similarly, anyone with a tendency to argumen- . . . . .
:.
or sentences:
tativeness is described as
and but or because

confrontational Mr when.
Underhill said Mr Senchak's style `was that of the ◆ , and are known as coordinating
And, but, yet or
conjunctions. They connect words and clauses of
thesamegrammaticaltype: . .
old-fashioned confrontational ``us and them'' un-
(
ion official' The Times ). Martha and Mary I

congenial genial congenital genet- love Mozart but I detest Mahler . They often con-
ic
, , or
nect clauses which share a common verb and this
? Both congenial and genial mean `plea-
does not need to be repeated: . She is young yet
sant'; congenial
.
is usually applied to abstract
. and can be used only to
surprisingly wise But yet
nouns and
.
genial to people: a congenial
. link two sentence elements, but and can
linkmorethantwo: .
and or
atmosphere He finds the work congenial. a
I'm tired and cold and hungry
genial host. Congenial company refers to
and miserable .
people who share one's interests or atti-
Conjunctions such as , , ,
because when if
tudes; genial company refers to people who
,
though unless are known as subordinating con-
are friendly and cheerful.
junctions, as they connect a subordinate clause to
Congenital means `existing from birth';
. its main clause: .
..
He's fat because he eats too
genetic means `relating to genes':
.
conge-
much .
It won't work unless everyone cooperates
nital brain damage genetic engineering. A
Correlative conjunctions are the pairs either . . .
congenital defect is not hereditary or inher-
and which are always used
together: .
or neither . . . nor
ited; a genetic defect is hereditary or inher-

..
Neither Williams nor Jenkins is now
ited.
The adjectives and are an MP He's either wicked or mad.
◆ congenital
sometimes confused, being similar in spelling.
congenial
Few people still have objections to sentences
Note that the of is short, as in starting with the conjunctions , , and , and but or

men , whereas the of

e congenital
mean .
congressman congresswoman
NON-SEXIST TERMS
is long, as in
e congenial
which can be effective if used sparingly.
See also individual entries for conjunc-
tions and SINGULAR or PLURAL?
or ? see
conjurer conjuror
.
or
perfectly acceptable.
? Either spelling is

congruent congruous or ? Both congruent

connect The verb connect is followed by
and congruous are formal words. If one

. .
the preposition to or with in the sense `join':
thing is congruent with another, there is
A narrow lane connects the farm to [or
a similarity or connection between them:
.
with] the village. In the sense `associate' it is
ritualistic and mystical elements congruent
followed by the preposition with: The
with the expectations of converted pagans.
broken window may not be connected with

.
Congruous refers to something that is in
the robbery.

connection connexion
harmony with something else: decorations

congruous with their surroundings. Congru- or ? This word,

.
ous is more often found in its negative form meaning `a relationship between two

.
incongruous, which is less formal than con- things; joint': His death must have had

.
gruous and is used to refer to a person or some connection with the stormy weather.
thing that seems strange and out of place: faulty electrical connections, is usually spelt
behaviour that was incongruous with his connection. Connexion is a rarer variant
beliefs. In mathematics, two shapes are spelling, especially in British English.
congruent
shape: .
if they are equal in size and
congruent triangles.
connoisseur A person who is an expert

conjoined
within a certain field is called a connoisseur.
Conjoined twins is the preferred Note the -nn-, -oi-, and -ss- in the spelling.
term for babies that are born joined to-
connote denote or ? These two verbs are
.
gether, replacing the previous Siamese
sometimes confused. Denote, the more fre-
twins: The doctors have succeeded in separ-

.
quent of the two, refers to the literal or
ating conjoined twins delivered at the hospital

.
primary meaning of something: The word
last Sunday.

conjunctions
`bachelor' denotes an unmarried man. Tears
Conjunctions are words do not always denote sadness. Connote, a
which link two or more words, clauses, more formal word, means `imply' or
conscience 68
.
.
`suggest', referring to secondary meaning consequent grief her bereavement and sub-

or association: For some people, the word sequent remarriage. Consequent takes the

.
`bachelor' connotes freedom. preposition on, while subsequent takes to:

conscience Note the spelling of this word,

.
increase in salaries consequent on the pay
review his behaviour subsequent to his
particularly the -sci- in the middle and the
arrival.

consequential CONSEQUENT
-ce ending. The second syllable is identical
in spelling (but not in pronunciation) with see or CONSE-
the noun science. QUENTIAL?
conscientious conscious .
or ? Conscientious conservative Conservative
or ? The word
means `diligent and careful': She was a conservative with a lowercase c- means

.
conscientious worker. Conscious means `tending to support tradition and estab-

.
`aware' or `awake': He was so tired he lished institutions, opposed to change,
was barely conscious. Both words are some- moderate, cautious, conventional': The

.
times misspelt: note in particular the -sc- in college has a reputation for being conservative
the middle of both words and the -t- in and still refuses to admit women students. He

.
conscientious. has conservative tastes and dresses in sombre

consensus Consensus means `opinion

colours. A Conservative

supports or is a member of the Conserva-

is someone who

.
shared unanimously, a view generally held

.
tive Party in Britain or elsewhere; it is also
or accepted': He had broken the pro-nuclear
used as an adjective: a Conservative MP.
consensus shared by all postwar leaders
A
(Sun-
◆ is one that is cautious
conservative estimate
).
◆ As the meaning contains the idea of a generally
day Times
and moderate, but the term is often used to mean
held opinion, the frequently used expressions `a low estimate': . It's worth a million pounds at

and are
gen-
.
the most conservative estimate

consider
eral consensus consensus of opinion
tautologies, and are avoided by careful users.
, .
means `regard as being':
is frequently misspelt as
Consider

perhaps from a mistaken belief that it is connected carefully': .

Consensus concensus , `think about
I consider him a nonentity

with the word . In fact it derives from the , and `regard sympathetically': .
I have considered all aspects of the
census
same root as .
problem We

consent will not fail to consider your feelings on the

consent see ASSENT or CONSENT? .

◆ In the first sense given above,
matter

is more or
consequent or consequential?
consider
less synonymous with , and this leads
..
regard as
somepeopletoadd to
Conse-

.
means `following as a direct result': as consider He considered
. This construction is
quent
their work as vitally important
wrong. There is, however, nothing wrong with
She was knocked down by a lorry and her

using when is used in the sense of

consequent injuries left her a permanent in-

`think about, give consideration to': .

valid. Consequential , a rarer word than as consider

as a direct result': .
, is also used to mean `following The songs
,
consequent
are tuneful but considered as an opera the work
.
the improvement in the

local economy and the consequential loss of the lacks solidity

area's special

means `important':
status.
.
Consequential

Their decisions were

also
considerable Considerable
.
means `worth
consideration; significant': She has made
becoming increasingly consequential in deter-
a considerable contribution to biochemical
mining the direction of the company. It is also

.
research. It has been extended to mean
used in legal expressions such as consequen-
`large in amount': They have saved a
tial loss to mean `an indirect result' and has
considerable amount of money, although

.
the additional meaning of `self-important;
some people dislike the imprecise nature
pompous': His manner was pretentious and
of this use.
consequential.
is usually attached to abstract
consequent subsequent nouns: . .
◆ Considerable
or ? a considerable quantity considerable
, but in American English it can be used
Consequent

with concrete nouns: .

and subsequent are sometimes confused. numbers of
While means `following as a They have mined consid-
. This use is not yet acceptable in British
consequent

.
direct result', simply means erable gold
English although when the meaning is `significant'
subsequent
`occurring after': her bereavement and
 69 contemptible
one can attach considerable to a concrete noun: . contacts, and `communication': .
.
I am in

a considerable pianist regular contact with her. A modern use is `a

consist of consist in
or ?
.
Consist of means
one': .
person one knows who may be useful to
I have a good contact at the Home
`comprise, be made up of': Breakfast
Office.
consists of bread, croissants, jam, and coffee.
The use of the verb
. to mean `commu-
nicate with': .
◆ contact
Consist in means `have its essence in': The
is still
I will contact you next week
appeal of the writing consists in its use of
disliked as an Americanism by some people. It is,
language rather than its content
◆ Consist of
.
however, particularly useful in cases where
usually precedes a list of concrete wishes to avoid specifying whether communica- one
nouns, while is usually applied to ab- tion will be made by letter, telephone, message, or
consist in
stract nouns. personal visit.
consonant A consonant is the sound re- contagious infectious
or ? Contagious and
presented by any of the letters b, c, d, f, g, h,
infectious are both used of diseases that can
j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, and z in the be passed on to others. diseases
VOWEL.
Contagious
English language. Compare
◆ The presence of a consonant at the beginning of
are those that are passed on by physical

aword may affect the form or pronunciation of the contact, like venereal diseases or impetigo;

preceding word (see A or AN?; THE). infectious diseases are those passed on by

Note that in such words as and , the party rhyme

airborne or waterborne microorganisms,

letter functions as a vowel.

-y-
In figurative use the words are synonymous: .
like measles or influenza.
◆
consortium consortia or ? is a His optimistic mood was infectious/contagious .
containerize
Consortia

.
plural form of the noun consortium, which Containerize is a verb formed
means `association of companies': a con- from the noun container in its sense of a
sortium of insurance brokers. The plural large packing case in which goods are

.
form -ia is sometimes wrongly used in transported by road and sea, being handled
place of the singular noun: Now only mechanically throughout. To containerize

.
Phonepoint, a consortia led by British Tele- means both `pack into containers for trans-
com, and Byps, owned by Hutchison Telecom port and transport in this method': The
UK, are keen to offer the mobile phone service beans must be containerized before the end of
(The Guardian).
The plural form is also acceptable. .
the week; and `change over to the use of
◆ consortiums containers': We are containerizing our

constable A police officer of the lowest

shipping procedures.

rank is known as a
two pronunciations: [kunsta
constable.
Æ bl] or [kon-
The word has contemporary The primary meaning of

.
contemporary is `happening or living at the
Æ bl], both of which are acceptable.
sta same time as': Joyce was contemporary with

constitute COMPOSE comprise

see , or CON- the Bloomsbury group, though not a member

STITUTE? of it. It has more recently been used to

constrain restrain .
mean `happening at the present time; cur-
or ? Both these verbs rent': Contemporary values are materialistic
mean `hold back' or `limit', but there are and selfish.
differences of usage and application be- A development of this meaning has been the
◆
tween them. Constrain use of
is more formal to mean `modern, up-to-
contemporary
date', sometimes qualified with , ,
etc.: .
and implies an abstract or undesirable re- very extremely

force: .
striction; may involve physical
restrain They sell the most contemporary fashions in
. This use is disliked by many people and is
. .
Such strict guidelines constrain crea- town
. best avoided. One should beware of ambiguities
has the additional and more frequent between the first and second meanings of
tivity He struggled to restrain the dog

meaning of `compel': . :.
◆ Constrain con-
.
I felt constrained to resign temporary a contemporary biography of Shelley

contact The meanings of . as a noun one writtenonerecently.

may mean
contact
written when Shelley was alive, or
contemptible contemptuous
include `the state of touching': He avoided

.
all physical contact with dogs, `link or rela- or ? Both
tionship': The two towns have commercial contemptible and contemptuous are con-
contest 70
cerned with contempt, but they have dis- tions in English are those of the verbs am,

tinctly different meanings. Contemptible are, is, have, has, had, will, shall, would, and

. . . . . . .
means `despicable; deserving scorn or con- the word not combined with an auxiliary

. .
tempt': His meanness was contemptible. verb: I'm you're she's we've he'll

.
means `scornful, feeling or shouldn't.

◆ An apostrophe indicates the missing letter(s),

Contemptuous they'd can't

showing contempt':
although in the contraction , where there
She observed his feeble

efforts with a contemptuous smile. shan't

contest COMPETITION CONTEST? are actually two sets of missing letters, only the
see or
missing is indicated. The contracted form can
o 'd
contingency A contingency is `something stand for either or , and can be either
is has us
had
or ± or when used in the word ; it
would 's
let's
should always be clear from the context which
that happens by chance; something unfore-

. word is intended. Two irregular contractions are

seen that might possibly occur in the fu-

(will not) and (are not), which can also

ture': We must prepare ourselves for every

, as in: . .
won't aren't
mean
contingency.

◆ In modern use the word almost always appears am not Aren't I right? Aren't I
in the phrase and is usually clever!
Contractions are almost always used in
contingency plans
applied, not to unforeseen future events, but to
those that are predictable, although not inevitable: speech. They should always be used in written
. passages of dialogue, and they are generally
acceptable in all but the most formal writing.
The council have made contingency plans in
.
Some contractions are more likely to be written
case of a severe winter

continual or continuous ? than others . and: . are more

acceptable in writing than: . .
Continual . He's late Jill's late

.
means `frequently repeated': continuous Dinner's late The
means `without break or interruption': , and the contraction (except when
used with personal pronouns: . ): .
train's late 'll

. ..
Our neighbour's continual complaints forced I'll Tim'll be
us to move house. The continuous noise from there is not usually used
The bus'll be on time
the generator kept him awake all night. in writing.
◆ The fundamental difference in sense, which also Care should be taken with the placing of the
applies to the adverbs and
continually continu- apostrophe. A frequent mistake is placing it where
ously, is that something stops from time
continual the syllables break, rather than where the letter is
to time, whereas something does not
continuous missing: . [not ].
stop until it reaches its natural end. It is acceptable See also AIN'T; 'S or S'?
wouldn't would'nt

in certain contexts to interchange the two words, contrary This word, meaning `opposed in
but this may lead to ambiguity and is therefore position': .
best avoided if possible. is not used of
Continual On the contrary, I would like to go

physical objects, such as a ,

continuous roll of paper , is stressed on the first syllable
for a walk

nor may be substituted for in [stubborn':

Æ ri]. Only in the sense `perverse or
tra
.
kon

such phrases as: .

continuous continual
.
continual interruptions , is it stressed
such a contrary girl

continuance continuation continu- contribute

on the second syllable [ko Æn i]. trair

ity
, or
In the traditional pronuncia-
? All three nouns are derived from
tion of this word, the stress is on the second
the verb continue. Continuance is the act
syllable [ko Æ ntribyoot]: some users dislike
of continuing, usually without a break,
the pronunciation with the word stressed
.
whereas continuation may be the act of
on the first syllable [kontribyoot].
.
continuing after a break:
controversy
the continuance
of the strike a continuation of yesterday's In the traditional pronuncia-
discussion. In some contexts, such as the first tion of this word, the stress falls on the first
example above, continuance and continua- Æ versi]. The variant pronun-
syllable [kontro
tion are interchangeable. Continuity is the ciation, with stress on the second syllable
CONTINUAL or
CONTINUOUS?): .
state of being continuous (see [koÆ ntrove
Æ rsi], is widely heard, but is dis-
the continuity of the action. liked by many users.

continuous CONTINUAL CONTINUOUS STRESS See also .

continuous tense PROGRESSIVE TENSE convalescence

see or ?
This word, meaning `re-
see .

contractions
covery after an illness', is sometimes mis-
The most common contrac- spelt. Note the combinations sc and nc.
 71 correspondent
convenient The adjective convenient
. cord
is cooperate COLLABORATE or COOPERATE?
see

see CHORD or CORD?

followed by the preposition to or for:
[or for]

cordon bleu
Come whenever it is convenient to

you. The French phrase cordon

converse inverse obverse reverse

, , or ?
bleu is used to refer to cookery or a cook
of the highest standard: . cordon bleu
These four words share the sense of
cuisine.
◆ The French phrase literally means `blue ribbon',
`opposite'; in some contexts they are
interchangeable. The noun converse
from the blue ribbon worn by members of the
specifically denotes
.
something that is
highest order of chivalry under the Bourbon mon-
opposite in meaning: the converse of this
archy. Its anglicized pronunciation is [kawdon(g)
statement. Inverse
.
is more frequently used as
an adjective in such phrases as
bler].
co-respondent CORRESPONDENT
in inverse
proportion; obverse, a formal word and the see or CO-
RESPONDENT
.
least common of the four, refers to a ?
counterpart: The obverse of the company's

success is the failure of its rivals. Reverse, the corporal corporeal.

or ? Corporal means
most frequent and general of the four `relating to the body': corporal punish-
ment. It should not be confused with
. .
words, may be used as a verb, noun, or cor-

.
poreal, which means `physical' or `material':
.
adjective: to reverse a decision to do the
in reverse order. Her imaginary friend has no corporeal

and may also refer to the two

reverse

is pronounced [ praÆl]. is
◆ Obverse reverse reality.

sides of a coin, being `heads' and ◆ Corporal kor Corporeal

pronounced [kor eeaÆl].
obverse reverse
`tails'. por

The converseof a statement or proposition is corps corpse

one that reverses the elements of the proposition: or ? The noun corps, meaning

. You say that your mother dislikes you but in fact

`body of people', should not be confused

the converse is true ± . The

you dislike your mother .
with the noun corpse,
.
meaning `dead body':

word is now usually used much more loosely to the diplomatic corps The corpse lay

mean `opposite': . The previous speaker claimed

undiscovered for several weeks.

◆ Both are ultimately derived from the Latin

,
that nuclear weapons help to preserve peace but I
`body', via the French noun . The English
corpus

maintain the converse . The adverb , conversely

word retains the French pronunciation
corps

similarly, is now used to mean just `on the other corps

[kor], whereas , which entered English from
hand': . In such an emergency one can stop the car
corpse
Old French some 400 years earlier, is pronounced
, ,
or conversely one can accelerate out of danger . [korps].
The noun or adjective is stressed on the
first syllable [ vers]. The verb
kon
converse
, meaning
converse correspond There are two main mean-
`have a conversation', is stressed on the second ings of correspond. One is `communicate
.
syllable [koÆn ]. vers with someone by exchange of letters': He

convertible .
This word, meaning `capable
met his Italian
corresponded for years.
penfriend after
The other meaning
they had

of being changed': car, is

.
convertible is `match or be equivalent or comparable
sometimes misspelt. The ending is -ible, in some respect': Your account corresponds
not -able.

.
exactly with the description of the other

cool Cool is widely employed as a slang

witnesses.

roughly corresponds
The French

to the
baccalaureÂat
British A-level

.
term variously meaning `fashionable' or

In this second meaning is con-

exam.

.
`excellent': He looks really cool in that
◆ correspond to
jacket. We had a cool time at the party. As
sidered correct by many careful users, although
the dominant slang term of approval
correspond with is often used.
correspondent co-respondent
among young people since the late 1980s,
it is used both in longer sentences and on its or ?A cor-

. .
own as an exclamation. Its overuse should respondent is someone who communicates
be avoided: `We could go to a restaurant by letter: She has correspondents in three
later.' `Cool.' continents, or someone who contributes
See also CHILL. news reports to a newspaper or to radio
cosmetic 72
or television programmes: . And now a could have could ofor ? see OF.
report from our Middle East correspondent.
co-respondent is the person cited in divorce
A
council counsel
or ? The noun council

.
means `a body of people meeting for dis-
.
proceedings as the lover of the husband or
wife who has been accused of adultery: cussion and consultation': the county

.
council. The noun counsel means `advice':
Divorced couples hobnobbed with each other
She always gave wise counsel, and the
and with each other's co-respondents (Noel

.
Coward, Present Indicative).
corresponding verb counsel means `give

cosmetic Some people dislike the use of

advice to someone':
.
She was counselled

.
about her future career. He was counselled
cosmetic as an adjective to apply to anything against acting rashly. psychiatric counselling.

.
that improves the outward appearance of A (in American English, sometimes
◆ councillor
something: One supplier of decaffeinated ) is a person who belongs to a
councilor , council
just as a (in American English, some-
:.
coffee . . . plans to switch from the chemical counsellor
process . . . although a spokesman insisted this times ) is a person who
counselor counsels
( .
is a lawyer or group of lawyers: .
was necessary for `cosmetic' reasons only Sun- marriage-guidance counsellors
). A
◆ It is extended further to anything which makes a .
day Times counsel
.
superficial improvement but does not make any
Queen's Counsel the counsel for the defence

fundamental change: . counsel or advise? In many instances

Opposition claims that the

.
Government's inner-city plans would have only a counsel and advise are synonymous,
cosmetic effect were hotly denied by the Depart- although counsel is rather more formal:
ment of the Environment . I would advise/counsel you not to drink any

cost price
or ? Cost and price are often used
more if you're driving home. Advise
likely to be used in informal contexts and
is more

synonymously as nouns to mean `the

.
when the advice is not of great importance:

.
amount paid or charged for something':
He advised me to go on the ring road.
We were afraid the cost/price would be
Counsel is more appropriate when the ad-
more than we could afford. Cost is more

.
vice is serious and when it is given by

.
likely to refer to an amount paid and price
trained or professional counsellors: He
to an amount charged: An increase in
has been counselled by social workers, doctors,
manufacturing costs will result in higher
and clergy but he still can't sort out his
prices.

is more often used when preceded by an problems.

adjective: . .
◆ Price
,
andwhen speaking of the amount needed in order COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES
an exorbitant price bargain prices

to bribe someone: . ` The right-hand column lists the words

All those men have their
' (Sir Robert Walpole). is used in the used as adjectives and nouns referring to
plural for the expenses of a lawsuit: .
price Cost
the countries in the left-hand column and
The court
awarded him costs , and either or is used their people. A single item in the right-
cost price
to describe the expenditure in terms of effort and hand column, such as `Albanian', indicates
sacrifice made in order to achieve an end: . ` that the same word is used as adjective and
To
' (St Ignatius Loyo- noun. `Argentinian Argentine' indicates
la). .
give and not to count the cost or

This was indeed a high price to pay for that either of these words may be used as an
success . adjective or a noun.

couch potato The slang term couch potato

Where the adjective and noun are not
identical, they are separated by a semicolon,
originated in American English in the mid-
with the adjective first: `Danish; a Dane'
1970s and entered British English in the
indicates that Danish is the adjective and
late 1980s. It is applied to people who spend
Dane the noun.

.
most of their leisure time watching televi-

.
Most of the nouns can be converted to
sion: We are inexorably mutating into a

.
plural or collective form by adding -s: the
coast-to-coast allotment of couch potatoes
Albanians a party of Danes. However, the
(The Guardian). The term is best avoided
plural and collective form of nouns ending
in formal contexts.

could . .
in -ese and -ois is identical to the singular
see CAN or MAY? form: the Chinese the Seychellois. Other
 73 COUNTRIES
irregular plurals and collective forms are China Chinese
separated from the singular noun by a ( CHINESE)
see
second semicolon, as at `Lesothan; a Colombia Colombian
Mosotho . . .; the Basotho . . .' and `Irish; Comoros, the Comoran
an Irishman (or -woman); the Irish'. Congo Congolese
Cross-references, e.g. see CHINESE, are also Costa Rica Costa Rican
included to main entries in the Good Word CoÃte d'Ivoire Ivorian
Guide. Croatia Croatian; a Croat or
a Croatian
Afghanistan Afghan Cuba Cuban
Albania Albanian Cyprus Cypriot
Algeria Algerian Czech Republic Czech
Andorra Andorran Denmark Danish; a Dane
Angola Angolan Djibouti Djibouti
Antigua and Barbuda Antiguan Dominica Dominican
Argentina Argentinian or Dominican Republic,
Argentine the Dominican
( ARGENTINE ARGENTINIAN
see or ?) East Timor East Timorese
Armenia Armenian Ecuador Ecuadorean or
Australia Australian Ecuadorian or
Austria Austrian Ecuadoran
Azerbaijan Azeri Azerbaijani
or Egypt Egyptian
Bahamas, the Bahamian El Salvador Salvadorean or
Bahrain Bahraini Salvadorian or
Bangladesh Bangladeshi Salvadoran
Barbados Barbadian England English; an Englishman
Belarus seeByelorussia ( -woman); the
or
Belau Belauan English
Belgium Belgian Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinean
Belize Belizean Eritrea Eritrean
Benin Beninese Beninois or Estonia Estonian
Bermuda Bermudan or Ethiopia Ethiopian
Bermudian Falkland Islands, Falklands;
Bhutan Bhutanese the a Falkland Islander
Bolivia Bolivian Fiji Fijian
Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnian Finland Finnish; a Finn
Botswana Botswanan France French; a Frenchman
Brazil Brazilian ( -woman); the
or
Brunei Bruneian French
Bulgaria Bulgarian Gabon Gabonese
Burkina Faso Burkinabe Gambia the Gambia Gambian
or
Burma seeMyanmar Georgia Georgian
Burundi Burundian Germany German
Byelorussia Byelorussian Ghana Ghanaian
Cambodia Cambodian Gibraltar Gibraltarian
Cameroon Cameroonian Great Britain British; a Briton; the
Canada Canadian British
Cape Verde Cape Verdian or ( BRITAIN; BRIT)
see
Cape Verdean Greece Greek
Cayman Islands, the Caymanian; ( GREEK GRECIAN?)
see or
a Cayman Islander Grenada Grenadian
Central African Guatemala Guatemalan
Republic, the Central African Guinea Guinean
Chad Chadian Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissauan
Chile Chilean Guyana Guyanese Guyanan
or
COUNTRIES 74
Haiti Haitian Mauritius Mauritian
Holland see Netherlands, the Mexico Mexican
Honduras Honduran Micronesia, Federated
Hungary Hungarian States of Micronesian
Iceland Icelandic; an Icelander Moldova Moldovan
India Indian Monaco Monacan or
Indonesia Indonesian Monegasque
Iran Iranian Mongolia Mongolian Mongol
or
Iraq Iraqi Montenegro Montenegrin
Ireland, Republic of Irish; an Irishman Montserrat Montserratian
(Eire) ( -woman); the
or Morocco Moroccan
Irish Mozambique Mozambican
(
see also NORTHERN IRELAND )
in table Myanmar (Burma) Myanmar Burmese
or
Israel Israeli Namibia Namibian
Italy Italian Nauru Nauruan
Ivory Coast see CoÃte d'Ivoire Nepal Nepalese
Jamaica Jamaican Netherlands, the Dutch;
Japan Japanese a Netherlander or
Jordan Jordanian a Dutchman ( or
Kazakhstan Kazakh -woman); the
Kenya Kenyan Dutch
Kiribati Kiribati New Zealand New Zealand;
Korea Korean a New Zealander
(
see also NORTH KOREA, SOUTH KOREA )in table Nicaragua Nicaraguan
Kuwait Kuwaiti Niger Nigerien
Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyz; a Kyrgyzstani Nigeria Nigerian
Laos Laotian Lao
or Northern Ireland Northern Irish;
Latvia Latvian Lettish;
or a Northern Irishman
a Latvian a Lett
or or( -woman); the
Lebanon Lebanese Northern Irish
Lesotho Lesothan; a Mosotho North Korea North Korean
or a Lesothan; Norway Norwegian
the Basotho or Oman Omani
the Lesothans Pakistan Pakistani
Liberia Liberian Panama Panamanian
Libya Libyan Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinean
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein; Paraguay Paraguayan
a Liechtensteiner Peru Peruvian
Lithuania Lithuanian Philippines, the Philippine;
Luxembourg Luxembourg or a Filipino
Luxembourgian or Poland Polish; a Pole
Luxembourger; Portugal Portuguese
a Luxembourger Puerto Rico Puerto Rican
Macedonia Macedonian Qatar Qatari
Madagascar Madagascan or Romania Romanian
Malagasy; Russia Russian
a Madagascan or Rwanda Rwandan
a Malagasy St Kitts and Nevis Kittitian
Malawi Malawian St Lucia St Lucian
Malaysia Malaysian St Vincent and the
Maldives, the Maldivian Grenadines St Vincentian
Mali Malian Samoa Samoan
Malta Maltese San Marino San Marinese or
Marshall Islands Marshallese Sanmarinese
Mauritania Mauritanian SaÄo Tome and PrõÂncipe SaÄo TomeÂan
 75 coup d'eÂtat
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian or Vanuatu Vanuatuan
Saudi Vatican City Vatican
Scotland Scottish; a Scot or Venezuela Venezuelan
a Scotsman Vietnam Vietnamese
( -woman); the
or Wales Welsh; a Welshman
Scots the Scottish
or ( -woman); the
or
( SCOTCH, SCOTS SCOTTISH?)
see or Welsh
Senegal Senegalese Yemen Yemeni
Serbia Serbian Serb
or Yugoslavia Yugoslavian or
Seychelles, the Seychellois Yugoslav
Sierra Leone Sierra Leonean Zambia Zambian
Singapore Singaporean Zimbabwe Zimbabwean
Slovakia Slovak
Slovenia Slovenian country countryside
Solomon Islands, the Solomon Islands; or ? Both these

a Solomon Islander .
words may be used to denote a rural area:

Somalia Somalian Somali

or
We went for a walk in the country/country-

South Africa South African side. Countryside is commonly preceded by

South Korea South Korean the

.
and usually only country
.
occurs before a

Spain Spanish; a Spaniard; noun: the English countryside a country

the Spanish cottage/lane.

In the sense of `nation' or `state', the noun

Sri Lanka Sri Lankan ◆
cannot be replaced by :.
Sudan Sudanese country countryside
[not
A flu

Suriname Surinamese epidemic is sweeping the country

].
country-

Swaziland Swazi side

Sweden Swedish; a Swede country nation .

or ? These words are often
Switzerland Swiss; a Swiss; used interchangeably: the poorer countries/

the Swiss nations of the world. Strictly speaking coun-

Syria Syrian try should be used when the context is one

.
Taiwan Taiwanese of geographical characteristics: Wales is a

Tajikistan Tajik Tadjik

or mountainous country, and nation when
Tanzania Tanzanian .
speaking of the people or of social and
Thailand Thai political characteristics: Wales is a nation

Togo Togolese of musicians and orators.

Tonga Tongan ◆ Nation carries a suggestion of a people with a

Trinidad and Tobago Trinidadian common culture, language, and traditions, and is
often better replaced with the more general
or
Tobagoan peo-
Tunisia Tunisian ple when describing a multicultural society like
Turkey Turkish; a Turk modern Britain.
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Turkmen
Tuvaluan
countryman countrywoman NON-
or ? see
SEXIST TERMS.
Uganda Ugandan countryside COUNTRY COUNTRYSIDE
Ukraine Ukrainian coup de graÃce
see or ?

United Arab Emirates, Emirian The French expression coup

the à ce
de gra is a formal phrase that is used to
United Kingdom, the British; a Briton; the .
refer to an event that finally destroys some-
or the UK British thing: The latest bombings have effectively

(
see also GREAT BRITAIN, NORTHERN IRELAND Ã ce to the whole peace process.

◆ The literal meaning of the expression is `stroke

dealt a coup de gra

in table ) of mercy'. It is sometimes written or printed in

United States of American italics and its anglicized pronunciation is [koo de
America, the ]. The accent on the in is sometimes
or the USA or grahs
omitted.
aà graÃce

the US
Uruguay Uruguayan coup d'eÂtat The French expression
Uzbekistan Uzbek
coup
 tat
d'e is used to refer to a sudden, violent
course 76
is increasingly used as a vogue word
meaning `power to convince or impress': .
seizure of power in a country. The phrase Credibility
is often shortened to simply coup. Ap-
◆ The literal meaning of the expression is `stroke of pointing such a senior figure to the post would
state'. Note that it is sometimes written or printed give instant credibility to any administration.
in italics. The plural of is
coup d'eÂtat . and
coups d'eÂtat should not be confused
Credence credibility
Both the singular and plural have the same pro- with , `a set of beliefs'. creed
nunciation: [koo day ]. tah See also CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE or CREDULOUS?

course see COARSE or COURSE?; OF COURSE. credibility gap Credibility gap is a fashion-

cover The verb cover

.
is followed by the
able expression used to describe the lack of
trust created by a discrepancy between what
preposition in or with: The floor was

.
is said officially and what is actually seen to
covered in [or with] sawdust.

crafted
happen: The public cynically accepts the

This word, meaning `skilfully credibility gap between election promises and

made', is sometimes used simply as a sy- the Government's subsequent policies.

nonym for `made' or `produced' in exag-

gerated sales descriptions: . fitted cupboards
credible creditable credulous
, or ? The
three adjectives credible, creditable, and
crafted from the finest wood. Many people credulous, and their corresponding nouns
dislike this usage. credibility, credit, and are some-
craftsman craftswoman
credulity

NON-SEX-
.
or ? see times confused. Credible means `believable':
IST TERMS . My story may sound barely credible but I

crash The adjectival use of crash in the ving praise': .

assure you it's true. Creditable means `deser-
Her readiness to forgive her

.
sense of `intensive' is best restricted to the
.
attacker is creditable. Credulous means `gul-

.
few phrases in which it is most familiar: a
lible; too ready to believe': Only the most

The word should not be used in contexts that ◆ There is a further, fashionable use of
crash diet a crash course.
credulous person could believe such nonsense.

may be associated with its sense of `collision': . mean

◆ to
`authentic; convincing': .
credible
an
[ ]
intensive crash course in air-traffic control . . credible paella
They serve a

creak or creek . ? means `make a See also CREDENCE or CREDIBILITY?

creed
Creak

scraping sound': The door creaked on its see CREDENCE or CREDIBILITY?

hinges. It should not be confused with creek,
creek see CREAK or CREEK?

creep
which variously means `inlet or bay on a

.
shoreline' or, in American English, `stream Creep has recently acquired a new

.
flowing into a river': The smugglers hoped noun meaning beside that of `move slowly'
to lure the ship into the creek. They followed or `approach' and may now denote an

.
the creek to the main river. expansion of something beyond its in-
◆ Both words are pronounced [kreek]. tended or officially sanctioned scope:

creative The adjective creative tradition-

The American forces in Afghanistan could be

.
leaving themselves open to charges of mission

. .
ally refers to originality and imagination
creep. This a clear example of jargon-creep.
used for artistic purposes: a creative mind
In this usage creep remains a vogue term
She is very creative. It is increasingly used in
and is best avoided in formal contexts.

creÁme de la creÁme
a less favourable sense, describing some-

.
thing that stretches the limits of conven- The French expression

.
tion, legality, or truth: creative accounting/ Á me de la cre
cre Á me is used to refer to the best
bookkeeping. people or things of their kind: The fee-

credence credibility
or ? Credence is the
local children.
Á me de la cre
paying schools take the cre Á me of

◆ The literal meaning of the example is `cream of

.
state of believing something; credibility is
the state of being believable:
.
He gave
the cream'. It is pronounced [krem deÆ lah ]. krem

crescendo
credence to her explanation. Her explanation

lacked credibility. The two nouns should not Crescendo is a musical term that
be confused. is frequently misused in both its technical
, a formal word, is also used in the
.
◆ Credence and figurative senses. In music it describes
phrase letters of credence, meaning `credentials'. a gradual increase in volume: The brass
 77 crotch
The noun is followed by the preposition
or : .
criterion
[or ]
sections take up the theme as the crescendo

.
builds up. It can be used of other sounds or of for the only criterion of for success.
to describe any build-up of intensity: The
critic critique
or ? A critic is someone who

.
baby's whimpering increased in a crescendo to
criticizes. The word is sometimes used in
a howl. Public interest in the matter has risen

.
the sense of someone who finds fault or
in a crescendo.

◆ Because people sometimes mistakenly refer to expresses disapproval: Acupuncture has

building up/rising to a crescendo , the word is often many critics in the medical profession. It is

interpreted to mean the loud climax which is also used of someone who is employed to
.
actually the culmination of a crescendo, and it is evaluate works of art, music, or literature:

used to mean both `a loud noise' and, in figurative The public loved the play but the critics did

contexts, `peak, climax, or milestone': . not have a good word to say for it. A critique is

..
The drum
a work of criticism, usually applied to an
solo ended in a deafening crescendo She

.
academic work which analyses and dis-
reached the crescendo of her career before she
was 30 . cusses ideas in depth: This is a thoughtful

cripple
critique of logical positivism.

The term cripple

offensive by many people when referring

is considered
critical . Critical means `inclined to judge
severely': My mother is so critical of the way
to a person with a physical impairment.
.
I bring up the children; `involving careful or
Careful users avoid cripple or crippled and
prefer other terms: see DISABLED. scholarly evaluation': a critical account of

.
Jung's work; `involving a turning point;
crisis Crisis literally means `turning point' crucial': We are at a critical point in our

◆ This last use is often applied to serious or

negotiations.
and it should be used for situations that
have reached a turning point for better or
dangerous illnesses or injuries: .
and has in its turn led to such uses as: .
worse, for decisive moments in dramas, for in a critical con-
dition A
.
crucial states of affairs where significant
` '
woman was later described as critical in hospital ,
changes are likely: The illness had passed its
. (
with one wrist almost severed Daily Telegraph ).
.
crisis and it was clear that she would live.

critique CRITIC CRITIQUE

the

worsening economic crisis It is feared that the see or ?

crisis which resulted in the military coup may

lead to civil war.

crochet crotchetor ? The noun crochet

◆ To the dislike of some people, is now oftencrisis refers to a type of needlework; the noun
applied to situations which are worrying or serious crotchet is the name of a note in music.
is a word of French origin that retains
but without any definite implication of imminent ◆ Crochet
the French pronunciation [ ] in English. The
change: . Independent television is facing a crisis
past tense of the verb is
kroÅshay
, spelt
( ), or crochet
with a single - - and pronounced [
crocheted
].
for quite trivial problems: .
through declining audiences Daily Telegraph
t kroÅshayd

.
I've got a crisis here ±
The noun , pronounced [ it], has
crotchet kroch
my zip's broken
Note the spelling of the plural of , which is the derived adjective , which means `irri-
crotchety

, pronounced [ ].
crises krõÅseez
crisis
table' in informal English.
criterion criteria
or ? The word criterion,
cross-section A cross-section is a piece of
something which has been cut off at right

.
meaning `a standard by which to judge or

.
angles or a drawing of the dimensions
evaluate something', is a singular noun:
revealed by such a cutting: The diagram
Exam results were the only criterion for
shows an artery in cross-section. The expres-

.
deciding whether candidates should be inter-

.
sion is more often used popularly to mean
viewed. The plural of criterion is criteria:
`a typical or representative sample': Over
on the condition that the basic criteria of the
five thousand people were interviewed as a
(The Bookseller).
Many people take to be a singular noun
code are accepted and met
.
cross-section of the general public

. This is wrong. It is, how- crotch or crutch? Either noun may be used
◆ criteria
with the plural criterias
ever, acceptable to use the phrase as to denote the angle between a person's legs
set of criteria
an alternative to when a singular expres- (hence, the genital area) or the correspond-
sion is required: .
criterion
Pay awards may be given ing part of a garment (such as a pair of
according to the following set of criteria. trousers). The term crotch is more fre-
crotchet 78
quently used in these senses, but merely a synonym for
is or :. result conclude The
.
crutch

not incorrect. growing unrest culminated in industrial action

◆ The principal meaning of the noun is This use is so widespread as to be generally ac-
`supportusedbypeoplewithinjuredlegsorfeet': . cepted, although some careful users object to it.
crutch

The verb is followed by the preposi-

tion : .
She was on crutches for three months after the culminate
accident. in .
The rebellion culminated in civil war

crotchet see CROCHET or CROTCHET? cult Some people dislike the adjectival use

crucial The use of crucial as a synonym for

of the word cult to refer to a particular
person, idea, activity, etc., that arouses great
important is best avoided in formal speech
. . .
popular interest, especially for a short per-

.
and writing, where it should be restricted iod of time: a cult movie a cult book a
to the sense of `decisive' or `critical': cult figure. Care should be taken to avoid
constituencies where the self-employed vote
overusing the word in this way.
could be crucial to the outcome of the election

(Daily Telegraph). cultured cultivated

or ? Cultured and cul-

◆ Crucial is widely used in informal contexts, and tivated are almost synonymous in that they
increasingly by journalists, broadcasters, adverti- are both used to mean `educated, refined'.
sers, and others, to emphasize the importance of Cultured is particularly applied to educa-
events or issues that are by no means decisive or tion in terms of an understanding and
.
critical. The word has the same derivation as , crux appreciation of the arts: They were cul-

meaning `a decisive point', which is most fre- tured people who attended concerts and art

quently encountered in the expression the crux galleries, while

.
cultivated is applied to be-
of the matter . haviour and speech: He gradually dropped

crutch CROTCH
see or CRUTCH?
his Cockney twang and spoke in a soft, culti-

vated accent.

cue queue . Both and also have connec-

tions with things that are produced artificially: .
◆ cultured cultivated
or ? Cue means `signal': The
actor heard his cue.

the games of billiards, snooker, etc.': .

It also means `rod, as in
cultured pearls . .
cultivated plants

cumulative
teach
someone how to hold their cue properly. It see ACCUMULATIVE or CUMULA-
TIVE?
.
should not be confused with queue, which
means `line' or `sequence':
traffic.
a queue of
curb kerb or ? These two spellings may

cuisine .
sometimes be confused. Curb means `check
The word cuisine is used to de- or control': He curbed his anger. A kerb is
scribe a style of cooking food, particularly the edge of a pavement; in American

.
one which is typical of a particular country English this word is spelt curb.
or region: Peppers and tomatoes are char-
currant current or ? A currant
.
is a small

.
acteristic of Basque cuisine; for the food
seedless dried grape used in cookery: She
itself: Their cuisine is excellent; and in

.
always put lots of currants in her cakes, or any

. .
various phrases which convey a particular

.
of several different soft fruits: redcurrant
style of cooking: nouvelle cuisine cuisine

carries a suggestion of good food skil- flow: .

jam blackcurrant juice. A current is a steady
minceur.

. .
They did not swim because the current

fully cooked so its use in such a sentence as: .

◆ Cuisine
was very strong 250 volts, alternating
It
± . current

current The adjective

was typical service-station cuisine chips with
everything is either inappropriate or jocular. current means `oc-

cullender see CALENDAR, CALENDER or COLAN- curring in or belonging to the present time;
.
DER? presently existing or in progress': Current

culminate
techniques for treating the disease are ac-

.
Culminate means `form a sum- knowledged to be inadequate and `accepted

.
mit; reach the highest or most crucial or prevalent at this time': The current

.
point': The church culminates in a steeple. opinions of American Catholics are in conflict
Her rise in society culminated in her with the Vatican.
marriage to an earl. ◆ and are often used superflu-
Current currently
◆ The word is very often used as though it were ously where there is no need to emphasize that
 79 czar
one is talking about the present as contrasted with cyber- This prefix is commonly used in the
the past or future: . The company currently em- context of high-technology communication
.
. . . .
ploys over a thousand people and information systems and virtual reality:

curriculum This word, meaning `pro-

cybercafe cybercrime cyberoptics

.
cyberspace. The word may also be used

.
gramme of courses available or subjects
independently: the cyber age. Caution

.
studied in a school or college': a wide-

. .
should be exercised in adopting some of
ranging sixth-form curriculum the National
the very informal coinages: cybersex
Curriculum, is sometimes misspelt. Not
cybersquatting.
that the only double letters are -rr-, as in
current.

◆ A , often abbreviated to , is a
curriculum vitae CV
cymbal symbol or ? Note the spelling of

summary of a person's career and qualifications

these words, which have the same pronun-
Æ l]. A cymbal is a circular brass
that is often required when applying for a job.
ciation [simba

may be pronounced [ tõÅ] or [ tee]. .

percussion instrument; a symbol is a sign or
Vitae vee võÅ
.
design that represents something else: the

curtsy or curtsey ? The noun and verb clash of cymbals

peace.
The dove is a symbol of

curtsy refer to a formal greeting made by a

girl or woman in which the head and
shoulders are lowered, the knees are bent
cynical sceptical
or ? A cynical person is
one who has a distrust of human nature

.
and the skirt is held outwards with both
.
and sincerity, believing others to be moti-
hands: She curtsied to the Queen. The
vated by self-interest: He had a cynical
alternative spelling curtsey is also accepta-
belief that nobody took up law or medicine for
ble.
any reason but the money. Sceptical (Amer-
customer CLIENT see or CUSTOMER? ican English, skeptical) means `doubtful,

cutting edge Some people dislike the

unwilling
proof': .
to believe without
While accepting Jesus' moral teach-
rational

.
frequent use of the phrase cutting edge in
ings she remained sceptical about the miracles
the figurative sense of `forefront': at the
and the resurrection.

czar
cutting edge of information technology.
See also LEADING-EDGE. see TSAR or CZAR?
 D
dais This word, meaning `a raised plat- dare The verb dare can be used in two

.
form', is usually pronounced [dayis]. It was different ways. It can be used as a full verb,

.
formerly pronounced as only one syllable followed by an infinitive with to: I dare

[days], but this is now rarely heard. you to jump. We'll see if she dares to

daisycutter In cricket, a daisycutter is a ball

contradict him; or it can be an auxiliary

. .
or modal verb, followed by an infinitive
rolled along the ground towards the bats-
without to: He dared not go there at night.
man, but in modern US military slang it is
How dare you say that?
used euphemistically to denote a type of
As an auxiliary the verb is only used in the forms
◆
bomb that is designed to explode a metre or
and , and only in negative and inter-
dare dared
so above the ground, causing maximum
rogative constructions.
destruction.
◆ Similar euphemisms used by the military to
The expression means `suppose, ex-
.
dare say

describe such weapons include pect,orthinklikely': I dare say we'll go to Bognor

(modelled on the . It is only used in the present tense and in the

bunker buster
bomb of World first person; again

War II).
dambuster
and is sometimes written as one word:
. .
dangling participles
I daresay

dash
Participles are often

.
used to introduce a phrase which is at- Dashes can be used both singly and in

.
tached to a later-mentioned subject: pairs. Though the dash is useful, most of its
Startled by the noise she dropped her book. functions can be performed by other punc-
Being by now very tired, we stopped at a pub. tuation marks, and excessive use of the
There is a tendency, though, for such dash is sometimes considered to be a mark

.
introductory participles to become appar- of a careless writer. A sentence should

.
ently attached to the wrong noun: Startled never contain more than one dash or pair
by the noise, her book fell to the floor. Being of dashes.
by now very tired, a pub was a welcome sight. The double dash is used to mark a break in a
◆
sentence, very much in the same way as round
brackets: .
It was not the book that was startled or the
pub that was tired. Then there is the ±
My mother a Yorkshire-woman by
sentence where the participle appears to ±
birth . As with
had little time for Londoners
have no subject at all, which is the thought parentheses, the material enclosed by dashes
behind the term dangling participle(also should be able to be removed leaving the sentence
grammatically complete. Commas should not be
): .
known as unattached , or unrelated partici-

ple ,
Lying in the sun it felt as though it had used with double dashes.
A single dash is used to introduce a statement
summarizing what has gone before: .
always been summer . Who, or what, was
lying in the sun? Beer, chips,
◆ Some participles are habitually used in a manner and cigarettes ± these are the main threats to the
where they might be thought to dangle, but they . It is also used to introduce an
nation's health
are usually being used as prepositions or conjunc- afterthought or a sharp change in subject or con-
tions, and such use is acceptable: . tinuity: .
. ..
Speaking of I'm surprised to see Nigel here ± he's
,
.. .
fruit does anyone want an apple? Considering usually late You take two eggs ± but perhaps you
,
the odds against them they did well Regarding don't even like omelettes? I don't believe it ±
your enquiry , I have pleasure in enclosing our caviare!
. On the borderline is the increasingly Dashes are used to indicate an unfinished sen-
:. , tence or hesitant speech: . ±.
catalogue
popularuse of having said that Having said that I think he's I ± um ±
, which is . They are often used to
precede the attribution of a quotation: . `
the West Indies still look certain to win er ± I don't er ± know
considered unacceptable by many people. No man
 81 deaf-mute
is an island'± . They are, occasionally, used
Donne the date, while BC follows it: . AD 527 . .
1000 BC
to indicate an omission of part of a name, and to See also AD and BC.
replace all or part of an obscenity: . The apostrophe in a series of years is nowadays
.. generally omitted: . .
I travelled to
the small mountain town of LÐ- It's none of in the 1990s .
the 1800s
your Ð-ing business . They are also used between Specific years are usually rendered in numerical
points in space or time, where they are equivalent form. Sometimes a year date may be rendered in
to : . . . abbreviated form where the fuller form is felt to be
unnecessary: . .
to London±Paris 1914±18
A dash may be thought of as a less formal
punctuation mark than a colon: . .
He died in the 14±18 war. If only

.
This word we had known that back in '39. Let's have
means `like a goat' ± Lloyd George was known another bottle of '47 Lafitte. Do you remember
as `the Goat'. For dashes with colons see COLON. the summer of '69? Another abbreviated form
data appears to be limited to the year 2000, marking
Data means `facts, information that
. the turn of the millennium: . (for `the year
Y2K
can be used as a basis for analysis, etc.': We
2000').
have data on road accidents for the past thirty
See also CENTURIES; NUMBERS; MILLENNIUM.
de-
years.
is actually a plural, with the singular ,
. .
◆ Data datum The prefix is used to signify `the
but this singular is rarely used and has come
de-

.
data opposite or reverse': declassify, `removal':
to be regarded as a collective noun, which is descale, or `reduction': degrade.

appropriate to its use for a body or aggregate As a productive prefix, is constantly being
used to create new words: .
◆ de-
of information. There is still considerable contro- (to
desegregate
versy as to whether it should take a singular or reverse a practice or law involving racial segrega-
plural verb. In American English the singular verb is tion), . (todecreaseinscopeorextent),
now usual: . .
de-escalate
, and this use is (to release patients from an
institution), .
This is essential data deinstitutionalize
becoming increasingly frequent in British English. (to remove from a list of
approved items), .
delist
However, some careful users (especially those demerger(the separation of
working within scientific and medical circles) still previously merged companies). Some users object
insist on using the noun as a plural: . These are to the coining of such forms.
essential data . deadly deathly
The pronunciation [ taÆ] is preferred, although
day
or ? Deadly means `likely

[ taÆ] is sometimes used and is usual in American

dah
to cause death';
.
deathly refers to a charac-
.
English. teristic of death: a deadly weapon a

dates .
deathly silence. Deadly is sometimes used in
It is usual to write dates in figures, place of deathly in figurative contexts:

Both words may be used adverbially: .

rather than words, except in some very `Goodbye,' she said, with a deadly finality.

.
formal contexts, such as legal documents. ◆ deadly
. In informal contexts the
.
There are various ways of expressing quiet deathly pale
adjective can also mean `extremely boring':
.
dates: is becoming the deadly
.
5 October 2003
standard form in Britain in preference to The party was deadly
5th October, 2003 and October 5th, 2003.

The standard form in the United States is

deaf Because of its negative associations,
and because there are many different de-
October 5 2003.

◆ The abbreviated form or

5.10.03 is grees
5/10/03
of hearing impairment, the word deaf

acceptable in informal use but it should be used general reference to people who have dif-
is sometimes avoided by careful writers in

with caution as this abbreviation would mean the ficulties with their hearing. Preferred
tenth of May in the United States, where the fifth terms include : .
of October would be abbreviated to . In at
10.5.03
hearing impaired This loop

least one exceptional circumstance, however, the Similarly, those with perfect hearing may
system is a great help to the hearing impaired.

US version has become widely familiar elsewhere be termed

in the world and is not reordered: . (or 9/11 9-11,
. hearing people
See also PROFOUNDLY DEAF.
, ), referring to the terror-
ist attacks on the United States that took place on deaf-mute This term, describing a person
nine-eleven nine-one-one

11 September 2001. who cannot hear or speak, is no longer

Centuries may be written as numbers or written considered acceptable by many people, who
out in full: . or .
the 19th century prefer the less offensive alternative PRO-
the nineteenth
century , and the abbreviation AD usually precedes FOUNDLY DEAF.
deal 82
◆ The alternative is similarly con-
deaf-and-dumb to a misleading effect or result rather than
sidered old-fashioned and offensive as it may
.
dishonest motivation, and something might
suggest that the person concerned is incapable be unintentionally deceptive:
of communication of any kind.
The ring's

dull appearance was deceptive, for on closer

deal The verb deal, in the sense `buy and

. deceive
inspection it turned out to be gold.

sell', is followed by the preposition in: This word is often misspelt. Note
They deal in antique furniture. In the sense the -ei- spelling, which conforms to the rule

.
`see to, tackle, look after' it is followed by `i before e except after c'.
with: The police were called in to deal with See also SPELLING 5.
the riot.
decent decorous
dear deer .
or ? Both these adjectives

.
and Dear variously means `be- can mean `socially acceptable': decent/

.
loved', `expensive', or `appealing': This is decorous behaviour. Decorous, a formal

.
my dear wife. The prices in that shop are word, is largely restricted to this sense,
very dear. What a dear little picture. It whereas decent has the additional meanings

.
should not be confused with deer, which of `not obscene', `adequate', `morally cor-

. .
denotes the animal. rect', `obliging; pleasant', etc.:
Both words are pronounced [deer].
decent

.
◆ language a decent meal to do the decent

debris . This word, meaning `rubble or

thing
◆
He's a decent enough fellow.
In the sense of `not obscene', is not as
decent
remains': They removed the debris from
common as its opposite (`obscene').
indecent

deceptive
the building site, is stressed on the first
syllable [debri]. The variant pronunciation see DECEITFUL or DECEPTIVE?
[daybri] is widely used, and this pronuncia-
deceptively The adverb deceptively sug-
.
tion should be used when the word is
gests misleading appearances and is used to
written with an acute accent: Â bris.
de

debut . .
indicate that something is not as suggested
Debut, meaning `first appearance': by the following adjective.: a semi-de-

He made his debut in a James Bond film, may tached house offering deceptively spacious

.
be pronounced [daybew] or [debew]. If the accommodation (advertisement, Chichester

word is spelt with an acute accent: Â but,

de Observer).

The use of as a verb: .

the first pronunciation should be used.
deci- DECA- DECI-
see or ?

decidedly decisively
◆ debut She debuted last
, is disliked by many users.
.
month or ? Decidedly usually

deca- deci- or ? The prefix deca- means

means `definitely; unquestionably':
a decidedly welcome suggestion.
It was

It is also

. .
`ten times'; the prefix deci- means `one
sometimes used to mean `firmly; reso-
tenth': decagon decibel. A decametre is

.
lutely', and decisively is used in the same
ten metres; a decimetre is one tenth of a
way: `I'm going ahead with it,' she said
metre.
◆ Note the difference in pronunciation, particu- imply decision-making. is also used to
decidedly/decisively Decisively

larly the hard [k] of and the soft [s] of firmness, confidence, and lack of wavering:
-c- deca- -c-
which is marked by

deci- . .
decade The word , denoting a per-
He studied the options briefly before decisi-

.
can be applied to anything which
decade vely choosing the second one

makes a particular outcome inevitable: .

iod of ten years, is variously pronounced ◆ Decisive
[ kayd] or [di ]. Either pronunciation a decisive
is the onethatdecides theresult of thematch;
de kayd

is also used in this sense; .

may be used, although some people dis- goal
approve of the latter, more recent, version. and decisively Her

deceitful or deceptive? Both and

.
deceitful
conduct at the interview influenced the board
decisively

decimate
deceptive imply misleading appearances or
cheating. However, deceitful suggests an Decimate literally means `destroy
intention to deceive or mislead, even if one in ten', from the Roman practice of

.
not successful, and therefore carries nega- killing every tenth soldier as a punishment
tive moral overtones: It was deceitful of you for mutiny. The word is now used popu-
to pretend to be an orphan. Deceptive applies larly to mean `inflict considerable damage;
 83 defensible
destroy a large part of': . The weather posals to the Commons select committee on

decimated today's sports programme (BBC broadcasting for a new `dedicated' parliamen-
TV). This use probably arises from the tary channel (The Guardian).

mistaken belief that the word means `de-

stroy all but a tenth' and, although the
deduce deduct
or ? To deduce is to come to
.
.
a logical conclusion; to deduct is to subtract:
usage is very widespread, many careful
I deduced that she was lying. He deducted £10
users still dislike it. Decimate should not

.
from the bill. The two verbs have the derived

. .
be used to mean `annihilate totally', or in

.
noun deduction in common: the deduction

.
such constructions as: badly decimated
that she was lying a deduction of £10.

deer DEAR
utterly decimated Some 75 per cent of the

cattle were decimated by the disease. see or DEER?

decisively seeDECIDEDLY or DECISIVELY? de facto The Latin phrase de facto refers to

decolorize see COLOURIZE.

something that exists in actual fact,

.
whether or not that is justified or was
deÂcor The noun  cor,
de meaning `interior intended:
independence.
de facto recognition of the state's

decoration' or `stage decoration', may be

◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `in actual
spelt with or without the acute accent in
fact'. Note that it is sometimes written or printed in
English. The pronunciation is [daykor] or
[dekor]. italics.
◆ The spelling and the pronunciation [
deÂcor See also DE JURE.
day-
kor], being closer to the original French, are pre- defective or deficient?
ferred by some users. `having a fault; not working properly': .
means Defective

decorous DECENT DECOROUS

see or ?
The washing machine I bought yesterday

decriminalize legalize .
turned out to be defective. Deficient means
or ? These two `having a lack': She sings well but her voice

.
verbs are virtually interchangeable in the is deficient in power.
While can be applied to concrete as
well as abstract nouns: .
sense of `make no longer illegal': to ◆ deficient
legalize [or decriminalize] the smoking of Your diet is deficient in
cannabis . Legalize is the more frequent, , it is not usually applied to manufactured
calcium
objects. is usually applied to concrete
in the sense of `make legal': .
and is used in a wider range of contexts Defective
nouns, including manufactured objects, but can be
to legalize

applied to some abstract nouns, particularly those

emphasizes the (former) denoting some physical quality: .
.
◆ The verb
independent radio stations
decriminalize His colour vision
criminality of the practice to which it refers, and it .
:.
is defective
may be more emotive than legalize
defence The noun
He was an
:. defence the importance
ardent supporter of the campaign to decriminalize
homosexuality . , is spelt with a
of the country's defence in c

decry descry .
British English, while the adjective defen-

.
or ? To decry an idea or plan sive is spelt with an s: The players adopted a
is to criticize or denounce it strongly: The defensive strategy.
report decried television news for concentrat- ◆ In American English the noun is spelt with an . s
ing on disaster and conflict. Descry

word and is much rarer than

is a formal
decry. To
defensible or defensive ? An opinion,

.
idea, etc., that is defensible is one that is

.
descry something is to notice it, especially at
capable of being defended: the most
a distance: descry the coast on a clear day.
◆ Etymologically both and decry derive descry
morally defensible method of calculating

from Old French , to proclaim or decry.

descrier
payment. Defensive is used more fre-

dedicated .
quently and refers to things or actions
In technology, the word dedi- that protect someone or something: the
cated is applied to machines, parts, acces- strong defensive walls of the city . Defensive
sories, computer programs, etc., that are is also used to describe the behaviour of a

.
designed to fulfil a single specific function: person reacting to criticism and, in sports

.
a dedicated word-processing package. The contexts, actions that prevent an oppo-

.
term is increasingly used in more general nent from scoring in a competition: take
contexts: Three companies gave their pro- up a defensive position .
defer 84
◆ To be is to protect oneself by adverb, such as
on the defensive surprisingly/considerably/less/etc.
being prepared for expected attack or criticism. To what degree . . .? may be replaced by How

defer The verb is followed by the or much . . .? To what extent . . .?

. deity
defer

preposition to: She deferred to our wishes. The pronunciation of deity is either

deficient DEFECTIVE DEFICIENT

see or ?
[dayiti] or [deeiti]. Although the former is
widely used, the latter is the more tradi-
defining clause RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
see . tional pronunciation.

definite definitive
or ? These two words
deÂjaÁ vu The French phrase  ja
de Á vu is used

.
to refer to the feeling that one has already
are sometimes confused, although their
experienced a present situation: As we

.
meanings are different. Definite means
came into the village we had a strange sense of
`precise, exact, or unambiguous': The
Á vu.
 ja
de In modern usage it may also de-
rules draw a definite distinction between

.
scribe something that is so often repeated it
.
professionals and amateurs. Definitive means
has become hackneyed and stale: That
`final; conclusive': This is the definitive
 ja
Á vu.

◆ The literal meaning of is `already seen'.

style is so de
game in the tournament, and is frequently
deÂjaÁ vu
used in criticism in the sense of `author-
Its anglicized pronunciation is [dayzhah ]. voo

.
itative' to describe a work or performance
that is unlikely to be improved on:
has written the definitive biography of Proust.
Painter de jure The Latin phrase de jure refers to

for .
something that exists or is so by legal right:
◆ Careful users avoid the vague use of
emphasis: .
definite .
◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `by right'.
the de jure leaders
He has a definite resemblance to
Winston Churchill . Note that it is sometimes written or printed in
definite article THE. italics. It is pronounced [day ray] or [day ay].
joo yoor
see
DE FACTO.
definitely
See also

.
This word, meaning `certainly':
He was definitely going to win, is some-
delirious Note the spelling of this adjec-
tive, particularly the first two vowels -e-
times misspelt, the most frequent error
and -i-. The correct pronunciation is [di-
being the replacement of the second i with
Æ s],
lirriu with the short [i] of squirrel, not
an a.

definitive DEFINITE
Æ s].
[dileeriu
see or DEFINITIVE? ◆ Delirious is the adjective that derives from delir-

defuse diffuse ium , `a confused mental state because one is

or ? To defuse is to remove
suffering from a feverish illness' or `a state of great
.
the device that causes a bomb to explode; to
excitement or happiness'.
. deliver
diffuse is to spread: The bomb was defused.
The light was diffused. Some people dislike the intransi-
The two verbs are sometimes confused, being tive use of the verb
is pronounced `fulfil a promise or commitment': .
◆ in the sense of
similar in pronunciation:
deliver

..
defuse
[dee ] and is pronounced [di ].
The
fewz diffuse fewz
The adjective , meaning `widely spread',
government has failed to deliver on tax cuts
diffuse
has a final sound [di ].
We don't just want people with good ideas; we
s fews .
The verb is also used in figurative con- ◆ This usage is derived from the very informal
want people who will deliver

texts, meaning `make less tense': .

defuse
expression
The President , which originated in
deliver the goods
hopes to defuse the current highly-charged atmos- American slang about 1850 and has the same
phere . meaning.
degree The phrase to a degree has two
.
deliverance or delivery ? Both these
meanings, `somewhat' and `extremely': nouns are derived from the verb deliver.
The match was exciting to a degree. This may Deliverance specifically refers to the act of
give rise to ambiguity, as in the above delivering from danger, captivity, evil, etc.,
example: how exciting was the match? and is used in formal or literary contexts;
The use of the phrase in the sense of `extremely'
. .
◆ is used in the many other senses of
should be restricted to informal contexts.
delivery

. .
the verb:
The phrases
to pray for deliverance the
to a surprising/considerable/lesser/
are often better replaced by a simple
delivery of a baby postal deliveries the
etc.,degree delivery of a speech.
 85 deprecate
delusion ALLUSION ILLUSION
see , or DELU- constructions where it
.
is the subject: . It

SION? depends whether I'm well enough. It depends

demi- hemi- . semi- .

, or ? All three prefixes
. ◆careful
what you mean by socialism.

This usage is widespread but disliked by some

mean `half': demigod hemisphere
users who insist on the word or
in all cases. The expression: .
on upon
semicircle. Semi- is the most frequent, and
. following depend It

.
may be used to form new words:
, as a complete utterance, is acceptable
semi-
all depends

found in a number of scientific terms: .

professional . - is
only
semi-independent
in informal
Hemi
speech.
. dependant dependent
.
hemihydrate (a term used in chemistry) or ? The adjective,

.
hemiplegia (paralysis of one side of the meaning `reliant', is spelt dependent: in-

. .
body). Demi- is chiefly found in words of dustries that are dependent on North Sea gas

French origin: demitasse (a small cup) He is completely dependent on other people's

(a crescent-shaped formation). help. The noun, meaning `someone who
The noun , the name of a
demilune

.
◆ hemidemisemiquaver relies on another person for financial sup-
note in music that is one eighth of the length of a port', is spelt dependant:

quaver, is the only word in English that makes use

Apart from your

The
of all three prefixes.
children, do you have any dependants?

.
two are often confused, as in a leaflet for

demise The original meaning of demise

Exmoor Area Tourist Attractions:

freedom will remain largely dependant upon

But this

was `the transfer of an estate or of sover-

visitors respecting the life of the countryside.
eignty', and because such a transfer was
◆ Note that in American English the noun depen-

.
frequently the result of death, the word
dant is often spelt .
dependent

dependence dependency
came to mean `death': We were sad to hear
of the demise of your husband. This usage is or ? Either
formal and somewhat outdated. noun may be used to mean `the state of
can be used figuratively to mean `the
endingofexistenceoractivity': . .
◆ Demise being dependent', but dependence is the

.
The demise of the more frequent in this sense: his depen-
steel industry in Consett caused massive unem-
. Its use to mean merely
dence/dependency on his parents her depen-

`failure' or `decline': .
ployment in the area dence/dependency on alcohol.

the demise of the cinema See also DEPENDANT or DEPENDENT?

should be avoided. can also mean `territory that is
controlled by another nation': .
◆ Dependency

demonstrable This word may cause pro-

dependencies
one of Britain's
. It cannot be replaced by depen-
blems with pronunciation.
most The
dence in this sense.
Æ bl]
widely used pronunciation is [dimonstra
Note the spellings of the two words. The end-
which is stressed on the second syllable.
ings - and - are American variants.
ance ancy

dependent
Some careful speakers prefer the tradi-
Æ nstra
tional [demo Æ bl] which is stressed on see DEPENDANT or DEPENDENT?
the first syllable.
deploy
denote CONNOTE
Deploy is a military term meaning
DENOTE?
.
see or `organize troops or equipment so that they

denouement
.
This word, meaning `final
are in the most effective position':
decision to deploy the Marines in the Middle
the

outcome': the stunning denouement of the

East. Careful users object to the frequent
novel, may be spelt denouement or  noue-
de

.
use of the word with reference to any
ment. Note the oue vowels in the middle of
utilization or organization of resources:
the word.
◆ The usual pronunciation is [day mon(g)] noo
It will be up to you to set ambitious revenue

although in American English the word may be targets and then train, develop, and deploy

stressed on the first or third syllables. your team-members to ensure that those tar-

deny
gets are met and surpassed (Daily Telegraph).

see REFUTE or DENY? deprecate depreciate .

depend .
or ? Deprecate

.
Depend means `be contingent': It means `express disapproval of': She de-

depends on the weather, or `be reliant': They precated the Government's record on equal
depend on Social Security. It is normally opportunities. Depreciate means `reduce in
used with on or upon, except in certain value', where it is usually used intransi-
deprived 86
.
.
tively: It depreciates by about £100 every from the adjective bold; the noun member-

year, and `belittle or disparage': is derived from the noun member.

◆ Sometimes the base form of the word changes
He de- ship
preciated their attempts to talk English.

◆ Deprecate is often used instead of in

depreciate in the derived form: the - of , for example,
y happy
the sense of `disparage' and is also extended to changes to - - in the derived forms
i and happily
mean `play down; show modesty'. This usage of happiness .
deprecate is disliked by some people, although it is New words are also formed by adding prefixes
acceptable in the well-established use of or inflectional endings, such as - , - , - , - ,
:. and- : . . . . .
self-de- s ed ing er

Some derived words are more complex: .

precating Jewish humour tends to be ironical est unhappy members reading bolder
and self-deprecating . un-

deprived knowingly , for example, consists of the base form

Deprived means `having some-
. know plus -, - , and - .
un ing ly
thing taken away or withheld': Brain
See also PREFIXES; SUFFIXES.
descendant descendent
damage can occur if a baby is deprived of

oxygen during labour. It should properly be or Descendant is

.
applied to things which were once pos- a noun meaning `someone descended from
sessed or would be possessed in normal a particular ancestor': She was a descendant

circumstances, but the modern tendency of the fourth duke. It should not be confused

.
is to connect it with basic necessities and with the adjective descendent, which de-
rights. As an adjective it has become a scribes something moving downwards:

.
vogue word often meaning little more than The aeroplane continued in a descendent arc

`poor':
Both words are pronounced [di daÆnt].
It is always the most deprived towards the hills.
women, usually with housing problems or ◆ sen
of low intelligence, who are involved
Times).
(The
descry see DECRY or DESCRY?
derail deselect The verb deselect, referring to an
.
Some people dislike the increasing
MP who is not selected for re-election, is
use of the verb derail in a figurative sense:

DE-: .
one of a number of new words formed
The British Government . . . would not be
with the prefix a number of Labour
allowed to use its presidency of the European
MPs have been deselected by their local con-
Community to derail progress to greater po-
stituency parties.
(The
desert dessert
litical union or a `social Europe' Guar-

dian). This usage is best restricted to or ? These words are some-

informal contexts. times confused. Dessert is the last course of a

de rigueur The French expression

. AFTERS .
de ri-
meal
?):
(see DESSERT, SWEET, PUDDING
a deliciously sweet dessert .
or
a
gueur means `required by social custom':

. .
dessert spoon. Desert is used in all other
Evening dress is de rigueur at the dinner.

◆ The literal meaning of de rigueur is `of strict- contexts:

.
the Sahara desert She got her

ness'. It is pronounced [deÆ rõÆ ]. ger

just deserts.
◆ The verb
a deserted city.
is often followed by the pre-
derisive derisory position : .
desert
.
.
or ? means `ex- from He deserted from his regiment
As a noun, is usually pronounced [ zaÆt];
Derisive
pressing derision; mocking or scornful': desert de
as a verb (or in the noun phrase ) it is
.
His speech was received with derisive mirth. just deserts
means `deserving derision': pronounced [di ]. zert is pronounced [di-
Dessert
].
Derisory It was

a derisory performance. zert

is used particularly in the sense of
`ridiculously inadequate; contemptibly small': . desiccated This word, meaning `dried': .
◆ Derisory

He was retired with a derisory pension (BBC Note the single and - -.
, is sometimes misspelt.
desiccated coconut

Radio). ◆ It is worth remembering the Latin words and

s cc

derived words Derived words are formed

de
, meaning `to dry', from which the word
siccare
by adding fixed groups of letters at the originates.
beginning or end of another word. The
design see INVENT, DESIGN or DISCOVER?
designer
noun sadness is derived from the adjective
sad; the adjective readable is derived from Designer has become a vogue
the verb read; the adverb boldly is derived adjective applied to clothes and other
 87 destined
manufactured goods which are produced situation, is sometimes misspelt. The mid-

. .
by a well-known company with a reputa- dle part of the word is spelt per, not par as

.
tion for fashionable design: designer jeans in separate.

designer watches
without a designer label.
He won't wear anything
desperation see DESPAIR or DESPERATION?
◆ The use has been extended to mean `chic; despicable
trendy' and is applied, sometimes jocularly, to tible': .
, meaning `contemp- Despicable

anything that is in fashion: . (a stressed on the second syllable [di aÆbl].

, is usually
It was a despicable act

fashionably unshaven appearance) .

designer stubble spik

(mineral water) .
designer
Careful users, however, prefer the tradi-
water The arrival of the designer
tional pronunciation with the stress on the

). . . . .
salad has increased our enthusiasm for French Æ bl].
(
first syllable [ pika des
dressing Sunday Times
, despite or in spite of?
as the world gets

) . are completely interchangeable: .

the first glimpse of the light roomy designer and Despite in spite

terminal [at Gatwick airport] ( The Guardian of De-

Designer Nazis rise on the tide of German fear ,

spite/In spite of his injury his playing was

(headline, ).
Sunday Times . is used rather more
superb In spite of

desirable or desirous ?
.
Desirable means
frequently, although
tage of brevity.
despite has the advan-

.
`worth desiring or having': a desirable ◆ Despiteneeds no preposition; isdespite of
residence Confrontation with the union is incorrect, and it is never necessary to precede
not desirable at this stage. Desirous, which either or
despite with .
in spite of but
means `desiring; wanting', is a more formal
dessert sweet pudding afters
, , or ? The
. .
adjective, usually placed after the verb and
followed by of: to be desirous of peace The question of how the sweet (usually) last
president is desirous of your opinion. The two course of a meal is referred to in Britain is
adjectives should not be confused. not fixed. Usage not only varies slightly

desk dining This is a contemporary busi-

from one individual, family, etc., to an-
other, but also is probably currently chan-
ness term describing the practice of eating
.
ging. Generally, dessert is found in both

.
meals at one's workstation or desk in order spoken and written contexts: For dessert
to continue working uninterrupted: We we were offered ice cream and fruit. Sweet is
discourage desk dining in this office. As a more informal, is found in spoken English,
vogue term, desk dining is considered jar- and is considered by some middle- and
gonistic by many people and is best re- upper-class people to be unacceptable. Such
stricted to informal contexts. users prefer the word pudding, but this may
See also DRESS-DOWN DAY; DUVET DAY; HOT be becoming slightly old-fashioned to refer
DESKING.
.
generally to the last course of a meal. Afters

despair desperation.
or ? The noun despair
is used in very informal spoken English:
What's for afters, Mum?

.
means `loss of hope': a feeling of utter
has a number of other culinary senses.
◆ Pudding
despair She gave up in despair.
It may refer to a cooked sweet or savoury dish
The noun

that results from despair: .

desperation
containing flour, eggs, etc.: .
is often applied to a reckless act
. treacle pudding
In desperation he
, or to a sausage-like savoury
preparation .
Yorkshire pudding

◆ Note the spelling of

jumped out of the window .
, particularly the may . These connotations
black pudding

second - -, which is sometimes wrongly replaced dessert, such as ice cream or fruit. term for a light
make it seem an inappropriate
desperation
e
with the - - ofa . despair
traditionally denotes a course of fruit,
despatch or dispatch? Both of these spel- dates, nuts, etc., served at the end of a meal.
Dessert

lings are acceptable for the verb meaning See also DESERT or DESSERT?
.
`send quickly' or the noun meaning `mes-
destined Destined means `being deter-
.
sage or report': The letter was immediately
mined or intended in advance; directed
despatched/dispatched. The despatch/dis-

.
towards, or having a particular purpose
patch arrived that afternoon.

desperate .
or end': She believed her son was destined

. .
This word, meaning `having no to be the messiah. The convict ship was

hope': a desperate man a desperate destined for Australia.

desultory 88
◆ Some people object to the use of as a verb meaning `plan': .
destined
synonym for , with no suggestion of
They devised a new

intended .
. The use of to mean ◆ Note that is one of the few verbs that
method of classifying the books

`later became': .
destiny was destined to be devise
He was destined to be prime cannot be spelt : see also -IZE or -ISE? -ize
minister is also disliked. However, these uses are devoid The adjective
well-established and generally acceptable. the preposition : .
is followed by devoid

desultory
of The landscape is devoid
This word, meaning `unmetho- of interesting features.
dical', should be stressed on the first syllable
Æ ltri].
[desu devolve on or devolve to ? The verb

detach The verb detach, meaning `sepa-

devolve, meaning `pass to' or `transfer',
may be followed by either on or to and
rate', is often misspelt, the most frequent little distinction is made between the two in
error being the substitution of -tch for the general modern usage. Careful users, how-
-ch ending. ever, reserve devolve on for the transfer of

detract distract
or ? Detract means `take powers or authority, etc., and use devolve to

.
away from; diminish' and is usually used when referring to the passing of a right or

.
benefit to someone: The power to impose

.
figuratively to describe the diminishing of
tax will devolve on local government bodies.
some desirable quality: The new hotels can
The property will devolve to her surviving
only detract from the resort's charm. Distract
relatives.

.
means `take one's mind off something;
divert attention elsewhere':
concentrate but I was distracted by the noise
I tried to
devotee The noun devotee, meaning `en-
thusiast', `supporter', or `follower', is some-
outside.
times mispronounced. The correct
detrimental The adjective
.
detrimental is Æ tee], with the stress
pronunciation is [devo
on the last syllable. The first two syllables
followed by the preposition to: Smoking is

detrimental to health. rhyme with clever: they do not have the

development Since Third World coun-

same vowel sounds as the verb

dexterous or dextrous . ? This

devote.

word,
tries have been referred to as underdeve-

loped countries, and then less-developed meaning `skilful or nimble': a dexterous

countries, least-developed countries, or devel- artisan, may be spelt dexterous or dextrous

oping countries, the word development has although the former is the more frequently
come to have a specialized meaning in used spelling.
terms of the economic growth and im- ◆ Note that ambidextrous is always spelt without
the extra . e
.
provements in living conditions of these

ment .
countries: the World Development Move-
The rich world need provide only
diagnosis or prognosis ? Both diagnosis
and prognosis are most often used in med-
$5 billion a year in development assistance
ical contexts. A diagnosis is the identifica-
(Ronald Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of

.
tion of a disease, from studying the
Hunger).
◆ Note the spelling: there is no after the .
e p
symptoms: The doctor's diagnosis, based

Note that while more developed countries are forecast of the likely course .ofAan illness and is a
on her spots, was chicken-pox prognosis

frequently referred to as belonging to the First the prospect of recovery: .

World, and less-developed or least-developed The doctor's

countries ( ) are commonly said to belong to

LDCs
prognosis is that he will never fully regain

the Third World, the phrase Second World, de- ◆ Both . and his eyesight

can be used of
scribing the former countries of the Communist problems in general, with the meanings,
diagnosis
respec-
prognosis

bloc, is rarely used today and is not likely to be tively, of `an analysis of the cause of the problem'
understood without explanation. and `a forecast of the course and outcome of a
device or devise? These words are some- problem':. . They diagnosed a major fault in the

`contrivance or gadget': .
times confused. is a noun meaning wiring. His prognosis indicated that the company
.
Device

, or `scheme or ploy': .
was heading for bankruptcy
The plural of both nouns is formed by changing
a device for open-

the ending to : . . .
ing bottles It was a
.
cunning device to get his own way Devise is a -sis -ses diagnoses prognoses
 89 dietician
dialect Dialect usually refers to an estab- membrane and especially refers to the
lished variety of a language, confined either partition that separates the chest from
to a region or to a social group or class. the abdomen. The word also refers to a
◆ The dialect used by educated middle- or upper- contraceptive device. In spelling, note the
class people is often regarded as the standard form and the silent g.

of a language and other dialects as nonstandard

ph

(see PRONUNCIATION). At one time nonstandard diarize Some people dislike the verb dia-

regional dialects were considered a handicap to rize, meaning `write in one's diary', as an

acceptance in `civilized' English society; regional example of the increasing tendency to coin

accents have now gained wide acceptance, for new verbs by adding the suffix
.
-ize to

example among BBC announcers, although non- nouns and adjectives: to diarize one's

standard grammar or vocabulary is still considered appointments.

-IZE or -ISE?
unacceptable. See also

Dialect is seen not only in pronunciation: voca- diarrhoea This word is often misspelt.
bulary, grammar, and sentence construction vary
too. Compare the Northern English: .
Note particularly the -rrh- and also the

with the Southern: .

He'll not be ending.
, In American English the - - is usually omitted.
-oea

ortheNorth-EastEnglish: .
coming He won't be coming ◆ o
with -AE- and -OE-.
the standard: .
You suit that dress See also
. An example
That dress suits you
dice
from William Trevor shows the Irish use of for Dice was originally the plural form of

:.`
the
a singular noun die, but this singular form
a Well, Bridie, isn't that the grand outfit you
have on '( The Ballroom of Romance ). Social dia- is now almost never used in Brtish English
.
lects are often associated with the working-class except in the expression: The die is cast.

dropping of 's, use of double negatives, and so

h
Dice
.
is used now both as a singular and as a
.
on, but upper-class cultures have their own dialect plural: He made a dice out of a sugar cube.

forms too. You need two dice for that game.

The word is also used for a gambling game

There is a wealth of dialect words. Often the played withdice: . `
◆

same word has different meanings in different I cannot believe that God plays
' (Albert Einstein).
regions. means `thrifty or shrewd' in Scot-
Canny
dice with the cosmos
The word may also be applied generally to
land, but `pleasant or agreeable' in North-East cube-shapedpiecesofsomething: .
dice

England. Next place the

dialectal dialectic
parsnip dice in a saucepan of boiling water.
or ? Dialectal

jective, meaning `relating to dialect': .

is an ad-
a
dichotomy A dichotomy is a division of two
things which are sharply contrasted, espe-
dialectal term. Dialectic is a noun, meaning
.
cially if they are mutually exclusive, contra-
`disputation'; it has a number of specialized
dictory, or irreconcilably different: the
uses in logic and philosophy.
◆ Dialectic is also a variant of the adjective dia-
dichotomy between Christianity and atheism.

lectical , meaning `relating to dialectic'. It has become a vogue word used generally

.
to mean `conflict, split, schism, or differ-
dialogue Dialogue is now rarely used for ence': A new dichotomy is developing in the
Church of England. This usage is disliked by
an ordinary conversation between two or
more people, but is increasingly applied to some people, both for its lack of precision
and for its pretentiousness.
exchanges of opinion and high-level nego-
◆ The usual pronunciation of dichotomy is [dõÅ ko-
tiation between organizations and indivi-
t oÆmi], with the long of . -i- die
.
duals who are usually ideologically opposed
or have a conflict of interest: We must die The verb die
.
is followed by the pre-

. .
bring about meaningful dialogue between position of or from: Thousands died of [or
management and unions. It is hoped that from] starvation during the drought. He died
military conflict can be avoided through in- from his wounds.

is used as a verb in American English: . dietician or dietitian? A person who stu-

ternational dialogue.

◆ Dialogue
We must dialogue with each other , but this use is dies the principles of nutrition is known as
not generally acceptable in British English. a or . Both spellings of the
dietician dietitian

diaphragm A
word are perfectly acceptable.
diaphragm is a separating ◆ Note that the science itself is called . dietetics
difference 90
difference differentiation
or ? Difference digital television. Digital also refers to the
and differentiation differ slightly in mean- presentation of information in the form of

. . .
ing and cannot be used as synonyms for digits rather than pointers on a dial or scale:
each other. Difference means `dissimilarity', digital watch digital display digital

.
while differentiation denotes the process of thermometer.

becoming dissimilar: There are several

dilapidated. This word, meaning `falling
.
marked differences between the two machines.
into ruin': a dilapidated cottage, is some-
Scientists have followed the differentiation
times misspelt, the most frequent mistake
of the two species over several decades.

different from different to different

being to begin the word with de-, rather

than
, or than the correct di-.
? It is possible to follow
from, to, or
dilemma
than. Different from
different

is the most
with
A dilemma is a situation where

.
one is faced with two equally unsatisfactory
.
frequently used form and the most accep-
alternatives: It was a hopeless dilemma ± she
table: Your life is different from mine.
could stay with her husband and be miserable,

.
Different to is often used in informal British
or she could leave him and lose the children.
English: That suit is different to this one. It
◆ It is usually considered acceptable to use dilem-
is, however, disliked by some people and
ma when more than two choices are involved,
not used in American English. Different
provided they are equally unattractive, but one
than is in frequent use in American English
but is disliked by many users of British
should not use for desirable things: .
dilemma His
mouth watered as he pondered the dilemma of
English and generally should be avoided.
is considered most acceptable .
whether to choose the chocolate souffle or the
is often used to mean
when followed by a clause: .
◆ Different than
pistachio icecream Dilemma

, as element of choice at all: . is open choice or no

just `a problem', where there
My values now are

it removes the need for clumsy phrases such as: .

different than they were when I was a teenager

.
the dilemma of what to

from those that I had . wear the dilemma of how to attract new mem-
. Careful users dislike this imprecise use of the
differential
bers
, as adjective and word.
The - - of may be short [di aÆ] or long
Differential

noun, is a term in mathematics and has the i dilemma lem

nontechnical meanings of `based on a dif- [dõÅ aÆ]. The first of these pronunciations is pre-
lem
ference; a difference between comparable ferred by some users.
things'. It is now most frequently used in
reference to differences in pay rates for
dimension The literal uses of dimension

are concerned with measurement, dimen-

various jobs in the same industry, based

.
sions being also used figuratively to mean
.
on differences in skills, work conditions,
`scope or extent': They were now in a
etc.: Pay differentials between nursing and
position to assess the dimensions of the tragedy.

:.
administrative staff have widened.

◆ The use of in place of

differential difference a
The word is also fashionably used as a
.
differential of £20 a week is inappropriate, as a synonym for aspect or factor: The fact

is a discrepancy based on related dif-

differential
that one of the applicants was black and one a

ferences, not the difference itself. woman added a new dimension to their de-

differentiation DIFFERENCE DIFFEREN- Some people dislike the overuse of the nonliteral
cision.

see or ◆
TIATION ? senses of this word.
differently abled ABLED see diminution .
.
This word means `decrease in

different than different to DIFFERENT

, see
size, intensity, etc.': the possible diminution

FROM DIFFERENT TO DIFFERENT THAN

, or ?
in readers.
Note the spelling and the pro-
Æ n].
diffuse DEFUSE DIFFUSE
nunciation [diminewsho
see or
dinghy dingy ?

digital
or ? These words are some-
The adjective digital, meaning `stor- times confused. A dinghy is a small boat;

.
ing information as numbers or electronic dingy is an adjective meaning `gloomy or
signals', has specific technical uses in com- shabby': a dingy basement flat.
is pronounced with a hard [ gi] or
. . . [ i]. The pronunciation of is [ ji].
puting, sound recording, and broadcasting: ◆ Dinghy g ding
digital superhighway digital recording ding dingy din
 91 disassociate
dining room see LOUNGE. such as
.
said, whispered, shouted, etc.:. `Get

dinky Dinky, an acronym of `dual (or

out!' he cried.
See also
She replied,
REPORTED SPEECH.
`I don't know.'

``double'') income, no kids', is used with

reference to a childless couple earning
above-average salaries. The final -
In passages of conversation, the words of dif-
◆
ferent speakers are often placed in separate para-
is
graphs. The verbs that follow or precede the direct
y

sometimes interpreted as `yet'.

◆ Of American origin, the acronym is one of many
speech are sometimes omitted once the identity of
contrived in the 1980s and 1990s to identify the speakers has been made clear.
perceived categories of society (see also NIMBY; dis- or dys-? Confusion between these two
YUPPIE). Most are now considered outdated, prefixes can cause spelling mistakes. - is
although similar new coinages such as
Dis

(young, entrepreneurial, technology-based) con- sal, negation, removal, etc.: . .

the more frequent, indicating lack, rever-
yettie

tinue to appear sporadically. .

disagreement
. - means `abnor-
There is also the British adjective , `pretty; mal', `faulty', `difficult', or `bad' and is
discontinue dissimilar Dys

dinky
neat'.
. .
chiefly found in technical words relating

dinner lunch tea supper

, , or ? The ques-
dyslexia .
to physical or mental problems:
dysfunction.
dyspepsia

disabled
tion of how meals and mealtimes are
referred to in Britain is fraught with class Disabled is the preferred word in
and regional considerations. In general, both British and American English for
middle- and upper-class people have their people with physical or mental disabilities,

.
main meal in the evening and call it dinner replacing handicapped, crippled, defective,

.
or supper; lunch is taken around midday etc.: He was disabled as the result of an
and is usually a light meal or snack, accident at work. I believe from personal

although Sunday lunch may be the main experience of having a disabled mother that it
meal of the day. Tea (or afternoon tea), if it is not disabled friendly and we will look at it.

is taken, is eaten late in the afternoon and (Bucks Herald).

consists of small sandwiches and cakes. ◆ As preferred terms in sensitive areas such as
is a meal eaten in the late after- disability tend to change, some users now consider
even unacceptable and prefer such terms
High tea

noon rather than or later in disabled

as , , or
dinner supper
the evening. Some people, especially those person with disabilities differently abled
living in Northern England and Scotland, physically challenged.
have dinner at midday, while tea is a See also ACCESSIBLE; PEOPLE WITH DIS-
substantial meal eaten at about six o'clock. ABILITIES.
Supper is always the last meal of the day
disadvantaged Like UNDERPRIVILEGED and
and is sometimes a light bedtime snack for
those who have had a large tea, or it can
DEPRIVED, disadvantaged has become a fash-
ionable euphemism for `poor', with parti-
be the main evening meal for those who
cular emphasis on the lack of a reasonable
choose not to call the main evening meal

.
standard of housing, living conditions, and
dinner or tea.
See also LUNCH or LUNCHEON? opportunities for gaining basic rights: Up

diphtheria
to 100 teachers from each country are to spend

This word causes problems one or two months studying such matters as
with spelling and pronunciation. Note how to motivate disadvantaged children (The
the phth in the spelling. The sound is
ph Times).
pronounced f
Æ]
p [diptheeria
Æ ] or
by careful users [diftheeria
disappear Note the spelling of this word,

diphthong
particularly the single -s- and the -pp-.

The ph
Note the
sound is pronounced
phth in the spelling.
f by careful
disappoint The verb disappoint and its
derivatives are often misspelt, the most
users [difthong] or p [dipthong].

direct speech
frequent error being the doubling of the
Direct speech is a record of -s-. Note also the -pp-.
the actual words used by a speaker. These
QUOTATION disassemble seeDISSEMBLE or DISASSEMBLE?
disassociate
words are usually enclosed in
MARKS and followed or preceded by a verb see DISSOCIATE or DISASSOCIATE?
disassociation 92
disassociation or dissociation ? Disasso- discreet discrete
or ? These two words are

.
ciation and dissociation are close in meaning, sometimes confused. Discreet means `judi-

.
denoting the separation of two things, cious or prudent': You can confide in him;

.
persons, or concepts: She has completed he is very discreet; discrete means `separate or

.
the process of disassociation from all her old distinct': discrete elements in the composi-

friends. The party's disassociation from the tion.

affair has not been entirely successful.

two words are, however, not always exact
The
discrepancy or disparity ? Both these
nouns mean `difference'. A discrepancy is
synonyms of each other; in psychology and
a difference between things that should be
psychiatry, dissociation specifically denotes

.
the same; a disparity is a greater difference
.
the separation of emotions as a defence
that suggests imbalance or inequality: a
mechanism: As an adult he protected

.
discrepancy between the accounts of the two
himself through dissociation from this child-
witnesses a disparity between the wages of
hood trauma.

disastrous
factory and office workers.

spelt. Note that the

This word is sometimes mis-
e of disaster is dropped discriminating discriminatory
or ? Both

before the suffix -ous is added. these adjectives are derived from discrimi-

◆ In pronunciation careful users avoid sounding nation and are connected with `distinguish-

the of
e : [di streÆs] rather than [di
disaster zah zah-
ing, making distinctions' but they are used

steÆreÆs]. in very different ways. Discriminating is

The overuse of this word, to describe something applied to someone who is discerning in

very bad in its performance or results, is disliked by matters of taste and able to tell the differ-
.
many. ence between good and poor quality: We'd

disc diskor ? These spellings are some-

better serve the Bordeaux

discriminating when it comes to wine. Dis-

because Paul is

. .
times confused. A disc is a flat round or criminatory is now almost always applied to
circular shape:
.
a slipped disc compact discrimination that is unjust and based on
disc. In American English this word is prejudice: Feminists are organizing a boy-
usually spelt disk. In British English disk cott of the bank because of its discriminatory
is reserved for use in computer science, to practices.

stored: .
describe a thin plate on which data is
a floppy disk. This is occasionally disinterested uninterested
or ? Disinter-

.
spelt disc. ested means `impartial; having no self-inter-

discipline Note the c following the s in the

est': As a disinterested party he felt free to

.
intervene in the dispute. Uninterested means
spelling of this word. `having no interest; indifferent; bored':
discoloration COLORATION
I
was quite uninterested in their holiday photos.

◆ Perhaps because is not in frequent

see .

discomfit discomfort or ? There is some use,

uninterested
is now often used in its place to
disinterested
overlap between these words and often mean `lacking interest', which was, in fact, the
confusion as to the distinction between original meaning of :.
disinterested Charles, in

.
them. Discomfit means `defeat or thwart': turn, appeared cold and disinterested in his wife
He discomfited his opponent,
.
and `discon- ( ). However, its use in this sense is
objected to by many people: .
Sunday Times
cert, confuse, or embarrass': They were
`It was nothing but
discomfited by his strange manner. Discomfort
copying documents and tedious things like that,

.
means `make uncomfortable or uneasy'. canceled checks and invoices, little chits of things.
This might be physical distress: The hard
I've never been so disinterested.' Macon stirred
seats discomforted her, or mental uneasiness, and said, `Don't you mean uninterested?' (Anne
in which case the distinction between dis-
Tyler, The Accidental Tourist ).
comfort

blurred: .
and
His
discomfit

ominous tone
often
disk DISC becomes
discomforted see or DISK?
is both a verb and a noun, but the disorganized unorganized
them.
or ? Either
◆ Discomfort
noun from discomfit is discomfiture . adjective may be used in the sense of

discover
`not organized'. As the past participle of
see INVENT, DESIGN or DISCOVER? the verb disorganize, disorganized specifi-
 93 distil
cally refers to something organized that has dissect This word, meaning `separate or

.
been thrown into confusion, but it is also cut up for analysis', is spelt with -ss-, unlike
used in a general informal sense: bisect.

Although is often pronounced to rhyme

I'm a bit

.
morning. is ◆ dissect
with [dõÅ ], careful users prefer [di ].
disorganized this Unorganized
more neutral and less frequent: an un- bisect sekt sekt
organized method of working.
dissemble disassemble
disorient disorientate
or ? Dissemble, a

.
or ? Disorient and literary word, means `pretend' or `conceal';

.
disorientate are interchangeable and mean disassemble means `take apart': He dis-

.
`cause to lose bearings or sense of identity; sembled his excitement. She disassembled the
confuse': They had organized a one-way machine. The two verbs should not be

.
confused.
◆ Note the spellings of the words, particularly the
traffic system since his last visit and he was
completely disoriented/disorientated.

- - and - -.
After

years of being institutionalized she was dis- s ss

oriented/disorientated after her discharge. Dis-

orient is preferred by some users as the

dissemble dissimulate simulate
, or ? The
verbs dissemble and dissimulate, both of
shorter and simpler alternative; it is also
which are formal, mean `pretend not to
the standard form in American English,

.
have; conceal'; simulate means `pretend to
while disorientate is more frequently used in

.
have; feign': to dissemble [or dissimulate]
British English.
See alsoORIENT or ORIENTATE? one's anger to simulate enthusiasm.

SIMULATE or STIMULATE?
disparity see DISCREPANCY or DISPARITY?
See also

dissension dissent
dispassionate impassioned impas-
or ? The noun dissen-

sive .
, or sion refers to a state of disagreement, dis-
? The adjectives dispassionate and im- cord, or conflict: The proposal caused much
passive are sometimes confused because of dissension. The noun dissent, the opposite of
their similarity in meaning; impassioned and assent, means `difference of opinion'; it

.
impassive because of their similarity in refers to the act of disagreeing or an ex-
form. means `not influenced pression of disagreement: a voice of dissent.
Confusion between the two nouns may lead to
Dispassionate

.
by emotion; objective', whereas ◆
the misspelling of , with - - in place of
impassive

.
means `showing no emotion': dissension t
the third - -.
a dispassio-
nate assessment of the problem She remained s
impassive, ignoring
means `full of passion':
his
.
cries. Impassioned
an impassioned
dissimilar The adjective dissimilar
.
is fol-
lowed by the preposition from or to: The
attack on the government.

dispatch DESPATCH
flavour is not dissimilar from [or to] that of
see or DISPATCH? chicken.

dispel disperse
or ? Dispel means `scatter; dissimulate DISSEMBLE DISSIMULATE
see , or
SIMULATE
.
drive away' and is often used for abstract ?
things: He allowed them to see the original
dissociate disassociateor ? Dissociate and

.
document so as to dispel their doubts about its

.
disassociate are interchangeable opposites of
authenticity. Disperse means `break up':
associate: One of the committee members

.
The family were dispersed over Europe,
told me after the meeting that she wished to
`spread over a wide area': The gas dis-
dissociate/disassociate herself from what the

.
persed over half the town, and `dissipate,
chair had said.
evaporate, or vanish': The mist had now
◆ Most careful users prefer the form dissociate .
dissociation
dispersed and visibility was normal.

dispute see DISASSOCIATION or DISSOCIA-

The noun dispute may be pro-
TION ?

distil
nounced with the stress on the first syllable
[dispewt] or the second [dispewt]. The first In British English the verb distil ends

.
of these pronunciations is becoming in- in a single l, which is doubled before a
creasingly frequently heard, although it is suffix beginning with a vowel: distillery.
disliked by many users. ◆ The American English spelling of the verb is
◆ The verb dispute is always stressed on the distill.
second syllable. See also SPELLING 1.
distinct 94
distinct distinctive
or ? These two adjec- swimming back to the side of the pool (Philip
tives are frequently confused although they Roth, Goodbye Columbus).
are not interchangeable. means ◆ The use of (pronounced [doÅv]) is now
dove
generally considered acceptable in all but the most
Distinct

.
`definite; clearly perceivable or distinguish-
able': formal writing in American English. It is still con-
sidered nonstandard in British English.
There's a distinct taste of garlic in this

.
stew. Distinctive means `characteristic, pe-
culiar to, distinguishing':
distinctive rolling gait of a sailor.
He had the
divorcee A divorced person of either sex is

distract
known as a divorcee [divawsee]. A divorced
see DETRACT or DISTRACT? man is also called a Â
divorce [divawsay] or

distribute The traditional pronunciation

[divawsee], and a divorced woman is also
called a Âe
divorce [divawsee].

do
in British English of this word, meaning
`share out' or `spread', is [distribyoot], with Do is used as an informal replacement
the stress on the second syllable. The alter-
.
for various different verbs, for example
native pronunciation [distribyoot], with the
.
`prepare': Shall I do you a sandwich?,
stress on the first syllable, has, however,
.
`clean': I'm just going to do my teeth,
become equally acceptable in both British
.
`visit': We're doing the British Museum
and American English.
.
tomorrow, `perform': The local rep are

distrust mistrust
or ? Distrust
.
and mistrust
doing The Cherry Orchard,
doing maths at Cambridge,
`study':

`provide': .
She's

Do
are often used interchangeably: Somehow

There are also the slang meanings of `cheat': .

they do breakfasts?
I distrust/mistrust the whole business. Distrust

, `arrest': .
◆
is more frequently used and has a far more

, `rob': .
You've been done! He was done for

.
emphatic suggestion of suspicion and lack
,
`attack': .
burglary They did the bank last night
of trust: I have known him to be deceitful in
, `have sexual intercourse
with': .
I'll do you
the past and I have come to distrust everything
Glober did me on the table (Anthony
he says. Mistrust is rather more tentative and
Powell, ). is also used infor-
mally as a noun to mean `a party or social event': .
Temporary Kings Do
is used for a less positive lack of trust or

.
when the doubt is directed against oneself:
I'm going to the firm's Christmas do .
There was something about her manner
The addition of in constructions when a
previously mentioned verb is omitted: .
do

.
that made me uneasy and I found myself
They
beginning to mistrust her. I tend to mistrust
behaved just as I wanted them to do is best
my critical judgment when it comes to my
reserved for informal use.
own writing.
isalsousedasanauxiliaryverbinquestions: .
disturb perturb , in negative sentences: .
Do

. , and for emphasis: .

or ? Disturb can mean Do you like it? They don't

.
`interrupt; inconvenience': His reverie want to go I do wish he'd
was disturbed by a ring at the doorbell. phone!
The construction in British English
I

.
do have
(probably under the influence of American English)
hope I'm not disturbing you by phoning so
late, `throw into disorder':
is often used in questions and negative statements
The cleaner had

. :.
disturbed all her papers, and `upset; destroy
as an alternative to
. .
the mental composure of': I was deeply have got Do you have the
disturbed by this revelation. In this last use, new edition of this? Do we have his reply yet?
is virtually synonymous with the less We don't have time to wait. In such contexts, some
users find more acceptable than ,
disturb

frequently used word perturb, which means do have have got

although both are equally correct grammatically.
.
`cause disquiet to; cause mental distur-
bance': His violent language and abrupt
departure had perturbed her.
document Document is used as a verb to

dived dove .
mean `provide documentary evidence or

.
or ? In British English the past information to act as factual support':
tense of dive is almost always dived: They His essay was well documented with author-

all dived for cover. However, the past tense itative references. It is also used in reference
dove exists in some British dialects and is to the production of a written, filmed, or

. .
the standard form in several regions of the broadcast work that has plentiful detailed
United States and Canada: She dove factual information: The programme

beautifully, and a moment later she was documents life in a women's prison.
 95 double whammy
Domesday doomsday or ? The Domesday many website addresses. Though widely
Book is the survey of England carried out understood, dot.com should be avoided in

.
during the reign of William I. The noun formal contexts. It is increasingly spelt as
doomsday, sometimes spelt with a capital one word: He works for one of the new
D-, means `Judgment Day; Last Judgment'
The phrase has inspired a host of
dotcom outfits.

in the Christian religion, and `day of reck- ◆ dot.com

oning' or `end of the world' in general subsidiary phrases relating to computer-based
business, often with a hyphen in the place of
. the full stop: . .
usage. The phrase till doomsday means

.
`for ever': You can wait till doomsday, dot-com millionaire dot-commer
but I won't change my mind. dot-comback.
◆ Both words are pronounced [ doomz day]. double entendre
dominate domineer
The French expression
or ? To dominate double entendre refers to an ambiguous

.
means `rule, exert power or control over': word or phrase, one of whose meanings
Her charm and energy were such that she has indecent connotations.

. bleThemeaning'.
literal meaning of is `dou-
came to dominate the whole company. It can ◆ double entendre
also mean `occupy a preeminent position': It is pronounced [doobeÆl on dreÆ]. ton

. double negative .
Our products dominate the pet-food market,

.
and `overlook from a superior height': The double negative, as
The church is built on a hill and dominates the in: I didn't do nothing. He hasn't had no

town. Dominate is often used in a negative tea, is always avoided by careful users. The
way that would be better reserved for objection to such constructions is that the
domineer which means `tyrannize, exert negatives cancel each other out and reverse
the meaning of the sentence.
When two negatives are intended to cancel each
power in an arbitrary or overbearing man-

. other: . ..
ner'. It is most frequently used as a present ◆
She is not without talent It is not
, they are, however, acceptable. An-
participle that functions as an adjective:
impossible
other generally acceptable, if colloquial, use is in
his cruel domineering manner.

done finished
or ? Both done and
.
finished
such sentences as: . I shouldn't be surprised if it
signify completing something:
.
Every-
doesn't snow .
thing's been done. The race has finished.
The cruder double negative is not difficult to
Some users prefer finished to done in formal avoid. It is more likely to occur with the semi-
contexts, preferring I have finished with the
negative adverbs , , :.
hardly scarcely barely They
computer to I'm done with the computer.
were left for hours without hardly any food , or in
doomsday see DOMESDAY or DOOMSDAY? complex sentences where the various negative
words and phrases might get muddled: .
doorstep The verb doorstep is disliked by ,
Despite
his injury he denied that it was unlikely that he
some people as an example of the increas- would not play again this season .
ing tendency to use nouns as verbs. It The word should not be used in sen-
tences that are already negative: .
neither
originally referred to the practice of selling
..
I'm not hungry
door-to-door, then to the practice of can- and I'm not thirsty neither .
I didn't neither

double whammy
vassing door-to-door, and later to the prac-
tice (favoured by investigative journalists, A double whammy is a

.
press photographers, etc.) of waiting out- double blow, or any problem or difficulty
side the house or office of somebody in the that has a two-pronged effect: We have

public eye and accosting that person when been hit by a double whammy: a cut of £30

he or she appears. million below meagre expectations . . . and

do's and don'ts In the phrase do's and

major cost increases for equipment and inter-
national subscriptions following the devalua-
don'ts, note that the apostrophe in don'ts
(Daily Telegraph).
The term , meaning `devastating blow',
tion of sterling
comes after the n and not after the t. The
◆ whammy
apostrophe in do's is sometimes omitted.
has been used in American English since the
dot.com The phrase refers to a 1940s, where it originally (in the Li'l Abner cartoon
strip) referred to the evil eye: the use of one eye is a
dot.com
commercial computer website or company
operating through the Internet, the origin whammy; the use of both, only in an emergency, is
of the phrase being the .com ending of a double whammy . On the same model, a situa-
doubling of consonants 96
tion that involves a series of three setbacks or English language to denote the copying
blows may be described as a . triple whammy or transfer of information, data, etc. Down-

doubling of consonants On the general

load refers to the transfer of data from a

.
larger computer or other information sys-

. .
rule of doubling consonants in such words
.
tem, while upload denotes the opposite:
as: drop ± dropped refer ± referred, see
individual entries and SPELLING 1. He downloaded the file onto his PC. The

doubt
program will take about twenty minutes to

The main problem with doubt is upload from the disk.

what preposition or conjunction to use with

downside The vogue word downside

.
it. When doubt is used as a noun it is most
means `unfavourable aspect'; it is best
often followed by about: I have my doubts

.
avoided where disadvantage would be more

.
about it, but it can be followed by that in a
.
appropriate: the downside of the new system
negative construction: There is no doubt in
Every scientific break-through has its down-
my mind that he is telling the truth. When
side.

downsizing
doubt is used as a verb it can only be

.
followed by that in negative constructions: Downsizing is the act of re-
I don't doubt that you are right, and in ducing in size. In America in the late 1970s

. .
most other constructions it is followed by it referred to the production of smaller cars:
whether: They doubted whether she would With the whole industry downsizing, big-
be welcome. (Time).
is a possible alternative to but it is
car addicts will find fewer alternatives

suitable for more informal use: . . .

◆ If whether In Britain in the late 1980s it referred to
I doubt if I can redundancy:
.
downsizing the workforce In

make it the case of the latest cuts ± 55 jobs to go at US

doubtful dubious or ? Both doubtful and

investment bank L.F. Rothschild ± downsiz-

ing is something of an understatement (The

dubious mean `giving rise to doubt, uncer-

The term is also used in computing: .

Guardian).

.
tain, questionable' and they are often more
◆ `Down-
or less interchangeable: They were doubt-
sizing' simply means that firms are tending to buy
ful/dubious whether the car was safe. Doubt-
smaller computers to do jobs which used to require

.
ful is more neutral and is more likely to be
big ones (The Guardian).

Down's syndrome
used when expressing uncertainty: The

eventual result remains doubtful. Dubious This is the preferred

carries more negative overtones and is modern term for the congenital disorder
often used to suggest a suspicion that a formerly known as mongolism, a term that

.
person or practice is underhand or dishon- is now widely considered unacceptable.
est in some way: ◆ Named after the English physician J. H. L. Down
(1828±96), the disorder is known as
He was involved with
some dubious export company. Down syn-
is always preferable in constructions in American English.
starting : .
◆ Doubtful drome
it is
.
actually visited Germany
downward or downwards? In British
It is doubtful whether he has ever

doubtless UNDOUBTEDLY
English is principally used as downward
see . an adjective, downwards being the usual

douse dowse or ? Either spelling of this

level': . a downward slope .
form of the adverb meaning `to a lower
to look down-
verb may be used in the sense of `soak' or
wards.
◆ The adverb is more frequently used
. .
`extinguish', pronounced [dows]. Douse is
downward
the more frequent: doused with petrol to
in American English.
douse a candle. The verb dowse, in the
-WARD or -WARDS?
See also

dowse see DOUSE or DOWSE?

additional meaning `search for water using
a divining rod' and pronounced [dowz],
should never be spelt douse.
draft see DRAUGHT or DRAFT?
dove DIVED DOVE
see or ?
dramatist playwright
download upload
or ? Dramatist and
and Download and up- playwright are synonymous words, both

.
load are both computer terms that have dating from the late seventeenth century
been absorbed to some extent into the and meaning `a person who writes plays':
 97 due to
.
.. .
He is a poet as well as a dramatist/playwright. derived from the verb dry:

There may be a slight tendency to apply

These socks are

◆ dra-
to those who write more serious plays or
drier than those a hair-dryer/drier a spin-
matist .
plays which conform to the traditional categories drugs slang The drugs subculture has
dryer/drier

of drama: . Racine was a dramatist writing in the

, and to modern wri- contributed a large number of slang

ters and those whose work is less serious: .

classical tradition playwright
coinages to British and American English.
play-
Some of these terms are useful as they
wrights like Neil Simon who are popular on both
sides of the Atlantic. provide succinct names for otherwise un-

Note the spelling of the final syllable of wieldy chemical titles, but care should be
play-
:
wright -wright , not . -write
taken over their use as they tend to come

draught draft
into and go out of fashion very rapidly.
or ? These words are some-
.
Examples of slang terms that have re-

.
times confused. A is a preliminary
.
draft mained current through the years are:
outline: a rough draft of the essay. A is
.
draft E or Ecstasy (for the drug MDMA) speed

. .
also a money order and a group of soldiers.
. .
(amphetamines) crystal (methampheta-

.
is the spelling for:
.
Draught draught beer mine) weed (cannabis) smack (heroin)

. .
draught animals a draught from an open acid (LSD). Terms that are less common
door. The American English spelling of today include: hash (cannabis) horse
is draft. (heroin).
A person who draws up a rough version of a drunk or drunken? Both
draught
◆
document is a ; an artist or someone
draftsman
and drunk drun-

who prepares detailed drawings of buildings, toxication, but

are adjectives applied to
ken alcoholic in-

machinery, etc., is a (feminine, a verb: .

draughtsman
is normally used after drunk

draughtswoman ; American English ). draftsman

, She got drunk on cheap white wine

The board game called in British Eng- while

in American English. noun: .
draughts
is normally used before a
drunken

lish is known as checkers

..
We were just sipping sherry ± it was

draughtsman draughtswoman? or see

hardly a drunken orgy
drunken driving.
the campaign against

NON-SEXIST TERMS . ◆ However, implies temporary intoxication,

drunk

drawing room LOUNGE while drunken suggests a habitual state of being

see .
drunk. When this distinction is being emphasized it
dreamed dreamt or ? Either word may be is possible to reverse the usual rule and use
before a noun: .
drunk

.
used as the past tense and past participle of and, though less
after a verb: .
drunk driving
the verb dream: I dreamed/dreamt I was in frequently, drunken He was drun-
Australia. ken, foul-mouthed, and inconsiderate .
-ED or -T?
See also
Dreamed may be pronounced [dreemd] dryer DRIER see or DRYER?
or [dremt];
[dremt].
dreamt is always pronounced
dual duel or ? These two words are some-
times confused, being identical in pronun-
dress-down day This contemporary busi- ciation.
`double';
Dual is an adjective,
is a noun or verb referring
meaning
ness term refers to the practice of allowing duel

. . .
to a rather formal fight between two peo-
.
employees to wear casual clothing at work

.
on designated days of the week: We all ple: dual-purpose a dual carriageway the

look forward to dress-down Friday. As a duel of the champions to settle a quarrel by

vogue term, day, and its less duelling.

◆ Note that in British English the final of is

dress-down

frequently encountered opposite, l duel

doubled before - , - , - , etc.
dress-up
day, is considered jargonistic by many peo- ed ing er
ple and is best restricted to informal con-
dubious DOUBTFUL see or DUBIOUS?
duel DUAL DUEL
texts.
See also DESK DINING; DUVET DAY; HOT- see or ?
DESKING. due to owing to because of
drier dryer
, or ?
or ? Drier is the usual spelling Although these phrases have roughly the
of the comparative form of the adjective same meanings they are not used in the
dry; both are equally common for the noun same way. Due to should strictly speaking
du jour 98
be used only adjectivally: . His shakiness is See also DESK DINING; DRESS-DOWN DAY; HOT
DESKING.
.
due to Parkinson's disease; whereas owing to
and because of are used as prepositions: We
dwarf Dwarf is no longer considered an

.
were delayed owing to an electrical fault on
acceptable term for an abnormally small
the line. Because of poor health he took early
person. None of the alternatives so far
retirement.

◆ Although the use of as a preposition is

due to
coined, such as person of restricted growth,

objected to by careful users, this usage is becom- has achieved wide acceptance. The term

ing increasingly widespread: . Due to the sheer

midget

be avoided.
may also cause offence and should

size of the operation, we now need additional

◆ Note that is the more frequent plural of
dwarfs
people to join our . . . Membership Recruitment
( dwarf , although is also acceptable.
dwarves

dwelled dwelt
and Corporate Marketing Departments Sunday
Times ). or ? Either word may be

du jour This French phrase, meaning `of

used as the past tense and past participle of
the verb dwell. Dwelled is more frequent in
the day', has become a standard term used

.
American English than in British English,
in menus to indicate a dish available on a
but dwelt is the preferred form in both:
particular day (le plat du jour). It has
He dwelt on her infidelity.
recently been adopted in a wider context
See also ±ED or ±T?
dying dyeing
to denote something that is currently pop-

.
ular or fashionable but not likely to re- or ? These spellings are
main so for long: The health scare du jour sometimes confused. Dying is the present

. .
is the claim that such products can raise participle of the verb die, meaning `cease to
cholesterol levels. It is best restricted to live': Her son is dying. his dying words.

.
informal use. Dyeing is the present participle of the verb

dumb mute or ? A person who is dumb

dye, meaning `change the colour of':
was dyeing her hair blonde.
She

dynamic
cannot speak. As dumb also means `stupid'
in very informal contexts, many users of Dynamic is an overworked vogue

.
English prefer to use the word mute when word meaning `lively, forceful, or ener-
referring to people who are unable to getic': The Party needs young, dynamic

speak. However, can also cause of- leadership.

◆ Its frequent use, particularly in job advertise-
mute
DEAF-MUTE).
ments, has considerably weakened its impact: .
fence (see

duplication duplicity or ? The noun du-

If

). .
+
you are aged 28 , a dynamic team leader and an
plication is derived from the verb duplicate,
(
imaginative business organiser Daily Telegraph
meaning `copy' or `repeat'; the more formal
Self-motivated, dynamic person required ( The
noun duplicity
.
means `deception' or `dou-
Times ).
. dynasty
ble-dealing': There may be some duplica-

tion in the text. They were unaware of his The preferred British English
duplicity. The two nouns should not be pronunciation of dynasty, which means
confused. Æ sti].
`series of hereditary rulers', is [dina

dustman dustwoman or ? see NON-SEXIST The American English pronunciation [dõÅ-

TERMS. Æ sti] is sometimes also used in British

na

duvet day
English.
This contemporary business
dys- DIS- DYS-
see or ?

dyslexic dyslectic
term refers to the practice of allowing

.
employees to take an occasional day off or ? The words dyslexic

work at short notice: In addition to holi- and dyslectic are interchangeable; either
days, staff are allowed half a dozen duvet days may be used as a noun or adjective to
over the year. As a vogue term, duvet day is describe a person suffering from dyslexia,
considered jargonistic by many people and though dyslexic is used much more fre-
is best restricted to informal contexts. quently.
 E
e- The prefix e-, meaning `electronic', has deeply grateful to each and every one of you.
It
been used to form numerous new words is disliked by most careful users as a clicheÂ

. . .
since the advent of the Internet and web- and as an unnecessarily wordy construction

. . . .
based business: e-mail e-business for which each, everyone, or all can often be

. .
e-commerce e-trade e-book e-shopping substituted.
e-bill e-learning e-ticket. Note the grow-
each other one another
or ? The tradi-
. . .
ing tendency to drop the hyphen following
e: email ezine emarketing.
tional rule is that each other is used when

each When is used as a determiner or

two elements are involved and
.
one another

.
each when more than two are involved: Helen
as a pronoun which is the subject of a and Charles love each other deeply. All the

.
sentence, the rule is that subsequent verbs people at the party already knew one another.

.
and pronouns should be singular: Each However, there is no particular reason for
man has his price. Each of the operas was this rule and most people feel free to
sung in English.

The rule is frequently broken, partly because

ignore it.
◆ There is a slight difference between the two
those who are sensitive to sexism in language
◆
phrases in that tends to emphasize
prefer: .
each other
Each student had a paper handed to each individual element whereas
[rather than ]. Of course, one can
one another
them to him sounds more general. So it would be preferable
avoid both sexism and grammatical error by re- to say: .
phrasing such sentences: .
They were throwing one another into the
All the students had a rather than ,
. When follows a plural
swimming pool throwing each other
paper handed to them each the former gives a general impression of horseplay
noun or pronoun which is the subject of the and allows for the odd person who was neither
sentence, the subsequent verb is plural: . The thrown nor throwing, while the latter suggests
cakes each have cherries on top . something much more systematic.
each bothor ? see BOTH. earthly earthy
or ? relates to the
each every
Earthly

. .
earth as opposed to heaven; refers to
.
or ? Each and every are inter- earthy

.
earth in the sense of `soil':
.
changeable in some contexts: He picked up our earthly life

each book in turn He picked up every book an earthly paradise an earthy taste/texture.

in turn. There is, however, a subtle but The two adjectives are not interchangeable.
important difference between the two in ◆ Both words have other meanings. is used
Earthly
informally in the sense of `possible', usually in
negative contexts or in questions: .
that each emphasizes the individuality of

.
each person or item under consideration, What earthly

. .
while treats them collectively, within reason could she have for saying that? They
. means
every

`coarse' or `crude': .
a group: haven't an earthly chance of success Earthy
.
each car in the garage every ship
an earthy remark
Note, however, that , not , should be east, East or eastern? As an adjective,
in the fleet.

used after a plural noun: .

◆ each every
east
The guests each have
their own room , and also that refers to two or forms
each
part of a place-name: .
is always written with a capital
.
when it E

more in number, while refers to at least three East Anglia

in number: . .
every
. The
the noun
East is
End usually east
She put a shoe on each foot. She
written with a capital when it denotes E
had frostbite in every finger.

each and every .

a specific region, such as the countries of

. .
Each and every is used for Asia: She has travelled extensively in the

.
emphasis in such phrases as: Each and East. East-West relations.
every person has a vital part to play. I am ◆ In other contexts, and as an adverb, east is
eastward 100
usually written with a lower-case : .
.. legitimate terms in ecology: . .
e to several words with the prefix
They sailed , some eco-

.. .
east in search of land The east wind chilled him
.
ecospecies

is more frequent and coinages: . . .

to the marrow The sun rises in the east , and some more modern
The adjective
ecotype ecosystem

usually less specific than the adjective : . .

eastern ecocatastrophe eco-freak

.
east .
. ◆ New words are being spawned all the time:
ecotourism ecotoxicology

is written with a capital .

the eastern shore in eastern Australia eco-
Like ,
).
east eastern E a new magazine . . . described as the journal of
when it forms part of a proper name, such as: (
.
eco-politics The Guardian the eco-warriors of
. With or without a ( ).
capital , it also means `of the East': .
the Eastern Orthodox Church Greenpeace Sunday Times
E
Eastern philosophy . economic or economical?
eastern/
is the Economic

eastward eastwards?
adjective from or economics the economy

.
or Eastward is the and is concerned with the production, dis-

. .
correct choice when an adjective is needed: tribution, and structure of wealth: Fried-
an eastward direction. Either eastward or man's economic theories the Government's

.
eastwards may be used when an adverb is economic policies. Economical is the adjec-

. .
required: They travelled eastward from the tive from economy and is concerned with

.
city. The skies were full of birds flying thrift and the avoidance of waste: an
eastwards. economical car a large economical pack.

See also -WARD or -WARDS? An economic price is one that benefits the

eatable edibleor ? Eatable means `palata-

seller, but an
buyer.
economical price benefits the

◆ Although careful users keep the distinction

. between
ble', but with the suggestion of `not actually
tasting unpleasant' rather than `delicious':
the two words, each is frequently used
He had managed to get together a reasonably
withthemeaningbelongingtotheother: . Labour
eatable meal.
.
Edible means `suitable for
(BBC
Radio). .
gave fewer details of their economical brief
eating as food': Common sorrel is edible
Buying a whole chicken makes economic
but wood sorrel is poisonous.
If something is not it would be either sense (advertisement, magazine).
Bejam
◆ edible
impossible or dangerous to eat it, but a substance The initial of both words may be short [ekoÆ-
e-

can be without being , for example, nom ik(l)] or long [eekoÆ ik(l)].nom

economics
edible eatable
raw potatoes. Despite these differences the two see -ICS.
words are often used interchangeably in informal ecstasy
contexts: . The cabbage was overcooked but just
This word, meaning `intense emo-

about eatable/edible . tion', especially of happiness, is sometimes

The distinction between andeatable is edible

misspelt. Note particularly the cs and the -

also applicable to their antonyms, and asy ending, as in fantasy.

, usually spelt capitalized, is the slang

:. ..
uneatable
◆ Ecstasy
inedible
.
The meal was uneatable Toadstools
name for the drug methylenedioxymethampheta-
are inedible
mine, or MDMA.
echelon Echelon is a military expression
-ed -tor ? The past tense and past participle
applying to the formation of units or to a
of the verbs burn, dream, dwell, kneel, lean,
division of a supply organization. It is now
leap, learn, smell, spell, spill, and spoil may
often used as a fashionable synonym for
end in -ed or -t.
◆ In most cases the - form is preferred in
.
grade, rank, level of power, or to describe the
ed

.
people at that level: the
American English and the - form is slightly more
management
t
echelon the higher echelons
frequent in British English. For further discussion
of the civil

not , and although the and specific information or pronunciation and

.
◆ Note the spelling:
service

there is no words. use see the entries at the individual

adjectival
ch sh
word comes from the French eÂchelon
acute accent on the English word.
The usual pronunciation is [ aÆlon], although edible see EATABLE or EDIBLE?
esh
[ shaÆlon] is sometimes heard.
ay
-ee or -er? In general, the suffix - can be
eco-
ee
The growing popularity of the science applied to the recipient of an action de-
of ecology, the study of living things in their noted by the verb to which the suffix is
relation to the environment, has given rise attached, and the suffix -er is applied to the
 101 either
. `fruitful', meaning `worn out by producing
.
thing or person who performs the action: fetus
trainer±trainee. How- offspring'. It became applied to systems that were
no longer effective and in the 20th century has
employer±employee
ever, this rule does not apply in all cases.
The suffix -ee can sometimes indicate also been applied to effeminate boys and men.
someone
.
who
.
behaves in
.
a particular
effrontery see AFFRONT or EFFRONTERY?
e.g. i.e.
way: absentee arrestee escapee, and

.
the suffix -er can be applied to something and The abbreviation e.g. stands

.
that is a suitable object for an action: for exempli gratia and means `for example'.

.
(type of apple). It is used before examples of what has
The suffix - is also found as a substitute for
prisoner cooker
◆ ee -ie previously been mentioned:
or , suggesting smallness, in the word ,
We could

-y bootee
and is sometimes applied to people or things
show you some of the sights, e.g. Buckingham

associated with a particular noun: . .

Palace and the Tower of London. The ab-
townee breviation i.e., often used in error for
, although - is more often used in this
e.g.

way: . .
goatee er stands for and means `that is'. It is
.
id est

.
docker villager used before amplifications or explanations

effect AFFECT EFFECT

see or ?
of what has previously been mentioned:
They were vegans, i.e. vegetarians who also

effective effectual efficacious effi- The abbreviations and are best confined avoid eggs and dairy products.

cient
, , or
◆ e.g. i.e.
? The distinction
to official writing or very informal writing; in other
between these
words is subtle. Effective means `having
. contexts and in speech and
for example that is
or producing the desired effect': The
should be used.
talks were effective in settling the dispute.
It is usual in American English to render and e.g.
Effectual, a formal word, means `capable
. i.e.with both full stops, but there is an increasing
of achieving the desired effect': All plans to
tendency to omit them in British English.
reduce the trade deficit have not so far proved
. Note that it is incorrect to end a list that begins
effectual,
.
and in religious contexts: effec-
with with
e.g. etc.

egoism egotism
tual prayer God's effectual calling of his
people. Efficacious, also a formal word, or ? The words egoism
means `having the power to achieve the and egotism are frequently used inter-

.
desired effect' and is usually applied to changeably but there are differences be-
medical treatment: an efficacious remedy. tween them. Egoism is applied to the ethical
Efficient is applied to people or things theory that all actions and motivation are

.
producing results through a good and eco- based on self-interest. An egoist is a believer

.
nomical use of resources:
.
an efficient in this theory or, much more often, a
an efficient secretary.
Similar distinctions apply to ,
machine person who is selfish and self-seeking:

:. .
◆ ineffective ineffec-
, and
His conduct was characterized by ruthless

.
tual inefficient an ineffective remedy . an
means `being self-obsessed;
egoism Egotism
ineffectual policy/leader an inefficient system/
.
self-centred'. The typical is vain, egotist
clerk
is used in various other ways. It can .
boastful, and uses the word constantly: I

mean `impressive': .
Effective
,
Her egotism makes her oblivious to other

`operative; in force': .
an effective performance .
◆ The conspicuous self-obsession of often
people's concerns

, and `actual; in practice if not theory': . makes them absurd pathetic figures, whereas
The law is effective as from egotists
today He
.
ego-
had become the effective leader may pursue their own interests in a covert,
ists

effeminate or effete? To describe a man though calculating, manner.

or boy as effeminate means that one thinks egregious The adjective egregious, used in
that he shows, in an excessive manner, formal contexts and meaning `very bad', is

.
qualities which are usually thought of as sometimes misspelt and/or mispronounced.
being feminine: he spoke in a high-pitched, Note the -egi- in the middle of the word.
effeminate voice. Effete is used more rarely, Æ s].
The correct pronunciation is [igreeju
particularly in formal contexts, and means
`weak or powerless': . eighth
charming but effete
Note that in the spelling of this
word the letter h occurs twice: eight plus h.

is derived originally from Latin and either

aristocrats.

◆ Effete ex As an adjective or pronoun either is

eke out 102
. . .
. .
used with a singular verb: Is either child ships: my eldest brother She is the elder of

.
left-handed? Is either of your children left- my two daughters. One cannot say: Rachel
or:
◆ In the . . . construction, a singular verb
handed? is elder than Sarah He is elder/eldest

either or without adding the. Older and can be

is used if both subjects are singular and a plural
oldest

verb is used if both subjects are plural: . .

used of things as well as people and in a far

.. . .
Either wider range of constructions: I am older

David or Peter is responsible Either their parents than David. He is older.

. The use of a
It is the oldest

is also used in such expressions as: .

or their teachers are responsible church in Yorkshire.

plural verb with the pronoun or with sin-

although: .
either ◆ Elder I am
gular subjects in an . . . construction is
either or his elder by eighteen months I am older
avoided by careful users, especially in formal con- than him by eighteen months sounds less formal. It
texts. is also used for people noted for age and experi-
When a combination of singular and plural ence: . an elder statesman. . village elders one's
subjects occurs in an . . . construction,
either or elders and betters ; and for an officer in various
the verb traditionally agrees with the subject that is nonconformist churches.
nearest to it: . COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE.
..
Either David or his parents are See also
responsible
responsible
Either his friends or his brother is
. The same principle is applied to sin- electric electrical
or ? Electric and electrical

gular subjects that are used with different forms of can both mean `worked by electricity'

the verb: . Either you or I am[not ] .

are responsible
although electric
.
tends to be applied more

If the resulting sentence sounds awkward or uni- to specific, and

.
electrical
.
to general things:

diomatic it may be reordered or rephrased. electrical lighting

.
an electric motor elec-

The alternatives presented in an ... electrical equipment.

is also applied to things that produce or

trical appliances

construction should be grammatically balanced: .

either or

carry electricity: . .
◆ Electric

Dilute the soup either with milk or water may be .

an electric socket
, and is used figuratively
electric

changed to: Dilute the soup either with milk or

to describe something stimulating or thrilling: .
current an electric shock

with water or: Dilute the soup with either milk or

. is also used
water . to mean `concerned with electricity': .
The atmosphere was electric Electrical

As a pronoun should be used only of two .

electrical

alternatives: .
either
engineering

. . [not ]
I haven't seen either of my parents
since June Any
be used to cut vegetables
Either of the four knives may
. However, the use of the
elemental or elementary ? Elemental

. . . construction with three or more .

means `of or like the elements or forces

subjects is acceptable to some: .

either or of nature': This evoked a flood of elemental
Either Sarah,
. .
passion. It is also sometimes used to mean
Jane, or Pauline will be there
The first syllable of may be pronounced to
`fundamental or essential': an elemental
either
rhyme with or . The pronunciation [ dheÆr] is
truth of Christianity. It should not be con-
try tree õÅ
more frequent in British English. .
fused with elementary which means `very
simple; introductory': I know nothing
See also NEITHER about computers so I need an elementary

eke out The original meaning of eke out is manual.

◆ A further possible mistake is the confusion of
.
`make something more adequate by adding
with which means `to do
with the provision of nourishment': .
elementary alimentary
to it': She eked out the meal with extra rice.
the alimen-
It is frequently used in two other senses:
tary canal.
.
`make something last longer by using it
economically': elicit ILLICIT ELICIT
They eked out the supplies
see or ?
over two weeks,
laborious effort': . eligible ILLEGIBLE ELIGIBLE
and `make (a living) with
The children eked out a see or ?

Both these uses, particularly the latter, are dis- ellipse ellipsis
living by selling wild flowers to tourists.
or ? An ellipse is an oval;
◆
liked by some careful users, but they are well- ellipsis is a term used in grammar and
ELLIPSIS).
established and generally acceptable. linguistics (see The two nouns
.
elder eldest older oldest .
share the derived adjective elliptical: an

, , or ? Elder and elliptical shape an elliptical phrase. Elliptical

.
eldest are applied only to people, and usual- also means `ambiguous' or `obscure' in
ly within the context of family relation- formal contexts: an elliptical reference.
 103 e-mail
ellipsis There are two meanings of the ◆ The use of as a conjunction: .
else Stop, else
term in grammar: one is for the you'll have an accident is also disliked by many
people. Unless it is used in very informal speech
ellipsis
punctuation marks . . ., usually indicating or
omission; the other is for the omission of elseshould be substituted.
For possessive forms see APOSTROPHE.
.
words in a sentence, as an abbreviation or

.
in order to avoid repetition:
elude
See you
see AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE?
elusive
Friday. I ought to write some letters and
make some phone calls. see ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE?
The ellipsis . . . is used mainly to indicate an e-mail
omission from a quoted passage: .
◆
There are a number of broadly
`There's rose-
accepted conventions relating to the style
mary, that's for remembrance . . . and there is
If the quotation does and layout of e-mails (or emails).
not start at the beginning of a sentence the ellipsis 1 The layout of the
pansies, that's for thoughts.'

precedes it: . `
(giving the
', identity of the sender, the person or persons
headers
. . . a good fellow of infinite jest
and when the end of a sentence is omitted the to whom the message has been sent, etc.) is
three dots of the ellipsisare sometimes followed by inserted automatically by the software and
afourth,toindicateafullstop: . ` is thus rarely subject to stylistic variation.
Cudgel thy brains
no more . . .. '; if a whole sentence is left out the Note that it is considered good practice
sentence before the omitted one has a full stop always to complete the one optional ele-
and the ellipsis follows. An ellipsis is always three ment of the header, the box in which the
dots, or four if a full stop is included, except when sender briefly summarizes the content of
a whole line of poetry is omitted, when a row of the message. Some care should be taken
dots can be used to fill the length of the line. over the wording of this summary, as some
The ellipsis is also used in the same manner as computer software will filter out messages
the dash, to indicate halting speech, an unfinished that appear from this summary to be junk
sentence, or an omitted obscenity (see DASH). mail or to contain obscene or offensive
When used for an unfinished sentence, a dash material.
suggests a more abrupt break, while an ellipsis 2 The style for salutations is less rigid than
gives an impression of speech tailing off: . ` for letters. Some users prefer the formal
I
suppose I had hoped that you might . . . ' An
ellipsis should not be used at the end of a passage greetings associated with letter writing

to suggest that the rest of an episode can be left to (formality of , etc.) orand dislike the
Dear Mr Smith in-

the reader's imagination. state the addressee's name: .

Hi Sam! Others
Hello Joe!

When using ellipsis in sentences to avoid repeti- may simply .

Mr

tion, the danger is that the omitted word(s) might into the message itself, particularly if re-
Smith , or alternatively launch straight
Bill

not correspond with the word(s) repeated, as in plying to another's message: .

the following two examples. In: . I know him as
That's fine

, which in full with me, let's meet on Friday.

3 The e-mail itself should ideally be im-

well or even better than you do
would be know him as well as or even better than
you know him, the second is omitted after mediately visible in its entirety on the
as as
but does not appear later in the sentence. screen, avoiding the need for the reader
In: .
well
No one has ever or will ever solve the mystery , to scroll down to get to the end. In terms of
the omitted word is solved, not . The only content, writers should observe the usual
solve
case in which such a false ellipsis is acceptable is conventions of letter writing, taking care
when the omitted word is part of the verb : . over spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
to be
I'm going to London and Sarah to Edinburgh . Some users, however, deliberately flout the
elliptical see ELLIPSE or ELLIPSIS? usual conventions in the interests of mak-

else. .
ing their writing feel spontaneous and
Else is often followed by either than or informal: hiyaaaa! wot u reckon to this

.
but: Nothing else than revolution is possible. then i think its cool. The use of empty lines
Anybody else but him would be preferable. between paragraphs and the insertion of
Some careful users object to following else bullet points or numbered sections makes
with but and difficulties can be avoided by for greater clarity. When replying to a
substituting such phrases as nothing but or previous message and making use of the
anyone other than. `reply to' facility, it is best to add a reply
embarrass 104
either above or below the received message ◆ Imminent should not be confused with the far
and to avoid interspersing the existing text less frequently used word , which means
immanent
with responses. `inherent, indwelling', and has the respective phil-
4 osophical and theological meanings of `inherent'
The use of capital letters is similar to
and `pervading all things throughout the universe'.
emoticon SMILEY
shouting and should be avoided. Asterisks
can be used to highlight particular words see .
*like this*.

5 Many people close their e-mails with the

emotive emotional
or ? Emotive means

.
`causing or arousing emotion, especially
fixed phrases traditionally used in letter as opposed to reason': Taxation is always
writing (Best wishes, Love from, With thanks, an emotive subject (Mind Your Own Busi-
etc.). Note, however, that the more formal
.
ness). Emotional means `expressing emo-
and are re-
.
Yours faithfully Yours sincerely tion, showing excessive emotion': an
latively rare. Some people type their name an emotional meeting.

is often used when is in-

emotional woman
as a signature or have it appended auto- ◆ Emotive emotional
matically, while others omit any closing tended, especially since the word has become
phrase altogether. more fashionable: . She is very emotive and gets
See also LETTER WRITING; NETSPEAK; SMILEY; ( ).
emotionally involved herself The Times Emo-
TEXT MESSAGING. is also sometimes used when
tional would emotive

embarrass This word, meaning `cause be better, although it is acceptable to use

in this sense: .
emo-

feel shy, ashamed, or self-conscious': .

to
tional It features television spots of
She
almost wrenching pathos, and is being supported
was embarrassed by her brother's behaviour
often misspelt. Note the , the
, is
, and
-rr- -ss-
( ).
by equally emotional posters Sunday Times

the last vowel, which is an a, not an e.

empathy means `an imaginative
emend AMEND EMEND
Empathy

.
see or ? identification with another's feelings or

emigrant immigrant
or ? An emigrant is
ideas': He read all he could about the king,

and meditated on his character, so by the time

.
someone who is migrating from his or her he came to play the part he felt a real empathy
country: Thousands of emigrants left Britain
with Henry. It has recently become a fash-
for Australia under the assisted passage

.
ionable word and its frequent use as a mere

.
scheme. An immigrant is someone who is synonym for sympathy is disliked by some:
migrating into another country: Some of
Essential attributes are . . . an empathy for the
the immigrants had only been in the country
ideals within a voluntary organisation (Daily
for a week.
The word should not be applied to Telegraph).

nonwhite British residents unless one is sure that emulate

◆ immigrant
means `attempt to equal
Emulate

they were actually born abroad.

is applied to someone who has tion': .
or do better than, especially by close imita-
The word eÂmigre Since the company's success all our

been forced to leave a country, usually because of competitors are trying to emulate our pro-

a repressive political regime or intellectual atmo- .

sphere. The reasons for leaving are generally less ◆ The word is often used in the sense of `imitate
ducts

pressing than for those described as , and closely' without the idea of rivalry: .
refugees As a teenager
carries a suggestion of refined class and he had admired John Lennon devotedly and had
lacks . . This
eÂmigreÂ
intellect that tried to emulate him in his dress and speech
usage is disliked by some.
refugee Nabokov is the most
famous of Russian eÂmigre writers .
eminent imminent immanent
, or ? Emi- enable The word enabled is in increasing

.
nent means `outstanding, notable, or dis- use as a suffix, meaning `made capable of
tinguished' and is particularly applied to working with a particular system': a

people who have achieved some distinction WAP-enabled phone. As a suffix, it should

. .
or fame in their profession, or in the arts or not be overused as some people may find it
sciences: jargonistic.
Note also the use of to describe the
an eminent barrister an eminent

. conferring of additional legal powers: .

poet. Imminent means `impending; about to ◆ enabling
happen; threatening': It now seemed that enabling
war was imminent. legislation.
 105 enrol
en bloc The French expression en bloc England see BRITAIN.
.
means `all together, all at the same time':
The whole committee decided to resign en
engrossed The adjective engrossed
.
is fol-
lowed by the preposition in: She was
bloc.

encyclopedia encyclopaedia
engrossed in her work and didn't hear the
or ? Both doorbell.
spellings of this word are acceptable,
cyclopaedia being the more traditional in
en-
enhance Enhance means `improve, in-
.
crease the value or attractiveness of':
British English. In American English en-

.
The new windows have considerably en-
cyclopedia is the more frequent spelling and
hanced the value of the house. The images
this spelling is now becoming standard in

It has become a fashionable word, particularly

had been digitally enhanced.
British English.
See also -AE- and -OE-. ◆
used by employers in connection with extra ben-
end The verb end
.
is followed by the pre- efits offered to employees: . Excellent salaries are
position in or with: words ending in [or enhanced by a wide range of benefits including
with] `-er',
.
and by in in the sense `have as a ( ).
relocation assistance Daily Telegraph
result': Their marriage ended in divorce.
the sense `finish' it is followed by with: .
In
He
en masse The French expression en masse
.
ended his speech with a vote of thanks.
means `all together; in a crowd or group':

endemic epidemic or ? Endemic, a formal

The people stormed the president's palace en
masse.
word, is most frequently used as an adjec-
enormity or enormousness ?
. .
tive, meaning `occurring in a particular Enormity

.
area': an endemic disease The plant is means `the quality of being outrageous or
endemic in [or to] Africa. An epidemic is the wicked, a very wicked act': Those experi-

. .
widespread occurrence or rapid spread of a ences alerted him to the enormity of what was

disease: a flu epidemic an epidemic of being done to the Jews (The Guardian). En-

may also be used as a noun and extremely large': .

measles. ormousness means `the quality of being
◆ Endemic They were daunted by

as an adjective. Both words have figura- .

tiveuses: . is frequently used as though it meant
epidemic the enormousness of the task

. ◆ Enormity
. but, although this usage is now
Vandalism is endemic in the inner cities
enormousness
acceptable in American English, most careful users
There was an epidemic of resignations after the
.
of British English still dislike it.
takeover

end product and end result End product

enquiry inquiryor ? For many users of
.
usually means `the final product of a pro-
cess, or series of processes': We use the best British English the spellings of the nouns
and (and of the verbs
.
materials so that the end product is a quality enquiry inquiry en-

item. These young men are the end products quire and inquire) are completely inter-
of expensive public schools and the most ex- changeable. Some users, however,

.
clusive colleges. maintain that enquire and enquiry are used
Both phrases may simply mean `the eventual for simple requests for information:
. .
:.
◆ He

outcome', as in the phrase end result The enquired after her health. an enquiry office

agreement is the end product/end result of many directory enquiries, and inquire and inquiry

years of negotiation . Many careful users dislike .

are used for investigations, especially offi-
both these phrases as the is clearly redundant.
end cial ones: The police are now inquiring into
.
enervate Enervate
.
means `weaken, to les-
the events that led up to his disappearance.

MPs are calling for a public inquiry into the

sen vitality or strength': It was an en-
causes of the disaster.

◆ In American English, the general preference is to

ervating climate and they felt listless most of

the time.
◆ It is sometimes used as though it meant quite
use . inquiry

the opposite, as a synonym for or enrol In British English the verb ends
invigorate en- enrol

ergize , and is also sometimes used as though it in a single , unlike the word . The is l roll l

meant `irritate' or `get on someone's nerves'.

or vowel: . .
doubled before suffixes beginning with a
En-
ervate is most often used in the forms enervated .
◆ Note that the derived noun has only
enrolled enrolling

enervating . enrolment
en suite 106
one in British English. The American spellings are entourage Of French origin, the noun
l
and
enroll .
enrollment , meaning `attendants; retinue',
entourage

en suite is pronounced [ontuurahzh] in English.

entrepreneur
En suite, denoting an adjoining
ENTERPRISE,
.
bathroom and bedroom, has long been in Like the noun
use as an adjective: an en suite bathroom. entrepreneur is losing its traditional conno-
The adoption of en suite as a noun is tations of risk and initiative and is indis-

.
disliked by some and best restricted to criminately applied to any person who

.
informal contexts: Does the bedroom have becomes self-employed or sets up a new
small business:
is pronounced [on ].
an en suite? Skills appear to be the main

◆ En suite sweet requirement for successful entrepreneurship

ensure ASSURE ENSURE

see , or INSURE? . . . in contrast with the simple traditional

-ent -ANT -ENT

see or ?
view of the entrepreneur as someone who is
(The Guardian). .
enterprise
risk loving She regularly

Some people dislike the over- scoured the Businesses for Sale columns of the

use of the noun enterprise in the context of papers for the inspiration that would turn her

(Daily Telegraph).

. . Of French origin, the noun is

self-employment and the setting up of new into an entrepreneur
◆ entrepreneur
. frequently misspelt. Note that it begins with
small businesses: the enterprise culture the

. -, not -, and ends in - , not - .

government's Enterprise Allowance Scheme
entre enter eur er
. E-numbers
a network of Local Enterprise Agencies
Britain's enterprise economy the enterprise E-numbers, which appear on
initiative.
◆ An is also simply a business or com-
food labels as E401, E218, etc., denote

pany: .
enterprise
.
additives that have been approved for
several large industrial enterprises Private
is industry and business owned by in-
use throughout the European Union.
enterprise
dependent individuals or groups, i.e. not receiving
The belief that E-numbers denote harmful

financial help from the government.

artificial substances is a popular misconcep-

Note the spelling of , which always

tion: E440(a), for example, is pectin, which
enterprise
ends in - , unlike the word .
occurs naturally in ripe fruit and vegeta-
ise prize bles; E270 is lactic acid, which is found in
enthral In British English the verb enthral dairy products; and E150 is caramel. The
term was popularized by Maurice Hanson
.
ends in a single l, which is doubled before
in (1984).
.
suffixes beginning with a vowel: E for Additives

envelop envelope
en-
enthralling.

Note thatthederived noun has only

thralled or ? The verb envelop
◆ enthralment
one in British English. The American spellings are .
means `enclose, surround, or enfold' and is
l
and .
used both literally and figuratively: He
enthrall enthrallment
.
was enveloped in a blanket and barely visible.

enthuse The verb enthuse is a back for- She spent a happy childhood, enveloped in
love and security. The noun envelope means
.
mation from enthusiasm and means `show

.
`something that envelops, a wrapper (par-
.
enthusiasm': The critics enthused over her
new play, or `make enthusiastic': The
ticularly for a letter)': It arrived in a plain

brown envelope.
minister enthused his congregation with his
◆ is pronounced [in oÆp]. The preferred
Envelop vel
vision of a new church.

◆ Although it has been in use, especially in Amer- pronunciation of is [ vaÆloÅp], although

envelope en

ican English, for over a century, it is still disliked by [ vaÆloÅp] is also heard.
on

many people and is perhaps best avoided in formal enviable or envious? Both these adjec-
use. tives are derived from the word (see envy

entomology etymology or ? Entomology

ENVY or JEALOUSY?).
envy'; envious
Enviable

means `feeling envy': .

means `causing
the
is the study of insects; etymology is the study

.
enviable task of showing the film star around
of the origin and development of words.
the building He was envious of his sister's
The two nouns should not be confused.
◆ An may think that all centipedes
etymologist
success. The two words are not interchange-

have a hundred legs, as the word is derived from able.

Latin `hundred' and `foot', but an environment
centum pes can be applied
knows that they do not.
Environment

entomologist to the surrounding conditions of people

 107 eponym
and other organisms and can include phy- than usually large and impressive: . an epic
sical and social influences, though many gathering , but it is preferable not to use the
people are careful not to overuse this word. word so that it entirely loses its connection with
◆ Environment and its derived nouns environ- its heroic origins.
and are now much
used ecology and the protection of the world's epidemic see ENDEMIC or EPIDEMIC?
mentalism environmentalist

physicalenvironmentfrompollution: . epigram, epigraph, epitaph or epithet?

The present
wave of environmentalism is now being viewed asThese four nouns should not be confused.
a long-term influence on the market. An is a short witty saying; an
epigram
See also -FRIENDLY; GREEN. epigraph, the least common of the four

envisage envision
or ? Both envisage and
words, is a quotation or motto printed at
the beginning of a book or engraved on a
envision mean `have a mental image of,
monument. An epitaph is a commemora-

.
especially of something hoped for in the
tive statement about a dead person, often
future': They envisaged/envisioned a world
inscribed on a gravestone; an epithet is a
where war and poverty no longer existed.
short descriptive word or phrase applied to
Envisage is more often used in British
a person, such as Lionheart in Richard the
English and in American English.
The wordsshouldnot be usedas meresynonyms ◆ Some people dislike the extended euphemistic
envision
Lionheart.

for `expect': .
◆

. Careful users avoid using these use of the word in the sense of `term of
A further downward trend in share

.
epithet

wordswith : .
prices is envisaged
abuse': .
shouting epithets at each other

epitome This word, meaning `typical ex-

that We envisage an improvement in
[not
ample': .
the situation envisage that the situation will
improve ]. He is the very epitome of the absent-

envy or jealousy ? Envy involves the

minded professor, is sometimes
nounced. Note that there are four syllables
mispro-

awareness of an advantage possessed by

Æ mi].
[ipito

. eponym
someone else, together with a desire to

. .
have that advantage oneself: She gazed at An eponym is a person from

. . .
his car with envy . I envy your ability to whose name a word is derived: sandwich

. . .
relax. Jealousy involves a concern to avoid quisling cardigan ampere. There are

. . .
the loss of something that one regards as eponymous nouns: martinet salmonella

. .
one's own, and includes the tendency to listeria watt, adjectives: quixotic

.
be suspicious of rivalry and infidelity in herculean, and verbs: bowdlerize guillo-
relation to a person one is close to: tine.

The only problem with the use of eponymous

Her

◆
words is whether or not they are written with a
husband's jealousy forced her to conceal even

capital letter. The rough rule is that the closer the

the most innocent encounters with other

.
connection between the word and the name, the
men

ephemeral This word, more likely it is that a capital should be used.

only a short time': .
meaning `lasting

When one calls a young man given to amorous

the ephemeral pleasures

of life, is sometimes misspelt. Note parti-

adventures a , one is making a definite
Romeo
cularly the , pronounced [f], and the
ph
allusion to the Shakespearean character and
sequence of vowels.
would use a capital. One would use a capital
epic originally applied to long nar- when referring to but not when
Platonic forms
referring to , a concept further re-
Epic
rative poems on a grand, heroic scale, platonic love
like Homer's and or the moved from Plato. There are no firm rules with
things named after the person who invented or
Iliad Odyssey
Finnish . It was extended to
popularized them. Generally such words are more
Kalevala

other works with some of these qualities

likely to be capitalized when used adjectivally than
might be fit subjects for an epic: . when used as nouns: . .
or to series of events or episodes which
Wellington boots
, but this is very much a matter of
a
( , review wellingtons
custom. and are
marvellous epic novel Newsweek

.
of Salman Rushdie's ) Pullman cars Bunsen burners
nearly always capitalized, while
Midnight's Children

hardly ever is. Eponymous verbs such as: .

the epic battle between Greenpeace and diesel engine

.
. boy-
◆ It is also sometimes used of anything more never have capital letters.
the whaling ships
cott pasteurize
EPONYMOUS WORDS
EPONYMOUS WORDS
ampere the basic metric unit of electric current,
named after Andre Marie AmpeÁre , French
physicist, 1775±1836
atlas a book of maps, named after , Greek
Atlas
mythologicalcharacter,oneof theTitans who,
as punishment for his part in the attempt to
overthrow Zeus, was condemned to hold up
the heavens on his shoulders for the rest of his
life
aubrietia a trailing perennial plant bearing
small purple flowers, named after Claude
Aubriet , French painter of flowers and ani-
mals, 1665±1742
baudaunitofmeasuringthespeedofelectronic
data transmission, especially one equal to 1
unit of information per second, named after
JeanM.E. Baudot ,Frenchinventorandpioneer
of telegraphic communication, 1845±1903
Beaufort scale a measure of wind speed,
named after Sir Francis Beaufort , surveyor,
1774±1857
becquerel a basic metric unit of radiation ac-
tivity, equal to one disintegration per second,
named after Antoine-Henri Becquerel , French
physicist, 1852±1908
begonia a genus of succulent herbaceous
plants, named after Michel BeÂgon , French
patron of science, 1638±1710
Belisha beacon a flashing light in an amber
ball that is mounted on a post to mark a
pedestrian crossing, named after 1st Baron
(Isaac) Leslie Hore-Belisha , British politician,
1893±1957
Biro a trademark used to describe a kind of
ballpoint pen, named after LaÂszlo Jozsef , BiroÂ
Hungarian-born inventor, 1900±85
bloomers the women's undergarment that has
full, loose legs gathered at the knee, named
after Amelia Jenks Bloomer , American femin-
ist, 1818±94
bougainvillea a genus of tropical South Amer-
ican woody climbing shrub, named after Louis
Antoine de Bougainville , French navigator,
1729±1811
bowdlerize to remove words or passages con-
sidered indecent from a book, named after
Thomas Bowdler , British doctor, 1734±1825
bowie knife a stout hunting knife, with a long,
one-edged blade curving to a point, named
after James , American soldier and ad-
Bowie
venturer, 1799±1836
boycott to refuse to deal with a person, orga-
nization, etc., named after Captain Charles
Cunningham Boycott , Irish landlord, 1832±97
108
Boyle's law that at a constant temperature,
the pressure of a gas is inversely proportionate
to its volume, named after Robert , Irish-
Boyle
born British physicist, 1627±91
Braille the system of raised dots by which blind
people can read, named after Louis Braille,
Frenchman, 1809±52
buddleia a genus of trees and shrubs that have
showy clusters of mauve or white flowers,
named after Adam Buddle , Essex rector and
botanist, c. 1660±1715
Bunsen burner the gas burner with an adjus-
table air valve, named after Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen , German chemist, 1811±99
camellia a genus of ornamental shrubs, named
after George Joseph Kamel , Moravian Jesuit
missionary, 1661±1706
cardigan a knitted jacket or sweater fastened
with buttons, named after James Thomas
Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan , British cavalry
officer, 1797±1868
Celsius the temperature scale for which 0 is the
freezing point of water and 100 the boiling
point, named after Anders Celsius , Swedish
astronomer and scientist, 1701±44
chauvinism an excessive unthinking devotion
to one's country, named after Nicolas Chauvin
of Rochefort, 19th-century French soldier
clerihew a witty four-line verse that consists of
two rhymed couplets, named after Edmund
Clerihew Bentley, English writer, 1875±1956
coulomb the basic metric unit of electric
charge, named after Charles Augustin de
Coulomb , French physicist, 1736±1806
dahlia a genus of herbaceous perennial plants
that have showy, brightly coloured flowers
and tuberous roots, named after Anders , Dahl
Swedish botanist, 1751±89
derrick now referring to a hoisting apparatus
or crane, formerly describing a gallows,
named after a 17th-century English hangman
surnamed Derrick
diesel an internal-combustion engine ignited by
highly compressed air, named after Rudolf Die-
sel , German mechanical engineer, 1858±1913
Dobermann pinscher a breed of short-haired,
medium-sized dog with a short tail, named
after Ludwig Dobermann , German dog bree-
der and tax collector, 1834±94
Doppler effect the technical name for the
change in the apparent frequency of the
waves of sound, light, etc., when there is
relative motion between the source and the
observer, named after Christian Johann Dop-
pler , Austrian physicist, 1803±53

draconian of or relating to a very harsh or
severe law, measure, or regulation, named
after Draco , 7th-century BC Athenian law-
giver
dunce a person who is stupid or slow to learn,
named after John Scotus, Scottish theo-
Duns
logian, c. 1265±1308
Earl Grey a blend of China teas flavoured with
oil of bergamot, named after Charles, 2nd Earl
Grey , British statesman, 1764±1845
Eiffel Tower the tower in Paris, named after
Alexandre Gustave , French engineer,
Eiffel
1832±1923
einsteinium a radioactive chemical element
that is produced artificially, named after Albert
Einstein , German-born American physicist,
1879±1955
Everest the world's highest mountain, named
after Sir George Everest, surveyor-general of
India, 1790±1866
Fallopian tube one of two tubes that connect
the uterus to the ovaries in female mammals,
named after Gabriel Fallopius , Italian anato-
mist, 1523±62
Fahrenheit the scale of temperatures in which
32 represents the freezing point of water
8 herculean of or relating to a task that requires
and 212 the boiling point of water, named
8 immense effort or strength, named after
after Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit , Germanscien-
tist, 1686±1736
farad the basic metric unit of electrical capa-
citance, named after Michael Faraday, English
physicist and chemist, 1791±1867
fermium an artificially produced radioactive
element, named after Enrico , Italian-
Fermi
born American physicist, 1901±54
forsythia a genus of ornamental shrubs of the
olive family, named after William
Forsyth
British botanist, 1737±1804
Fraunhofer lines numerous dark lines in the
sun's spectrum, named after Joseph von
Fraunhofer , German physicist and optician,
1787±1826
freesia a genus of ornamental sweet-scented
South African plants of the iris family, named
after Friedrich Heinrich Theodor Freese , Ger-
man physician, died 1876
fuchsia a genus of ornamental shrubs and
herbs native to Central and South America,
named after Leonhard , German bota-
Fuchs
nist and physician, 1501±66
Gallup poll a survey of the views of a repre-
sentative sample of the population, named
after George Horace Gallup , American statis-
tician, 1901±84
galvanize to cover iron or steel with a protec-
109 EPONYMOUS WORDS
tive zinc coating; in a derived sense to stimu-
late into sudden action, named after Luigi
Galvani , Italian physician, 1737±98
gardenia a genus of ornamental tropical
shrubs and trees, named after Alexander Gar-
den , Scottish-American botanist, 1730±91
Geiger counter an electronic instrument that is
used to measure the presence and intensity of
radiation, named after Hans , German
Geiger
physicist, 1882±1945
gerrymander to divide an area into new elec-
toral districts in order to give one party an
unfair advantage, named after Elbridge , Gerry
American politician, 1744±1814
guillotine a device for beheading people,
named after Joseph Ignace , French
Guillotin
physician, 1738±1814
Halley's comet, named after Edmund , Halley
British astronomer, 1656±1742
Heath Robinson of or relating to an absurdly
complex design, named after William Heath
Robinson , English artist, 1872±1944
henry the derived metric unit of electric induc-
tance, named after Joseph , American Henry
physicist, 1797±1878
Her-
cules (Greek, Heracles ), the son of Zeus and
Alcmena, and the greatest and strongest of
the Greek demi-gods
Hoover a trademark used to describe a type of
vacuum cleaner, named after William Henry
Hoover , American businessman, 1849±1932
Jacuzzi a trademark used to describe a system
of underwater jets of water that massage the
body, named after Candido , Italian-
Jacuzzi
,
born engineer, c. 1903±86
JCB the trademark for a type of mechanical
earth-mover, named after oseph yril am-
J C B
ford, English manufacturer, 1916±2001
joule the metric unit of work or energy, named
after James Prescott , English physicist,
Joule
1818±89
kelvin the metric unit of thermodynamic tem-
perature, named after William Thomas , Kelvin
1st Baron Kelvin, Scottish physicist, 1824±
1907
KoÈchel number a serial number in a catalogue
of the works of Mozart, named after Ludwig
von KoÈchel , Austrian botanist and cataloguer,
1800±77
leotard a close-fitting, one-piece garment
worn by acrobats, ballet dancers, etc., named
after Jules LeÂotard , French acrobat, 1842±70
listeria the bacteria that cause listeriosis, a
EPONYMOUS WORDS
serious form of food poisoning, named after
Joseph , British surgeon, 1827±1912
Lister
lobelia a genus of flowers bearing showy blue,
red, yellow or white flowers, named after
Matthias de , Flemish botanist and phy-
Lobel
sician, 1538±1616
loganberry the large, sweet purplish-red berry
of the upright-growing raspberry plant,
named after James Harvey Logan , American
lawyer, 1841±1928
Luddite a person who is opposed to industrial
innovation, named after Ned , 18th-cen-
Ludd
tury English labourer
macadam compacted layers of small broken
stones bound together with tar, asphalt, etc.,
named after John Loudon McAdam , Scottish
engineer, 1756±1836
Machiavellian of or relating to cunning, dou-
ble-dealing, and opportunist methods, named
after NiccoloÁ , Italian political the-
Machiavelli
orist, 1469±1527
Mach number a number that represents the
ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of
sound in the same medium, named after Ernst
Mach , Austrian physicist and philosopher,
1838±1916
mackintosh a kind of raincoat made of rub-
berized cloth, named after Charles Macintosh ,
Scottish chemist, 1760±1843
malapropism the unintentional confusion of
words that produces a ridiculous effect,
named after Mrs Malaprop in the play The
Rivals (1775), by the Irish dramatist Richard
Brinsley Sheridan, 1751±1816
martinet a strict disciplinarian, named after
Jean Martinet , French army officer during
the reign of Louis XIV, died 1672
maverick a person who is independent and
who does not wish to conform or be identified
with a group, named after Samuel Augustus
Maverick , American pioneer, 1803±70
Melba toast; peach melba Melba toast (thinly
sliced toasted bread) and peach melba (a
dessert of peaches, ice-cream, and raspberry
melba sauce), named after Dame Nellie Mel-
ba , Australian operatic soprano singer, 1861±
1931
Mercator projection a form of map projection,
named after Gerardus Mercator (original
name Gerhard Kremer), Flemish geographer,
1512±94
mesmerize to fascinate, spellbind, or hypno-
tize, named after Franz Anton Mesmer , Aus-
trian physician and hypnotist, 1734±1815
Molotov cocktail a crude petrol bomb, named
110
after Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (origi-
nal surname Scriabin), Soviet statesman,
1890±1986
Montessori method an education method in
which the creative potential of young children
is developed, named after Maria Montessori ,
Italian physicist and educator, 1870±1952
Moog synthesizer the trademark for a type of
synthesizer, named after Robert Arthur , Moog
American physicist, engineer, and electrician,
born 1934
Morse code a telegraphic system of signalling
in which letters and numbers are represented
by dots and dashes, named after Samuel
Finley Breese Morse , American artist and in-
ventor, 1791±1872
narcissism an extreme interest in or love for
oneself, named after Narcissus , the beautiful
young man in Greek mythology
newton the metric unit of force, named after
Sir Isaac Newton , British physicist and math-
ematician, 1642±1727
ohm the metric unit of electrical resistance,
named after Georg Simon , German Ohm
physicist, 1787±1854
Pareto principle the 80/20 rule, e.g. 80 per
cent of the sales may come from 20 per cent
of the customers, named after Vilfredo Fre-
derico Pareto , Italian economist and sociolo-
gist, 1848±1923
Parkinson's law which states that work ex-
pands so as to fill the time available for its
completion, named after Cyril Northcote Par-
kinson , English historian and author, 1909±93
pasteurize to destroy bacteria in a drink or a
food, named after Louis Pasteur , French che-
mist and bacteriologist, 1822±95
pavlova a meringue cake topped with cream
and fruit, named after Anna Pavlova , Russian
ballerina, 1885±1931
Peter principle that in a hierarchy, every em-
ployee tends to rise to the level of his incom-
petence, named after Laurence J. , Peter
Canadian educator, 1919±90
Peters projection a form of map projection,
named after Dr Arno , German histor-
Peters
ian, born 1916
platonic of a close relationship between a
couple that does not involve sex, named after
Plato , Greek philosopher, c. 427±347 BC
Plimsoll line a set of markings on the side of a
ship that show the various levels that the ship
may safely be loaded to, named after Samuel
Plimsoll , English leader of shipping reform,
1824±98
 111
poinsettia the traditional Christmas evergreen
plant, named after Joel Roberts ,
Poinsett
American diplomat, 1779±1851
Pulitzer prizes prizes awarded for outstanding
achievements in journalism, literature, and
music, named after Joseph Pulitzer , Hungar-
ian-born American newspaper publisher,
1847±1911
Pullman the luxurious railway passenger
coach, named after George Mortimer Pull-
man , American inventor, 1831±97
quisling a traitor who collaborates with an
invading enemy, named after Vidkun Abra-
ham Quisling, Norwegian politician, 1887±
1945
quixotic; Don Quixote (of or like) a person
who is carried away by the impractical pur-
suit of romantic ideals and who has extra-
vagant notions of chivalry, named after Don
Quixote , hero of the novel Don Quixote de
la Mancha (1605, 1615) by the Spanish
novelist Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra,
1547±1616
Rafflesia the genus of parasitic Asian herbs,
named after Sir Thomas Stamford ,
Raffles
British colonial administrator, 1781±1826
raglan a loose-fitting coat that has sleeves that
extend to the collar without shoulder seams,
named after Fitzroy James Henry Somerset,
1st Baron Raglan , British field marshal, 1788±
1855
Reuters the news agency, named after Baron
Paul Julius von Reuter (original name Israel
Beer Josaphat), German-born Briton, 1816±99
Richter scale a scale for expressing the mag-
nitude of earthquakes, named after Charles
, American seismologist, 1900±85
Richter
Romeo a romantic lover, named after Romeo ,
the hero in Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and
Juliet
Rorschach test a psychological test in which
the interpretation by a subject of a series of
inkblots reveals aspects of the subject's per-
sonality, named after Hermann Rorschach ,
Swiss psychiatrist, 1884±1922
Rubik's cube a puzzle consisting of a cube,
each face of which is divided into nine small
coloured squares that can rotate around a
central square, named after ErnoÈ , Hun-
Rubik
garian designer, sculptor, and architect, born
1944
Rudbeckia a genus of flowers with showy
flowers with yellow rays and dark-brown to
black conical centres, named after Olof Rud-
beck , Swedish botanist, 1630±1702
EPONYMOUS WORDS
rutherford a unit of radioactivity, named after
Ernest Rutherford , 1st Baron Rutherford, Brit-
ish physicist, 1871±1937
Ryder Cup the biennial professional golfing
match between the USA and Europe, named
after Samuel , English professional gol-
Ryder
fer, 1859±1936
Sabin vaccine; Salk vaccine vaccines against
polio, named after Jonas Edward , Salk
American microbiologist, 1914±95, and
Albert , Polish-born American micro-
Sabin
biologist, 1906±93
sadism the pleasurederived from inflicting pain
on others, named after Count Donatien Al-
phonse FrancËois de , known as Marquis
Sade
de Sade, French soldier and writer, 1740±
1814
salmonella the rod-shaped bacteria that cause
diseases including food poisoning (salmonel-
losis) in human beings, named after Daniel
Elmer Salmon , American veterinary surgeon,
1850±1914
sandwich the snack consisting of two slices of
buttered bread with a filling between, named
after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich ,
English diplomat, 1718±92
sequoia either of two giant Californian con-
iferous trees, named after Sequoya , Native
American, c. 1770±1843
shrapnel the projectile that contains bullets or
fragments of metal and a charge that is ex-
ploded before impact, named after Henry
Shrapnel , English artillery officer, 1761±1842
siemens the metric unit of electrical conduc-
tance, named after Ernst Werner von Siemens ,
German electrical engineer, 1816±92
silhouette the outline of a dark shape set on a
light background, named after EÂtienne de
Silhouette , French politician, 1709±67
simony the practice of buying or selling of
church or spiritual benefits or offices, named
afterSimon Magnus, 1st-century AD sorcerer
sousaphone the large tuba that encircles the
player with a forward-facing bell, named after
John Philip , American bandmaster and
Sousa
composer, 1854±1932
spoonerism in which initial sounds of words
were accidentally transposed, often with a
comical effect, named after the Rev. William
Archibald Spooner , English clergyman and
scholar, 1844±1930
stetson the wide-brimmed, high-crowned felt
hat, named after John Batterson Stetson ,
American hat-maker, 1830±1906
tantalize to tease someone by offering some-
equable 112
thing desirable to view and then withholding
it, named after , Greek mythical king
some animals are more equal than others

Tantalus (George Orwell, Animal Farm).

of Phrygia equally
tontine a financial scheme that provides life The word equally
.
should not be

annuities to a group of subscribers, named followed by as in such sentences as: She is a

after Lorenzo , Italian banker, 1635±90

Tonti
brilliant pianist, and her brother is equally

tradescantia a genus of flowering plants, The word

talented [not equally as talented].

may, however, be replaced by

named after John , English traveller
Tradescant
◆ equally
in the above example, in which case it is
and gardener, c. 1570±1638 as
stressed.
Turing machine a hypothetical universal com- In the sentence: .
puting machine, named after Alan Mathison This dress is as expensive as
, the first should not be preceded or
Turing , English mathematician, 1912±54 that one
replaced by
as
. The sentence can, however,
Venn diagram in which circles and other be rephrased as: .
equally

shapes are drawn to overlap at certain points .

The two dresses are equally

in order to represent mathematical and logical expensive

relationships, named after John , English

Venn equal to equal withor ? When briefly
mathematician and logician, 1834±1923 indicating identity, equivalence, or similar-
volt the metric unit of (electric) potential,
.
ity is used as a verb with no preposi-
named after Count Alessandro , Italian
equal

.
Volta tion: or as an adjective followed
physicist, 1745±1827
x equals 5
by to: x is equal to 5. In longer construc-
Wankel engine a type of internal-combustion tions, using as an adjective, it is
engine that has a triangular-shaped rotating
equal

.
preferable to use equal with, rather than
piston with slightly curved convex sides, equal to:
named after Felix , German engineer,
The Bradford team have gained
Wankel
1902±88
five points and are now equal with the team

from Liverpool. Equal to has the specific

watt the metric unit of power, named after
.
meaning of `capable of meeting the re-
James , Scottish engineer and inventor,
Watt quirements of':
1736±1819
He seemed too young
and inexperienced to be equal to the task.

Wellington boot a waterproof rubber boot equitable EQUABLE or EQUITABLE?

without fastenings that reaches to the knee, see

named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of -er -EEsee or -ER?

Wellington , British soldier and statesman, -er or -or
1769±1852 ? The suffix -er
.
is used to form
.
wisteria a genus of twining climbing plants nouns to indicate an occupation: lawyer

with purple flowers, named after Caspar Wis-

bricklayer,
. .
or an action performed by a
.
tar , American anatomist, 1761±1818 person: steeplechaser messenger en-

Zeppelin an airship, especially a large rigid quirer. The suffix -or is used in the same

cylindrical airship, named after Count Ferdi- way with other words, normally those

nand von , German general and aero-

Zeppelin
formed from Latin roots. Often these are

nautical pioneer, 1838±1917 . . .

words where there is no English verb base:
.
. . .
sponsor doctor author mentor, but this

equable equitable
is not always the case: actor investigator

or ? means sailor.
◆ It is not always possible to guess which ending
Equable
`regular, moderate, not given to extremes'
should be used and sometimes both are accepta-
ble: . .
and is frequently applied both to climates
which are consistently mild and not subject adviser/advisor . The
vendor/vender -er
to sudden changes, and to people who are ending is more frequent and more likely with
recently coined nouns and those that do not have
.
placid and even-tempered. means
Latin roots.
Equitable

`fair, reasonable, impartial': It was an

equitable agreement which both parties found See also -EE or -ER?
satisfactory.
erogenous
equal
Erogenous zones are the parts
Careful users avoid modifying the of the body that are sensitive to sexual
word equal, believing it to be incorrect to stimulation. Note the spelling of the word

.
say that one thing can be more or less equal erogenous: a single r and -gen-, not -gyn- as
than another: All animals are equal but in misogynist.
 113 estimation
erupt or irrupt ? These two verbs (and , and tress redundant.
manageress and Actress
their derived nouns and are retained in some contexts, although
irruption) hostess
and are generally considered to be of
eruption
are identical in pronunciation but different actor host
in meaning. means `burst out; come neutral gender. Certain occupational titles, such as
and , tend to be used as masculine
Erupt
or go out with force', whereas , a waiter steward
nouns, and being their fem-
irrupt

with force': .
more formal word, means `burst in; enter waitress stewardess
inine equivalents. The suffix is obligatory in
..
-ess
such words as , , and
The crowd erupted onto the
. princess duchess countess
◆ The verb is also used with reference to .
street The police irrupted into the building

erupt marchioness
volcanoes, with reference to the sudden appear- See also NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM.
ance of a rash on the skin, and in the figurative essential The adjective
sense of `begin suddenly and violently': . Fighting
: .
is followed essential

erupted along the border . The verb should by the preposition

irrupt
or to for Money is not

not be used in this sense. [or ]

essential to . for happiness

Note the single of and the of .

-r- erupt essentially
-rr- irrupt should be used pri-
Essentially

escalate Escalate is a back formation from most importantly': .

escalator, and as a vogue word meaning
`expand, rise, intensify' tends to be over-
used. It is best confined to the description
marily to mean `basically, inherently, or
The play is essentially
a tragedy although there is some comic relief.
◆ It tends sometimes also to be used with a
weaker meaning of `in general terms': .
, or `importantly': .
It was

.
of an upward movement that increases step essentially a good match Your
by step:
.
Rents have escalated over the last
view isn't essentially different from mine . This
five years. Officials killed by mine as Tamil
usage is disliked by some.
attacks escalate

Eskimo INUIT see

(The

.
Times).
establishment The Establishment refers to
the powerful figures in government (espe-
esophagus OESOPHAGUS see or ESOPHAGUS? cially the civil service), the legal system, the

especially specially
or ? These adverbs are
established church, the armed forces, and

.
the City of London, who are thought to
often used interchangeably, but there is a control the country: The Prime Minister,
difference in their meanings. Especially the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord

. .
means `more than usual, in particular, above Chief Justice were among the Establishment
all': He was especially hungry. I hate dogs, figures present. The Establishment (some-

.
especially big ones. Specially means `specifi- times with a lower-case e) is thought to
cally, purposely, in this particular way': have a conservative outlook, generally op-

.
The car is specially designed for handicapped posing changes to the existing order, and as
people. I made it specially for you.

is often used where is in- A further meaning of

such is often used as a derogatory term.
◆ Specially especially
tended, and sometimes, as in the last example, this ◆trolling is `a con-
or influential group': .
establishment

might lead to confusion as might

the pedigree dog
specially for you .
mean `for you above all' or `specifically for you'. esthetic see AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC?
establishment

esprit de corps The French expression

estimation estimate esteem
, or ? Estima-
esprit de corps is used in formal contexts
tion is the act of estimating; an estimate is a
to refer to a feeling of team spirit, loyalty,

.
figure, idea, etc., arrived at by the process
and devotion that unites members of a
of estimation: an estimate of the time it will
group.
◆ The literal meaning of is `spirit of .
take. Esteem, a more formal word, means
esprit de corps
the body'. Note that it is sometimes written or ◆`great respect': He held her in high esteem.

printed in italics. It is pronounced [espree deÆ ]. `regard':noun

The
kaw
.
also means `opinion' or
estimation
,
-ess The use of the feminine suffix is .
What, in your estimation is the cause of
-ess the problem? She went down in their estimation
sometimes regarded as patronizing or sex- .
when the truth came out
ist and is often unnecessary. is an invalid elaboration of
Misunderestimate
◆ Such nouns as , , , ,
author poet sculptor editor and should be avoided. It attracted atten-
estimate
manager , etc., can be applied to people of either tion when used in a speech by US President
sex, making ,
authoress ,poetess , George W. Bush.
sculptress edi-
et al. 114
et al. is an abbreviation of and ◆ Stephen Burgen ( ) warns against
The Guardian
the adoption of euphemisms coined by the perpe-
Et al. et alii

means `and other people'. It is used parti-

cularly in writings of a formal technical trators of atrocities: `Already some newspapers
have started taking ethnic cleansing out of quota-
.
nature to indicate the omission of other
names: tion marks, thus moving the phrase one more step
along the road to respectability.'
Similar findings have been recorded

by Jones, Bernstein, et al.

◆ It should not be used in ordinary writing or in etymology see ENTOMOLOGY or ETYMOL-

speech, and should be used only when a list is OGY
specific and does not start with or ?

euphemisms A
for example
such as . is an inoffen- euphemism

etc. The abbreviation etc. stands for et

sive term that is used as a substitute for one
that might give offence. Euphemisms tend

.
cetera, which means `and other things,

.
to be used particularly when referring to
and so forth': The college offers several

. .
sexual and bodily functions: private parts
non-academic subjects ± home economics,

..
(genitals) smallest room (toilet) pass water
physical education, craft and design, etc.
◆ It is used in technical or informal writing, but in (urinate), and to death: She passed away. I

formal writing and so on or are Some euphemisms have arisen out of genuine
and so forth
.
lost my wife two years ago

preferred. One should not write . or use ◆feelings

. cover upofsomething
sensitivity, but many are an attempt to
and etc
it in a list preceded by or
for example such as
reprehensible: .
There is never any point in writing . ., etc
(mass
etc
extermination of the Jews) .
the Nazi Final

although it is sometimes used in informal speech. Solution

(lying).
being

The correct pronunciation of . is [et eÆraÆ] or The invention of new euphemisms in the busi-
etc set
economical with the truth

[et raÆ], not [ek (eÆ)raÆ].

set set
ness and professional worlds is becoming almost
ethics see -ICS. an art form: . At one international computer

ethnic The original meaning of is ethnic

( ). .
company the accepted wording for falling behind
is `achieving schedule overrun' Sunday Times
`classified according to distinctive social
[An American] hospital recently announced the

.
characteristics, e.g. race, culture or lan-
relapse of an important patient by saying he
guage': There are many different ethnic
`did not fully achieve his wellness potential'. He
groups in the USA. Ethnic is now used to
later experienced a `terminal episode' ... pre-
mean `belonging to a particular
.
social
(
viously known as death The Times ).
Eurasian
group, especially a minority one': Shooting
continued last night in Sukhumi, . . . more The meaning of Eurasian has
than 24 hours after the start of ethnic clashes in changed over recent decades. Formerly it
which 11 people have been killed (Daily Tele- was used to describe a person of mixed
graph). Because ethnic groups tend to be British and Indian parentage. Today it is

.
defined in relation to the majority popula- used more widely to refer to a person of

.
tion it has also come to mean `belonging to a mixed white and Asian parentage: Poli-
non-Western culture', `foreign': But a great ticians are becoming increasingly aware of the

deal of ethnic food is not hot, but spiced, with needs of the country's Eurasian population.
pronounced

`non-white': .
flavours (Sunday Times),

Labour now has three other

and
Euro- Although the United Kingdom is
part of Europe, British people have tradi-
ethnic MPs (Sunday Times).

ethnic cleansing
tionally spoken of Europe to mean all the
The phrase ethnic cleans- continent apart from the United Kingdom.
ing is a euphemism originally applied to the When United Kingdom membership of
deportation and murder in 1991 of thou- the European Community was mooted,
sands of Muslims and Croats living in it was often referred to as going into Europe,
Bosnia. It has since been adopted to refer and Europe is now quite often used as a
to similar programmes of extermination synonym for the European Union.
◆ The prefix is sometimes used in words
which are connected with Europe in general: .
elsewhere in the world, such as Rwanda Euro-

. . .
and Kurdish Iraq, and is occasionally ap-
plied to earlier atrocities of this kind, in- Eurocommunism Eurobond Eurovision
but more often with those having con-
nectionswiththeEuropeanUnion . .
cluding the extermination of Jews by the Eurobank
Nazis in the 1930s. Euro-sceptic
 115 evince
Europhile . Eurocrat . tensives: .
Demand for the `rare breed' ..He's ever so clever It's ever such a nice
of Euro-manager will far outstrip the supply in the should be confined to informal contexts,
house
( ). and without an adjective or adverb follow-
is the name of the single currency of the ing: .
single market Daily Telegraph ever so
Euro is better avoided.
Thanks ever so
European Union. On whether to write or , whatever what ever

evade, evasion see AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE? or , etc., in such sentences as:
. .
wherever where ever
What ever did he say next? Wherever you
evangelical evangelistic
or ? Evangelism travel you'll find businesses that accept our credit
card , see WHATEVER or WHAT EVER?
is the activity of declaring the Christian
gospel in order to bring about conversion to every Every is used with singular nouns

.
Christianity. Evangelistic is the adjective
.
and all related words should be in the
used to describe such activities: an evan-
singular form: Every machine is equipped
gelistic mission to the city. Evangelical de- with a safety device. The temptation to use
scribes people and beliefs that emphasize
.
plurals arises when one wishes to avoid
salvation by faith in the death of Jesus such gender-specific constructions as: I

.
Christ, personal conversion, and the hope every committee member has remem-

.
authority of the Bible: evangelical Chris-
bered to bring his agenda. Rather than use
an evangelical church.

is also used in the extended sense of

tians
the controversial their agendas or the rather

`very enthusiastic': .
◆ Evangelical
.
clumsy his or her agenda it is better to
speak with evangelical fer-
vour . rephrase the sentence: I hope all commit-

tee members have remembered to bring a copy

even The position of the word even in a of the agenda with them.
See also EACH or EVERY?
sentence can influence its meaning. Com-

plications: .
pare the following sentences and their im-
Even I like opera on television
everybody everyone or ? The pronoun
everybody and its synonym everyone are

.
(so other people would like it still more).
I like even opera on television
I would prefer things other than opera).
interchangeable in all contexts.
◆ Both are used with a singular verb but are
.
(presumably
sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun
or possessive adjective (see THEY): .
I

like opera even on television (though it is Everybody/

inferior on television). In formal writing it .
Everyone has paid their fare
is best to put before the word it
even Note the difference between the one-word
modifies, in order to make the meaning compound and the more specific two-
everyone
word form , both of which may be
before the verb: .
unambiguous although in speech it is often
applied to people: .
every one
more natural to put .
.
even Everyone knew the answer
. .
.
He doesn't even stop working on holiday Every one of the contestants knew the answer

eventuate Onlythe two-wordcompound isusedof things: I

formal contexts, to mean `result': .

is used, usually in
Eventuate
.
bought six glasses and every one was cracked

everyday every day

If the
proposed merger takes place, this might even- or ? Everyday means
tuate in the new company having a monopoly `completely ordinary' and is used as an
of the market. It is disliked by many people
. .
adjective or (more occasionally) a noun:
as pompous and affected, and conveying her everyday clothes not part of the
nothing that is not conveyed by simpler and everyday. Every day can be used as an
more usual words.
.
adverb, meaning `daily', and as a noun,

ever The use of ever

.
with superlatives in
. day. .
meaning `each day': Brush your teeth every

He starts every day with a half-hour

such constructions as: the largest pie ever
exercise routine.

evince
his fastest speed ever, is disliked by some

.
people as they feel that ever includes the Evince is a formal verb meaning
future, as well as the past. The usage is `show clearly; make apparent': Her writ-
well-established, but the criticism can be ing evinces keen perception and skills of ob-

. .
met by changing the constructions slightly: servation. Some careful users believe it
the largest pie ever baked his fastest speed should be applied only to qualities, not to
to date/the fastest he has ever run. attitudes or emotions, although it is gen-
◆ The expressions ever so and ever such as in- erally acceptable in such applications.
ex 116
ex .
As a prefix, ex-
.
means `former' or exceptional exceptionable?
or Exceptional
.
`outside': the ex-chairman an ex-directory means `out of the ordinary; uncommon':
telephone number. It is usually attached with Apart from the exceptional quiet day, we've

.
a hyphen. The noun ex, meaning `former been kept busy all month, and `unusually

.
spouse' or `former partner', should be re- good': This is an exceptional wine. In
stricted to informal contexts: She had a British English exceptional is often used of

. .
letter from her ex this morning. people to mean `above average; superior;
The preposition is used in financial contexts in
thesenseof`without'or`excluding': . .
◆ ex gifted': an exceptional student an excep-

ex interest tional musician. In American English, how-

. In commercial contexts it means
`from': . . .
£150 ex VAT ever, is applied to children of
. The
exceptional

ex stock ex warehouse ex works both below and above average ability, and is
phrase is sometimes misinterpreted as `no
ex stock now applied particularly to physically chal-
longer in stock', through confusion with the prefix lenged children, or those with learning
ex - in the sense of `former'. difficulties. Exceptional should not be con-

exaggerate This word, meaning `repre-

fused with exceptionable, which means `ob-

.
jectionable; something to which exception
sent as greater than is true', is sometimes
might be taken': His words were not
misspelt. Note the -gg- and single -r-, as in
offensive in themselves but there was something
stagger.

OVEREXAGGERATE. in his manner that we found exceptionable.

See also

exalt exult excess ACCESSsee or EXCESS?

. exclamation mark
or ? Exalt means `elevate' or

.
`praise'; exult means `rejoice' or `triumph': Exclamation marks are

. .
used to indicate strong feeling or urgency:
. . .
She was exalted to the position of sales director.
to exalt a hero He exulted at his success. Hurray! Go away! Help! Exclamation
to exult in victory. marks may come at the end of a sentence,
◆ Both words are formal and more frequently as a substitute for a full stop, or at the end
.
found in their derived forms, such as the adjectives of a quotation, within quotation marks:
exalted and and the nouns
exultant and exaltation `Ouch!' he cried. Occasionally, they may
. occur in the middle of a sentence.
Exclamation marks are used after interjections,
exultation

exceed see ACCEDE or EXCEED? oaths,andwordsrepresentingloudnoises: . .

◆

. . .
Oh!

excel , after alarms

and commands: . . . , and
Ow! Crash! Damn! Gracious!

.
The verb excel is followed by the

afterinsultsandcurses: . .
Look out! Quiet! Fire!
preposition at or in: She excels at [or in]
You bastard! Rot in hell!
creative writing.
Theyareusedaftervariousexclamationsexpressing
except It is usually better to use
.
except surprise, indignation, pleasure, or displeasure, of-
ten starting with or , and some which
have the form of questions: .
rather than except for: We all went for a how what

. . . .
walk except Flora. The exceptions are at the How beautiful!

.
beginning of a sentence: Except for Stuart, What fun! What a mess! How we laughed!
we are all under 40, and when a whole They are also used after longer
Aren't you silly!
sentences when strong emotion is being expressed:
. .
statement is being qualified and except for
means `if it were not for': The room was I'm absolutely sick to death of the lot of you!
silent except for the occasional squeak of a pen. There are no words or utterances that always
is also used with the meaning `with- need an exclamation mark. The presence or ab-
out; but for': .
◆ Except for
sence of one indicates the intonation required
when reading a word or sentence .
I wouldn't have got this far except
for your support , but this is an informal use and . You can't
some careful users dislike it. would be read with a different intona-
tion from: . or: .
be serious!
Excepting (meaning `except, excluding') is con- You can't be serious? You can't
sidered acceptable only when used after `always', .
`not', `only', or `without': .
be serious
It was the happiest day Exclamation marks should be used sparingly,
of her life, not excepting her wedding day. and never doubled or trebled. The excessive use
as a preposition should be followed by of exclamation marks in writing, particularly when
the object form: . [not ] .
Except
except me I except him used in an attempt to create an atmosphere of
[not ].he excitement, fun, or humour, generally has a ne-
See also ACCEPT or EXCEPT? gative effect on the reader.
 117 exotic
exclamations Exclamations are words, ◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `by ex gratia
phrases, or sentences that express a strong favour' and it is pronounced [eks shaÆ]. gray

citement, etc.: . Gosh! .

feeling, such as surprise, anger, shock, ex-
Get out! . Oh dear!
exhausting or exhaustive
.
? Exhausting

They are always followed by an EXCLAMA- means `extremely tiring': I find Christmas

TION MARK. shopping exhausting. It should not be con-

◆ In writing, exclamations are best restricted to fused with exhaustive, which means `thor-

direct speech. They may also be used in informal ough;

.
comprehensive; considering all

letters, but they become less effective if overused. possibilities':

.
They made exhaustive enqui-

exclude preclude
ries but to no avail. This is an exhaustive
or ? Exclude means `leave study, covering every aspect of the subject.
out' or `prevent from entering'; preclude is
exhilarate
.
This word, meaning `thrill or
.
used in formal contexts and means `make
excite': an exhilarating experience, is some-
.
impossible' or `prevent from happening': A
number of items were excluded from the list.
times misspelt. Frequent errors include the

Lack of resources precluded further research.

omission of the -h- and the substitution

The two verbs should not be confused. of -ler- for -lar-.

executive An executive is a senior business- existential Existential usually means `relat-

.
man or businesswoman. Many people object ing to existence, particularly human exis-
to the increasing use of the word in the sense tence': an existential statement, or

.
of `fashionable', `luxurious', or `expensive', `grounded in human existence; empirical':
describing items that are designed to appeal an existential argument for the existence of

to those who aspire to the social level of an God. It is also sometimes used to mean

. .
`existentialist, based on existentialist philo-
.
executive or the (supposed) high income of
sophy':
.
an executive: an exclusive development of existential angst Sartre's existential

theories.
◆ It is also sometimes used as a vogue word to
an executive bathroom.

◆ The adjectival use of the noun to describe items

executive homes

that are intended for or used by the executives of a mean `referring to a subjective intellectual view-
company is more acceptable: . point', but such use is generally considered pre-
. tentious.
the executive
restaurant .
an executive jet

exercise exorcise
or ? These two words ex officio The Latin phrase ex officio is
should not be confused. Exercise is a noun used in formal contexts to describe a right

.
and verb with various meanings, including or rank to which someone is entitled be-
`a set of energetic movements', `a short cause of his or her occupation or position:

.
piece of school work', and, in formal con- The chairman is an ex officio member of all

the subcommittees.
.
texts, `make use of':
The phrase literally means `by virtue of one's
You should take more
exercise. ◆
office'.
He exercised his right to remain

.
silent. The verb exorcise means `expel evil

Both words are sometimes misspelt with - - in exorbitant

spirits from': .
The house had been exorcised

sive': .
This word, meaning `exces-
◆ xc
place of the - -. Note also the - endings:
x ise exercise
, is some-
an exorbitant price to pay

is one of the few words in which - cannot be unlike times misspelt. There is no in the spelling,
ise
h

replaced by - (see -IZE or -ISE?). has the . exhilarate

, but the - ending is exorcise see EXERCISE or EXORCISE?

ize Exorcise
variant spelling exorcize ise
sometimes preferred by those who use the - exotic The original meaning of
ize
form for other verbs. is exotic

The two words are not identical in pronuncia- place it is found': .

`from another country, not native to the

tion. The unstressed - - in the middle of

or exorcise
. By this exotic flowers

is pronounced [-or-], whereas the unstressed - - in vegetable in Britain but it is never spoken
definition the potato would be an exotic
er
the middle of has the weak sound of the of as such, because
exercise
final - of ,
er baker tumbler , etc. is now almost exotic

ex gratia .
always used with the meaning of `unusual,

. .
An ex gratia payment is one that excitingly different, interestingly foreign':
is given as a favour, rather than because it is exotic food exotic dances travel to distant

legally necessary. exotic lands.

expatriate 118
expatriate The word expatriate, meaning exquisite .
Exquisite, meaning `very delicate
`a person who is living in a country that is and beautiful': exquisite carvings, may be
not his or her native country', is sometimes pronounced in two ways. Some users pre-
misspelt. Note the spelling of the ending of fer the stress to fall on the first syllable
this word: -ate, not -ot as in patriot. [ekskwizit]. Other users find this pronun-

expeditious or expedient ? Expeditious

ciation slightly affected and prefer to stress
the second syllable [ikskwizit].
and expedient come from the same root,
◆ Overuse of this word is disliked by many users.
. extant extinct
but have quite different meanings. Expedi-

.
tious means `speedy; efficient': Our courier or ? Extant, a formal word,

.
service is the most expeditious method of means `surviving' or `still in existence':
Seven of Sophocles' plays are extant.
.
sending parcels. Expedient means `conveni- an

ent for a particular situation or aim': It extant law. Extinct is usually applied to a

.
would not be expedient to change the law at species of animal or plant that has died out
the present time. or to a volcano that is no longer active:
◆ Expedient is associated with practical action and The African elephant is in danger of becoming

often also a concern for self-interest rather than . The two adjectives are virtually
moral considerations: .
extinct
opposite in meaning.
You can't learn too soon

(W. extempore or impromptu? These two

that the most useful thing about a principle is that
it can always be sacrificed to expediency
Somerset Maugham, ).
The Circle
words have similar meanings but are not
quite interchangeable. Both are applied to
explicable In the traditional pronunciation speeches and performances which are not
rehearsed in advance. However,
.
of this word, which means `able to be extempore

explained': no explicable reason for their suggests that nothing has been memorized
behaviour, the stress was on the first syllable or written down beforehand, although the

.
Æ bl]. It is now more usual and
[eksplika speaker or performer may have thought
perfectly acceptable to stress the second about the content in advance: He never

Æ bl].
syllable [iksplika wrote his sermons down but preached extem-

See also STRESS. pore. Impromptu suggests something impro-

explicate Explicate means `explain in de- prior notice: .

vised on the spur of the moment, with no
She was surprised to be asked to

.
tail; analyse and explore the implications address them but managed a splendid im-
of': This series of lectures aims to explicate
promptu speech.
Kant's critical philosophy and explore its in-

fluence on German idealism. It is a formal extemporize temporize or ? To extempor-

word, usually confined to intellectual con- ize is to act, make a speech, play music, etc.,
texts, and it is pretentious to use it merely as without preparation; to temporize (a rarer

.
a synonym for explain.
word) is to gain time by delaying, stalling,

explicit implicit
or ? Explicit means `clear;
or being evasive:
accompaniment on the piano.
He
.
extemporized

She tempor-
an

.
unambiguous, stated or shown in a direct ized, being unable to think of a reasonable
manner': He gave them explicit instructions excuse. The two verbs should not be con-
so there was no question of their making a fused.

. ◆ Note the spellings, ending

especially the -
mistake. Implicit means `implied; under- or- in the
stood although not directly expressed': of
middle, unlike the -er . temper

. extensive extended
He detected an implicit criticism in her words,
or ? Extensive means
and `without reservation; unquestioning':

.
`large' or `widespread'; extended means
I have implicit faith in your organizational

.
`lengthened in time or space': an extensive

is often used in phrases like: .

abilities.
◆ Because
.
search an extended contract. Both adjectives
explicit
explicit scenes of sex and violence , some people may be applied to the same noun: an

now use the word to mean `frankly portraying .

extensive discussion covers a wide range of

(usually) sexual material': . It is very explicit and is

subjects; an extended discussion goes on for

. It would be pre- longer than usual or longer than planned.

, if exterior, external or extraneous?
not suitable for family viewing
ferable to say explicitly sexual or sexually explicit
that is what is meant.
Exter-

ior means `on the outside; relating to the

 119 exult
.
. .
outside': The house needs some minor extension of known data and past experi-
exterior repairs. Beneath his charming ex- ence: We can extrapolate from the existing
terior he has a cold and selfish nature. External figures and our knowledge of the previous

means `outwardly visible; suitable for the trends in mobility and birth control to produce

. .
outside; coming from the outside; not es- an estimate of the populations of major cities

.
sential': He has a few external injuries. in twenty years' time. Careful users, how-
This ointment is for external use only. The ever, are aware that this word is in danger

.
paper will be marked by the external exam- of overuse.
iners. Do not be misled by these external
extricate EXTRACT see or EXTRICATE?
details. Extraneous means `from the outside;
not essential or relevant to the issue': . extrinsic INTRINSIC see or EXTRINSIC?

. extrovert introvert
We
try to impart our values to our children but or ? Extrovert and in-
they are influenced by extraneous pressures. trovert are terms coined by the psychologist
Let's concentrate on the main issue and ignore Jung that are now in general use. Extroverts
those extraneous points. are people who are more concerned with
extinct see EXTANT or EXTINCT? their surroundings than with their own

extract or extricate ? Both these verbs outgoing, and confident: .

inner selves; they are generally sociable,
He is an extro-
have the sense of `remove' or `withdraw', vert and enjoys nothing better than a noisy,
but extricate is more formal and specifically crowded party. Introverts are primarily con-

.
refers to disentanglement or setting free cerned with their own mental and emo-

. .
from a difficult situation:
.
to extract a tooth tional lives. They are withdrawn and quiet,

.
to extract information to extricate oneself and prefer reflection to activity: She tends
from a complex relationship to extricate a to be an introvert and is happiest in her own
ball from a thorn bush. company.

extraordinary ◆ The original spelling was , and this is still

extravert
.
This word, meaning `unu-
more frequently used than in American
extrovert
sual or exceptional': an extraordinary
English. The spelling was formed by
extrovert
memory for details, is sometimes misspelt,
analogy with and is now standard in
introvert
the most frequent mistake being the omis-
sion of the first a. Remember the two British English.
elements of the word: extra plus ordinary. exuberant This adjective is sometimes

extrapolate Apart from specialized math-

misspelt, a common error being the inser-
tion of -h- after the -x-. Note also the -ant
ematical uses, extrapolate is usually applied
ending.

exult
to the estimation or prediction of unknown
factors by the examination, analysis, and see EXALT or EXULT?
 F
facË.ade This word, which means `front', as ◆ Facilitate is largely restricted to formal contexts.
in: the palace's ornate fac
with a cedilla under the
Ëade,
c
is usually spelt
in British Eng-
facility faculty
or ? These two words are
sometimes confused in the sense of `ability'.
lish.
◆ The spelling is sometimes anglicized by dropping Facility is ease or skill that is often gained

the cedilla, but the French pronunciation [faÆ ] sahd

from familiarity; faculty is more likely to
.
is retained. denote a natural power or aptitude:
.
a

face face up to
facility for public speaking a faculty for

or ? Some users object to understanding complex scientific concepts.

Both words have additional meanings. A

is a division of a college or university: .
face up to as an unnecessary extension of the ◆ faculty
verb face, meaning `confront' or `accept', but the faculty
there is a slight difference in sense and usage . of arts
between the two: A provides the means for doing some-
facility
thing; with this sense, referring to buildings or
to face up to one's punish-
suggests a greater degree of effort and
equipment, the word is usually found in the plural:
ment

often requires qualification: . . . .

courage than .
◆ The verb
to face one's punishment

..
conference facilities sports facilities facilities
.
face He
for the visually impaired
, on the other The extended use of or as sy-
faced death with equanimity They face the
. facility facilities
hand, conveys the subject's feelings of resignation, nonyms for `premises', `factory', or `shop' (or,
future with hope/fear Face up to

determination,etc.,byimplication: . euphemistically, for `toilet' ± as in: . ` May I use

' ± or `hospital') is avoided by careful
I will just have
. your facilities?
users.
to face up to the prospect of redundancy

facetious This word, which means `jocu-

. factious fractious
or ? These adjectives are
lar' or `flippant', as in: a facetious remark, is

.
sometimes misspelt. sometimes confused. Factious means `show-
◆ It is worth remembering that is one of
facetious ing or caused by faction or dissension': the

the few words in the English language in which factious rancour in her voice. Fractious is
each vowel appears just once and in alphabetical .
used more frequently and means `irritable'
order. or `unruly': tired and fractious children.

facia see FASCIA. factitious fictitious

or ? Both these adjec-

facile In the sense of `easily achieved' or

tives mean `not genuine', but they differ in
usage and application and should not be
`superficial', the adjective facile is often confused. Factitious, which is largely con-
used in a derogatory manner:
.
facile prose fined to formal contexts, means `artificially
is produced with little effort and lacks
.
created' or `unnatural': factitious enthu-
substance; a facile argument is glib and lacks siasm. Fictitious means `false' or `invented':
sound reasoning.
◆ The usual pronunciation of is [ õÅl], rhym- See also FICTIONAL or FICTITIOUS?
a fictitious address.
facile fas
ing with ; the alternative pronunciation [ il], factor A
mile fas
rhyming with , is an accepted but rarer variant. condition, or cause;
mill
is a contributory element,
factor

facilitate
many people object to

.
The verb facilitate means `make its frequent use as a synonym for `point',

.
easier'; it should not be used as a synonym `thing', `fact', `event', `constituent', etc.: A

.
for `help' or `assist': His cooperation fa- rise in the cost of raw materials and a fall in

.
cilitated our task. We were helped [not demand were important factors in the com-
facilitated] in our task by the information he pany's collapse. We must discuss all the
gave us. relevant points [not factors].
 121 fare
faculty FACILITY
see or FACULTY? . The anglicized pronunciation is [fayt aÆ
plis kom-

Fahrenheit plee].
fallible fallacious
Note the spelling of this word,
which should always begin with a capital or ? These two adjec-
letter. tives, both of which are formal, are some-
See also CELSIUS, CENTIGRADE or FAHREN- times confused. Fallible means `capable of
HEIT?
.
making an error' or `imperfect'; fallacious

fail Some people dislike the frequent use of

.
means `containing an error' or `illogical':
All human beings are fallible. . fallacious
the verb fail as a simple negative: Those
reasoning. The adjective fallible may be
who fail to pay the tax will be imprisoned.
applied to people; fallacious is applied only
The principal meaning of fail is `try un-
to abstract nouns.
successfully (to do something)': the verb
Both adjectives are derived from the Latin verb
◆
should not be used with reference to some-
`to deceive'. Note the spelling of
fallere and fallible

◆ This misuse of can lead to ambiguity: .

thing that is deliberately not done.
its opposite , particularly the - ending.
infallible ible

may mean that the The, first syllable is pronounced [fal-], to rhyme with
fail The
driver of the car failed to stop
driver applied the brakes ineffectively, or that he or not [fawl-], as in .
pal fall

she made no attempt to stop. false friends are words in

False friends

faint feint
or ? Faint means `not clear' or
different languages
but in fact have different meanings. Ex-
that appear similar

`not strong'; it is also a noun or verb

amples of potentially confusable pairs in-
referring to a brief loss of consciousness.
clude the English gusto (`enthusiasm') and
Feint, derived from the verb feign, refers to
the Italian gusto (`taste') and the English

.
an action or movement intended to distract
assist (`to help') and the French assister (`to

.
or mislead: On hearing the news she fell to
attend').

falsehood falseness falsity

the floor in a faint. The boxer made a feint
with his left fist then struck with his right. , or ? All three
◆ The confusion between these two words may be nouns are formal and are derived from the
due to the use of by printers and stationers to
feint adjective false, meaning `untrue', `not gen-
denote the fine lines on ruled paper. In this sense
.
uine', or `disloyal'. and are
either spelling is acceptable, being by far the
Falsehood falsity
feint largely restricted to the first sense:
more frequent.
the

difference between truth and falsehood/falsity.

fair or fare ? These words, which are

A falsehood

deception.
is a lie; a
Falseness
falsity is an act of
may be used in all three
pronounced the same, are occasionally con-
.
senses, occurring most frequently in the
fused. The noun fair variously refers to an
sense of `disloyalty': the falseness of his

.
event with amusements, sideshows, stalls,
statement/name/behaviour.

fantastic
etc. or a commercial exhibition: That was

the week the fair came to town. It should not The use of fantastic as a synonym

.
be confused with fare, which means `a fee for `excellent' or `very great' is best re-

. .
for travel', `passenger in a taxi', or `choice of stricted to informal contexts: a fantastic

.
food or entertainment': fantastic wealth.

, related to the noun , originally

He paid the fare holiday

. meant `fanciful' or `unreal': .

◆ Fantastic fantasy
. The
and climbed on the coach. The driver carried
a fantastic tale
word should be used with care, however, even in
just two fares that evening. This restaurant

these senses, to avoid misinterpretation through

offers the usual fare.

fait accompli A fait accompli is something

association with its informal usage.
. FAQ NETSPEAK
that has already been done and that there-
fore cannot be changed: She was afraid he see .
might not agree to her selling the car, so she
decided to present him with a fait accompli
Far East The countries of East Asia and
South-East Asia were formerly known as
[i.e. She did not tell him until she had sold
the Far East, but this term is now consid-
the car].
◆ Of French origin, the phrase is sometimes writ- are the preferred terms.andered outdated. East Asia South-East Asia

ten or printed in italics in English texts. The plural is

formed by adding to both words: .
s fare see FAIR or FARE?
faits accom-
farther 122
farther farthest further furthest
, , or ? In overtake slower cars and a fast horse-racing track
the sense of `more (or most) distant or is one on which the horses race at high speeds.
advanced', as the COMPARATIVE and SUPER- fast-moving
LATIVE of This expression is often used

.
far, farther is interchangeable with

.
in commerce and advertising to describe
further and farthest with furthest: London is
products that sell quickly: one of the

.
farther/further from Manchester than it is
world's most successful manufacturers and
from Bristol. Which of the three can run
marketers of fast-moving consumer goods

Some users restrict and to phy-

the farthest/furthest?
(Sunday Times).
◆
sical distance, using and
farther
for more
farthest
◆ Fast-moving is also used in similar contexts to
figurative senses: .
further
.
furthest
create the impression of an enterprising up-to-
.
the farthest country further
date company: . one of Britain's most innovative
from the truth
In the sense of `additional', is more . Although these
and fast-moving building societies

acceptable than :. .
further
usages are widely accepted in the business world,
.
farther further supplies
is also preferred in cer- they may not be understood by lay people and are
tainsetphrases,suchas: .
further questions Further
. best avoided in more general contexts.
. fast track FAST LANE
further education until
further notice ...
Further to your letter of see .
Farther is not interchangeable with further
fatal fateful
when the latter is a verb, meaning `advance' or or ? Fatal means `causing

`promote': . .
to further one's career
death or ruin';
.
fateful
.
means `decisively

fascia . .
important': a fatal illness a fatal mistake

The noun may be spelt facia, that fateful night.

Both words are related to : originally

fascia their fateful meeting

without the -s-, but many careful users ◆ fate fatal

prefer fascia, meant `decreed by fate';
the spelling of the Latin noun means `controlled fateful
from which the word is derived. The word by fate'.
is pronounced [ shaÆ ]. In its extended sense of `having momentous and
fascinate This word, meaning `attract and able with effects',: . is sometimes interchange-
disastrous
fay

fatal
.
fateful a fatal/fateful decision Fatal
capture the interest of', as in
should not be
fascinating tales
used in this sense if there is a
about her experiences in China , is sometimes
possibility of misinterpretation: . a fateful journey
misspelt. The most frequent error is the
may change one's life; may end in a fatal journey

`to death.
confusion of the - -.
◆ The term originates from the Latin
sc

bewitch'. It is also worth remembering that the conse-

fascinare

quences of something can be good,

fast-forward Some people dislike the use although the word is very rarely used in this sense.
fateful

of the word fast-forward, normally applied

fate . feÃte or ? Fate means `destiny' or

.
to video recorders, cassette players, etc., as a
`death': She met her fate without flinching.
verb and adjective in figurative contexts:
It should not be confused with à te,
fe which

.
Fast-forwarding through the years (Sunday

.
denotes a celebration or fund-raising fes-
Times) Fast-forward reviewers dependent
tivity: There were hundreds of people at the
on the index (The Guardian).

fast lane
à te.
fe

The (or fast track) is the See also FEÃTE.

Note that both words are pronounced [fayt].
fast lane
quickest and most competitive way to suc- ◆
cess. People who are
fast track
in the fast lane
or who are described as
or
fast-lane
in the
or
faun fawn or ? A
.
faun is a wood spirit of
classical mythology: The goddess was sur-
fast-track have great ambitions, are involved

.
rounded by fauns. It should not be confused

.
in a lot of intense hectic activity, and are
with fawn, denoting a young deer: The
promoted rapidly: He tells Carol Price how

Note that both words are pronounced [fawn].

hunter killed a fawn with his first arrow.

.
he copes with the critics, the fame, the fortune
◆

faux
and a career in the fast lane (TV Times). fast-
track executives. These fashionable modern The French word faux, meaning
expressions should not be overused and are `artificial' or `imitation', has appeared with

.
best restricted to informal contexts. increasing frequency over recent years in
The expressions derive from literal senses: the
.
◆ discussions of contemporary fashion:
of a motorway is for drivers who want to
faux
fast lane marble faux pearls. Å ].
It is pronounced [fo
 123 feel
faux pas A faux pas is a social blunder: . of being done': . The committee decided that

the project was feasible.

◆ In informal usage, now shares the
Inviting her ex-husband to the party was a
faux pas. feasible
◆ Of French origin, the phrase literally means `false double meaning of , describing something
possible
step'. It is occasionally written or printed in italics in that can be done or something that might happen,
English texts. The plural form is the same as the and is therefore equally ambiguous: .
singular: .
Raising
. The anglicized pronunciation
faux pas .
prices is a feasible solution to the problem
is [foÅ ].pah Note the spelling of the word: ends in feasible

fawn see FAUN or FAWN? , not .

-ible -able

fax The word fax, short for facsimile (a

feature The verb feature is best avoided

.
where have, include, display, appear, etc.,
system for transmitting documents telegra- may be more appropriate: a new leisure
phically), has established itself in the Eng- centre, featuring squash and badminton courts
lish language as a noun (referring to the and an indoor swimming pool with flumes. It
system of transmission, the machine used
.
is principally used in the entertainment

. .
for transmission, or the document trans- world: The concert will feature such stars

.
mitted) and as a verb: by fax a combined
as Britney Spears and Whitney Houston.
◆ Both as a noun and as a verb, should be
. .
fax, photocopier, and answering machine fax
feature
number a fax from head office
reserved
I faxed the
for what is prominent, distinctive, char-
details to the agency . This abbreviation is acteristic, or important: . The spiral staircase is a
acceptable in most contexts.
is also used as a respelling of the plural noun [not
feature of the house, which also has ] features
◆ Fax
, as in the trade names and . .
central heating, double glazing, and fitted carpets

This usage is less acceptable and may be confused February This month name causes pro-
facts Ceefax Filofax

with the sense of `facsimile'; it is best restricted to blems of spelling and pronunciation, the
informal contexts. most frequent being the omission of the

faze or phase? . is a verb, meaning ◆firstThe full

Faze
.
pronunciation of the word is [ rooaÆri].
r
feb
`worry' or `daunt': In informal speech, however, the simplified pro-
She was not fazed by the

.
.
accusation Phase
.
is a noun, meaning `stage': nunciation [ raÆri] and [ ewri] are often heard.
feb feb
the next phase of the development The first of these is more acceptable than the
He went

through a rebellious phase in his early teens , or second.

a verb, often found in the phrasal forms
feedback The use of feedback as a syno-
.
phase in/out, meaning `introduce/withdraw
gradually': The benefit will be phased out
nym for `response' or `reaction' is disliked
over a period of five years.
by some people, who prefer to restrict the
◆ Faze is regarded by some people as an Amer- term to its scientific or technical usage.
In science andtechnology, isthe return
icanism and is best restricted to informal contexts. ◆ feedback
of part of the output of a system, device, or
Compare the spelling of , particularly the
phase
process to its input, the most familiar example
ph and , with that of , which is spelt exactly as
s faze
being the high-pitched whistle heard when the
it sounds. output from a loudspeaker returns to the micro-
fearful fearsome
or ? Both adjectives can phone.
mean `frightened' or `frightening', but Both in scientific contexts and in general usage,
often leads to modification: .
fear-

.
ful is the more frequent and principally feedback We must

.
used in the sense of `frightened': fearful of try to get as much feedback as possible from the
a fearsome sight.
Either adjective may also be used in informal ..
what might happen public to see if our ideas are being successfully put
◆
contexts as an intensifier, meaning `extremely
over Feedback from customers helped us choose
.
bad': . .. . feel Some
the most practical design
I had a fearful cold fearsome weather

feasible
people dislike the use of the
The use of feasible to mean `prob- noun feel in the sense of `impression' or

.
able', `likely', or `plausible' is avoided by `quality', as in the phrases a nice feel about
many careful users, especially in formal it, a different feel about it, etc.: The car has a
contexts, where the word is restricted to strange feel about it.
its original sense of `practicable' or `capable ◆ Such expressions may be more succinctly
feel-good factor 124
worded by using the verb feel :. The car feels derless): . She's/It's a beautiful vessel. . She corners
.
strange very smoothly.

feel-good factor Feminine is occasionally confused with , feminist

The phrase feel-good
which refers to the movement or belief ( )feminism
factor refers to a feeling of optimism
that women should have the same rights, oppor-
amongst the general public about the state
tunities, etc., as men, particularly in economic,
.
of the nation, for example the economic
political, and social fields. A is a person
feminist
situation: The `feel-good factor' ± as it has
who supports feminism, especially someone who
come to be known ± has plummeted since the
is actively trying to bring about change: . She
time of the General Election (Daily Tele-
regards herself as a staunch feminist .
graph). The phrase is disliked by some
For names of female animals see table at ANI-
people and should not be overused.
MALS. For female, male, and neutral (gender-in-
feet see FOOT or FEET? clusive) terms for people see table at NON-SEXIST
TERMS.
feint see FAINT or FEINT?
ferment foment
fellow- The word may be combined
or ? These two verbs are

.
fellow virtually interchangeable in the sense of

.
with other nouns to denote a person in the `stir up': to foment/ferment trouble.
This figurative sense is now the most frequent
people with whom one is travelling; .
same category: fellow passengers are the ◆
use of
fellow ; in medical contexts it retains its
foment
workers are people who work in the same original meaning of `bathe or apply warmth to'.
The principal meaning of , however, is
phenated in British English: .
place. The two words are sometimes hy- ferment

. `undergo
fellow-stu- fermentation', referring to the chemical
dents .
fellow-sufferers reaction involved in the formation of alcohol. Its
See also HYPHEN 2. figurative usage is an extension of this sense.
◆A is someone who sympathizes Confusion may be caused by the identical pro-
fellow-traveller
with the aims of a political party (especially the nunciation of the two words [feÆ ]; they may be
Communist Party), but is not actually a member of more clearly distinguished, if necessary, by using
ment

it. the variant pronunciation of [foÅ ]. foment ment

female feminine
or ? The adjective female feÃte This word, used as a noun or verb, is

MALE: .
refers to the sex of a person, animal, or usually spelt with a circumflex accent over

.
plant; it is the opposite of a female the first in British English.
The word may be pronounced to rhyme with
e
giraffe female reproductive cells. Feminine is ◆
applied only to people (or their attributes) gate or , the first of these being the more
get
GENDER); it is the opposite of frequent.
MASCULINE: .
or to words (see
feminine charms. FATE or FETE?
With reference to people, is used only of
See also
◆ female
the childbearing sex; it is used to distinguish wo- fetid or foetid ? Both spellings of this
men or girls from men or boys but has no further adjective, which describes something that
connotations: . There are more female students has a very unpleasant smell, are acceptable.
than male students at the college . Care should be The spelling fetid is preferred in British
taken, however, in using the term in certain
female English and is standard in American Eng-
contexts, as it may be considered denigrating or lish.
condescending. In such cases it may be better to See also -AE- and -OE-.
use instead: . ◆ The first syllable of may be pronounced
fetid
with a short [ id] or with a long [ tid];
woman a woman doctor.
See also WOMAN. e fet e fee foetid
Feminine , on the other hand, may be used of is usually pronounced [ tid]. fee
both sexes; it refers to characteristics, qualities, fetus FOETUS or FETUS?
etc., that are considered typical of women or are see

traditionally associated with women: .

.
a feminine few The difference between and
. Note that some in-
few a few

hairstyle a feminine voice is one of expectation or attitude rather than

animate objects are conventionally considered
. .
number; both expressions mean `some, but
feminine, among them ships and cars (although not many': They brought few books.
an official decision was taken in 2002 to the effect
They
brought a few books.

that ships were henceforth to be treated as gen- ◆ The first of these sentences suggests that more
 125 finite verb
books were expected; the second, that no books [of Tom Sharpe's ]
Porterhouse Blue he reassured
were expected. The actual number of books may dons that the college was fictitious and that no
be the same in both cases. individual tutors had been singled out ( Sunday
has negative force, contrasting with ; ).
has positive force, contrasting with : .
Few many Times
However, is more frequently used with
..
a few none I fictional
have many acquaintances but few friends There direct reference to stories, novels, plays, etc.; ficti-
. is preferred for deliberate justification that is
intended to deceive: .
are no pears left, but there are a few apples tious
The same principles may be applied to and
:. .. .
little Fagin, Scrooge and other
a little I added little salt to the soup I added a fictional characters this fictitious character you
.
little salt to the soup claim to have met in the park .
For the distinction between ( ) and ( ) a few a little See also FACTITIOUS or FICTITIOUS?
see FEWER or LESS? fifth
fewer less
The second f in this word is some-
or ? Fewer, the comparative of times not sounded in speech.
few, means `a smaller number of'; less, the ◆ The pronunciations [fifth] and [fith] are both
acceptable, but some people object to the omis-
. .
comparative of little, means `a smaller
amount or quantity of': fewer cars less sion of the second . f
unemployment.
fewer (or few)
The general rule is that
is used with plural nouns
figurative Figurative describes language
.
.
that is metaphorical rather than literal:
and less (or little) with singular nouns,
That lad's a real devil. She's a tiger when she

. . . .
whether the nouns are concrete or abstract:
gets going. Figurative language can be

. .
fewer pleasures few chairs less wood
highly effective in creative writing and as
less noise.
The use of in place of occurs widely in
little hope fewer noises
a tool in colloquial speech, but it should be
◆ less fewer
informal speech and also, occasionally, in more used only sparingly and with care in formal

formal contexts: . Please remember, on Tuesdays

contexts.
See also METAPHORS.
fill in fill out
and Thursdays there are less queues in the after-
noon (Post Office advertisement, ). The Guardian or ? In British English,
Many people find this usage unacceptable in for- application forms and other official docu-
mal speech and writing.
.
ments are usually rather than
The same principles apply to the phrases
filled in filled

:. .
fewer out:
and
Fill in this form and give it to the
than less than fewer than four people less receptionist.

than a pint of milk . However, plural units of ◆ is the more frequent verb in American
Fill out
measurement, time, money, etc., are regarded English and is disliked by some British users for this
as singular in such cases: . reason alone. It is also considered less appropriate
..
It took less than ten
seconds .
He earned less than £50 last week ± the blank spaces are to be , like holes, to
filled in

ff. CF. FF. make the form complete. suggests enlar-

Fill out
see or ?
gement or extension.
fiance fianceÂe
or ? An engaged woman's The verb is also occasionally used for this
fill up
future husband is her Â;
fiance an engaged purpose.
The feminine form is sometimes misspelt, the finalize
man's future wife is his . Âe
fiance
The verb is best avoided finalize
◆
second being dropped in error.
e
would be adequate or more appropriate: .
where , etc.,
complete, finish, conclude, settle

Unlike some other words of French origin, fianceÂ

and are always written with an acute
fianceÂe
[not
The preparatory work must be finished

accent over the (first) . ] .

The pronunciation of both words is identical in◆ The word does, however, serve a useful purpose
finalized as soon as possible
e

[fi say]. some official contexts, combining the senses of

on
`reach agreement on' and `put into final form': .
fictional or fictitious? means `of The committee met to finalize arrangements for
.
Fictional

.
fiction' or `not factual'; means fictitious the prime minister's visit

.
`false' or `not genuine':
.
a fictional detective
. finished see DONE or FINISHED?
finite verb
his fictional works a fictitious address her
fictitious companion. A is a verb in any of
The two words are largely interchangeable in
finite verb

the sense of `imaginary', `invented', or `not real': .

◆ the forms that change according to the
person or number of the subject or accord-
fiord 126
. whose surname precedes their other names (Hun-
. . . garians or the Chinese, for example). The same
ing to the tense in which the verb is used.

.
She helps. The train stopped. I am cold.
problem may occur with the use of .
.
They leaving. He lost his key. first name
is the preferred expression in Amer-
were has

. .
The following verbs are not finite: Given name
ican English.
going
to school with dew I want to
The term is occasionally used in
covered

leave. baptismal name

fiord fjord British English, but like , it is inap-

Christian name
or ? Both spellings of this word
plicable to non-Christians.
Derived from the Old Norse , the word is fish or fishes? The plural of is ;
are acceptable.
◆ fjoÈrthr
usually applied to the narrow inlets of the sea
fish fishes

along the Scandinavian coastline. , the Nor- than the alternative form: .
is used in a wider range of contexts
fish

..
Fjord
wegian spelling of the word, is preferred by some
Fish live in

users. ..
water and breathe through their gills There
are five fish in the pond Dace, bream, roach,

fireman or firewoman? see NON-SEXIST ◆ Considered as a food item, usually remains

and burbot are all freshwater fishes/fish.

TERMS. in the singular: .

fish

first or firstly?
Fish is more expensive than some
may be used in place
Firstly . cuts of meat
The plural form is most frequently found
.
of the adverb when enumerating a list:
first fishes
in technical contexts, often with reference to in-
dividual groups or species: .
There are three good reasons for not buying
the house: firstly, it is outside our price range; The major division in
secondly, it is too close to the railway; thirdly, this group is between jawless and jawed fishes
. ( ).
◆ The use of , in fix or repair? Both these verbs are used in
the garden is too small Longman Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia
first . . . secondly . . . thirdly
accordance with a former convention that rejected the sense of `mend',
the word , remains acceptable and is still formal than : .
firstly
being more repair

favoured by some users. Others, however, find .

fix Have you fixed the radio

this usage inconsistent, preferring first . . . second

yet? He was ordered to repair the damaged

. . . thirdor , accord- ◆ The. verb has a number of other meanings,

firstly . . . secondly . . . thirdly
boat

ing to the context. fix

should not be substituted for in any of principally `make firm' or `fasten'.

its other adverbial uses: .
Firstly first
[not ] fjord see FIORD or FJORD?
When he first firstly

English ..
came to this country, he could hardly speak any
[not ],
Janet came in first firstlyflaccid The formal adjective , mean-
followed flaccid

by the others . ing soft and limp, may be pronounced

first name Christian name forename [flaksid] or [flasid]. The first pronunciation

given name baptismal name

, , ,
is more widely accepted than the second.

flagrant
or ? All
these expressions are used to denote the see BLATANT or FLAGRANT?
name or names borne in addition to one's
surname; in British English first name is
flagship The noun flagship, which denotes
the ship that carries the commander of a

.
replacing Christian name as the most fre-
fleet, is increasingly used in figurative con-
quent choice: a dictionary of first names.
◆ The principal objection to is that texts
Christian name
with reference to the most important

it is inapplicable, and possibly offensive, to non- etc.: .

of a group of products, projects, services,

Christians. For this reason the expression is gen- .

Education policy is the Labour party's

erally avoided on official forms. It remains in reg- flagship. The chain's flagship store is located

ularuse,however,ininformalcontexts: . in a fashionable quarter of San Francisco.

. flair or flare? The noun

We never
address our teachers by their Christian names means `a flair

The term may lead to confusion natural aptitude or instinct'; is a noun

first name flare

among people who bear more than one such or verb referring to a sudden burst of
name: . My first name is Leonard but I prefer flame: . .a flair for cookery the flare of

to be called by my middle name, Mark . .

is widely used on official forms but is ◆ The two words are sometimes confused, though
the torch

Forename
rarely heard in informal speech. It is not, however, not always with the humorous effect of an adver-
the ideal solution, being inappropriate for people tisement from the quoted by
Gloucestershire Echo
 127 flounder
`Peterborough' in the Daily Telegraph :. Chef/ flee fly or ? The rather literary verb
.
flee

. .
Cook. Really talented person with flare required means `run away (from)':
.
You must flee the
at Burlington Court Hotel, experience essential town. They have fled. I fled from the danger.

Both words have additional senses: is an

.
flair The verb is also occasionally used in this
informal synonym for `stylishness'; a is a light
fly
flare sense in literary contexts:
signal used especially at sea. To may also
You must fly the

mean `to become wider': .

flare town, but is more frequently found in its
.
. .
a flared skirt principal sense of `(cause to) move through

flak The use of flak in the sense of `heavy

the air':
were flying a kite. .
Most birds can fly.

We flew to Paris.
The children

◆ Note the potential ambiguity of the last exam-

.
adverse criticism or opposition' is best re-
stricted to informal contexts:
ple, which can mean `We travelled to Paris by air'
Civil-service

bureaucrats come in for a lot of flak from the

or `We ran away to Paris', although the second
is `antiaircraft meaning is far less likely.
.
◆ The principal meaning of
general public

flak
Both verbs
fire'; of German origin, the word is an acronym and past participleare irregular: is the past tense fled

of (flyer) (defence) of ; and are the flee flew flown

Flieger
(guns).
Abwehr
past tense and
Kanonen
past participle, respectively, of . fly

The spelling , an anglicized variant, is also that sounds like is spelt , with a finalinsect
flack
A is also an insect, but
flythe name of the
-.
occasionally used. flee flea a

flaming With the advent of electronic

fleshly or fleshy ? Fleshly refers to the
body as opposed to the spirit; fleshy refers
communication, the word flaming has ac-

. . .
to the flesh of a person, animal, fruit, or
quired a new meaning beside `being on
plant: fleshly desires fleshly delights fleshy
fire'. To users of electronic mail, it now
thighs. Fleshly is occasionally used in place

.
refers also to the sending or receipt of a
of fleshy, but some users prefer to maintain
mass of insulting e-mail: Flaming is a
the distinction between the two adjectives.

flier flyer
phenomenon that can cause its victims con-

siderable distress. or ? The spellings flier and flyer

flammable INFLAMMABLE
see .
are interchangeable in the sense of `person

flare FLAIR FLARE .

or thing that flies' and in such compounds
see or ? as high-flier/high-flyer.

flaunt flout
or ? Flaunt means `show off' or floor storey
or ? Both these nouns are used

.
`display ostentatiously'; flout means `treat to denote a particular level of a building or

.
with contempt' or `disregard': to flaunt the rooms on this level. The word floor is
to flout the rules. more frequently used with reference to the
◆ The use of in place of is avoided by
one's wealth

.
flaunt flout interior of the building, with refer-
careful users in all contexts, but the confusion
storey

occurs with some frequency: . .

ence to the exterior or structure. He lives
If Christians are on the fourth floor.

[of the
The new office block will

to campaign against total deregulation be ten storeys high.

laws on Sunday trading] . . . they must be seen ◆ In American English the of a building is
first floor
to obey, and not flaunt, the present law (Jubilee at ground level. In British English this is known as
Centre leaflet). This confusion may be due to the the ground floor , the being the floor
first floor
sense of openness that is conveyed by both verbs: above (called the in American Eng-
second floor
the open disregard shown by one who a law flouts lish). This difference in usage does not apply to the
may be seen as an open display, or , of flaunting word . storey
contempt. See also STOREY or STORY?
flavour of the month The phrase flavour flounder founder or ? To flounder is to
of the month is applied to something or struggle, move with difficulty, or act clum-

.
someone that is popular or fashionable for a sily; to founder is to fail, break down,

.
short time: The new Secretary of State for collapse, or sink. Both verbs can be used

.
Education has opposed increases in fees and is literally or figuratively: They floundered in

.
likely to be flavour of the month at colleges the mud. She floundered on to the end of the

.
and universities across the country. The speech. The project foundered through lack

phrase is often used in a derogatory man- of support. The ship foundered at the
ner. Its overuse should be avoided. harbour entrance.
flout 128
◆ The two verbs are often confused, especially in technical contexts. The final of the noun is
s focus
figurative contexts, being used in place of never doubled before the plural ending.
: . [of the Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair
flounder
founder See also SPELLING 1.
Games] The noun is often used in the figurative
sense of `centre of attention or activity': .
future Games could flounder unless £2.5 focus
(
million is raised Bucks Advertiser ). The
The two words are not unrelated: is
flounder proposed route for the new bypass is the focus of
probably a blend of and
founder . blunder Founder today's meeting . It is better avoided, however,
itself is ultimately derived from the Latin where , etc., would be
more appropriate: .
fundus emphasis, object, point
`bottom'. [not ]
the emphasis focus

flout FLAUNT or FLOUT? on unemployment in the Labour Party's manifesto .

foetid FETID
see

flu see or FOETID?

foetus fetus
The word flu ± the shortened form of

.
influenza ± is more frequent in general and or ? There are two possible
some technical contexts than influenza: spellings for this word. The first is more
She's off work with (the) flu. frequent in British English, and the second
tends to be restricted to very formal
spelling in scientific contexts: .
◆ Influenza in American English. is the standard
contexts.
Fetus

The fetus is
See also ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE. .
should not be confused with the noun , ◆ The distinction between and is in
no longer viable

Flu flue foetus fetus

which denotes a shaft or pipe in a chimney or fact spurious, as there is no etymological basis for
organ. ( was once a variant spelling of , but the spelling, the origin of the word lying in the
Flue flu -oe-
is no longer used for this purpose.) Latin . has, nonetheless, been in wide-
fetus Foetus

fluorescent This word, which is usually spread use since the 16th century.
See also -AE- and -OE.
foist FOB FOIST
applied to light fittings, colours, paint, etc.,
may cause spelling problems. see or ?
◆ Note the order of the vowels in the first syllable folk
(as in ), the - - combination, and the -
fluoride sc ent
The use of the noun folk as a synonym

ending. for `people' is generally considered to have

flush BLUSH FLUSH . . .

slightly old-fashioned and sentimental as-
see or ? sociations: country folk old folk a name

fly FLEE FLY

see or ?
that will be familiar to many folk.
The word is chiefly used adjectivally, in the sense
flyer FLIER FLYER of`traditional': . . .
◆
see or ? folk music . folk dance folklore

fob foist Like , the noun is used with a plural

verb: .
people folk
or ? Both these verbs may refer to
.
Poor folk often dream of a life of luxury

.
the disposal of something unwanted or
Folks , the plural form of the word, is largely
worthless:
.
He fobbed the damaged toys
restricted to informal contexts, in the sense of
off on Christmas shoppers. She always foists
`relatives': .
or `people in general': .
My folks are coming here tomorrow

Theinsertionof after : .
the boring jobs on her assistant.
That's all, folks!

, on the model following The preposition

◆ off foist She always foists
the boring jobs off on her assistant may
of , is disliked and avoided by many be confused with the present participle; it is
following
fob off on
careful users.
may also be used in the sense of would be adequate or less ambiguous: .
best avoided where or
The verb
after because of

`appease' or `put off': .

fob off
They fobbed us off with [not ]
. may not be substituted for
They went home after following the
the usual excuses Foist .
in this sense. may serve a useful prepositional pur-
party

.
fob ◆ Following

focus The doubling of the final of the s

poseinthedualsenseof`afterandasaresultof':
Following the burglary we fitted additional locks to
verb before a suffix beginning with a
focus
.
the doors and windows
vowel is optional. Most dictionaries give
is also used as an adjective meaning
.
Following
focused , ,
focuses , etc., as the pre-
focusing
`next' or `about to be mentioned':
.
I left the
ferred spellings, with ,
focussed
, etc., as acceptable variants.
,
focusses
.
following morning The following tools will be

◆ The noun has two plural forms,

focussing
required . . .

and [ si], the latter being largely restricted to follows, as see AS FOLLOWS.
focus focuses
foci foÅ
 129 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES
foment FERMENT see or FOMENT? ever spelling is used, is stressed on the first

foot feetor ? The plural of foot,

.
as a unit of
syllable [forbair].

forbid prohibitor ? Both these verbs are

. .
measurement, may be foot or feet: a six-
used in the sense of `refuse to allow',
.
foot fence five feet tall nine feet eight inches

. .
long a pane of glass measuring two foot six
prohibit being more authoritative than for-
bid: I forbid you to visit her. The rules
by four foot three.
◆ In compound adjectives that precede the noun, prohibit us from visiting her.

thesingularform isalwaysused: . ◆ Note the difference in construction: is forbid

foot
. The same convention applies not only to other
a three-foot
followed by an infinitive with ; is fol- to prohibit
rod
units of measurement but also to such expressions lowed by an form with . -ing from

as See also FORBADE.

forceful forcible
a two-car family, four-star petrol, a five-year-old
child ,etc., and to compound nouns such as trouser or ? means `hav-
, etc.
Forceful

. .
leg, toothbrush ing great force'; means `using force':
For measurements in feet and inches, is
forcible

preferred in more formal and precise contexts: .

feet forcible expulsion.

Something that is may be contrasted

a forceful personality

◆ forceful
seven feet four inches . In informal usage the word with something that has little force; something
is omitted and the plural form is more that is may be contrasted with something
frequent: .
inches foot forcible
.
seven foot four that uses no force.
In such expressions as or
three feet high ten foot In many contexts, in the sense of `powerful' or
, the same distinctions of formality and pre- `effective', the two words are virtuallyinterchange-
cision may be applied: . able: .
wide
. (Some people
..
The wall must be exactly a forceful/forcible reminder
three feet high .
The room is about ten foot wide may interpret a reminder as one that is
forceful
For larger measurements, such as the height of a powerfully presented, a reminder as one
forcible
mountain, is preferred in all contexts.
feet that has a powerful effect.)
for BECAUSE AS, FOR or SINCE? Forcible should not be replaced by forceful
see ,
where physical force or violence is involved or
for- fore-
or ? The prefix usually in- implied: . .
forcible entry

fore- FOR- FORE-

for-
dicates prohibition (forbid), abstention (for- see or ?

. . . forebear FORBEAR FOREBEAR

bear), or neglect (forsake). The prefix fore-
see or ?
means `before':
forefather.
foreboding
forefather foremother NON-SEXIST
forecast
or ? see
◆ Confusion of these two prefixes may lead to TERMS .
spelling mistakes.
FORBEAR FOREBEAR FORGO
forego FORGO FOREGO see or ?
See also
FOREGO ?
or
foregone?; or
Foregone, meaning `already

forbade
settled' or `predetermined', is usually en-

.
Forbade, the past tense of the verb countered in the phrase foregone conclusion:

forbid, may be pronounced [fo Æ rbad] or [fo

Æ r- Electoral defeat is a foregone conclusion.

as a noun: .
bayd]. Many people dislike the recent tendency to
◆ The first of these pronunciations, rhyming with use foregone It's a foregone that

mad rather than with , is the more frequent.

made the party will block such action.

, an alternative spelling of
Forbad , is forehead This word is usually pronounced
forbade
always pronounced [foÆr ]. bad
[ rrid], rhyming with .
forbear or forebear? ◆ The variant pronunciations [ hed] and [ rred]
fo horrid
for fo
are widely used and accepted.
is the only
Forbear

.
accepted spelling of the verb, which means

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

`to refrain': I shall forbear from criticizing
her appearance. The noun, meaning `ances- The

.
tor', may be written forebear or forbear, the following table, on pages 130±134, lists both
spelling forebear being the more frequent: familiar and less familiar foreign borrow-
His forebears were wealthy landowners. ings with their language of origin in the
See also FOR- or FORE-? middle column and their meaning in the
The two words are not identical in right-hand column. Cross references, e.g.
pronunciation: the verb is stressed on the see AUFAIT, are also included to main entries
second syllable [forbair]; the noun, which- in the Good Word Guide.
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES 130
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES
ab initio Latin from the beginning
ab ovo Latin from the beginning
a cappella Italian unaccompanied
addendum Latin addition
aÁ deux French for two people
ad hoc Latin for this purpose ( AD HOC)
see
adieu French goodbye
ad infinitum Latin endlessly ( AD INFINITUM)
see
adios Spanish goodbye
ad lib Latin spontaneously
ad nauseam Latin interminably ( AD NAUSEAM)
see
ad rem Latin to the point
aficionado Spanish enthusiast, expert ( AFICIONADO)
see
agent provocateur French secret agent
agitprop Russian propaganda
aide-de-camp French assistant
aide-meÂmoire French reminder
aÁ la carte French from a separately priced menu ( AÁ LA CARTE)
see
aÁ la mode French chic
al dente Italian lightly cooked
alfresco Italian out-of-doors
alma mater Latin a person's school or college ( ALMA MATER)
see
alter ego Latin other self
alumnus/alumna Latin former male/female pupil ( ALUMNUS)
see
amanuensis Latin secretarial assistant ( AMANUENSIS)
see
amour propre French self-esteem
ancien reÂgime French the old system
angst German anxiety
apparatchik Russian underling
a priori Latin deductive ( A PRIORI)
see
apropos French with regard to, appropriate, incidentally ( APROPOS)
see
au contraire French on the contrary
au fait French well-informed ( AU FAIT)
see
au naturel French with nothing added
au pair French live-in domestic helper
au revoir French goodbye
badinage French humorous banter
beau monde French fashionable society
beÃte noire French detested or feared thing or person ( BEÃTE NOIRE)
see
bijou French compact but elegant
bona fides Latin good faith ( BONA FIDE)
see
bon appeÂtit French enjoy your meal
bonhomie French geniality
bon mot French witticism
bon viveur French person who enjoys good living
bon voyage French farewell
bouquet garni French mixture of herbs
 131 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES
bric-a-brac French bits and pieces
carpe diem Latin seize the moment
carte blanche French freedom of action ( CARTE BLANCHE)
see
casus belli Latin cause of conflict
cause ceÂleÁbre French notorious affair
caveat emptor Latin buyer beware
charge d'affaires French diplomat below ambassador
chef d'oeuvre French masterpiece
che saraÁ saraÁ Italian what will be, will be
chez French at the house of
chutzpah Yiddish audacity ( CHUTZPAH)
see
ciao Italian goodbye
compos mentis Latin of sound mind
contretemps French argument or difficulty
cordon sanitaire French protective barrier
coup de graÃce French decisive blow ( COUP DE GRAÃCE)
see
coup d'eÂtat French revolution ( COUP D'EÂTAT)
see
creÁme de la creÁme French the very best ( CREÁME DE LA CREÁME)
see
cum laude Latin with honours
curriculum vitae Latin summary of a person's career ( CURRICULUM VITAE)
see
debacle French fiasco
de facto Latin in actual fact ( DE FACTO)
see
deÂjaÁ vu French something already seen or experienced ( DEÂJAÁ VU)
see
de jure Latin by legal right ( DE JURE)
see
denouement French final outcome ( DENOUEMENT)
see
de rigueur French required by social custom ( DE RIGUEUR)
see
diktat German order
distingue French distinguished
distrait French distracted
dolce vita Italian the soft life
double entendre French phrase with a risque second meaning ( DOUBLE
see
ENTENDRE)
du jour French of the day, fashionable ( DU JOUR)
see
eÂclat French success, ostentation
eÂmigre French emigrant
eÂminence grise French influence behind the scenes
en bloc French all together ( EN BLOC)
see
encore French again
en crouÃte French cooked in pastry
en famille French with one's family
enfant terrible French unorthodox person
en masse French in a body ( EN MASSE)
see
ennui French boredom
en passant French incidentally
en route French on the way
en suite French connected, adjoining bathroom and bedroom ( EN SUITE)
see
entente cordiale French cordial relationship
entre nous French between ourselves
ergo Latin therefore
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES 132
esprit de corps French team spirit ( ESPRIT DE CORPS)
see
et al. Latin and other people ( ET AL.)
see
ex cathedra Latin with authority
ex gratia Latin as a favour, by favour ( EX GRATIA)
see
ex officio Latin by virtue of one's office ( EX OFFICIO)
see
ex post facto Latin retrospective
extempore Latin unpremeditated ( EXTEMPORE IMPROMPTU?)
see or
factotum Latin general employee
fait accompli French done deed ( FAIT ACCOMPLI)
see
faux French artificial
faux pas French social blunder ( FAUX PAS)
see
femme fatale French seductress
fin de sieÁcle French end-of-the-century
flambe French in flaming liquor
garni French served with a garnish
gauche French awkward, clumsy
genre French style ( GENRE)
see
goujon French strip of meat or fish
gravitas Latin seriousness ( GRAVITAS)
see
habeas corpus Latin writ to summon a person before court
hasta la vista Spanish until we meet again
haute couture French high fashion
haute cuisine French high-quality cuisine
hoi polloi Greek common masses ( HOI POLLOI)
see
hors de combat French out of action
hors d'oeuvre French appetizer ( HORS D'OEUVRE)
see
idem Latin something already mentioned
imbroglio Italian confusion, muddle ( IMBROGLIO)
see
in absentia Latin in the absence of a person
in camera Latin in private
incognito Latin under a false identity
incommunicado Spanish out of communication
in extremis Latin in extreme difficulty ( IN EXTREMIS)
see
in flagrante delicto Latin caught in the act
ingeÂnue French naive young woman
in loco Latin in place of ( IN LOCO PARENTIS)
see
in memoriam Latin in memory of
in situ Latin in its existing position
in toto Latin completely ( IN TOTO)
see
in transit Latin on the way
in utero Latin in the womb
in vitro Latin in a test tube ( IN VITRO)
see
ipso facto Latin by the fact itself
je ne sais quoi French indefinable quality
jihad Arabic holy war
joie de vivre French enthusiasm for living
kamikaze Japanese suicide, suicidal
kaput German dead, defeated, broken
laissez-faire French unrestricted ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE)
see
 133 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES
largesse French generosity
leitmotiv German basic theme
leÁse-majeste French disrespect
lingua franca Italian common language ( LINGUA FRANCA)
see
locum tenens Latin temporary substitute
macho Spanish ostentatiously masculine ( MACHO) see
maestro Italian master, conductor
magnum opus Latin masterpiece ( MAGNUM OPUS)
see
maõÃtre d'hoÃtel French headwaiter
malaise French unease, debility
manÄana Spanish tomorrow
manque French unsuccessful
mea culpa Latin I am to blame
meÂlange French mixture
meÂnage French household
meÂnage aÁ trois French household of three people
modus operandi Latin method or procedure ( MODUS OPERANDI)
see
modus vivendi Latin compromise ( MODUS VIVENDI)
see
mot juste French appropriate word ( MOT JUSTE)
see
mutatis mutandis Latin with necessary changes made
neÂe French born ( NEÂE)
see
nil desperandum Latin never despair
noblesse oblige French the obligations of nobility
noli me tangere Latin warning against interference
nom de plume French pen name
non sequitur Latin statement that does not follow logically from what preceded it
( NON SEQUITUR)
see
nouveau riche French newly rich person
nouvelle cuisine French healthy style of cookery
objet d'art French work of art ( OBJET D'ART)
see
oeuvre French literary or artistic work
opus Latin work ( OPUS)
see
outre French unconventional
panache French flamboyance
paparazzi Italian press photographers ( PAPARAZZI)see
par excellence French beyond compare ( PAR EXCELLENCE)
see
parvenu French upstart
pas de deux French dance for two
passe French outmoded
pastiche French imitation
patois French non-standard dialect
peccadillo Spanish minor vice ( PECCADILLO)
see
penchant French inclination ( PENCHANT)
see
per annum Latin annually ( PER ANNUM)
see
per capita Latin per head ( PER CAPITA)
see
per pro Latin used when signing a letter on behalf of someone else
( P.P.)
see
per se Latin in itself, as such ( PER SE)
see
persona non grata Latin banned or excluded person
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES 134
petit bourgeois French lower middle class
pieÁce de reÂsistance French chief attraction ( PIEÁCE DE REÂSISTANCE)
see
pied-aÁ-terre French temporary lodging
plus cËa change French the more things change, the more they are the same
post hoc Latin henceforth
preÂcis French summary
prima facie Latin at first view ( PRIMA FACIE)
see
pro bono publico Latin for the public good
pro forma Latin invoice sent in advance
pro rata Latin proportionately ( PRO RATA)
see
proteÂgeÂ(e) French pupil ( PRODIGY PROTEÂGEÂ?)
see or
quid pro quo Latin exchange ( QUID PRO QUO)
see
quod erat
demonstrandum Latin which was to be proved
raison d'eÃtre French motivation ( RAISON D'EÃTRE)
see
re Latin concerning ( RE)
see
recherche French choice, obscure
reÂsume French summary
risque French indelicate, improper
roue French rake, debauchee
sangfroid French composure, equanimity
savoir faire French assurance, capability ( SAVOIR FAIRE)
see
sic Latin thus ( SIC)
see
sic passim Latin so throughout
sine qua non Latin something essential ( SINE QUA NON)
see
smorgasbord Swedish buffet
sotto voce Italian under the breath
spiel German chatter, sales pitch
status quo Latin the existing state of affairs
sub judice Latin before the court
sub rosa Latin in confidence
sui generis Latin in a class of its own ( SUI GENERIS)
see
table d'hoÃte French fixed price meal ( TABLE D'HOÃTE)
see
tempus fugit Latin time flies
terra firma Latin firm ground
teÃte-aÁ-teÃte French private conversation ( TEÃTE-AÁ-TEÃTE)
see
timbre French resonance, tone
tour de force French feat of skill or ingenuity ( TOUR DE FORCE)
see
trompe l'oeil French optical illusion
ultra vires Latin outside one's power or scope
verbatim Latin word for word
vis-aÁ-vis French in relation to ( VIS-AÁ-VIS)
see
viva voce Latin orally
volte-face French about-face
weltanschauung German world view
weltschmerz German sentimental pessimism
wunderbar German wonderful
wunderkind German successful young person
zeitgeist German spirit of the time
 135 forth
foreman forewoman NON-SEXIST
or ? see or should not be used to
◆ The former the latter
TERMS. refer to a single previously mentioned item; the
forename FIRST NAME CHRISTIAN NAME itemor may, may
see ,
be repeated or a simple pronoun, such as
be used: . ,
FORENAME GIVEN NAME BAPTISMAL NAME
, or ?
it this
[not ]
The killer left the scene of

forever forever
the crime in a stolen car; the car/this the latter
or ? The adverb forever may .
was later found abandoned in a lay-by
be written as a single word in all contexts, but Of three or more items or people, the first-
mentioned should be referred to as ,
for the principal sense of `eternally': .
some people prefer to use the two-word form the first the
, or (not
. .
first-named the first-mentioned the for-
) and the last-mentioned should be referred to
for ever

. . ): .
mer
as , , etc. (not
We shall remember her for ever It will stay

the last the last-named the latter

◆ In the sense of `continually' or `incessantly',
there for ever Liverpool for ever!

:.
The secretary, the treasurer, and the chairman had
forever is preferred to for ever He is forever [not
a meeting at the house of the first-named the
changing his mind . ] .
former yesterday evening
The use of r to mean `a very long time' is For the sake of simplicity or clarity,
best restricted to informal contexts: .
foreve the former,
It will take ,
the latter, the first-named, the last-mentioned
forever to get this carpet clean. etc., should be avoided if possible by restructuring
foreword or preface? Both these nouns the items
sentence or by repeating the names of the
or people concerned.
formerly
are used to denote the statement or re-
marks that often precede or replace the see FORMALLY or FORMERLY?
is the older of the two words and the formidable
introduction to a book.
◆ Preface This word may be stressed on

more frequent; some authorities suggest that a syllable

the first syllable [ midaÆ bl] or the second
for

is usually written by a person other than ◆ The first of these pronunciations is the more
Æ rm a
[fo Æ bl]. id

the author of the book: .

foreword

.. widely accepted in British English.

The foreword will be

See also STRESS.

written by a distinguished historian Have you
read the author's preface?
See also
PREFACE?
FORWARD or FORWARDS?; PREFIX or formulae formulas
or ? The noun formula

has two accepted plural forms,

forgo forego
formulae
and formulas.

, pronounced to rhyme with , is

or ? Forgo is the usual spel-

largely restricted to scientific contexts: .

ling of the verb that means `do without' or ◆ Formulae tree
chemical

spelling of this verb: . .

`give up', forego being an accepted variant
formulae
For other senses of , the plural form
The union will not

is preferred by most users: .

. formula

◆ The verb , meaning `go before' or `pre-

forgo the right to strike

.
forego formulas no easy

cede', is most frequently found in the adjectival peace formulas that will resolve the dispute There

forms or , which have no alter- .

are many different formulas for success

native spellings: . . forte The noun , denoting a person's

foregoing foregone
the foregoing instructions a
foregone conclusion . forte

See also FOR- or FORE-?; FOREGONE. strong point, may be pronounced as two
syllables [fortay] or as a single syllable [fort].
formally formerly or The first of these pronunciations is the more
◆
frequent of the two, although the second is closer
? These two adverbs
are sometimes confused, being identical in
to the French original ( is an English feminine
means `in the past': .
pronunciation. means `in a formal forte
rendering of French , meaning `strong;
Formally
fort
.
manner';
strength').
formerly

The two-syllable pronunciation may possibly

formally dressed Sri Lanka, formerly called
.
have been influenced by the musical term ,
Ceylon

former and latter Of two previously men- meaning `loud' or `loudly'. Pronounced [ ti] or
forte
for
tioned items or people,
the second: .
denotes
[ tay],
the former
this word is of Italian origin.
for

forth fourth.
the first and the latter On

Monday evening there will be a lecture on or ? Forth means `forward' or

.
local history and a meeting of the chess club: `out into view': She never spoke again from

the former will be held in the main hall, the that day forth. He brought forth a knife. It
latter in the lounge. should not be confused with fourth, which
fortuitous 136
refers to the number four: . This was the fourth seeFORTH or FOURTH?
fourth time he had taken the test.
fowl see FOUL or FOWL?
fortuitous fortunate
or ? Fortuitous means
foyer In British English this word, mean-
`happening by chance' or `accidental'; for-
ing `an entrance hall or lobby in a theatre,

. .
tunate means `having or happening by good
hotel, etc.', is usually pronounced [foiay].
fortune' or `lucky': a fortuitous meeting
The pronunciations [ eÆr] and [ yay] are also
a
◆ foi fwah
fortunate child.

◆A
acceptable, the last of these being an approxima-
occurrence is not necessarily good, tion of the French
fortuitous
but the similarity between the two words, and original.
their frequent confusion, has led to the increasing fraction Some people dislike the use of
to mean `a small part' or `a little': .
a

acceptance of `fortunate' as a secondary meaning fraction

of . Many people object to this usage,

which can result in ambiguity: . . .
fortuitous We flew there in a fraction of the time it takes

a fortuitous to go by sea Could you turn the volume

may be accidental, or lucky, or both.

is not ◆ A fraction is not necessarily a small part of the
discovery down a fraction, please?

Unlike , the adjective

applied to people: . whole: nine-tenths is a fraction.
fortunate fortuitous

To avoid possible ambiguity or misunderstand-

You were fortunate to find
.
forty Note the spelling of , with the such:a .small fraction should be clearly expressed as
ing,
another job so quickly

forty

.
Why dine out when you can eat at home
of and omitted.
◆ Similarly, has no .
-u- four fourteen
for a small fraction of the cost? Only a small
fortieth -u-
.
fraction of the work has been completed

forward forwards or ? As an adjective, See also

. fractious
HYPHEN 6.
see FACTIOUS or FRACTIOUS?
. .
forward is never written with a final s:
forward motion a forward remark forward
fraught .
Fraught with
.
means `filled with' or
.
planning. In some of its adverbial senses, the
word may be written forward or forwards:
`charged with': fraught with problems The
expedition was fraught with danger. The use
He ran forward/forwards to greet his father.
◆ Some users restrict the adverb to
forwards of the adjective fraught alone, in the sense
physical movement in the opposite direction to of `tense' or `anxious', is disliked by some
backwards ; some use in the wider ad-
forwards
.
people and is best restricted to informal
.
verbial sense of `ahead in space or time'; others usage: a fraught evening He looked

use forward for all adverbial senses of the word. fraught.

In idiomatic phrasal verbs, such as

ward, put forward, look forward to , etc., and in
come for- -free The adjective free is frequently used

the sense of `into a prominent position', the ad- .

in combination to indicate the absence of

verb is never written with a final : . . .

something undesirable or unpleasant: lead-

forward
came forward as a witness
proposals at the meeting
..
s She
. .
free petrol rent-free accommodation additive-
I put forward the
. .
free food pollution-free water duty-free spirits

The word is also used as a noun (denot-

a trouble-free life.
forward ◆ Some careful users object to this usage, prefer-
ing a player or position in various sports) and as a ring to replace some compounds by a paraphrase:
verb: . .
to forward a letter . accommodation, for which no rent is paid .
See also -WARD or -WARDS? .
, pronounced [ waÆrd], should not be
water that has not been polluted
Forward
confused with
for
, pronounced [ werd],
foreword for free gift Some users avoid the phrase free

the introduction to a book. gift, arguing that it is a tautology, all gifts

See also FOREWORD or PREFACE? being necessarily free. Others accept that

foul . fowl
or ? As a noun, foul means `illegal
the phrase has acquired a specific meaning,
denoting something given away for pro-
act': The player was sent off for a vicious motional purposes.
foul. It should not be confused with
denoting a chicken or similar bird: .
fowl,
He ate
freeze frieze
or ? The verb freeze means
.
`change from liquid into solid form':

Both words are pronounced [fowl].

neither fish nor fowl for several weeks.
Water freezes at 08C. The noun frieze de-
◆

founder .
notes a decorative or ornamental band or
see FLOUNDER or FOUNDER? strip on a wall: a frieze depicting the history
 137 fulsome
of the town. The two spellings should not be or old-fashioned and by others as incorrect; it is
best avoided.
is also used figuratively: .
confused.
It is important to recognize the difference be-
. tween - and : .
◆ Freeze to freeze prices
a pay freeze . ful full denotes
a bucketful of water

friable the quantity of water held by a bucket, but not the

The adjective friable, a technical
bucket itself; denotes both
a bucket full of water

.
term, means `crumbly' or `easily broken
the bucket and the water it contains.
up': friable soil. It has no etymological
The tendency to confuse - with some- ful full
connection with the verb fry.
times leads to the misspelling of both nouns and
-friendly Some people object to the vogue adjectives, such as
ll
, , etc., with
spoonful doubtful
the ending - (see also FULLNESS or FULNESS?).
for attaching the adjective friendly to an

of USER-FRIENDLY: .
increasing number of nouns, on the model
customer-friendly . Read-
fulfil Note the spelling of this word: in
British English neither is doubled.
The spelling of the derived noun in British
l
ers . . . voted M & S Britain's least parent-
◆

. .
friendly high street store (
English is
. The spellings
).
Daily Telegraph
. fulfilment
ozone-friendly environment-friendly
and are almost
fulfill fulfillment
.
◆ In the last three examples,
dolphin-friendly
exclusively restricted to American English. How-
has devel- ever, the final of the verb is doubled in British
oped the extended sense of `not harmful': . English before a suffix beginning with a vowel, as
-friendly
l

Supermarkets . . . realised that green products,

in and (see also SPELLING 1).
fulfilled fulfilling

). full see -FUL.

from ozone-friendly aerosols to bleach-free nap-
(
pies, can give a marketing edge Daily Telegraph
has further evolved into fullness or fulness? Both spellings are
Environment-friendly
the phrase , sometimes acceptable,
hyphenated: .
environmentally friendly
being the more frequent
fullness
No one knows the real costs of
.
this new environmentally-friendly policy
in British English.
◆ In the nouns derived from adjectives ending in
The opposite of is or - , the is never doubled: . .
:. .
-friendly -hostile -un-
friendly user-hostile .
ozone-unfriendly
.
ful l faithfulness hope-

ENVIRONMENT; GREEN.
See also
fulness

frieze see FREEZE or FRIEZE? full stop The principal use of the full stop

frolic
as a punctuation mark is to end a sentence

.
The verb frolic adds a k before that is neither a direct question nor an

. .
suffixes beginning with a vowel: frolicked exclamation.
frolicking frolicky. There is no k in the See also EXCLAMATION MARK; QUESTION
derived adjective frolicsome. MARK; SENTENCES.
See also SPELLING 1. In creative writing, reference books, etc.,

front-line In military contexts, the front

the full stop may also mark the end of a

.
group of words that does not conform to
line is the most advanced or exposed posi-
the conventional description of a sentence:
tion in a battle. Some people dislike the use
He had drunk six pints of beer and two

.
of the phrase in figurative or nonmilitary
whiskies. Two very large whiskies.

.
contexts: a front-line defender of govern-

.
A full stop is often used in decimal
ment policy front-line inner city areas.

fuchsia . .
fractions, times, and dates: 3.6 metres of

Note the spelling of this plant silk at 9.15 tomorrow morning your letter

name, particularly the silent ch. It is pro- of 26.6.02. Full stops are also used in some
nounced [fewshaÆ ]. ABBREVIATIONS.
◆ The plant name honours the German botanist A full stop is sometimes called a stop, a
Leonhard (1501±66).
Fuchs point, or (in American English) a period. In

-ful For nouns ending in -ful, such as

email addresses it is pronounced as
See also BRACKETS; QUOTATION MARKS; SEMI-
dot.

cupful, spoonful, sackful, handful, mouthful,

COLONS.
. . fulsome
etc., most users prefer the plural form -fuls:

Thepluralform - ,asin: . .
two cupfuls three spoonfuls. Fulsome praise, fulsome compli-
◆ sful three cupsful two ments, etc., are offensively excessive, exag-
spoonsful , is regarded by some authorities as rare gerated, or insincere.
fun 138
◆ Derived from and the suffix - , the word ◆ Care should be taken in using words that have
full some
originally meant `abundant'; its derogatory con- undergone such shifts in function, as they are
notations may have developed from a mistaken often disliked by other users.
etymology that associated with .
fulsome
fundamental The adjective fundamental
foul

fun The use of the word fun as an adjec- means `basic', `essential', `primary', or `prin-
tive, meaning `enjoyable' or `amusing', is cipal'; it is best avoided where important,

.
major, great, etc., would be more appro-
. .
disliked by some users and is best restricted

.
to informal contexts: a fun game a fun priate: the fundamental difference between

a major [not fundamental]

. .
person. The commercial use of fun-size to the two systems

mean `small':
◆ The noun , which is more fre-
a fun-size packet of sweets improvement in East-West relations.

fun-size apples, is also to be avoided. fundamental

function quently used in the plural form, denotes a basic

The verb function is best avoided principle, constituent, etc.: . the fundamentals of
where work, perform, operate, serve, act, etc., the issue .
would be adequate or more appropriate,
funeral funereal or ? The adjective funereal
.
particularly in general, nontechnical con-

. .
means `like a funeral; suggestive of death;
.
texts: The machine never works [not func-
tions] properly in very hot weather. The mournful; gloomy': funereal music The

automatic lock serves [not functions] as a atmosphere was funereal. It should not be

Some people also object to the excessive use of tivally: . .

safety device. confused with the noun funeral used adjec-
◆ .
a funeral service a funeral cortege

the noun as a synonym for `duty', `role', fungi

`party', etc.: .
function , one of the plural forms of
Fungi
What are the precise functions of , may be pronounced to rhyme with
fungus
bishops and priests in the modern world? try or tree; the g may be hard, as in gum, or

function word A function word is a word

soft, as in
◆ The pronunciations [
germ.

gõÅ] and [ jõÅ], rhyming

fung fun
that has no real meaning of its own but
with , are the most frequent. The first of these is
try
serves chiefly to create a grammatical re-
closer to the singular form, which has a hard g
lationship between other words. They can
sound.
See also SPELLING.
be subdivided into conjunctions, such as
and and but; determiners, such as
prepositions, such as and with;
a and the;

adverbs,
Fungusesis an alternative plural of . fungus

furore
at
such as around and how; modal verbs, such The final e of the noun furore,
as can and will; primary verbs, such as be meaning `uproar' or `craze', can cause pro-
and do; and pronouns, such as I and this. blems of spelling and pronunciation.
◆ In British English the is never omitted in
functional shift The term functional shift
spelling;
e
is the usual American spelling of
furor
describes the process by which a word may
the word.
shift in grammatical identity from its ori-
Furoreis usually pronounced as a three-syllable
ginal function and be used in a new way.
word stressed on the second syllable [few i]. It is ror
Examples include gift, which was originally
occasionally pronounced as a two-syllable word
a noun but has subsequently been also used
stressed on the first syllable [ or]; this is also the
fewr
as a verb, and rubbish, which began as a
pronunciation of the American spelling.
. further furthest
noun but came to be used also as an
FARTHER, FARTHEST,
.
adjective: a rubbish salary and as a verb: , see
The teacher rubbished his essay. FURTHER or FURTHEST?
 G
Gaelic or Gallic ? Gaelic is a noun or gaol see JAIL or GAOL?
. . garage
adjective that refers to the Celtic languages
This word may be pronounced
of Scotland and Ireland: to speak Gaelic a
[garahzh] or [garij]. Many users prefer

.
Gaelic word. Gallic is an adjective, meaning
the former pronunciation.
`of France or the French': a Gallic custom.
◆ The stress falls on the first syllable in British
The pronunciation of Gaelic is [gaylik],
English, although in American English [ga ], rahzh
with the alternative pronunciation [galik]
the second syllable is stressed.
gases gasses
used especially in regions where the lan-
guage is spoken. This second pronuncia- or ? The plural of the noun
tion is identical to that of Gallic, and so may is or, less commonly, gasses.
is also a form of the verb , meaning
gas gases
cause confusion or ambiguity in some con- ◆ Gasses gas
texts. `affect with a gas' or `talk idly'.
gaiety See also SPELLING 1.
-gate
Gaiety, meaning `a cheerful and
carefree manner' or `festivity', is sometimes The suffix -gate, derived from the
misspelt. affair (a scandal involving Ri-
Note the middle vowels -.
Watergate
◆ -aie chard Nixon, then president of the USA, in
GAY.
.
See also 1972), is sometimes attached to other words

gait gate.
or ? Gait means `way of walking
to denote a political scandal:
Contragate (an American scandal in 1987
Irangate/

or moving': He walked along the deck with

involving the sale of arms to Iran and use of
a rolling gait. It should not be confused with

.
the profits to supply arms to the anti-

.
gate, meaning `movable barrier' or `point of
Communist Contras in Nicaragua) The
access': There was a queue of people at the
`Dianagate' scandal, the disclosure of intimate
gate.

gallant
tapes of conversations believed to be between

.
The adjective gallant, `brave and the princess and James Gilbey, her close friend
courageous', as in: put up a gallant fight, is (Sunday Times).
Æ nt].
stressed on the first syllable [gala Many of these coinages are inevitably journal-
◆
◆ The sense `courteous to women' may have the istic and ephemeral in usage and are best avoided
same pronunciation or may, in rather old-fash- in formal contexts.
ioned English, be stressed on the second syllable gate see GAIT or GATE?
[gaÆ ].
gauge
lant

Gallic see GAELIC or GALLIC? This word, which means `measure

gallop
or standard', is frequently misspelt. The u
Note the spelling of this verb, comes after the and not before it.
The correct pronunciation is [gayj]. A mispro-
a

.
particularly the -ll- and the final p, which ◆
nunciation [gawj] may arise from the unusual
.
is not doubled before -ed, -ing, etc.:
spelling.
The
horse galloped across the field. galloping

inflation.
gay
gamble gambol
The adjective gay is so widely used as a
or ? The verb gamble synonym for `homosexual' that its use in
means `take a risk on a game of chance'; the original sense of `cheerful', `merry', or

The spelling of these words is sometimes con- in some contexts: . .

gambol means `skip and jump playfully'. `bright' may be open to misinterpretation

fusedalthoughtheirmeaningsareverydifferent: .
◆ a gay bachelor a gay

..
.
◆ The noun is principally applied to homo-
party

He went to the casino to gamble lambs gam- gay

.
bolling in the fields sexual men, being the preferred term for
lesbian
geek 140
homosexual women: . genes or jeans? In science, are the
a community centre for
. The noun derived from in units of heredity that transfer certain char-
genes

; in other senses acteristics from one generation to another: .

gays and lesbians gay
the sense `homosexual' is gayness
it is .gaiety
In the sense of `homosexual', is becoming
The scientists have mapped the entire gene
gay The word should not be confused
increasingly acceptable in formal contexts and for with
sequence.

, which describe working or

many gay people is preferable to
jeans

.
casual trousers made of durable twill cloth:
homosexual
itself. She pulled her jeans on.

geek The word geek describes someone genetic genial

, see CONGENIAL, GENIAL, CON-
who is obsessively interested in something, GENITAL or GENETIC?
especially in something that most people
find only moderately interesting: . His
genre The word genre, meaning `category'
or `style', may be pronounced in different
brother's a computer geek. The term often
ways. The anglicization of the French
carries derogatory overtones, suggesting
Æ ], but [jonra
pronunciation is [zhonra Æ ] is also

.
the person is unattractively or boringly
widely heard. A third pronunciation,
obsessive: She liked the look of him but
Æ ], is occasionally used but this is
[zhahnra

:.
he turned out to be a real geek.

The word has the derived adjective sometimes considered pretentious.

gentleman
◆ geeky her
geeky little brother. is used as a syno-
gender
Gentleman

.
The word gender refers to the nym for `man' in some formal or official

.
grammatical classification of nouns as mas- contexts and as a term of politeness: Show

culine, feminine, or neuter. The use of the gentleman to his room. Ladies and

.
gender as a synonym for `sex' is avoided gentlemen, may I introduce tonight's guest

The noun has connotations of no-

by many users in formal contexts: Appli- speaker?

bility, chivalry, and good manners: .

cations are invited from suitably qualified ◆ gentleman

.
candidates of either sex [not gender]. In some a country
gentleman If you were a gentleman you'd stand
.
compounds in informal use, gender is used
instead of sex, e.g. gender-bending, `the up and give me your seat

blurring of the difference between the See also MAN; WOMAN.

sexes, for example by transvestism'.
◆ The frequency of this usage is attributable both geriatric Many people object to the in-

to the use of the word as a synonym for `sexual

sex
creasing use of the noun and adjective

intercourse' and to the association in English geriatric

.
as derogatory synonyms for `old

grammar between gender and sex. person' or `elderly':

.
These geriatric drivers

In many languages all nouns are of masculine or should be banned from the roads. The

feminine gender: the French word for is flower

country is governed by a bunch of geriatrics.

is the branch of medical science con-

feminine; the Italian word for is masculine.
carpet
◆ Geriatrics
cerned with the diseases of old age and the care of
In English, however, masculine nouns refer to male old people; the use of in such contexts as
people, animals, etc., and feminine nouns to fe- geriatric
is acceptable to
male people, animals, etc.: , , ,
king brother drake
the geriatric ward of the hospital
all users.
and are masculine nouns; , ,
bull
, , and are feminine nouns.
mother vixen cow
heroine queen
gerunds see INFINITIVE; -ING FORMS.
ISM.
See also ANIMALS; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEX- get In formal contexts get can often be

general generic
replaced with an appropriate synonym,

.
or ? The adjective general such as become, buy, obtain, receive, etc.:
has a wide range of meanings, including It is becoming [not getting] increasingly

. .
`widespread', `overall', and `not specialized difficult to obtain [not get] impartial advice on

or specific': general opinion general financial matters. However, if the synonym

.
knowledge. Generic means `referring to a sounds clumsy or unnatural in context, or
whole class or group': a generic term for causes ambiguity, get should be retained or
products that do not damage the environment. the sentence restructured.
is also used in the sense `cheaper, ◆ The same principles apply to phrasal verbs,
because it does not have a trade name': . idioms, and other expressions containing , such
◆ Generic
a get
generic drug. as (escape), (survive),
get out get by get dressed
 141 gobbledygook
(dress), (recover): . . glamorous
.
get well I often get up/rise at six Some people object to the
They will get married/marry in the spring . frequent use of the adjective glamorous as
GOT.
.
See also a synonym for `beautiful', `romantic', `ex-

geyser The noun geyser, meaning `hot

.
citing', `interesting', etc.:
a glamorous career.
a glamorous

◆ The adjective is best restricted to the combina-

setting
spring' or `water heater', is usually pro-
nounced [geezeÆr] in British English and
tion of showy attractiveness, fashion, romance,
[gõÅzeÆr] in American English.
excitement, charm, and fascination that is known
gibe, jibe or gybe? The word , or. as :. .
glamour a glamorous film star a glamorous
.
gibe
variant spelling , means `jeer or taunt': lifestyle
The of is usually omitted in the
jibe

. u glamour
, sometimes spelt or , is a nautical adjective , although some dictionaries
gibes/jibes and insults
◆ Gybe gibe jibe glamorous
term referring to the movement of a ship's sail. acknowledge the rare variant spelling . glamourous

gild or guild ? Gild is a verb, meaning glass ceiling A glass ceiling is an invisible
GILT GUILT?)
.
`cover with gold' (see also or barrier to promotion, based on sex or race.

.
or `make golden in colour': gilded picture Increasingly, the expression is being ap-

.
frames The setting sun gilded the leaves. plied to barriers that prevent women from
Guild is a noun, denoting an organization rising to top-level executive positions:

. .
of craftsmen, tradespeople, or other people Does your organization have a `glass ceiling'?

.
with similar or related interests: a guild of A motion calling for the removal of the glass

wine merchants She belongs to the Towns- ceiling on women becoming bishops is back on

women's Guild. (The Guardian).

is also a rare variant spelling of the noun A was originally conceived of as a
the synod's agenda
◆ Gild ◆ glass ceiling
guild . hypothetical barrier which allowed people to see a
gilt guilt goal while at the same time prevented them from
or ? Gilt is a variant form of the
(see GILD or
reaching it.
global
past participle of the verb gild
GUILD?) used as an attributive adjective in
.
The adjective global is increasingly
the sense of `covered with gold': a gilt used with specific reference to geopolitical

. . .
candlestick. As a noun, gilt denotes the gold or environmental issues that affect the

. .
or other substance used for this covering: whole world: global consciousness global
Some of the gilt had worn away. It should not politics Terrorism is a global issue. Think of

.
be confused with the noun guilt, meaning the world as a global village. This usage is

.
`responsibility for wrongdoing': a feeling probably influenced by the phrase global

He admitted his guilt. (see GREENHOUSE EFFECT).

◆ The use of in such contexts may cause
of guilt warming

gipsy or gypsy confusion

? This word, meaning
with the more general sense of `world-
global

`wanderer', has two spellings: and

wide'. gipsy

.
◆ Some users prefer the spelling, but the
gypsy
is often used negatively to refer to
Globalization

spelling indicates the derivation from

i
the process by which
. nies can dominate marketslarge international compa-
y

At one time this migrant people was thought to worldwide: .

Egyptian
and even economies
have originated from Egypt. protests resulting from the globali-

ROMA. zation of modern communications.

glycerin glycerine
See also

girl WOMAN
see .
or ? Both spellings gly-

given name FIRST NAME CHRISTIAN NAME

cerin and glycerine are correct. Glycerin is
see , , the usual spelling in American English,
FORENAME GIVEN NAME BAPTISMAL NAME
, or ? while glycerine is the customary spelling

glacier in British English.

gobbledygook
The first syllable of this word,
which means `a vast area of ice', may be The noun gobbledygook is
pronounced to rhyme with mass [glaseer] or used in informal contexts to denote the
with [glayseer]. pretentious or incomprehensible JARGON
Both pronunciations are acceptable in British
clay
◆ of bureaucrats, especially the circumlocu-
English, while [ sheÆr] is the usual American
glay tory language of official documents, re-
English pronunciation. ports, etc.
gobsmacked 142
◆ The alternative spelling gobbledegook is in tive after such linking verbs as and
regular use.
be seem

or where a sensory function is involved,

OFFICIALESE.
.
See also while well is chiefly used as an adverb

gobsmacked The adjective gobsmacked,

after verbs without any sensory function:
the food smelt good and had been chosen
meaning `astounded; flabbergasted; speech-
well. Note the difference between feel good

.
less with amazement', is a slang term that

.
and feel well (in which well is used as an
should not be used in formal contexts: I was

.
adjective): I don't feel too good is an

.
gobsmacked when I found out how much it
informal way of saying I don't feel very
would cost. There was a long pause (maybe he
well (i.e. I feel ill), but in less informal
was gobsmacked at the prospect of me staying at
contexts feel good has connotations of mor-
home for another year), then an unconvincing
al, emotional, or spiritual well-being that
`Never mind' (The Guardian).

god God
feel well does not have.
or ? A god is any of a number of See also FEEL-GOOD FACTOR.
beings worshipped for their supernatural
powers. God, written with a capital G, is
goodwill good will or ? The term mean-

.
ing `a feeling of kindness and concern', as

.
the supreme being worshipped in many
in: a gesture of good will, can be written

. .
religions as the creator and ruler of all: the
either as one word or as two.
◆ Some users prefer the latter, unless the term is
.
god of war the Greek gods to believe in God
for God's sake.

◆ Compounds and derivatives of the noun,

being used in the commercial sense when it is
whether they refer to a or to , are usually written ..
goodwill They paid £12,000 for the

written with a lower-case : . .

god God
. goodwill of the shop and £6,000 for the stock.
. gorilla see GUERILLA, GUERRILLA or GORILLA?
g godly godless
godchild godsend . The adjectives god-fearing
and god-forsaken , however, may be written with a gossip Note the spellings of the derived
capital or lower-case ; g God-forsaken is usually forms: : .
hyphenated. , ,
.
,
gossiped gossiping gossiper gossipy

gold or golden? The word is used ◆ The word

.
derives from and
They gossiped all afternoon a gossipy letter

gossip God sibb

`relation', as in modern . were ori-
gold

made of gold or contain gold: .

adjectivally to describe things that are sibling Gossips
ginally the equivalent of present-day godparents
. and over the course of time the word became
a gold

usually refers to the colour of gold: .

. The adjective
applied to close friends and then to the sense of
medal a gold mine golden

. people who were fond of engaging in idle talk.

golden
.
◆ In the four examples above and are got , the past participle of , is often
hair golden syrup

gold golden
not interchangeable; however, is sometimes superfluous in the expressions
gold
Got get

used in the sense of `gold-coloured' and in (meaning `possess') and

golden
have got

the sense of `made of gold': ing `must'): .

(mean-
have got to

.
fabric with blue and
gold stripes a golden necklace . ..
He has (got) grey hair and a

has a number of other meanings, such small moustache They have (got) to win this

as `prosperous': . , `important': . ◆ In informal contexts, especially

Golden
.
in negative sen-
match to avoid relegation

, and `fiftieth': .
golden age
golden rule golden anniversary . tences, questions, and CONTRACTIONS , is often
The phrase golden handshake , denoting a large retained: . . .
got

sum of money paid to a retiring employee, has .

We haven't got any milk
.
Have you got

given rise to golden hello (a similar sum paid to a In some contractions,

enough money?
the
I've got to write to my brother
occasional omission of
new employee), (a payment cause confusion: .
made to discourage an employee from leaving), `shemay may mean
golden handcuffs
got She's a cat

and golden parachute (a guarantee of compensa- unambiguous.is a cat' or `she has a cat'; is
She's got a cat

tion if the employee is dismissed or demoted Used alone, is the past tense of ; it should
following a takeover). A is the control got
:.
get

held by a national government in a privatized not be used in[not place of or

golden share

..
have have got They

company in order to prevent the company from have/have got ] They got three children I got

being taken over by foreign business interests. .

a new car last week
is an American variant of the past parti-
good or well?
Gotten
and are some- ciple ; in British English its use is restricted to
got
such expressions as .
Good well
times confused. Good is used as an adjec- ill-gotten gains
 143 gravitas
gourmand gourmet or ? A en- Note the spelling of the word, particularly the
and single .
gourmand

joys the pleasurable indulgence of eating, -ff- -t-

with or without regard to the quality of the
food. Gourmet, the more common and also
grammar The word grammar, which de-

. .
notes the rules of a language or a type of
more complimentary of the two terms,
school: Latin grammar a grammar school,

.
refers only to a connoisseur of fine food
is often misspelt. The most frequent error
or drink: The size of the meals will satisfy
is the substitution of -er for the -ar ending.
the gourmand; their quality should please the
Note also the -mm-.
most discriminating gourmet.
biguity, gourmand
To avoid am-
may be replaced by glut- grand- great-
or ? Both these prefixes are
ton in the sense of `one who eats greedily or used to denote family relationships that are
to excess'. two or more generations apart. Either
◆ Many people object to the increasing use of prefix may be used for the aunts and uncles
gourmet to describe restaurants, meals, etc., in of one's parents and the children of one's
which the food is elaborate and expensive but not nephews and nieces,. .
being more great-

necessarily of high quality. frequent

.
than :
.
grand- great-niece grand-

is usually pronounced [ maÆnd] or .

is pronounced [ may]. ◆ The prefix is always used for the parents
Gourmand goor nephew great-uncle grandaunt

[ mon(g)]; grand-
Both words are occasionally stressed on the sec- of. one's parents and. the children of.one's children:.
goor gourmet goor

ond syllable. granddaughter grandfather grandchild

government In the sense of `the group of The prefix . grandma

is also used for the parents of
great-
people who govern a country, state, etc.',
one's grandparents and the children of one's
noun: .
government may be a singular or a plural
grandchildren: . .
.
great-grandmother great-

. .
The government is blamed for the rise
grandson . (The father of
great-grandparent
in unemployment
one's
The government have
is one's
great-grandfather great-great-
rejected the proposal .
See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR OR
, and so on.)
grandfather

PLURAL? grass roots Some people object to the

graceful gracious
or ? Graceful refers to
widespread use of this term both in poli-
tical or industrial contexts and as a noun
movement, actions, forms, shapes, etc., that

.
meaning `the fundamental level' or as an

.
have grace, in the sense of beauty, charm, or

. .
adjective `fundamental' or `basic': the grass
elegance: a graceful dance. Gracious means

.
roots of the problem at the grass-roots level

.
`kind', `courteous', `benevolent', or `com-
support for the party at the grass roots grass-
passionate': a gracious gift.

◆ The two words are not interchangeable, roots opinion.

The noun came originally from

although they may occasionally qualify the same ◆ grass roots
mining in the USA, referring to the soil immedi-
noun: . is a beautiful or elegant ately below the surface. It was subsequently ap-
movement; .
a graceful gesture
a gracious gestureis an act of plied to the ordinary people as opposed to the
kindness or courtesy. political leaders of society. The of a
The adjective may also occasionally grass roots
trade union or other organization are its rank-and-
imply condescension: .
gracious
She thanked the waiter
. In such expressions as file members.
gratuitous
with a gracious smile gra-
, the word conveys an impression of
cious living The adjective gratuitous is most
luxury, comfort, elegance, and indulgence.
.
frequently used in the sense of `unwar-

graffiti Nowadays very few people still

.
ranted' or `uncalled-for':
gratuitous criticism.
gratuitous vio-

The original meaning of the word is `free' or

lence

.
object to the widespread use of graffiti as
◆
a singular noun:
.
Graffiti covers the walls of
`given without payment'.
gravitas
the community centre. Some of this graffiti is
quite obscene. The noun gravitas, meaning `ser-
◆ Graffito, the singular of this Italian borrowing, ious or solemn nature or manner; weight,
meaning `a little scratch', is used only very occa-
sionallytorefertoasingleinscriptionordrawing: . .
substance, or importance', is a vogue word
that is increasing in frequency: The most
The first graffito appeared the day after the room
.
mentioned attribute which best equips him

was repainted [Peter Sissons] for sustained political encoun-

gray 144
more frequent in this sense. Spelt with a capital -,
.
G
the word specifically denotes a political party that
ters is the gravitas he clearly was born with

(The Guardian). [Jonathan] Dimbleby is felt

is chiefly concerned with the protection of the
environment: . .
to be a safe pair of hands, with sufficient

stature to give the book gravitas (Daily Tele- to vote Green The Greens have
graph). Some users consider the word to be shaken Britain's three big parties by winning
a pretentious and unnecessary synonym for 2.25m votes and 15% of the poll in the European
`seriousness'. ( ).
elections Sunday Times
◆ The implication, since this is a Latin word, is the A is a rural undeveloped site,
greenfield site
high solemnity of the mythical ancient Roman often near a town or city, that has not been
official. designated as part of a green belt and so is
gray see GREY or GRAY? available for development, e.g. for industrial es-
tates, retail parks, or housing.
graze The verb , traditionally applied The verbal noun has been coined to
greening
denote the process of removing environmentally
graze

harmful substances: .
to animals in the sense of `eat', is increas-

.
ingly used in human contexts with three the greening of the city
specific meanings: `eat small amounts of streets (a
the greening of the washing machine
food throughout the day', `eat food from reference to `environment-friendly' detergents).
supermarket shelves while shopping', and See also BROWNFIELD; ENVIRONMENT;
-FRIENDLY.
.
`eat standing up'. The first sense is the most
frequent in British English:
with family meals and replacing them, as the
doing away
greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is
the warming of the earth's atmosphere
report suggests, with `grazing . . . eating'
(global warming) caused by an accumula-
(Daily Telegraph).
◆ The second and thirdsenses are largely restricted
.
tion of gases that trap the radiated heat

to American English but are becoming increasingly from the sun: Flood defences along Britain's

common in British English. coasts will fail to prevent large tracts of farm-

great- GRAND- GREAT-

land from being flooded when sea levels rise
see or ? because of the greenhouse effect (Daily Tele-

Great Britain BRITAIN see .

graph). The gases thus function like the

Greek Grecian
glass in a greenhouse, hence the name.
or ? The adjective Greek Sometimes called greenhouse gases, they
means `of Greece, its people, or its lan- include carbon dioxide produced by the

.
guage'; Grecian means `in the simple but burning of coal, oil, stubble, and the tro-

.
elegant style of classical Greece': Greek pical rainforests that would normally ab-
a Grecian vase. sorb carbon dioxide from the air.
The adjective was formerly applied to
history

the art, architecture, literature, culture, etc., of grey or gray? This word can be spelt with
◆ Grecian

ancient Greece; in these senses it has been largely more orfrequent

an an , although the former is far
e a

superseded by . in British English.

denotes a native or inhabitant ◆ is standard in American English.

Greek
The noun Greek
Gray

of Greece; a is a scholar of classical Greek grieve The verb

Grecian
language or literature. preposition or : .
is followed by the
[or
grieve

green
for over She grieved for

The adjective green is becoming over] the death of her horse.

overused in its application to any product,

grievous The correct pronunciation of this

.
policy, or ideology that is connected with
word, most frequently encountered in the

. . .
the protection of the environment: green
Æ s], not
phrase grievous bodily harm, is [greevu

.
consumerism green issues to buy green to
Æ s]. Note the spelling of the word,
[greeviu
go green The Whole Thing is a mail order
particularly the order and position of the
company dedicated to providing a wide range
vowels.

grill grille
of over 150 of the greenest products available
(advertisement, The Guardian). or ? A is a framework of
As a noun, may be spelt with a lower-case bars used for cooking food. A
grill
◆ green is a
or capital initial letter to denote a person who is grating over a window or door.
grille

generally in support of the protection of the en- ◆ These words are occasionally confused, espe-
vironment, but the lower-case form is probably cially as can also sometimes be spelt .
grille grill
 145 gypsy
grisly grizzly
or ? The spellings of these aÆ]. However,
il may be pro-
guerilla/guerrilla
words may sometimes be confused. nounced [ge aÆ] to make it distinct from
ril gorilla
[geÆ aÆ].
Grisly

.
means `gruesome'; grizzly means `partly ril
grey':
fully': .
a grizzly bear,
a grizzly toddler.
or `whining fret-
guesstimate The word guesstimate, mean-

ground zero .
ing `rough estimate', resulted from the
The phrase ground zero ori- combination of guess and estimate: He

ginally described the location immediately quoted a figure but warned that it was only a

above or below the area where a nuclear guesstimate. The word is disliked by many
explosion takes place and, by extension, the people and should be used sparingly and
starting point or site of activity of some only in informal contexts.
kind, especially of a military nature. Since
the terrorist attack on the World Trade
guest The use of the word guest as a verb,
in the sense of `be a guest (on a television or
Center in New York on 11 September
.
radio show)', is disliked by some users and
2001, however, the phrase has come to
is best restricted to informal contexts: She
be uniquely associated with the site of
guested on his chat show last month.

◆ Unlike , the verb is not used outside

the former towers and is now normally

theentertainmentindustry: .
host guest
used only in reference to that event,
He was a guest at our
although it can be used by extension to
. wedding [not . . .].
He guested at
other similarly devastated sites:
Bali's ground zero (The Guardian).
Prayers at
guidelines Some people object to the in-

grow Care should be taken over the me-

creasing use of the plural noun guidelines in

.
place of advice, policy, instructions, rules, etc.:
taphorical use of the transitive verb grow, as
.
New guidelines to establish minimum sen-

. .
this is considered unacceptable by many tences in rape cases (The Guardian). The

.
people: grow a range of products grow
series is within the BBC's guidelines on vio-
their profits grow a successful young team of
(Daily Telegraph).
The noun , which is rarely used in the
lence

.
players. The literal use of the transitive verb ◆ guidelines
is, however, generally acceptable: grow
singular, is now usually written as one word; the
some houseplants.
hyphenated form is an accepted but
guide-lines

growth The word is used adjectiv- less frequent variant.

guild
growth

ally, in the sense of `rapidly developing or see GILD or GUILD?

.
increasing', in economic and commercial
spheres: . guilt see GILT or GUILT?

gut
a growth industry a growth
economy.

In other contexts it is often better replaced by a

The use of the word gut as an adjec-

.
◆
paraphrase: could
tive, meaning `instinctive', `strong', `basic',
Canoeing is a growth sport
well be changed to: . . .
or `essential', is best restricted to informal
The sport of canoeing is
increasing in popularity . contexts:
issues.
a gut reaction a gut feeling gut

guarantee This word, which is often mis- gybe GIBE see , JIBE or GYBE?
spelt, means `an assurance that a certain
agreement will be kept': . The washing-
gymkhana This word, meaning `competi-
tion for horses and their riders', is some-
machine was still under guarantee.

◆ It is worth remembering that the vowels of the

times misspelt.

first syllable are like those in : . ◆ It is worth remembering that is spelt as in

gym

.
guard A guarantee
gymnastics , and as in .
khana khaki

gynaecology
guards the rights of the consumer

guerilla guerrilla
, or gorilla ? Guerilla/
This word, meaning `the
branch of medicine concerned with wo-

.
guerrilla means `fighter within an indepen-
men's diseases', is frequently misspelt. Note
dent army': a guerrilla war; a gorilla is a
the y and, in British English ae, or Amer-
large ape. The spellings guerilla and guer-
ican English e.
rilla are both acceptable, although the latter
See also -AE- and -OE-.
is preferred by many users since it derives
◆ This word is pronounced [gõÅnõÆ oÆji]. kol

gypsy
from the Spanish `a war', with -rr-.
◆ The usual pronunciation of both words is [geÆ
guerra

r- see GIPSY or GYPSY?

 H
haemoglobin or hemoglobin ? This ◆ Confusion arises because half-brothers and half-
word, describing the red protein in blood, sisters are usually the offspring of one's step-
is sometimes misspelt. is the mother or stepfather. A person may have both
half-brothers (or half-sisters) and stepbrothers (or
Haemoglobin

usual spelling in British English, while

is the accepted spelling in stepsisters).
Note that - is always attached with a hyphen
hemoglobin

American English. half

haemorrhage in this sense, whereas - is attached without a

step
This noun, meaning `im-
hyphen (except in the case of ).
step-parent

hallo HELLO
mense loss of blood', is often misspelt. Note
the -rrh- and the British English -ae-, which see , HALLO or HULLO?
is reduced to -e- in American English (see
-EA- and -OE-). handful . Most users prefer to form the

hail hale
plural -fuls: handfuls.

or ? The noun hail means `frozen See also -FUL.

rain'; the verb
native of': .
hail

hail a taxi .
means `call' or `be a
She hails from
handicap The final p of the word handicap

. .
is doubled before a suffix beginning with a
.
Scotland. Hail should not be confused with
vowel: handicapped handicapping.
hale, meaning `vigorous and healthy': hale
See also SPELLING 1.
and hearty.
The words and are
hair hare
◆ handicap handicapped
or ? describes the fine avoided by many people in relation to those suf-
fering from various physical or mental disabilities
Hair

strands that grow on the skin of human

beings and other animals. It should not be on the grounds that these terms have negative
confused with hare, which describes a spe- connotations. Preferred alternatives include dis-
cies of animal resembling a large rabbit. abled and .
person with disabilities

half See also DISABLED.

hands-on
Although half is a singular noun, it is

. .
followed by a plural verb when it denotes a This expression refers to practical

.
number rather than an amount: Half of or personal involvement in a task: This is not

.
the books are missing. Half of the water has a desk job. It is a `hands-on' sales role (Daily

.
evaporated. In most cases the word of is Telegraph). The Prime Minister returned to
optional: Give him half (of) the money.

Such expressions as a and

London last night to resume hands-on control of

◆ half-hour half an (The Guardian).

, and , The term is often used in the expres-
the Gulf crisis
hour a half-dozen half a dozen a mile and ◆ hands-on
a half and one and a half miles, etc., are equally sion hands-on experience , practical experience `in
acceptable in most contexts. However, the inser- . . . learning ± where students can obtain real
tion of an extra indefinite article before half an experience of possible future jobs ± or in business,
,
hour half a dozen , etc., is avoided by careful users. where there is a similar implication of rolling up
See also HYPHEN 4. one's sleeves and getting involved, rather than
half- step- simply reading or talking, or in a variety of situa-
or ? One's step-parent (step-
tions where the practical is seen as improving on
mother or stepfather) is the new spouse of
the merely theoretical' (Jonathon Green, Diction-
a divorced or widowed parent. Any chil-
ary of Jargon ).
hangar hanger
dren of this step-parent by previous part-
ners become one's stepbrothers or stepsisters. or ? These words are often
Any children of one's father or mother by misspelt. A hangar is a building for storing

.
this step-parent (or any other partner) are aircraft; a hanger is an apparatus on which
one's half-brothers or half-sisters. articles can be hung: coat hanger.
 147 heal
◆ To avoid mistakes, remember the in
.
a aircraft force; it is unnecessary to add another
and in .
hangar negative to the clause or sentence: I

hanged hung or ? Hung is the past tense

can [not
See also
can't] hardly see you.

DOUBLE NEGATIVE.
and past participle for most senses of the
◆ Careful users avoid using in place of than when
verb hang; hanged is restricted to the mean-
in the constructions
:.
hardly . . . when, scarcely . . .
ing `suspended by the neck until dead', in
,or
..
when barely . . . when She had hardly begun

.
the context of capital punishment or sui-
. to speak when [not ] than he interrupted her

.
cide: He hung his coat on the peg. The
Scarcely had they reached the end of the road
picture was hung up in the hall.
.
The
when [not ] than the rain began . This confusion
conspirators were hanged for treason. Her
may be due to the use of in the construction
:.
than
father hanged himself.
no sooner . . . than No sooner had I stepped into
hanger see HANGAR or HANGER? the bath than [not ] .
when the doorbell rang
is rarely used as the adverbial form of the
hang-up The noun is an informal
Hardly
word , which functions both as an adjective
andasanadverb: . . .
hang-up hard

.
name for a mental or emotional problem or a hard surface to work hard
inhibition: She's got a hang-up about hard-earned money .
answering the phone.
not be used in formal contexts. hare HAIR HARE
The world should
see or ?
is usually hyphenated in British English
but may be written as one unhyphenated word in harelip CLEFT LIP
◆ Hang-up
see .

American English. The plural of is hatred

hang-up
.
hang- The noun is followed by the
.
hatred
ups preposition for or of: Her hatred for [or of]

hanker her father.

. have OF
The verb hanker is followed by the
preposition after or for: those who hanker see .
after [or for] power.
have got (to) GOT
happy
see .

the preposition
The adjective
about .
happy
or
hazardous
is followed by
with: Are you
The adjective hazardous
.
is fol-
lowed by the preposition to or for: These
happy about [or with] the arrangements?

hara-kiri
sharp edges can be hazardous to [or for] young

Hara-kiri is the traditional spel- children.

ling of this Japanese term, which refers to a
he HE SHE
see or .

. headed for heading for

ritual act of suicide by cutting open the
abdomen: to commit hara-kiri. It is pro- or ? The phrase
Æ
nounced [harra kirri]. is sometimes wrongly used in
The variant spelling , pronounced [ rri
be headed for
◆ hari-kari ha place of be heading for. When the verb
rri] or [ i i], is best avoided.
head

.
ka har kar is used intransitively, the correct phrase is

harangue This word, which means `a

.
be heading for:

headed] for Southampton.

We
.
were heading

The government
[not

vehement and lengthy speech', as in: a

is heading [not headed] for defeat.

headmaster headmistress
long harangue about the state of the economy,
is sometimes misspelt. or ? see NON-
◆ The -gue ending is the same as in meringue . SEXIST TERMS.
harass This word, meaning `trouble per- head up Many people dislike the use of

.
sistently', is spelt with a single -r- and ends this phrasal verb in place of the simpler
in -ss. It is pronounced [harra Æ s]. The Amer- head, meaning `lead' or `be in charge': to
ican pronunciation Æ ras]
[ha has recently head up a team of workers.

come into British English but is disliked

by some people.
heal heel
or ? Heal means `cure' or `be-

◆ Note that the same spelling rules apply for come sound again'. It should not be con-

harassment . fused with heel, which refers to the back

hardly
part of the foot.
◆ Note also the spelling of (meaning
`wealthy'): .
In the sense of `only just' or `almost well-heeled
not' the adverb hardly, like its synonyms She came from a well-heeled back-
scarcely and barely, is used with negative ground.
healthful 148
healthful healthy or ? Healthy can mean heinous
.
This word, meaning `extremely

. .
`having good health' or `promoting good evil': a heinous crime, is often misspelt and
health': a healthy child a healthy diet. mispronounced. Note the ei spelling and
is a less frequent synonym of Æ s].
the stress on the first syllable [haynu
The pronunciation [ uÆs] is also acceptable
Healthful
in both these senses, but in modern ◆ heen
but [ uÆs] is best avoided.
healthy

.
usage it is largely restricted to the sense of hõÅn
`promoting good health':
both healthful and relatively inexpensive.
foods that are
hello hallo hullo
, or ? This word of greet-

hear
ing has various spellings which are all
The verb hear is followed by the acceptable. The first spelling is probably

.
preposition of in the sense `know about': the most frequent in contemporary usage.
I'd never heard of the disease before,

about or of in the sense `find out about': .

and by
I
help Many people object to the phrases

.
cannot/can't/could not/couldn't help but, as
only heard about [or of] his promotion yester-
in: I couldn't help but laugh, preferring
day.

heard herd
either I couldn't help laughing or, less fre-
or ? is the past participle quently, I couldn't but laugh.

The idiomatic
Heard

of the verb hear. It should not be confused ◆ cannot/can't/could not/couldn't

with herd, a noun referring to a large construction, where
help means `refrain help
number of cattle or other animals. from', is followed by a present participle.
See also BUT.
hearing impaired is the
In
Hearing impaired
the sense of `assist' or `contribute' is
preferred modern alternative to DEAF,
help
usually followed by a direct object and/or an in-
which is considered unacceptable by many
finitive, with or without : .
..
to These pills will help
people because of its negative connotations.
you (to) sleep .
They all helped (to) tidy the house
heaved or hove? is the usual form
Heaved Some users prefer to retain in the absence of a
direct object: .
to

..
This money will help to pay for the
:.
of the past tense or past participle of the
new car This money will help us pay for the new
. .
verb heave .
He heaved the crate up the steps

She heaved a sigh of relief. is an Hove car

archaic variant of heaved that is used face-
hemi- see DEMI-, HEMI- or SEMI-?
hence
tiously or in nautical contexts, in the past
tense or past participle of heave to meaning Hence means `from this time' or,

. .
`stop', and heave into sight (or view), mean- more rarely, `from this place'; it is therefore

.
ing `appear': We hove to for lunch. A ship unnecessary to precede the adverb with
hove into sight. from:
The phrase (or ) is also used
The concert will begin three hours
◆ heave into sight view .
in non-nautical (but fairly literary) contexts, usually ◆ The use of in the sense of `from this place'
hence

in the past tense: .

hence
is largely restricted to very formal or archaic con-
As they rounded the corner the
house hove into view . texts.
See also THENCE.
heavy-duty The term should
heavy-duty
is also used to mean `for this reason' or
.
Hence
be restricted to articles, materials, etc., that
`therefore':
..
My route is more direct, and hence

frequent use: . .
are designed to withstand hard wear or
faster, than yours Her father drowned at sea,
heavy-duty overalls heavy-
. In the second of
hence her reluctance to go sailing
duty plastic sheeting .
◆ In other contexts the adjectives or these examples, note that is often followed
hence

may be adequate or more appropriate.

tough
by a noun
strong
rather than a verb;to replace with
would involve rewording the clause: .
hence

heel see HEAL or HEEL?

therefore
... .
therefore she is reluctant to go sailing

height This word refers to the distance he she or The use of he/him/his as pro-

.
from the base to the top of an object or nouns of common gender, with reference

.
person: the height of the mountain. It also to a person of unspecified sex, is widely
means `most intense point': at the height of considered to be misleading and sexist, as is
summer. Height is sometimes misspelt with the use of she/her/hers for the same purpose

.
the ending -th, on the model of length, with reference to jobs or activities that are
width, etc. traditionally associated with women: The
 149 high
building, custom, etc., especially as a means of
. exploiting its commercial potential in the tourism
candidate must pay his own travelling ex-

industry: . ..
penses. This book will be of great value
to the student nurse preparing for her exam- heritage tours of the docklands
inations. The most acceptable substitutes Tourism and the heritage industry inevitably distort
for these pronouns are the cumbersome the past by making imitations of historic buildings
( ).
.
and pedantic expressions he or she, he/she, or changing their use The Guardian

. hero heroine NON-SEXIST TERMS.

(s)he, his or her, etc.: If a child is slow to
or ? see

hesitance hesitancy hesitation

learn, he or she will be given extra tuition.

The candidate must pay his or her own , or ? The

travelling expenses. nouns hesitance and hesitancy refer to the
In some cases, the problem may be state of being hesitant (i.e. wavering, irre-

. .
avoided by restructuring the sentence, solute, indecisive, reluctant, etc.). Hesitancy

making the subject plural, or both: Tra- is the more frequent of these synonyms:

.
velling expenses must be paid by the candidate. There was a note of hesitancy in her voice .

. .
Candidates must pay their own travelling The noun hesitation refers to the act or an

.
expenses. Children who are slow to learn will instance of hesitating: after a slight hesita-

He accepted the offer without hesitation.

Various attempts to coin new pronouns, such as heterogeneous This word is often mis-
be given extra tuition. tion
◆
s/he, tey, hesh, etc., have met with little success; it
has also been suggested that the pronoun , spelt. Note the ending. -eous

already used of babies, should be extended to hew or hue? is a verb meaning `cut',
it

human beings of all ages. The solution most often `carve', or `cut down': .
Hew

resorted to now is the previously criticized use of .

He hewed down the

, and as singular pronouns It should not be confused with the noun

tree. They hewed a road through the jungle.
they, them, their theirs
(see THEY).
.
which means `colour' or `shade of
hue,

herd HEARD HERD

see or ?
colour':
of pink.
The walls are painted in two hues

hereditary heredity or ? Hereditary is an hiatus The noun hiatus is best avoided

adjective, meaning `genetically transmitted'
.
where gap, break, or pause would be ade-

.
or `inherited'; heredity is the noun from quate or more appropriate: a hiatus in our

.
which it is derived: The disease is not discussions.
hereditary. Is intelligence determined by
hiccup hiccough
or ? Both spellings of this
The two words are sometimes confused, being word
heredity or environment?
◆ are acceptable but is the more hiccup

similar in pronunciation (the of is often frequent.

a
◆ The word refers to a sudden intake of breath
hereditary
elided in speech). resulting in a characteristic sound. It has the addi-
heritage or inheritance? The noun tional informal sense of `small problem': .
heri- The
tage most frequently refers to cultural project is going well apart from a few minor hic-
items, natural features, or traditions of . cups
the past that are handed down from gen-
hidden agenda The phrase hidden agenda

.
eration to generation and are considered to
is generally used in a derogatory manner,
be of importance to modern society: The
referring to a secret intention or ulterior
pyramids are part of Egypt's heritage. An

.
motive concealed behind a public state-
inheritance is money or property that an
ment, political policy, etc.: Ministers have

.
heir receives from an ancestor who has
assured their critics that there is no hidden
died: He squandered his inheritance.
◆ Inheritance may also refer to the inheriting of people. asThe phrase is regarded by some
agenda

physical or mental characteristics from one's par- overused. a vogue cliche and should not be

ents. In its broader sense, denotes any-

thing that one inherits at birth; it is thus high or tall? Both these adjectives mean `of
heritage

interchangeable to some degree with : greater than average size, measured verti-
.
inheritance
. cally', but there are differences of sense,
Some people dislike the indiscriminate applica- usage, and application between them: .
the family's rich intellectual heritage/inheritance

tion of the word to any historical event, .

a
heritage .
high mountain a tall woman
high-profile 150
◆ The adjective is largely restricted to people,
tall pany cars are leased. The subject of is usually let
animals, and plants and to things that are narrow the owner of the property rather than the person
in proportion to their height; it is the opposite of who pays for temporary use.
short :. a tall tree. . has the
a tall chimney High
his her HE or SHE.
additional meaning of `situated at a great distance or see

above the base'; it is the opposite of : . Hispanic

.
low a high
.
The noun Hispanic has become
branch a high shelf
The two adjectives may be applied to the same
an accepted term for a Spanish-speaking

noun in different senses: is a long

person from Central or South America
a high window
way from the floor; is relatively large
living in the USA, alongside Latino and
a tall window
from top to bottom. The size of the window
Chicano.

and the position of the window are unspeci-

tall
high
historic historical
or ? The adjective his-

fied. toric relates to events, decisions, etc., that

Like other adjectives of magnitude ( long, deep, are memorable or important enough to
, etc.), and are used in combination earn a place in recorded history;
withspecificmeasurementsregardlessofsize: .
wide high tall historical

. .
relates to the study of history and to the
..
He

.
is only five feet tall The wall is less than one past in general: a historic election

metre high . historical records The king's visit to the town

high-profile see PROFILE.

was not a historic occasion, it is of historical

interest only. The adjective historical is also

hijack The verb hijack, meaning `seize

applied to people, events, etc., that existed

.
or happened in fact, as opposed to fiction or
.
control of (a vehicle in transit)', is increas-
legend: a historical character.
ingly used in figurative contexts:
The two adjectives are not fully interchangeable,
.
The
◆
plane has been hijacked by terrorists .
although both may be applied to the same noun.
One

of their most successful authors has

, for example, is contrasted with
been
A historic voyage
.
is a rare variant spelling of the verb.
hijacked by a rival company
one that is of no lasting significance, whereas a
◆ Highjack
is contrasted with one that never
him or his? see -ING FORMS.
historical voyage
took place: the voyage of Christopher Columbus
Hindi or Hindu? to the New World was both and . historic historical
See also A or AN?
is a language of
Hindi

to the Indian religion of Hinduism: .

India; Hinduis a noun or adjective relating
Some people dislike the overuse of with historic

. .
reference to events
She
that are of ephemeral signifi-
speaks Hindi

words should not be confused.

. The two
He is (a) Hindu
cance: . Western Samoa produced the first major
upset of the World Cup with a historic victory over
hire or rent? Both verbs mean `have or ( ).
Wales . . . The Guardian

.
give temporary use of something in return
histrionic or hysterical ? The adjectives

.
for payment': He hired a suit for the
histrionic and hysterical are both used of

.
wedding. We rented a flat in the town
emotional outbursts but should not be
centre. They hire/rent (out) cars at compe-
confused: histrionic behaviour is a display
titive rates.
◆ The basic difference in sense between the two
of insincerity, being deliberately exagger-

verbs concerns the length of the period of tem- ated for melodramatic effect; hysterical be-

porary use and, to some extent, the nature of the haviour is the result of an involuntary loss

item in question: a room or building may be hired

of control.
◆ The same distinction may be applied to the
for a party or conference or for a longer
rented
nouns and , both of which
period of time. Clothes are (usually for a
hired
histrionics hysterics
are used with plural verbs, adjectives, etc., in this
single occasion), not ; television sets are
rented
context (see -ICS).
rented (sometimes for a number of years), not and originally referred to
hired. Cars may be or .
hired rented
Histrionics
actors and the theatre;
histrionic
and also
The verbs and let are also used in this
lease
hysterics
relate to the mental disorder of hysteria.
hysterical

context, usually with reference to buildings or

land: . .. hi-tech
.. ..
She lets the cottage to tourists Room The adjective hi-tech specifically

..
to let They leased the land from the council refers to high technology, or sophisticated
The council leased them the land All the com- electronics; its indiscriminate application to
 151 homogeneous
basic electrical appliances or to anything holy holey wholly
, or ? These three spel-

.
remotely connected with computing is dis- lings should not be confused. The adjective

.
liked by many careful users: a beautiful hi- holy means `sacred'; the adjective holey,

tech modern home high-tech benefits [a only used facetiously or informally, means

. . . .
reference to the computerization of the `having holes'; the adverb wholly means
social security benefits system] This tran- `completely': holy relics holey socks

wholly convinced.
and are pronounced [ li]; the pro-
sition of the cycle from leisure `toy' to hi-tech
(Daily Telegraph). ◆ Holy holey hoÅ
nunciation of [ li] reflects the spelling.
pedal machine

The word hi-tech has a number of variant wholly hoÅl -ll-

etc. It is also used as a noun: .

spellings: high-tech, high tech, hi-tec, high-tec,
Reflecting the
home or house ? The word home may
refer to an actual building where a person
world of high tech [spelt hi-tech in the head-
has his or her residence, but varies from
line], the first museum devoted to the chemical
house in conveying an affectionate, even
industry opens today (The Guardian).

hoard horde .
sentimental, sense of `place of refuge' or

.
or ? A hoard is `a store re- `retreat from the world': Home is where

. .
served for future use'; a horde is `a large the heart is. I'm tired and I want to go home.

crowd': hordes of tourists. is also

These words are often confused, as they have
He has no home to go to. Home
◆ useful for describing buildings that are not
the same pronunciation. houses, such as flats. House generally refers

hoarse horseor ? Hoarse describes a voice

more dispassionately to a place of residence,

.
usually a single-family dwelling as distinct
that is rasping or harsh, typically as the
from a flat or other type of residence: All
result of an infection or through overuse. It
the houses in this street are due for demolition.

◆ Note that in the sense of `care facility', in

should not be confused with horse, which
home
refers to the animal.
such uses as or
hoi polloi
retirement home home for the
This phrase of Greek origin, mentally disabled, is disliked by many people,
including those who live in or run such places:
. .
referring to the common populace, is often
misspelt. Note the -oi ending of both They put the old lady in a home. He should be
words. Because hoi means `the' in Greek in a home.
it is technically redundant, but the phrase is
firmly established in English.
homely In British English the adjective

◆ The phrase is pronounced [hoy paÆ ]. loy

homely is complimentary, meaning `like

holey
home', `unpretentious', or `sympathetic';
HOLY, HOLEY or WHOLLY?
.
see in American English it has the derogatory

holistic The adjective holistic is used of any

.
sense of `ugly' or `unattractive':
a homely child.
a homely

◆ Misunderstanding is most likely to occur when

room
system, method, theory, etc., that deals with

.
the whole rather than with individual parts
. the adjective is applied to a person, in which case it
or members: holistic medicine a holistic
may be replaced by an appropriate synonym.
homogeneity The traditional pronuncia-
approach to life.

◆ The term relates to the concept of wholes that

are greater than the sum of their parts, of the tion of this word, derived from
natural tendency to form such wholes, and of a
homoge-

(see HOMOGENEOUS or HOMOGENOUS?)

universe that is composed of such wholes. Many is [homoÆjeÆ iti], although [homoÆjeÆn iti]
neous

people take care not to overuse or misuse this is sometimes heard.

nee ay

word. homogeneous or homogenous? These

holocaust The use of the noun holocaust to two adjectives are virtually interchangeable
denote any major disaster, especially one in the sense of `similar, identical, or uni-

.
that involves great loss of life, is disliked by form in nature, structure, or composition',
some users, who prefer to restrict the word homogeneous being the more frequent: a

.
to its original meaning of `total destruction homogeneous mixture.

by fire': . ◆ In biology, the adjective specifi- homogenous

The , usually written with a capital , cally refers to correspondence or similarity due to
the nuclear holocaust
◆ Holocaust H
refers to the massacre of the Jews by the Nazis common descent.
during World War II. The two words are closer in spelling and mean-
homograph 152
ing than in pronunciation: homogeneous is usually to . in titles: .
Hon .
the Hon. Sec. the Rt Hon.
pronounced [homoÆ niuÆs] and jee homogenous Margaret Thatcher .
[hoÆ inuÆs].
moj Note the spellings of the two words: the of u

homograph homonym homophone honour is always absent from ; it is pre-

honorary
, or ?
sent in the British spelling of but
honourable
A homonym is a word that has the same
absent from the American spelling of this word.
hoofs hooves
spelling or pronunciation as another word.
There are two kinds of homonym: homo- or ? Either hoofs or hooves is
and homophone. acceptable as the plural of hoof, `the hard
◆A is a word that is spelt like another
graph
homograph bony part of the foot of a horse, cow, etc.'.
word, but has a different meaning or origin. For hopefully
example, , `a slender marsh plant', from Old
rush
The use of hopefully to mean `it

English and , `to move quickly', from

risc rush
is (to be) hoped (that)' or `I/we hope (that)'

Middle French , `to put to flight'. Homo-

ruser
is disliked by some users and is best re-
.
graphs need not have the same pronunciation, stricted to informal contexts: Hopefully the

e.g. , `to guide', rhyming with , and the

lead feed
rain will stop before we leave.
◆ The resistance to this usage is based on a
metal , rhyming with .
lead head
number of arguments, of which the most valid
A homophone is a word that is pronounced in is the possible confusion with the traditional ad-
the same way as another but with a different verbial sense of ± `with hope' or `in a
meaning, derivation, or spelling. Examples are hopefully
hopeful manner'. Ambiguity is most likely to occur
; ; ;
hear±here rain±reign right±write son±sun . when the adverb is placed directly before the verb:
homophobia The noun homophobia, . may mean `I hope
They will hopefully wait for us
meaning `fear or dislike of homosexuals', they will wait for us' or `they will wait for us with
and the derived noun and ad- hope'; and
Hopefully they will wait for us They will
are less ambiguous render-
homophobe

.
jective are used with increasing wait for us hopefully
ings of the two senses.
homophobic

.
frequency: The Church has been accused of

homophobia. a homophobic police officer. See also ADVERBS; SENTENCE ADVERB.

Some people object to these coinages, on is favoured by some users as a less
Hopefully
the basis that the homo- element can only cumbersome alternative to `it is (to be) hoped
mean `same' (as in the word (that)' and a more impersonal alternative to `I/
we hope (that)'.
homosexual
itself) or `man'.

homophone see HOMOGRAPH, HOMONYM or horde HOARD HORDE

see or ?
HOMOPHONE ?
horrible horrid horrific horrendous
homosexual
, , or ?
This word may be pro- Horrible and horrid are virtually inter-
nounced in several ways, two of the most changeable in the sense of `very unplea-
Æ seksyool] and [ho
Å mo
Å-
.
frequent being [homo sant'; horrific and horrendous convey a

. . .
seksyool]. stronger sense of horror:
◆ Some people prefer [hom-] to [hoÅm-] because, in
a horrid sight

this case, is from the Greek `same'

a horrible dream a horrific attack the

homo homos .
and not the Latin `man'. ◆ All four adjectives are ultimately derived from
horrendous prospect of nuclear war
homo
See also GAY. the Latin verb , meaning `to tremble or
horreÅre

honorary or honourable? bristle (with fear)'; in formal contexts they are

principally
Honorary
used in the sense of `causing fear or
means `given as an honour, without the
dread'.
paid': . .
usual requirements or obligations' or `un-
The use of and to mean `dis-
. .
horrible horrid

.
an honorary degree
agreeable'
an honorary
or `unkind': a horrid man a horrible
member of the society .
,
the honorary secretary
is best restricted
meal to informal contexts, as is
Honourable means `worthy of honour' or
the use of to describe
horrendous exorbitant
of respect: . .
`showing honour' and is also used as a title
prices, very bad weather, etc.
. hors d'oeuvre
an honourable man an
honourable deed the Right Honourable An hors d'oeuvre is an item
Margaret Thatcher. of food served before or as the first course
◆ The two adjectives are not interchangeable in of a meal. Of French origin, the phrase is
any of their senses, but both may be abbreviated sometimes misspelt: note particularly the
 153 humanism
.
.
vowel sequence -oeu-. The two words are of room inside. However I wash my hair, and

sometimes hyphenated: hors-d'oeuvre.

The plural is usually , but
however carefully I dry it, it always looks
◆ hors d'oeuvres hors untidy. For the distinction between
, without the final - , is also acceptable.
however

d'oeuvre s and see WHATEVER or WHAT EVER?

The anglicized pronunciation of is In the sense of `nevertheless', often
how ever
hors d'oeuvre ◆ however
[or vr] or [or ]: the - and - are silent. If the
der derv h s serves the same purpose as ; careful users avoid
but
final - of the plural form
s is
hors d'oeuvres using both words in the same sentence or clause
sounded, the pronunciation is [or ]: it can unless is being used in one of its other
senses: .
dervz however
be difficult to say [or vrz].
..
der The girl screamed; she did not, however,

horse HOARSE see or HORSE? try to escape

try to escape ..
The girl screamed, but she did not
The girl struggled, but however
hospitable This word may be stressed on hard she tried, she could not escape
Some users always separate
.
however (in the
Æ bl] or the second
sense of `nevertheless') from the rest of the sen-
the first syllable [hospita
Æ bl]. Some users prefer the
tence with commas or other punctuation marks;
syllable [hospita

others use punctuation marks only where there is a

former, more traditional pronunciation.

hospitalize The verb hospitalize, meaning possibility of ambiguity or confusion.

`send or admit to hospital', is disliked by See also COMMA 4.
some users as an example of the increasing In the sense of `nevertheless', however is usually
tendency to coin new verbs by adding the
. placed immediately after the word or phrase that it
suffix -ize to nouns and adjectives: She was serves to contrast or emphasize: . my friend,
hospitalized in the eighth month of her preg- however, does not like the colour suggests that
nancy. I like the colour but my friend does not; my friend

host , ,
does not however like the colour suggests that
The verb host, meaning `act as host at'
my friend likes some other feature of the object in
.
or `be the host of', is disliked by some users:
. question but does not like the colour.
He hosted the firm's Christmas party. She
Some users object to the positioning of however
is to host the BBC's new quiz show.

GUEST. (in the sense of `nevertheless') at the beginning or

See also
end of a sentence or clause; however, this is
host hostess
or ? see NON-SEXIST TERMS. generally acceptable in most contexts.
-hostile -FRIENDLY ALTHOUGH or HOWEVER?
See also

hue see HEW or HUE?

see .

hot desking
hullo see HELLO, HALLO or HULLO?
This contemporary business
term refers to the practice of working at
whatever work space is available or is most
human Some people dislike the use of

.
convenient rather than at a designated work-

.
human as a noun, preferring human being
station or desk: We believe hot desking pro-
(or man, woman, child, person, etc.): This
motes efficiency. As a vogue term, hot desking is
job can be done more efficiently by a robot
considered jargonistic by many people and is

◆ Most dictionaries acknowledge the noun human

than by a human (being).
best restricted to informal contexts.
DESK DINING; DUVET DAY; DRESS- as
See also
a synonym for human being.
DOWN DAY. See also INHUMAN or INHUMANE?
hour our or ? The words hour and our are
humanism humanity
or ? Humanism is a
Æ ] but have different
both pronounced [owa
philosophy that values human beings and
meanings and should not be confused.
rejects the need for religion. The noun
Hour denotes a period of time, while our

.
humanity refers to human beings collec-
means `belonging to us'.

house HOME
tively; it also means `kindness': for the
see orHOUSE? sake of humanity. The two nouns should not

hove HEAVED
see or HOVE?
be confused.
also refers to a cultural movement of
however
◆ Humanism
The principal adverbial senses of the Renaissance.
The are academic subjects such as
.
however are `nevertheless', `in whatever humanities
way', and `no matter how': The car doesn't history, art, literature, language, and philosophy,
have a large boot; it does, however, have plenty as distinct from science.
humanist 154
humanist humanitarian
or ?A is ◆ The prefix - is increasingly used as an
hyper
adjective in its own right, in the sense of `hyper-
humanist

active': .
a person who supports the philosophy of
humanism (see HUMANISM or HUMANITY?); a .
Her son is rather hyper
humanitarian is a philanthropist, a person
who works for the welfare of human
hyperbola or hyperbole ? These two
nouns should not be confused. Hyperbola
beings.
The word is also used as an is a technical term used in mathematics to

adjective: .
◆ humanitarian
a humanitarian organization . describe a type of symmetrical curve; hy-

humanity HUMANISM .
perbole means `exaggeration used for effect
see or HUMANITY? in speech or writing': I've warned him a

humiliation humility or ? Humiliation is a

million times is an example of
Both nouns originate from the same Greek
hyperbole.

feeling of shame, embarrassment, or loss of

word and they share the derived adjective
pride sometimes caused deliberately by

◆ Note that the final - of is pro-

hyperbolic(al).

.
other people; humility is the quality of
e hyperbole

.
being humble or modest: the humiliation
nounced, producing the four-syllable word [hõÅ per-
of failure the nun's humility.
boÆli]. is pronounced [hõÅ boÆlaÆ].
humorist
Hyperbola per
The noun humorist, meaning
hypercritical see HYPOCRITICAL or HYPERCRI-
`humorous writer, speaker, etc.', is often
HUMOROUS, the TICAL?
hyphen
misspelt. As in the adjective
-mour ending of humour is changed to -mor The principal uses of the hyphen
before the suffix -ist. in English are to join two or more words

humorous This word, meaning `amusing

together, either as a fixed compound or to
avoid ambiguity, and to indicate that a
or funny', is often misspelt. The second u of
word has been broken at the end of a line
is dropped before the suffix -ous.
must not be confused with ,
humour
through lack of space.
◆ There are a number of other situations in which
◆ Humorous humerus
the long bone in the upper arm. the use of the hyphen is optional.
hung see HANGED or HUNG? 1
hygiene . .
Most standard prefixes are attached with-

.
This word, meaning `science of out a hyphen: unimportant multicoloured

ensuring good health', is often misspelt. prefabricated.

Note hy- and not hi- at the beginning of Some users prefer to hyphenate words
the word, and the -ie- in the middle. prefixed with non- and words in which the

hype The word hype, used as a noun or

absence of the hyphen would result in a
.
. .
word with a doubled vowel: non-flam-
verb with reference to extravagant and
mable pre-eminent co-ordinate. Such

.
often deceptive publicity of books, films,

. .
words are widely and increasingly accepted
etc., is generally regarded as a slang term:

.
in the single-word forms: nonflammable

.
The launch owed more to hype than to literary
preeminent coordinate, etc. However, the
merit (Sunday Times). the biggest money-

.
double i of words prefixed by anti-, semi-,

.
making hype in sports history (Publishers

.
etc., is usually split by a hyphen: anti-
Weekly) Hyping books is big business
inflationary semi-independent.
(The Bookseller).
◆ The word is of uncertain origin: many authorities Words prefixed with ex- (in the sense of
.
associate it with the slang use of as an hype
.
`former') and self- are usually hyphenated:

abbreviation for ; others have sug-

hypodermic
ex-wife self-sufficient.

gested a connection with the prefix -, mean- hyper

A hyphen is sometimes inserted after the

ing `excessive', as in .
hyperbole
prefix to avoid ambiguity or confusion; for

hyper- hypo-
example, to distinguish between the nouns
or ? These two prefixes are co-op (a cooperative) and coop (an enclo-
often confused. This may result in misun- sure), or between the verbs re-cover and
derstanding when each is joined to its recover (see also RE-), and to clarify the

.
relevant suffix. Hyper- means `above or pronunciation and meaning of such words

.
excessively': a hyperactive child; hypo- as de-ice.

means `beneath or under': a hypodermic See also CO-.

syringe. A hyphen is always used to join a prefix
 155 hypocrisy
.
. .
to a word beginning with a capital letter: solid compounds, in which the common

.
anti-British un-Christian. element may be replaced by a hyphen:
See also -LIKE. long- or short-haired dogs salesmen and

2 Many compounds can be written with or

-women. Some users dislike this conven-
tion, preferring to retain the full compound
without a hyphen, depending on conven-
in all cases.

6
tion, frequency of usage, the writer's per-

. .
sonal preference, or the publisher's house A hyphen is inserted when numbers

.
style: or
. . . .
dining room dining-room hard- between 21 and 99 are written out in full:
hearted or hardhearted boy-friend or twenty-one thirty-seven eighty-six four
boyfriend. There is a growing tendency hundred and fifty-three.
towards minimal hyphenation, with the A hyphen is used when fractions are
substitution of two words or one word as
. .
written out, to separate the numerator
appropriate.
.
and denominator: three-tenths thir-
Some fixed compounds of three or more teen-sixteenths two-thirds.
words, such as
etc., are always
son-in-law, happy-go-lucky,
hyphenated; two-word 7 The other major use of the hyphen is at

compound adjectives in which the second the end of a line, splitting a word that is to

element ends in -ed, such as light-hearted,

be continued at the beginning of the next
line.

4
blue-eyed, short-sighted, etc., are usually hy-
phenated (see also below). There are a number of conventions
relating to the points at which a word
.
Some compounds derived from phrasal
verbs are always hyphenated: broken-down;
may be divided; these recommended
breaks are marked in some dictionaries.
.
some are always solid (not hyphenated):
There is an increasing tendency for word
. .
breakthrough; others may be hyphenated

.
or solid: takeover or take-over run-down or division to be influenced by phonetic rather

rundown.
than etymological principles photog-rapher

3 Compounds of two or more words used

Æ togra
[fo Æ feÆr], not photo-grapher.
A word should always be split between

.
adjectivally before the noun they qualify syllables, ideally at a natural break: after an

.
are usually hyphenated: a used-car dealer existing hyphen; between the elements of a

.
sells used cars; a plain-chocolate biscuit is one-word compound; after a prefix, such as

.
coated with plain chocolate; a three- semi-, inter-, etc.; or before a suffix, such
month-old baby is three months old; a as -ness, -ment, etc. Words of one syllable
once-in-a-lifetime opportunity occurs only should not be broken. Words should not be

.
once in a lifetime. These hyphens are often broken immediately after the first letter or

.
essential to avoid ambiguity: a red-wine immediately before the last.
bottle is a bottle for red wine; a red wine It is also important to ensure that the
bottle may be a wine bottle that is red. letters on either side of the break will not

4 Adjectives or participles preceded by an

.
mislead the reader, especially if they form a
.
. . .
word in their own right: mace-rate the-

. .
adverb are not hyphenated if the adverb

. .
rapist mans-laughter not-able rear-range
ends in -ly: a neatly written letter a letter

.
homes-pun leg-end, and that the hyphen
that is neatly written. Compounds contain-

. . .
ing other adverbs, especially those that may will not be mistaken for a fixed hyphen:
re-creation un-ionized de-crease ex-
be mistaken for adjectives (well, ill, best,
tractor.
little, half, etc.) are usually hyphenated
when they are used adjectivally before a
. 8 In handwritten and typewritten texts a

.
noun, to avoid ambiguity: a half-cooked
hyphen is often used in place of a DASH.
loaf his best-known
compounds occur after the noun, the hy-
novel. When such
hypo- HYPER- see or HYPO-?
phen is sometimes optional.
hypocrisy
5
The noun hypocrisy is sometimes
A common element need not be repeated misspelt, a common error being the sub-
in groups of two or more hyphenated stitution of -cracy (as in democracy) for the
compounds but the hyphen must not be -crisy ending. Note also the prefix hypo-,

omitted; the same convention applies to not hyper-.

hypocritical 156
hypocritical hypercritical
or ? These two ◆ As well as being misspelt, these words are
words are often confused. sometimes mispronounced. is pro-
Hypocritical
nounced [hipeÆ ikl], is pronounced
Hypocritical

.
means `insincere' or `two-faced'; krit hypercritical
[hõÅpeÆ ikl].
hypercriti-

cal means `excessively critical': It would be krit

. hysterical hysterics
hypocritical of me to say I enjoyed the concert,

when really I thought it was awful. He's so , see HISTRIONIC or

hypercritical about the way I lay the table. HYSTERICAL?
 I
I meor ? The subject pronoun and the ELECTRIC or ELECTRICAL?; HISTORIC or HISTORICAL?;
MAGIC or MAGICAL?; POLITIC or POLITICAL?
I

object pronoun are sometimes confused

Some adjectives, especially those related to
me
in informal speech, especially in the phrases
and Between you and I. nouns ending in , are found only in the
-ic -ical
After verbs and prepositions, the object pronoun form: a may be ; a is .
It's me
◆ critic critical sceptic sceptical
should be used; before verbs, the subject Others, such as or , are very rarely, if
pronoun should be used: .
me static tragic
I They have invited ever, found in the form. -ical
[not ] With the exception of and , all
..
my mother, my father, and me I to the politic public
[not ]. adverbs derived from adjectives ending in or
. have the suffix : . .
wedding He works with Mary and me I -ic
[not ] . Confusion .
and errors occur in the highest places: .
My friend and I me will help -ical -ically tragically critically

give a better answer than that to I and to my

She could
-ics A number of words ending in -ics may

honourable friends (said during Prime Minister's be singular or plural nouns, depending on
.
Question Time). .
the sense in which they are used: Acoustics

These problems rarely arise when the pronoun is the study of sound. The acoustics of the room

stands alone; any confusion may therefore be have been improved and are now excellent.
Such nouns are usually singular when they
resolved by mentally removing the other item(s) ◆
denote a science or some other area of study or
and assessing the result: . activity: .
.. ..
They have invited me to
the wedding He works with me .
I will help
..
Mathematics was not my favourite

The verb , according to grammatical con-

to be
subject at school
..
Gymnastics is just one of

vention, is an exception: in formal contexts It is me

her many hobbies Economics is taught in the
.
is unacceptable to a few careful users, who prefer sixth form, but politics is not on the curriculum
In other contexts, the same nouns may become
. However, in informal contexts the idiomatic
It is I
plural, when they refer to a system, set of princi-
It's me is generally considered to be more natural ples, group of activities, etc. .
than the pedantic and is acceptable to most
It's I
..
His politics are very

users. left-wing What are the economics of the coal

See also IT. industry?

The phrase is avoided by Some nouns, such as , and

tactics, statistics
between you and I
many users in all contexts, although it is often , may be singular or plural as described
above but also exist in a singular form: .
ethics

heard in informal speech. ,

Between you and me
. .
-ic

which conforms to grammatical convention, is the .

military tactics
.
vital statistics
.
professional ethics

preferred usage. her latest tactic

.
an alarming statistic the work

AS; LET; MYSELF; PRONOUNS; THAN. ethic

See also
Nouns relating to behaviour, such as and
-ible see -ABLE or -IBLE? hysterics, are usually plural.
heroics

-ic -ical
or
. identical with identical to
? Many adjectives are formed by See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?
. . .
the addition of the suffixes -ic or -ical:
or ? The ad-
geographical.

◆ Sometimes either suffix may be added to the

cubic symmetrical phonetic

.
jective identical may be followed by with or

same root. The pairs of words thus created may to: This picture is identical with/to the one

be virtually interchangeable, such as: . we saw in the shop.

Some users dislike the phrase , con-
.
metric±
metrical ,althoughone ◆sidering
philosophic±philosophical
to be the more acceptable preposi-
identical to

is usually more frequent or more specialized than tion in this context. with

the other. In other pairs the two words may differ

in meaning or usage: see CLASSIC or CLASSICAL?; identify Some people dislike the frequent
COMIC or COMICAL?; ECONOMIC or ECONOMICAL?; use of as a synonym for `associate',
identify
idioms 158
`link', or `connect': . is difficult but rewarding' or `difficult work is
rewarding'. It is impossible to ascertain from the
They have been iden-

second example whether the service was excellent

tified with a number of extreme right-wing
.
◆ In the sense of `share the ideas or feelings of', or not.
organizations

is sometimes used reflexively: . The use of in place of may also be

confusing in certain contexts: .
identify with I if whether
cannot identify (myself) with the heroine . Ask him if it is
In commercial and bureaucratic contexts, probably means `ask him whether it is
iden- raining
is increasingly used as a synonym for `find', raining (or not)', but it may also mean `if it is
`discover', or `recognize': .
tify
raining, ask him (for a lift, to close the window,
to identify a gap in the
market . etc.)'.
idioms See also SUBJUNCTIVE; WERE OR WAS?;
An idiom is a more or less fixed
WHETHER.
if and when
expression, such as out of hand, in spite of, to

come into one's own, or a storm in a teacup, Many people object to the
the meaning of which is distinct from the frequent use of the phrase if and when,

.
individual senses of the words it contains. which can usually be replaced by if or when
METAPHORS; SIMILES.
◆ Many idioms, such as .
See also alone: We'll move to a larger house if and

`beshowntobefoolish'and .
have egg on one's face when we start a family.
`bevery be dog tired ◆ The phrase sometimes serves a useful purpose,
tired after exertion' are best restricted to informal however. In the example above the users may not
contexts; others, such as . the salt of the earth wish to commit themselves on the subject of
`people regarded as having praiseworthy quali- parenthood: would imply doubt;
if would when
ties', are acceptable at all levels. imply certainty.
idiosyncrasy This word is often misspelt, ignoramus The only plural form of the
the most frequent error occurring when noun ignoramus, which means `ignorant
the ending -asy is replaced by -acy. The person', is ignoramuses. Although the word
correct ending is like fantasy and not like is of Latin origin, implying a possible i
privacy. ending in the plural (see PLURALS), it is not a
◆ Note also that and each occurs twice.
i y noun in Latin but a verb, meaning `we do

idle idol idyll . not know'.

. ilk
, or ? The adjective idle means

.
`not active; lazy': an idle machine an idle The use of ilk as a synonym for `type' or

. .
fellow He is never idle. An idol is an object `sort', in the phrase of that ilk, is widely

.
of worship or admiration: a pop idol accepted in many contexts but is disliked by
They bowed before the idol. An idyll is (a some users: Barbara Cartland and other

. .
piece of writing that depicts) a pleasant or writers of that ilk. The word that is some-
idealized scene or situation: an idyll of life times replaced by your, their, his, her, etc.:
on the Pacific island. Barbara Cartland and other writers of her ilk.

◆ Idle and are sometimes confused, being ◆ The phrase

idol is traditionally used to of that ilk
identical in pronunciation: [ dl]. is pronounced denote the landed gentry of Scotland, meaning `of
that estate': .
õÅ Idyll
with a short initial : [ il]. i id is Glengarry of that ilk Glengarry,
Idyllis more usually found in the derived ad- . In such contexts the phrase is
laird of Glengarry
jectival word . idyllic often misinterpreted as `of that family'.
idyllic The first i of ill SICK ILL
idyllic is usually pro- see or ?
nounced as in ill,
illegal ILLICIT ILLEGAL ILLEGITIMATE
although it may be
see , or ?

The stress occurs on the second syllable in both illegible eligible

pronounced as in item.

.
◆ or ? The adjective eligible,

cases: [i ik] or [õÅ ik].

.
dil dil meaning `qualified; suitable; worthy': to

i.e. E.G. I.E.

see and
be eligible for a competition an eligible

if
bachelor, should not be confused with ille-
ILLEGIBLE UNREADABLE
.
The use of in place of often (see or ?).
◆ Note the differences in spelling between the two
if though gible

.
causes ambiguity:
words, particularly the and vowel sequence
The work, if difficult, is
rewarding. -ll- i-e-
of and the and vowel sequence of
The service was good, if not

. illegible -l- e-i-

◆ The first of these examples may mean `the work .
excellent
eligible
 159 immigrant
is stressed on the second syllable, illustrative In British English the adjective
, as in: .
Illegible
[i õÆbl];
lej eligible on the first, [ ijõÆbl].
el illustrative , is illustrative examples

illegible or unreadable ? The adjective

Æ stra
stressed on the first syllable, [ilu
American English the second syllable is
Æ tiv]. In

illegible describes something that cannot

Æ tiv].
stressed, [ilustra

image
be deciphered and is therefore impossible
to read; unreadable means `uninteresting' or The frequent use of image as a

.
`badly worded', describing something that synonym for `reputation' is disliked by

.
cannot be read with enjoyment, ease, or some users: This scandal will not be good

.
understanding: for the president's image.
◆ In many contexts, however, has a wider
Her handwriting is illegi-

.
ble. image
range of meaning than : an advertising
He has produced another unreadable

novel. reputation
campaign can improve the , but not neces-
The document is unreadable; it must
be reworded. image
◆ Unreadable may be used as a synonym for sarily the reputation , of a political party, for ex-
`illegible' in certain contexts, but it can cause ample. The of a person, product,
ambiguity: .
reputation
This paragraph is totally unreadable organization, etc., is based largely on past perfor-
may be a criticism either of the handwriting (or mance; the word denotes a more general
image
printing quality) or of the content or wording. impression, which may also be influenced by pre-
illegitimate ILLICIT, ILLEGAL ILLEGITI- sentation, appearance, association, etc.
imaginary imaginative
see or
MATE? or ? Imaginary

illicit elicitor ? The adjective illicit (see

means `unreal' or `existing only in the

ILLICIT, ILLEGAL or ILLEGITIMATE?) should not

imagination'; imaginative means `having

. .
or showing a vivid or creative imagination':

. .
be confused with the verb elicit, meaning

.
an imaginary house an imaginative
`draw out' or `evoke': illicit dealings to
an imaginative story.
◆ The two adjectives are not interchangeable,
designer
elicit the truth.

◆ The two words have the same pronunciation although both may occasionally be applied to
[i it].
lis
the same noun: . does not
illicit, illegal or illegitimate? All these exist;
an imaginary friend
has a lively imagina-
an imaginative friend
adjectives mean `unlawful', but there are tion.
Note the spelling of , particularly the
between them: . .
differences of sense, usage, and application imaginary
(not ) ending.
.
illicit trade illegal parking -ary -ery

means `not permitted or approved by law': imbroglio

an illegitimate attack.

tuation: .
An is a confused si- imbroglio

.
◆ Illicit
. Note the
a political imbroglio
The Government should seek the co-operation
spelling of this word, particularly the silent
of the unions, business and revenue authorities to
(
eradicate illicit and irregular earnings Daily Tele-
. It is used in formal contexts and is of
g

). The word is also used to describe some- is [im lioÅ].

Italian origin; the anglicized pronunciation

thing that is contrary to social custom: .

graph

◆ The plural is formed by adding , not :

bro
an illicit
relationship . .
-s -es

See also ILLICIT or ELICIT?

imbroglios

means `forbidden by law': .

Illegal I mean The phrase
The posses- may be used in I mean

. The word is also used to describe rect a previous statement, question, etc.: .
sion of such weapons without a licence is illegal in informal speech to clarify, expand, or cor-
this country
something that contravenes the regulations of a
Is

sport, etc.: . . .
your foot very painful, I mean too painful to

an illegal tackle
The adjective is principally applied to
walk on? She lives in Plymouth, I mean

children born of unmarried parents: .

illegitimate .
◆ In some contexts the phrase serves no useful
Portsmouth

. It also describes purpose and may be omitted: .

the presi-

something that defies reason or logic: .

dent's illegitimate daughter You could have
an illegi- bought a new umbrella, (I mean) they're not very
timate explanation . . expensive

illusion ALLUSION see ,ILLUSION or DELUSION? immanent see EMINENT, IMMINENT or IMMA-
illusive illusory see ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or
NENT?
immigrant see EMIGRANT or IMMIGRANT?
,
ILLUSIVE?
imminent 160
imminent see EMINENT, IMMINENT or IMMA- [am-], [im-], or [om-]; the second syllable
NENT? [-pahs] or [-pas]; and the stress may be on

immoral see AMORAL or IMMORAL? either syllable. The pronunciation [ampahs]

immovable immoveable
is closest to the French.
or ? Note that
impassioned impassive , see DISPASSIO-
. NATE, IMPASSIONED or IMPASSIVE?
both immovable and immoveable are con-

.
sidered acceptable spellings of the word:
The chandelier proved immovable.

inherited the property together with various

impeccable
He

.
This word, meaning `fault-
less': She spoke impeccable Italian, is often
immoveables. misspelt. Note particularly the -able end-

immune from immune to or ? The ad- ings as in

sensible.
acceptable, and not -ible as in

jective immune is followed by to in the

literal sense of `protected against or resis- impel COMPEL IMPEL
see or ?

.
tant to disease and figurative extensions of
imperial imperious
or ? The adjective
.
this sense: The plant is immune to fungal im-

disease. She is immune to criticism. In the perial means `of an emperor, empress, or

. .
empire'; means `overbearing' or
.
figurative sense of `exempt', immune is imperious

followed by from: Nobody is immune from `arrogant': the imperial palace an im-

punishment. perious gesture.

◆ The two words are sometimes confused in the

immunity impunityor ? Immunity
extended sense of
is ex-
± `majestic', `regal', or
imperial
emption or freedom from obligation or
`commanding': are those that are
imperial powers

from punishment or harm: .

duty; impunityis exemption or freedom
as majestic as an emperor's, not those that are
domineering and arrogant. Both are derived from
Diplomatic

immunity provides foreign ambassadors with

the Latin noun , meaning `command'.
imperium
immunity from taxation and enables them to
The adjective also refers to the British
imperial

; the ounces, feet and inches, measures

system of weights and (pounds and
.
is a restricted form of
infringe the law with impunity
◆ Impunity
word occurs most frequently in the phrase
immunity
gallons and pints, etc.),
. which has now
with
been largely replaced by the metric
impunity
also means `resistance to disease': . system.
. impersonate, personate or personify?
Immunity
This vaccination may not confer total immunity

impact The use of impact as a synonym for

To impersonate
.
is to imitate or pretend to

.
be somebody else: The comedian imper-
`effect', `impression', or `influence' is best
sonated Humphrey Bogart. It is a crime to

.
restricted to contexts in which the effect,
impersonate a police officer. To personify is to
impression, etc., is particularly powerful:

.
represent or embody something abstract or

.
the impact of the government's resignation on
inanimate as a human being: He perso-
the stock market The new packaging has had
nifies the greed of modern society. The rare
[not impact] on sales.

◆ Some people object to all figurative uses of the

little effect
verb personate is sometimes used in place of

noun, reserving it for physical collisions and their or

impersonate . personify

effects: . . impinge or infringe? Either verb may be

as a verb meaning `affect' is used in the sense of `encroach': .
the impact of the bullet on the car door
The use of
best avoided: .
impact They are

The cutbacks impacted secondary . Note that

impinging/infringing on our rights

education negatively could be reworded as: both verbs are followed by

The (or ) in on upon

. this sense.
with stract nouns: .
cutbacks had a bad effect on secondary education is used with more ab-
Impinge

The increasing tendency to follow

isespeciallydislikedbymanypeople: .
impact on everything that impinges on

This change .
◆ To , in formal contexts, also means to
our consciousness

impasse The formal word . , mean- strike: .. , used transitively without ,

will impact severely on small companies. impinge on
The bullet impinged on the side of the
impasse

means `break' or `violate': .

vehicle Infringe on
ing `deadlock; stalemate': to reach an
. to infringe the rules

impious
impasse , is of French origin and has a
number of anglicized pronunciations. This word should be stressed on
The first syllable may be pronounced Æ s].
the first syllable [impiu
 161 incentive
◆ This contrasts with , which is stressed on
impiety be another person', has two spellings,
the second syllable [im iti]. põÅ though the spelling impostor is more fre-

implement quently used than imposter.

impractical impracticable
The verb implement is best
avoided where carry out, fulfil, accomplish, or ? see PRACTI-
CAL PRACTICABLE
.
or put into action would be adequate or or ?
more appropriate:
[not
His absence will enable
implement] our plan.
impresario An impresario is a theatrical

Originally a legal term, the verb is the word, particularly the single , unlike
us to carry out
producer or sponsor. Note the spelling of

widelyusedinofficialcontexts: .
◆ implement
s
The company has
. The usual pronunciation is [im-
impress
been ordered to implement safety measures as a
result of the accident . preÆ Æ ]; the variant [impreÆ
io sar Æ ] is dis-
io sair

As a noun, denotes a tool or instru- ◆ The plural is formed by adding - , not - :

liked by some people.

ment: .
implement
. There is a slight
agricultural implements
.
s es

difference in pronunciation between the verb and impresarios

the noun: the final syllable of the verb is sounded impromptu see EXTEMPORE or IMPROMPTU?
[-ment], rhyming with ; the final syllable of the improvise This word is sometimes misspelt.
tent
noun is unstressed [-meÆnt], as in . garment

implicit EXPLICIT
see or IMPLICIT?
Note particularly the ending, which does
not have
-ise

as a variant (see -IZE or -ISE?).

imply infer
-ize

or ? The verb imply means impugn impute or ? These words, both of

.
`suggest' or `hint at'; infer means `deduce' which are formal, are sometimes confused.

.
or `conclude': She implied that there would
To impugn is to question the integrity of,
be some redundancies in the factory. I

.
implying that someone is not being hon-
inferred from what she said that there would

.
ourable: to dare to impugn his motives. To
be some redundancies in the factory. To imply
impute is to attribute, sometimes unjustly:
involves speech, writing, or action; to infer
it is grossly unfair to impute blame for the
involves listening, reading, or observation.
The two verbs are frequently confused, crime to them.
◆
being used in place of , to the extent that
imply
infer
impunity IMMUNITY IMPUNITY
see or ?
some dictionaries now list `imply' as an additional impute IMPUGN IMPUTE
sense of . Many people object to this usage, see or ?
infer
however; it is therefore advisable to maintain the in AT IN INTO IN TO
see or ?; or ?
distinction between the two words. Similarly, the inaccessible
noun inference is sometimes used instead of im-
Note the spelling of this ad-

, but it is preferable to maintain the dis- jective, particularly the single -in-, the -cc-

tinction between these two words: .

plication and -ss-, and the -ible ending.

implications [not ] .
the inferences of the report
the
inapt inept or ? The adjective inapt means
Inferis stressed on the second syllable; the final r `inappropriate' or `unsuitable'; its synonym
is doubled before - , - , and - . The noun
ed ing er inept is more frequently used in the sense of
.
inference , in which the stress shifts to the first .
`incompetent' or `clumsy': an inapt com-

syllable, has a single . an inept mechanic.

◆ Both adjectives are ultimately derived from the

r parison

SPELLING 1.
Latin word , meaning `fit', and the negative
See also

important importantly
or ? More impor-
in
aptus
prefix -; entered the English language via
inept
tant (short for what is more important) is
the Latin adjective . ineptus
sometimes regarded as an adverbial phrase,
inasmuch as This phrase may also be
.
the adjective important being changed to

.
importantly: His assistants are very con- written in as much as, although inasmuch

scientious and, more important(ly), they are as is far more frequent: The result was

utterly trustworthy. significant inasmuch as it demonstrated the

◆ The phrase is preferred by many

more important .power of the individual

users in formal contexts, although See also IN SO FAR AS.

more impor-
tantlyis becoming increasingly acceptable. incentive The noun
impostor imposter .
incentive is followed
or ? This word, mean- by the preposition to or for: an incentive to

ing `person who fraudulently pretends to [or for] their employees to work harder.
incident 162
incident The noun incident is frequently the most common error being the substitu-
used in the mass media to denote an action tion of an for the final i.
It is worth remembering that the word has
a

serious, violent, or political consequences: .

or occurrence that has or is likely to have ◆ finite
the same sequence of vowels.
The incident

globalism protests.
sparked off a wave of anti-
independence and independent These

◆ In other contexts the noun is principally words are sometimes misspelt, the most
incident
used with reference to events of minor impor- frequent error being the substitution of

tance: . The unfortunate incident was soon for-

an for the final .
◆ Note, however, that the noun
a e

, `per-
gotten . son who relies on another for financial support', is
dependant

Incidents , the plural form, should not be con- spelt with a final .
fused with , which means `occurrence', a

`rate', or `frequency': . in-depth The adjective

incidence
The incidence of crime has is disliked in-depth
fallen in recent months. by many users; it can usually be replaced by

include comprise
or ? Include and comprise
thorough or detailed,
.
for which it is an

.
unnecessary synonym: an in-depth knowl-
are similar in meaning but not identical.
edge of the latest electronic equipment an in-
Include is less restrictive than comprise,
depth study of child abuse.

indexes indices
suggesting that the things cited are part
of a greater number or range of things, or ? The noun index has
while comprise implies that the things cited two accepted plural forms, indexes and

.
are the entirety of the things under discus- indices. The use of the plural form indices,

.
sion: The list includes a number of condi- pronounced [indiseez], is largely restricted
tions. The document comprises a full to mathematics, economics, and technical
contexts.
For other senses of , especially that of
confession.

incomparable `alphabetical
This word, meaning `with-
◆
list', the plural form is
index

.
indexes
out comparison', is often mispronounced.
The stress falls on the second syllable and
preferred by most users: This cookery book

..
has two indexes: one lists recipes by name; the
not the third. The correct pronunciation is
other lists principal ingredients Book titles
[in kompaÆ ra
Æ bl].

incongruous see CONGRUENT or CONGRU-

and authors' names are entered in separate
. indexes
OUS? Indian
incontrovertible
The adjective and noun Indian may

.
The adjective incontro- refer to India and its inhabitants or to the

.
vertible, meaning `undeniable; indisputa- indigenous peoples of America: the Indian
ble', and the derived adverb an Indian reservation.

◆ This common confusion can be blamed on the

Empire

incontrovertibly, are sometimes misspelt.

Note the -ible (not -able) ending. Another explorer Christopher Columbus, who mistook the
frequent error is the substitution of -a- for New World for India.
the second -o-. The term American Indian is sometimes used to
incredible incredulous distinguish these peoples from the Indians of Asia;
or ? Incredible
it is preferred to the older British term ,
Red Indian
means
.
`unbelievable'; incredulous means
which refers to the Indians of North America, and
.
`disbelieving': He told her an incredible
is now generally considered offensive. It has, how-
story. She looked at him with an incredulous
ever, been largely replaced in its own turn by
expression.

The useof the adjective in the sense of NATIVE AMERICAN.

◆ incredible
`wonderful' or `amazing' should be restricted to An inhabitant of Pakistan, part of the Indian
informal contexts: . . subcontinent, is a . Asian Indians and
Pakistani
We had an incredible holiday
CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE CREDU- Pakistanis living in Britain are usually referred to
See also
LOUS?
or
as Asians . Note that the Indian subcontinent itself
is today more likely to be referred to as
indecent DECENT
South Asia.
see DECOROUS?
or See also ASIAN or ASIATIC?

indefinite article see A or AN?

Further confusion may be caused by the term
, which refers to inhabitants of the
indefinitely
West Indian
This word is often misspelt, West Indies and their descendants.
 163 inept
indicate In the field of medicine the verb See also DISCRIMINATING or DISCRIMINATORY?
indicate can mean `require; show the need
indispensable . This word, meaning `abso-

.
for or advisability of', usually in the passive:
lutely essential': In this job, a car and a
A course of antibiotics was indicated. Some
telephone are indispensable assets, is some-
people object to the use of indicated in this
times misspelt.
sense in nonmedical contexts, in place of
. ◆ The ending is -able , and not -ible as in indes-
shown to be necessary, advisable,
.
etc.: Re-
tructible.
indite INDICT
dundancies were indicated. Upgrading of the

computer system is indicated. see or INDITE?

indices INDEXES
see or INDICES? individual The use of the noun individual

indict inditeor ? The words indict and in place of

who reserve
person is disliked by some users,
individual for contexts in
indite are both pronounced [indõÅt], but they

. .
have different meanings. Indict ± note the c
which a single person is contrasted with

that is not pronounced ± means `accuse; a group: the rights of the individual the

[not individual] who wrote this article.

◆ The noun is also used, with a dero-
person
formally charge'; indite is an older word
individual

and gatory, contemptuous, or humorous effect, to

that means `write down'.
◆ The derived nouns are spelt indictment
denote a particular kind of person: .
inditement . . .Thisusage
an unplea-

indifferent The adjective indifferent

is
sant individual
best restricted to informal
an eccentric individual
contexts.
.
should be followed by to or
indoor indoors .
as to , not for
or ?
.
is an adjective;
.
or about: He is indifferent to your criticism. Indoor

.
I am indifferent as to the outcome of the indoors is an adverb: an indoor aerial to go

trial. indoors Indoor games are played indoors.

The two principal senses of have

undergone a gradual change, from `impartial' to industrial industrious
◆ indifferent or ? These two ad-

`unconcerned' or `uninterested' and from `neither jectives should not be confused. Industrial is

good nor bad' to `below average' or `poor'. Used derived from the noun industry in the sense

in either of its original senses, or even in one of its of `manufacturing or commercial enter-

modern senses, the word is sometimes open to prises'; industrious means `hard-working'

misinterpretation or confusion: . an indifferent

(from industry
.
in the sense of `diligence;
.
referee may be impartial, uninterested, neither assiduity'): an industrial town an in-

good nor bad, or poor. dustrious student.

indigenous see NATIVE. industrialaction The term industrial action

indignant
may denote any of a number of measures
The adjective indignant is fol- (such as a strike, sit-in, go-slow, work-to-

.
lowed by the preposition at or about in the rule, or overtime ban) used by protesting or

.
sense `indignant at something': He was dissatisfied employees to put pressure on
indignant at [or about] having to do the their employers: Industrial action by elec-

.
washing up. In the sense `indignant with tricity workers may result in power cuts. The
a person', it is followed by with: She term is, however, misleading and contra-
seemed indignant with me. dictory, as a strike is characterized by a lack

indirect speech see REPORTED SPEECH. of action, rather than action.

The expression , which origi-
indiscriminate undiscriminating nated in the early 1970s, is not confined to in-
◆ industrial action
or ?
Both adjectives refer to a lack of discrimi- dustry (in the sense of `manufacturing or
nation (in the sense of `discernment' rather commercial enterprises'): civil servants, teachers,
than `prejudice'); indiscriminate has the hospital staff, etc., may take industrial action.
.
extended meaning of `random' or `unselec-
. industrious INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIOUS see or ?

inedible EATABLE EDIBLE

tive': indiscriminate killings an undiscri-

minating palate. see or ?

◆ There is a tendency for to be ineffective ineffectual inefficient
undiscriminating
preferred to with direct reference to EFFECTIVE EFFECTUAL EFFICACIOUS EFFICIENT , , see

people: . .
indiscriminate
, , or ?

inept INAPT INEPT

undiscriminating viewers indiscriminate
viewing . see or ?
inequality 164
inequality inequity iniquity
, or ? Inequal- infinite infinitesimal
or ? Infinite means
ity is the state of being unequal or different; `having no limits' or `extremely great':

. . .
inequity means `unfairness'; iniquity is infinitesimal means `negligible' or `extre-

. .
wickedness: the inequality of their ages mely small': She has infinite patience.
the inequity of the law a den of iniquity. The difference is infinitesimal. An infinite

Inequity and iniquity are much more formal amount is so great that it cannot be mea-
words than inequality. sured; an amount is so small
All three nouns may be used in the sense of that it cannot be measured.
infinitesimal

`injustice', with different connotations: .

◆

means that some people infinitive

The in-
The of a verb, often
infinitive

.
equality of the tax system
pay more tax than others; preceded by , is its basic form, without
to

implies that the system is unfair; .

The inequity of the tax
any of the changes or additions that relate
system The
iniquity of the tax system suggests that the system toinfinitive
tense, person, number, etc.: is the (to) go

is morally wrong. of the verb from which the past

in extremis The Latin phrase

participle is derived.
◆ The infinitive is used without after a number
gone

ofauxiliaryverbs: . . .
is
in extremis to

.
used in formal contexts to refer to an emer- you can leave they must wait
, etc.
extreme methods must be taken: .
gency or a very serious situation in which he may object we should succeed
After a number of other verbs, the infinitive is
used with : . ..
The use of

.. ..
. to I hope to see it She refused to
◆ In other, especially religious, contexts, the
these drugs is only permitted in extremis
come It never fails to amuse him Do you wish
phrase also means `at the point of The infinitive (with ) is also used
death': . afteradjectivesandnouns: . .
in extremis to go home? to
to administer a rite only when the easy to mend a book
patient is in extremis . The phrase is sometimes . to read
written or printed in italics. In some constructions the infinitive functions as
in fact The phrase a verbal noun and may be interchangeable with its
is largely used for
in fact
gerund (see -ING FORMS): .
. ..
We love walking/to

ment: .
emphasis or to expand on a previous state-
.
..
walk He began writing/to write To teach/
This legislation will not in fact
Teaching young children requires great patience

. .
improve housing conditions in inner-city
.
To find/Finding another job is not always easy
areas I'm not familiar with the machine,
In other constructions the infinitive and gerund
◆ Since means `actually' or `in reality', the arenotinterchangeable:
in fact I've only used it once .
. ±
.
able to win capable of

addition of
in fact
is considered by many users to . winning ±
a tendency to cheat a habit of cheating

be superfluous: .
actual
±
He volunteered to help .
he considered helping
He often spends his holidays in
France, but in (actual) fact he hates the French
Replacing an infinitive with
. changes the meaning of a sentence: . a gerund sometimes
Note that it is incorrect to write the phrase as a [i.e. paused] ..
He stopped

single word, infact.

[i.e. He finished reading it]. .
to read the notice He stopped

infamous or notorious? Both adjectives

reading the notice I
[i.e. I didn't forget to
do it]. .
remembered to lock the door
mean `well-known for something bad': [i.e. I
I remembered locking the door
recalled having locked it].
emphasizes the bad aspect: .
notorious emphasizes the well-known as-
pect; See also SPLIT INFINITIVE.
For irregular parts of verbs see table at VERBS.
infamous

. .
the execution of this infamous/notorious crim-
inal his notorious lack of punctuality

junction is notorious for accidents. .

That

one of
inflammable The adjective inflammable

.
describes something that will catch fire
Richard III's most infamous deeds.

◆ Note the pronunciation and stress pattern of and burn easily: This liquid is highly

[ faÆmuÆs], which is quite different from

infamous in
inflammable. Inflammable may be wrongly

that of [ muÆs].
famous fay
interpreted as the opposite of its synonym

infectious CONTAGIOUS
flammable (by analogy with sensitive±insen-

see or INFECTIOUS? sitive; visible±invisible; edible±inedible; cap-

infer inference IMPLY

, see or INFER?
able±incapable; etc.). The potential danger

inferior
of such confusion has led to a preference,

.
The adjective inferior is followed especially on warning signs and labels, for
by the preposition to: This novel is inferior the less ambiguous terms flammable (denot-
to his last one. ing an inflammable substance) and non-
 165 -ing forms
(denoting a substance that is not is also used in the sense of `inspire',
Inform
which is closer to the meaning of the Latin verb
flammable

(in)flammable).
also means `easily angered or ex- `give shape to', from which it is derived:
cited': . . In this figurative .
◆ Inflammable informare
an inflammable situation .
His learning informs his whole discourse
sense it cannot be replaced by .
flammable
informant or informer? An
The adjectives and
inflammable inflammatory
is a informant

should not be confused; something person who gives information; an informer

tends to arouse strong or violent feelings: . istiona person

inflammatory

about criminals and their activities: .

who gives the police informa-
an
inflammatory speech .
inflation .
The professor was one of the author's most

.
Inflation is a general increase in useful informants. The police were tipped off

the level of prices: about the robbery by an informer.

◆ Thenoun mayalsobeusedintheneutral
The rate of inflation has
risen to 6%. The word is widely used, espe- informer
sense of , but to avoid misunderstanding
.
cially in informal contexts, to denote the rate informant
of inflation: Inflation has risen to 6%. it is best restricted to its more specific meaning.
is sometimes misinterpreted as being information The noun
synonymous with the level of prices: .
◆ Inflation
.
information is fol-
They say
,
inflation's going down but my money isn't going
lowed by the preposition or on about: Do

any further than it did . A fall in (the rate of) [or

you have any information on about] the

inflation does not mean a fall in prices; it simply infringe see IMPINGE or INFRINGE?
company?

denotes a slower increase.

inflection Inflection is the term used for
ingenious or ingenuous ? Ingenious

.
means `clever' or `inventive'; ingenuous
the change in form that words undergo in

.
means `innocent', `naive', or `frank': an
order to denote distinctions of number,
ingenious idea an ingenuous smile. The two
tense, gender, case, etc. It is also used to
adjectives are not interchangeable, but are
describe the grammatical relation of a word
to its root by inflection. See DERIVED WORDS. sometimes confused.
The noun form , originally derived from
◆ So one can say that the word is formed bytables
◆ ingenuity
and formerly used for both adjectives, is
inflection from ; table walked is formed by inflec- ingenuous
now restricted to the sense of `cleverness' or
tion from ; walk heroine is formed by inflection `inventiveness'; is the noun form
from ; is formed by inflection from .
hero them they
of .
ingenuousness

The spelling is occasionally seen in

inflexion
ingenuous
Note the pronunciations of the two adjectives:
British English. This is not incorrect but it is now the of is long, as in ; the of
considered virtually obsolete and is the
inflection
e ingenious
is short, as in .
mean e

preferred spelling. ingenuous men

inflict AFFLICT
see or INFLICT? -ing forms The -ing form of a verb may be

influenza FLU .
a present participle or a gerund (verbal

.
see . noun): I am learning Japanese [present

info- Some people dislike the increasing

participle]. Learning Japanese is not easy
[gerund]. It is sometimes difficult, and
use of info-, short for information, to form
often unnecessary, to distinguish between

.
new blends and compounds, especially in
a gerund and a present participle.
◆ Problems of usage arise when the gerund has its
.
informal contexts. infotainment (informa-
tive entertainment) infomania (preoccu-
. own subject: .
..
She disapproves of your using the
pation with information for its own sake)
car She disapproves of the house where she
(information technology).
The noun `information' should be used only
infotech
spent her childhood being demolished . According
◆ info
in informal contexts. to grammatical convention, the possessive form
should always be used in such cases. The substitu-
inform The verb is best avoided tion of for in the first example (or of
you your me/
for in similar cases)
inform

.
where would be adequate or more him/us/them my/his/our/their
would be unacceptable to many users, even in
tell
appropriate: [not inform] your
informal contexts. However, the substitution of
Please tell

husband that his car is ready for collection.

◆ Unlike , should not be followed by an for in the second example
infinitive: . ..
tell inform childhood's childhood
They told [not ]
informed him to leave would be clumsy, unidiomatic, and also unaccep-
They informed me of his departure . table to many users.
inherent 166
Between these two extremes ± the simple per- treatment. Inhuman, the opposite of human,

sonal pronoun and the complex noun phrase ± the is stronger and has a wider scope than
possessive form is used with varying degrees of inhumane. To be means to lack
acceptability.
inhuman

. .
all human qualities, not only compassion
For personal names and nouns relating to peo- and kindness:
ple, animals, etc., the possessive form is usually
inhuman violence inhuman

living conditions.

preferred in formal contexts but is sometimes has the additional meaning of `not
rejected in informal contexts: . having human form': .
◆ Inhuman

..
She disapproves An inhuman shape ap-
of Peter's using the car She disapproves of the peared at the window.
gardener's using the car . If more than one name or iniquity INEQUALITY, INEQUITY INI-
noun is involved, the possessive form is usually QUITY?
see or

rejected in all contexts: .

.. in-law
She disapproves of
Michael and Peter using the car She disapproves The use of the plural noun in-laws,
.
.
of the cook and the gardener using the car denoting a person's relatives by marriage, is
For abstract nouns and nouns relating to inan- best restricted to informal contexts:
imate objects, which are rarely used with the
My in-
laws are coming for dinner on Saturday.

possessive ending , the possessive form is usually The plural of

rejected: .
-'s ◆ mother-in-law, father-in-law, son-
,etc.,is formed by adding
..
She disapproves of the house being in-law, daughter-in-law s
demolished She disapproves of religion being to the first element of the compound: mothers-in-
taught in schools . law, fathers-in-law , etc.
In the four preceding examples, the absence of in lieu
the possessive ending may cause confusion: the The phrase in lieu (of) is best

reader or listener is momentarily led to believe that avoided where

quate or more appropriate:
instead (of)
.
would be ade-
She drove to
she disapproves of Michael/the cook/the house/
religion. Such confusion can often be avoided by the airport instead [not in lieu] of taking the

restructuring the sentence or by replacing the train.

is chiefly used in formal contexts with

gerund with a noun: . She disapproves of the
◆ In lieu (of)
reference to the replacement of one thing with
demolition of the house . another or others of equivalent value or impor-
The use of the possessive form with such words tance: .
aspainting, writing, meeting, cooking , etc., which ..
If they have to work on Christmas Day they

may denote either an action or its result, can be should be given time off in lieu We are sending

ambiguous in some contexts: . We were not

two bottles of dessert wine in lieu of the cham-
.
[that they intended to pagne you ordered
The word may be pronounced [lew] or [loo].
hold a meeting]. .
informed of their meeting
lieu

in loco parentis
We were not informed of their
meeting [that they had met]. The Latin phrase
In other contexts, the use of the possessive form
in loco

may alter the meaning of a sentence: .

parentis is used in formal contexts to mean

.
They `acting for a parent; having the responsi-
places the emphasis
on the girl; .
watched the girl dancing bilities of a parent': On a school trip,

They watched the girl's dancing teachers act in loco parentis.

places the emphasis on the dancing. ◆ The phrase is pronounced [in loÅkoÅ paÆ tis]. It is ren
See also APOSTROPHE; DANGLING PARTICIPLES; sometimes written or printed in italics.
INFINITIVE; PARTICIPLES; 'S or S'?; WANT. innit This is a contraction of , usually
inherent This word, meaning `essential or employed as a tag question (see QUESTIONS)
isn't it

intrinsic', has two possible pronunciations: at the end of a statement: . This is a nice

Æ nt] or [inherreÆnt]. The first of these

[inheere place, innit? Originally used in working-
is the more traditional and is preferred by class speech, innit was taken up by black
many users. British speakers in the early 1980s as an all-

inheritance HERITAGE
see or INHERITANCE?
purpose question tag and imitated in turn
by young white speakers: . They're coming

inhuman inhumane
or ? Careful users
to the party, innit? Innit
standard slang usage and should always be
is a strictly non-

maintain the distinction between inhuman

avoided in formal contexts.

innocuous .
and inhumane. Inhumane, the opposite of

.
humane, means `lacking in compassion and The adjective innocuous, mean-
kindness; cruel; not merciful': inhumane ing `harmless': a few innocuous remarks, is
 167 institute
The verb refers to the process of entering
data into a computer: .
sometimes misspelt. Note the -nn-, the input
single c, and the vowel sequence -uou-. Travel agents will be able

innovative . In other
to input data direct to a central computer
Many people dislike the fre-
contexts, use of the verb is generally depre-
cated, other verbs being preferred: .
input

.
quent use of innovative in place of new,

.
contribute
creative, imaginative, progressive,
.
etc.: an
[not ]input ideas to a meeting [not
provide with
innovative method of contraception
.
an in-
]
input equipment .
inquiry
novative sales manager an innovative com-

pany. see ENQUIRY or INQUIRY?

inoculate vaccinate
or ? The verbs inocu- inside of Many people dislike the preposi-
late and vaccinate are virtually synonymous tional phrase inside of, meaning `within' or
in the sense of `introduce a vaccine into the `in less than', in which the word of is

.
incorrect. The phrase should not be used
.
body of a person or animal to provide

.
immunity': She has been inoculated [or in formal contexts: There was a cheque

vaccinated] against whooping cough. Inocu- inside [not inside of] the envelope. The job
[not inside of] two weeks.
The addition of this superfluous to the pre-
late has a wider range of usage: it may refer was completed inside

◆ of
position may be influenced by the phrase
to the introduction of a substance other
inside on
contexts in the sense of `instil': . , which is followed by when it is used
than a vaccine and is also used in figurative

.
the inside of
prepositionally:
He in-
a coupon on the inside of the
.
.
◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the
oculated his students with egalitarian ideals

vaccinate wrapper
and the single .
-cc- -n-
in sofaras This expression may be written
inoculation This word is often misspelt, in so far as or insofar as,

more frequent in American English:

the latter being
. I'll
the most frequent error being the addition
help you in so far as it is appropriate.
of an extra as in innocent. Note the single
INASMUCH AS.
n
and the single l. See also

in spite of see DESPITE or IN SPITE OF?

c

in order that and in order to The phrase

in order that is followed by may, might, shall, install or instal ? Both spellings of this

.
or rather than can, could, will, or
.
should word are correct, although the first is more

.
would: He moved his suitcase in order that frequently used: install a central-heating
we might [not could] open the door. She system.
drove him to the station in order that he should ◆ If the spelling with a single is chosen, then
instal I
[not would] not miss his train. this doubles before the suffixes beginning with a
◆ These restrictions do not apply to the simpler vowel: .
expression (see SO), which is often prefer- In British English,
installing, installed, installer, installation
so that has a single , in
able to in such contexts.
instalment I
in order that American English it usually has a double .
If the subordinate clause has the same subject as instantly or instantaneously? The ad-
I

the main clause, may be replaced by verbs

followedbyaninfinitive: .
in order that
and instantly are vir-instantaneously
in order to He moved his
suitcase in order to open the door . tually interchangeable in the sense of
.
The phrase is best avoided where `immediately' or `without delay': He

would be adequate: .
in order to to
[not ◆
He turned the key to in
.
has the additional meaning of `very
replied instantly/instantaneously

]
order to open the door . quickly' or `almost simultaneously': .
Instaneously

input Many people object to the use of the

She was hit
.
by the car and died instantaneously

.
noun input as a synonym for `contribution':
instil This word, meaning `introduce gra-

.
We hope to have some input from the
dually', is often misspelt. It ends in a single l

.
teaching staff at tomorrow's meeting. posi-
in British English.
◆ It is worth remembering that the must be
tive input `approval or encouragement'
I

◆ As a noun,
negative input `criticism'.
doubled
may be used to denote the See also before a suffix is added: . instilled
input
power, energy, data, etc., put into a system or SPELLING 1 .

machine, or the resources, labour, raw materials, institute or institution? Both nouns are
etc., required for production. used to denote certain professional bodies
instructional 168
and established organizations founded for integral, i.e. `essential to the completeness of

.
research, study, charitable work, the pro- the whole', by definition.
In many contexts the word would be
. . betterreplacedby ,etc.: .
motion of a cause, etc.: the Institute of ◆ integral

.
Materials the British Standards Institution essential, important Cash
the Royal National Institute for the Blind registers have become an integral part of even the
the Royal National Lifeboat Institution. The most backward industries in these competitive
nouns also denote the buildings or premises . days
used by these organizations. The usual pronunciation of is [ tigraÆl], integral in
has a range of additional meanings: stressed on the first syllable; the variant pronun-
`the act of instituting': .
◆ Institution
ciation [in raÆl], stressed on the second syllable, is
the institution of a new teg
; `an established social custom or disliked by many users.
practice': .
electoral system
; `a school or integrate The verb
hospital': .
the institution of marriage
is widely used
integrate
an educational institution.
The verb institutemeans `establish', `initiate', or insocial group': .
the sense of `make or become part of a

`install'. One of the aims of our

instructional instructive .
organization is to integrate ethnic minorities
or ? Instructional into the community. Newcomers to the
is the rarer word and means `providing village often find it difficult to integrate.
instruction(s)'; ◆ In other contexts
is used in the is often better re-
,etc.: .
instructive integrate
placedby
. .
wider sense of `informative; enlightening': mix, amalgamate, join, combine a
an instructional leaflet an instructive [not
new television programme that combines
. ] .
◆ Both adjectives may sometimes be applied to the
experience integrates learning with entertainment
Note the spelling of , which does not
samenoun: . isintendedto begin with the prefix .
integrate

instruct and may succeed or fail in this objective; . intense or intensive?

an instructional course inter-

an instructive course succeeds in instructing, treme' or `very strong'; means `ex- Intense

whether or not this was the intention. `concentrated' or `thorough': .

means intensive

insulate The verb insulate

.
is followed by . intense heat . intensive
intense pain
training . an
the preposition from or against: The cup- intensive search. The two adjectives are
board next to the cooker is insulated from [or not interchangeable, although both may
against] the heat of the oven. be applied to the same noun: intense/inten-

insults Note that the power of an insult sive study.

◆ Both adjectives have additional senses: intense
depends largely upon the context in which
describes a person who has very strong and deep
it is uttered and the company to whom it is
feelings; has specialized meanings in
intensive
delivered. Many insults, for examples ones
grammar and agriculture and is used in such
that refer to a person's ethnic origins or
sexual orientation, may be considered compounds as and
intensive care . labour-intensive

highly offensive when delivered by a per- inter INTERMENT

see or INTERNMENT?
son from a different background, but in-
nocuous enough when exchanged between inter- intra-
or ? The prefix inter- means

. .
members of the same group, and may even `between' or `reciprocally'; intra- means

. .
be intended as an inclusive term of affec- `within': intercontinental interdependent

tion. Examples include such taboo slang intramural.

The two prefixes should not be confused:

intravenous

terms as bugger, nigger (used by some black ◆ inter-

people among themselves), and (used nationalmeans `of two or more nations'; intrana-
means `within one nation'.
queer

by some gays among themselves). tional

insurance ASSURANCE The prefix is most frequently found in

INSURANCE? medical contexts: . .
intra-
see or

insure ASSURE ENSURE .

intracranial intramuscular
see , or INSURE? .
intrauterine

integral Some people object to the fre- interactive In computing, the adjective

.
quent use of the phrase integral part, in interactive refers to direct communication

.
which the adjective integral is often super- between the user and the computer: The

fluous: The study of local history is an disks are interactive, which means that they

integral part of the syllabus. Most parts are pose questions on the screen, and you only get
 169 in that
(Daily ◆ The first of these, the original meaning of the
word, is the least frequent of the three; it is no
further information by answering Tel-

egraph). The term is also applied to televi-

sion programmes, video games, etc., in longer listed in some dictionaries.
which the viewer or player is physically In British English the word is pronounced [inteÆr-
involved in the progress or completion of nee sõÅn]; the variant pronunciation [inteÆr õÅn] is nes
the programme, game, etc. regarded by some as an Americanism.
intercede This verb, meaning `mediate', is Internet The Internet, commonly abbre-
sometimes misspelt. Note the -cede ending, viated to the net, is a worldwide network of
as in concede, precede, etc. (unlike proceed, computer networks which, with its vast
succeed, etc.). amount of information, as well as innumer-

interface In science, computing, etc., the

able forums for discussion and entertain-
ment sites, has been responsible for a
noun interface denotes a surface forming a
communications revolution.
common boundary or a point of commu-
It is significant that the Internet was not
nication. Its extended use as a synonym for
set up as a commercial venture and has no

.
`interaction', `liaison', `link', `(point of) con-
tact', etc., is disliked by many people:
central governing authority. This lack of
the
central administration means that users of

.
interface between professionals and lay people
the new medium have felt free to develop

.
in the caring professions the interface of
their own styles of communication, unfet-
history and literature at the interface be-
tered by the rules of conventional grammar
tween design and technology.
The verb is also best restricted to and spelling, etc., making extensive use of

technical contexts: .
◆ interface
shorthand versions of words, symbols, and
The office microcomputers
.
will interface with the main computer
slang. With time, however, the Internet has

interfere
adopted its own conventions and etiquette

.
The verb interfere is followed by (or netiquette) and numerous manuals on
the preposition with in the sense `meddle': using it recommend correct spelling and

.
Don't interfere with my papers. It is followed grammar.
by the preposition in in the sense `intrude': See also CHAT; DOT.COM; E-MAIL; NETSPEAK;
The police are reluctant to interfere in a SMILEY; WEB.
domestic dispute.
internment see INTERMENT or INTERNMENT?
interjections EXCLAMATIONS
see .
interpersonal
interment internment
The adjective interpersonal,
or ? Interment meaning `between people', is disliked by

. .
means `burial'; internment means `impri- some people as a vogue term and can often

.
sonment': the interment of the corpse be replaced by a synonym, such as social, or

are social skills; .

the internment of the terrorists. by a simple paraphrase:
The two words should not be confused.
interpersonal skills
◆
The noun and the verb (from means `with people'.
in an interpersonal situation

interment inter
which it is derived) are formal words that refer to interpretive or interpretative? Either ad-
the depositing of a dead body in the earth or in a jective may be used, but
tomb. more frequent: .
is the interpretative

The noun is derived from the verb

internment
The appendix contains

, which refers to the confinement of enemy .

interpretative/interpretive notes on the text

intestinal The adjective

intern
aliens, prisoners of war, etc. is usually
In both nouns and both verbs the stress falls on stressed on the third syllable, [intes nl].
intestinal
tõÅ

the second syllable. The variant pronunciation [in tinl], with

The noun , stressed on the first syllable, is the stress on the second syllable, is also
tes
intern
an American name for someone in the final stages heard.
of professional training, especially in medicine. in that The phrase
internecine .
means `because' in that

.
The adjective internecine may or `to the extent that': He is unsuitable for

.
refer to slaughter or carnage, mutual de- the job in that he has no relevant experience.

. .
struction, or conflict within a group: an The two machines are different in that one is

internecine battle internecine warfare an fully automatic and the other is manually
internecine dispute. controlled.
in the fast lane 170
◆ In some contexts, however, may be better intonation indicates the end of the list: .
or one of its synonyms: .
in that You can
replaced by because , , We , .
have carrots peas cabbage or cauliflower
[not ] in toto The Latin phrase
are in financial difficulties because in that my
wife has recently been made redundant . `entirely' or `completely': .
means in toto

in the fast lane in the fast track

He did not

, see FAST disagree in toto.

LANE . ◆ It is acceptable, but not necessary, to use italics

in the near future when writing or printing this expression.

The phrase in the near
intra- see INTER- or INTRA-?
. intransitive
future is disliked by some users as an
unnecessarily wordy substitute for soon:
see VERBS.
The electronics company is considering relo-
cating to Swindon in the near future. intrinsic extrinsic or ? The adjective in-

in this day and age The cliche in this day

trinsic
ginating from within': .
means `inherent', `essential', or `ori-
The discovery is of
and age is best avoided where nowadays, great intrinsic interest. Extrinsic, the oppo-

.
today, now, etc., would be adequate or more
.
site of intrinsic, is less frequent in general
appropriate: In this day and age a good usage: The document is of extrinsic interest
education is not a passport to a successful only.
career. ◆ The value of a pound coin, for example,
intrinsic

into in to is the value of the metal from which it is made; its

or
variety of meanings;
? Into is a preposition with a
is a combination
extrinsic value is one pound.
introvert
in to

EXTROVERT or INTROVERT?
.
of the adverb in and the preposition or see

.
infinitive marker
I went in to fetch a book.
to:
.
I went into the house.

I went in to tea.
Inuit The term Inuit refers to the people of

◆ It is important to recognize and maintain the North America and Greenland tradition-

distinction between these uses. ally known as Eskimos. The term Inuit

As prepositions, and are occasionally (meaning `people') is preferred to Eskimo

interchangeable: .
into in
(meaning `eater of raw flesh'), by the Inuit
He put the letter into/in his
. usually suggests movement from the
pocket Into
themselves. It may also be used to distin-

outside to the inside, whereas suggests being or guish

in
this people from the Eskimos of the

remaining inside. In many contexts the two pre- ◆ , sometimes spelt , is pronounced
Aleutian Islands and Siberia.

positions are not interchangeable: . Inuit

[ yooit]. The plural is ( ) or ( ) .
Innuit

..
They sailed
in In n uit In n uits

invalid The adjectival sense of `not valid' is

into the harbour at four o'clock
harbour all afternoon .
intonation Intonation is a change in pitch
that adds to the meaning of a spoken word,
phrase, or sentence. It should not be con-
fused with STRESS, which relates to loudness
They sailed in the
pronounced with the stress on the second
syllable [invalid]. The noun sense of `some-
one who is ill' is pronounced with the stress
Æ leed].
[inva
Æ lid] or
on the first syllable, either as [inva

or emphasis, although the two are often

The verb sense, `disable' or (usually followed by
◆
used in combination.
◆ In English intonation is most noticeable in QUES-
) `remove from active service because of illness
out

TIONS, where the pitch of the voice tends to rise or [invaÆ may
or injury', be pronounced [ vaÆlid], [ vaÆleed], in in

towards the end: . . ]. leed

The sentence . , inveigh or inveigle? To

When did she arrive? Satur-
day? Jane doesn't want a cat is to pro-
spoken with rising intonation, means `Does Jane test strongly; to
inveigh

want a cat?' or `Is it true that Jane wants a cat?': cleverly: .

is to persuade inveigle

with falling intonation it is a neutral statement of . .

She inveighed against the inequity

fact. Other variations in the intonation of the

of the law He inveigled us into signing the
. , an intransitive verb, is fol-
sentence and the stress on individual words may lowed by
form Inveigh

, whereas is tran-
produce a number of alternative interpretations, sitive and often used with .
against inveigle

such as `I don't believe that Jane wants a cat', `Jane ◆ The two verbs are both formal and are some-
into

would like a pet of some sort, but not a cat', and times confused. Note the spelling of both. ei
`Other people want a cat, but not Jane'. is always pronounced [in ];
Inveigh vay inveigle
Rising intonation is also heard in lists; falling may be pronounced [in gl] or [in gl]. vay vee
 171 ironic
invent design discover
, or ? and ◆ Note that the stress pattern of the noun is invite
different from that of the verb: the noun is stressed
Invent

refer to the creation of something

on the first syllable; the verb is stressed on the
design

.
new; refers to the finding of some-
second syllable.
discover

. .
thing that is already in existence: to invent
a machine to design a new computer to See also STRESS.
discover a cure for cancer.

◆
in vitro The Latin phrase
The three words sometimes overlap in usage. refer is used to in vitro

A scientific may lead to an

discovery , to a method of fertilizing a woman's
invention
and inventions have to be . Some egg
designed
by artificial means outside the woman's

people dislike the use of in place of The literal meaning of

invent
body.
is `in glass'. It is
design : a new type of car, for example, that ◆sometimes written or printed in italics. It is pro-
in vitro

is modelled on existing styles and uses a tradi- nounced [in troÅ].

tional method of propulsion, is , not The abbreviation stands for
designed
vee

invented . .
IVF in vitro fertiliza-

inventory
tion

vent and
The noun
invention,
inventory, unlike
is stressed on the first
in-
involve Some people object to the frequent
use of the verb involve and its derivatives in
syllable. The usual British pronunciation is
.
place of more specific or more appropriate
[inveÆntri]; in American English the -o- may
.
synonyms: This proposal will entail [not
be sounded: [inveÆntori].
.
involve] further cuts in expenditure.

inverse
Some

see CONVERSE, INVERSE, OBVERSE or changes may be necessary [not involved]. I

REVERSE
.
? have a number of questions concerning [not

inversion Inversion is a reversal of the

involving] teaching methods and discipline.
These fingerprints are evidence of his partici-
normal order of the elements of a sentence [not involvement] in the robbery.
Many authorities recommend that and
pation

verb: . ..
or clause so that the subject follows the ◆ involve

.
. its derivatives be restricted to the sense of entan-
glement and complication: .
There goes the bus In came Michael

.
At the bottom of the heap was the missing the chairman's in-
.
◆ Inversion is most frequently used in QUESTIONS:
book volvement in the scandal a long-winded and

. .
It is also used after , and inward or inwards? In British English
involved account of the incident

:. ..
Am I late? so, neither
,andaftersome
negative words and phrases: .
nor So are they Neither do we
is principally used as an adjective,
inward

.
Never have I heard
.The meaningbeing
inwards

the inside': .
the usual form of the adverb
.
such nonsense! On no account should he go
use of inversion in conditional clauses: Had she
.
`towards
.
inward

◆ The adverb is more frequently used in

feelings to push inwards

..
known about his past, she would not have married
inward

, is rather more formal than the use of an American English.

him There's a fire extinguisher here, should you

clause: . . . .. . . .
need it if
If she had known if you should See also -WARD or -WARDS?
need it . IQ This abbreviation for `intelligence quo-
Inversion is optional after direct speech, but is tient': .
best avoided if the subject is a pronoun: . ` always be written with capital letters. The
, must
The average IQ is one hundred

..`
Go
'
away! cried the boy '
Go away! he cried . In abbreviation may be written with full stops,
poems and stories inversion is sometimes used for
effect or variety: .
, but this form is becoming less fre-
I.Q.
quent in modern usage (see ABBREVIATIONS).
..
In a hole in the tree lived a wise
old owl Stands the Church clock at ten to three? ◆ The abbreviation with lower-case letters, ,
(Rupert Brooke).
i.q.
stands for , a Latin phrase meaning `the
idem quod

inverted commas see QUOTATION MARKS. same as'.

invite The use of the word invite as a noun,
irascible The formal word irascible,

meaning `easily angered', is sometimes

in place of invitation, is disliked and
misspelt. Irascible has a single r and ends

.
avoided by many users, even in informal
in -ible, unlike its synonym irritable. Note

.
contexts: Have you had an invite to their
also the sc.

ironic ironical ironically

party? Thank you for your invitation, which

I am very pleased to accept. , , see IRONY.

iron out 172
iron out The phrasal verb iron out is irreparable This word, meaning `unable

.
widely used in the metaphorical sense of to be repaired', is often mispronounced.
`settle', `resolve', `solve', or `remove': We The stress should fall on the second syllable
have a few more problems to iron out before and not the third [irepaÆ ra
Æ bl].
work can begin. See also REPAIRABLE or REPARABLE?
It is best avoided, however, in contexts that may
be associated with its literal meaning of `smooth irresistible
◆
Note the spelling of this ad-

with an iron': . jective, particularly the and the -rr- -ible

..
The laundry workers have ironed
(not ) ending. -able

irrespective The word

out their difficulties The last stumbling block was
ironed out at yesterday's meeting . is most irrespective

irony Irony is the use of words to express

frequently used in the prepositional phrase
irrespective of, meaning `regardless of': .
the opposite of their accepted meaning,
Applications are invited from all suitably
often for satirical or humorous effect.
qualified candidates, irrespective of age, sexual
Words such as precious and fine are often
orientation, nationality, disability or religion.
◆ The expression is generally
used ironcially, as in `This is a fine time to
irrespectively of
tell me you've no keys!'

◆ Some people object to the frequent use of the

considered to be unidiomatic.
noun and its derivatives to refer to something usedUnlike adverbially in other contexts:
should not be
.
regardless, irrespective

paradoxical, incongruous, or odd: .

irony
It soon began
She resigned
to rain but they carried on with their game regard-
when they rejected her proposals; the irony of the
[not ].less irrespective
See also IRREGARDLESS.
..
situation is that they have now adopted the system

.. irrevocable In its. general sense of `not able

she proposed It's ironic that he should win a
skiing holiday just after breaking his leg Ironi-
cally, it was the police inspector's car that was to be changed': , the an irrevocable decision

.
stolen word is stressed on the second
irrevocable

The adjectives and ironic are both in use, syllable, [i oÆkaÆbl]. The pronunciation [ir-
ironical rev

ironicbeing the more frequent. i ka Æ bl], stressed on the third syllable, is

Å
vo

may be used as a form of

Irony , but the restricted
sarcasm to a few legal or financial con-
two words should not be confused: an re- texts, where the sense is literally `not able to
be revoked': .
ironic
mark is more witty and less cruel than a sarcastic .
irrevocable letters of credit

remark. irrupt see ERUPT or IRRUPT?

irrefutable .
This word, meaning `impossi- is Many people dislike the repetition of is in
ble to be disproved': irrefutable evidence,
such constructions as the question is, is there
may be stressed on the second or on the any future in this? and the problem is, is it going
Æ bl] or [irifyoota
third syllable: [irefyoota Æ bl].
to work? Careful speakers and writers use
The second pronunciation is becoming
.
one is only, by rewording either part, or avoid
more common.
.
such constructions altogether: The question

irregardless The word irregardless is a is whether there is any future in this or not.

must ask ourselves, is there is any future in this?

We

nonstandard blend of and

-ise
irrespective re-
gardless. Most dictionaries do not acknowl- see -IZE or -ISE?
in colloquial usage: .
edge its existence, but it is frequently heard
`Irregardless of what we -ism Some people object to the increasing
say about Robbo, he done a good job,' was a
use of the suffix -ism, in the sense of

.
near-miss by Elton Welsby for ITV in Bo-
`discrimination', to coin new words mod-

.
logna (The Guardian). The word should be elled on the nouns racism and sexism:

. .
legislation against ageism the controversial
avoided in all contexts; either irrespective or
IR- heightism.
The use of the suffix to form new nouns in the
issue of heterosexism ableism
regardless may be used in its place (see
RESPECTIVE). ◆
conventional sense of `doctrine' or `system' is
irregular verbs For irregular parts of acceptable in moderation: . The 'Third Way'
verbs see table at VERBS. was one of the key ideas of Blairism.
irrelevant This word is frequently mis- issue Overuse of issue as a euphemistic
spelt. Note the -rr- and the vowels i-e-e-a. substitute for words such as problem or
 173 itinerary
. [not .]
.
should be avoided: fault. It is the books that make makes the
. (Note the use of and , rather
difficulty They have

trunk so heavy I they

than and ; see also I or ME?; PRONOUNS.)
relationship issues. He has issues around his
me them

-ist or -ite? Both these suffixes may be used The: .construction is not used with or
appearance.

where

]. .
when It is in France that the best cheeses are

or supporter of a particular doctrine: .

to denote an adherent, follower, advocate,
[not to be found It is France where . . . It was in

. . . [not
2001 that he won the championship It was
Stalinist Luddite communist
]. Blairite.
2001 when . . .
The suffix is sometimes used in a
-ite
However, the construction should not be con-
derogatory manner: people who call them-
fused with such statements as It was dark when
selves , for example, may be de-
Trotskyists
and we arrived It's snowing where my parents live
scribed by opponents of Trotskyism as
or such expressions as and it is believed that . . . it

◆ The suffix
Trotskyites .
, which is also used to form . is possible that . . .

adjectives, may face the same objection as -ISM: See also ITS or IT'S?; THAT or WHICH?
-ist

. . . italics The word denotes a sloping

.
ageist principles heterosexist attitudes classist
.
italic
genderist typeface that is used for a variety of pur-

-ista The word ending -ista, probably mod-

poses in English. In handwritten or type-
written texts, underlining is generally used
elled originally upon such Spanish words as
to indicate italics.
Sandinista (a member of a left-wing orga-
nization in power in Nicaragua from 1979
◆ The principal uses of italics are:
to 1990), has appeared with increasing 1 For the titles of books, newspapers,

.
frequency in recent years in a variety of
. .
magazines, plays, films, works of art, mu-
vogue terms: Such coinages are
.
fashionista. sical works, etc.: The Economist An Ideal
humorous and often slightly derogatory. Husband, by Oscar Wilde Elgar's Enigma

isthmus The noun isthmus, meaning `nar- Variations.

row strip of land', causes problems of

spelling and pronunciation. Note the four
2 .
For the names of ships, boats, trains,
aircraft, etc.: Sir Francis Chichester sailed
adjacent consonants -sthm-. The [th] sound round the world in Gipsy Moth IV.
is not heard in the usual pronunciation
Æ s]; the full pronunciation [isthmu
[ismu Æ s] 3 . For the Latin names of plants, animals,
is no more or less correct. etc.: The tiger, Panthera tigris, is found in

it Asia.

4
The pronoun it has a wide range of uses:
to replace an abstract noun or the name of For foreign words and phrases that are

. . .
an inanimate object, as the subject of an not fully integrated into the English lan-

.
impersonal verb, etc.: He washed the towel guage: This was his  sistance.
Á ce de re
pie

.
and hung it out to dry. It hasn't rained for a The teacher is in loco parentis. It is some-

.
week. I find it difficult to make new friends. times difficult to judge whether a foreign
It's obvious that she doesn't like him. For word or phrase should be italicized or not.

.
this reason, the use of it may sometimes Some dictionaries offer guidance on this
cause ambiguity or confusion: She took her matter.
purse out of her handbag and put it on the

table [the purse or the handbag?]. . You can

5 .
To indicate stress or emphasis: . Is it still
raining? I don't like spiders, but I'm not
open the window if it gets too hot [the
afraid of them. Excessive italicization for
window or the weather?].
The constructions and the purpose of stress or emphasis is avoided

should be usedonlyfor emphasis: .

◆ it is/was . . . who it is/was
by careful users.

6 To draw attention to a particular word,

. . . that It was

.. phrase, or letter: . How do you pronounce

she who broke the window, so I don't see why you

? . Her surname is spelt with a

should pay for the repair It's the weather that's
.
making me feel tired ± I'm not ill controversy

In such constructions the verb agrees with the double . s

pronoun or noun that follows or , not with -ite see -IST or -ITE?
the word : .
is was
[not ]
. [not ] itinerary This word, meaning `planned
it It's I who wish wishes to
complain. It was they who were was at
its 174
route of a journey', is sometimes misspelt. Whichever spelling is preferred, it is important to
The careful pronunciation [õÅtine
Æ ra
Æ ri] be consistent within a single piece of writing, both
should ensure its correct spelling. in the choice of other words and in the
-ize/-ise

its or it's? , a contraction of or , spelling of any derivatives ending

It's it is it has
, etc.
in
tion, -izer/-iser, -izable/-isable
-ization/-isa-

: .
should not be confused with , the pos-its
is the only verb of more than one
Capsize -ize

. .
sessive form of it It's easy
syllable
to tell
that
the
is never spelt . -ise
difference
.
It's been raining
However,
for several
there are a number of verbs that -ise
hours . The lion has escaped from its cage
See also APOSTROPHE; CONTRACTIONS; 'S or S'?
.
cannot be spelt ; the most common of these-ize

◆ The insertion of an apostrophe in the possessive

are advertise, advise, chastise, circumcise, com-

form is wrong in all contexts, although it occa- prise, compromise, despise, devise, enfranchise,

sionally finds its way into print: .

its
excise, exercise, franchise, improvise, merchandise,
It's aim is to
, and
revise, supervise, surmise, surprise . televise
See also EXERCISE or EXORCISE?
encourage new ideas and developments in the
field of learning and teaching English (advertise- Verbs ending in , such as and
ment for The English-Speaking Union, , are
The Guar-
never spelt in British
-yse
English.
analyse pa-

). ralyse -yze

The omission of the apostrophe in the contrac- thatIn American English, is always used for verbs
dian
-ize

tion is less frequent, but equally unacceptable. can have either ending in British English, but
it's

IVF see IN VITRO. is usually retained

-ise for verbs of the ... advertise
group. , etc., are spelt
-ize or -ise? In British English, the sound with in American English.
televise Analyse, paralyse
z
[-õÅz] at the end of many verbs may be spelt Some people object to the modern tendency to
:. . . create new verbs by the addition of to a
-

. noun or adjective: . . .
ize or -ise baptize/baptise realize/realise -ize/-ise

. .
; etc. pedestrianize hospitalize
. Such verbs are
recognize/recognise organize/organise
Most modern dictionaries, partly because prioritize finalize weaponize
of the American international influence, best avoided where a simpler form or synonym
list as the preferred spelling, giving exists: may be replaced with
to martyrize to martyr,
can often be replaced with .
-ize

as an accepted variant. Otherwise, is to finalize to finish

However, verbs (and their derivatives) that
-ise -ise
generally as common as in British -ize/-ise
have neither a one-word equivalent nor a simple
-ize

paraphrase often serve a useful purpose: .

English.
◆ There is etymological justification for both spel-
.
to
lings, the suffix being derived via French from -iser computerize the stock-control system the dec-
Latin -izareand Greek . -izein .
imalization of British currency
 J
jail gaol
or ? In British English these two ◆ Note that the vowel pattern is the same as in
spellings are both acceptable, although jail leopard .
is preferred by many people. In American
English jail is the only accepted spelling.
jewellery jewelry
or ? This word has two

jargon
spellings in British English. Both are ac-
Jargon is the technical language ceptable although jewelry, standard in
used within a particular subject or profes- American English, is less frequent in Brit-
ish English.
.
sion, such as science, computing, medicine,
law, accountancy, etc.: The preferred pronunciation is [ eÆlri] rather
◆ joo
than the dialectal or nonstandard [ eÆri].
CVA or cerebral
jool
The spelling is more common in British
vascular accident is medical jargon for a

. jeweller
◆ The term is also used to denote the complex, English; in American English.
stroke
jeweler
obscure, pretentious or euphemistic language jibe see GIBE, JIBE or GYBE?
used by estate agents, journalists, sociologists,
advertisers, bureaucrats, politicians, etc.: . jodhpurs This word, meaning `riding
In so-
ciological jargon the class system has been re- trousers', is often misspelt, the being h

placed with a series of socioeconomic groups . either incorrectly placed or omitted com-
Jargon of both types is acceptable, and often pletely.
indispensable, in professional journals and in writ- ◆ The word originates from ,acity in India,
Jodhpur
ten or spoken communications between members hence the unusual spelling.
of the same group. It should be avoided, however, join or joint? The nouns and are
in articles, brochures, insurance policies, etc., that synonymous (but not interchangeable) in join joint

are to be read and understood by lay people and in the sense of `place where two parts are
conversations with members of the general public. joined'. most frequently refers to the
Jargon should not be used to impress, intimidate, visual effect of the act of joining, the line or
Join

confuse, or mislead the outsider.

See also COMMERCIALESE; JOURNALESE; OFFI- seam between two flat or flexible parts

Jargon sometimes finds its way into everyday .practical or functional, joining
CIALESE. (such as paper, fabric, carpet, string, etc.):
.A is more
You can hardly see the join joint

language in the form of CLICHEÂS or vogue words, three-dimensional parts: . two rigid

e.g. . Such words

interface, traumatic, user-friendly
. .
The pipe was

and expressions are disliked and avoided by many leaking at one of the joints the joint

users. .
between the shaft and the head

Jargon should not be confused with DIALECT or joined-up is used in expressions

Joined-up

SLANG. such as and

joined-up thinking joined-up

jealous The adjective

.
jealous is followed by
policy

approach to an issue: .
to describe a logical coordinated
What we need here
the preposition of: He was jealous of her
is some joined-up thinking. It is presumably
success.
derived from joined-up writing, regarded as
jealousy ENVY see JEALOUSY?
or more sophisticated than the individual

jeans GENES
see or JEANS?
handwritten lettering of young children.
Many people consider it a jargonistic term

jeopardize that is best restricted to informal contexts.

journalese
This word, meaning `expose
to danger', is often misspelt, the most Journalese is a derogatory name
frequent error being the omission of the for the style of writing or language that is
letter o. considered to be typical of newspapers.
judgment 176
◆ It is characterized by the use of CLICHEÂS and object to its frequent use in place of now: .
short sensational synonyms, e.g. , , , axe bid probe
which occur especially in headlines. The tele-
The leader's resignation at this juncture would

graphic style of newspaper headlines sometimes .

have a disastrous effect on the members'

gives rise to ambiguity or confusion: .

morale. I suggest that we take a short break
Merseyside [not at this juncture].

( This use of has developed from its

for refreshments now

pioneers abuse teaching pack for schools The ◆ juncture

Guardian ). This headline was intended to mean
`A teaching pack about child abuse has been
launched on Merseyside', but it could be inter-
preted as `Pioneers on Merseyside are misusing a
teaching pack'.
meaning of `concurrence or conjunction of events
or circumstances'. The noun is rarely used in its
original sense, as a synonym of `junction' or `joint'.
junta
This word refers to a controlling

Careful users avoid such techniques and devices political council and has various pronuncia-

in formal writing. tions. The preferred pronunciation is [jun-

See also JARGON. Æ ].

ta
◆ Other alternatives such as [ taÆ] and [ taÆ]
judgment judgement or ? Either spelling
huun
have arisen in imitation of the Spanish pronuncia-
juun

of this word is acceptable, although judge- tion.

ment was formerly more common in Brit-
ish English and judgment in American just Just has a variety of adverbial senses: `at
English. this moment', `exactly', `only', etc. For this
◆ Whichever spelling of is adopted, it
judg(e)ment reason it must be carefully positioned in a
is advisable to be consistent in the spelling of this .
sentence in order to convey the intended
word and words such as and
abridg(e)ment ac- meaning:
.
Your son has just eaten two cakes

knowledg(e)ment . [i.e. a short time ago]. Your son has eaten

.
judicial judicious
or ? Judicial means `of
just two cakes [i.e. not one or three, etc.].
Just your son has eaten two cakes [i.e. only
judgment in a court of law' or `of the
your son; no one else]. Transposing just and
administration of justice'; judicious means
. .
not may also change the meaning of a

. .
`having or showing good judgment' or
sentence: I'm just not tired. I'm not just
`prudent': judicial proceedings a judicious
tired; I'm hungry too.
choice.

The two adjectives are not interchangeable, ◆ In the sense of `in the very recent past', just
◆
although both may be applied to the same noun: should be used with the perfect tense in formal
. is the decision of a court of contexts: . . Its
They have just arrived at the station

law; .
a judicial decision
is a wise decision. use with the past tense in this sense ( They just
a judicious decision
may also mean `of a judge; impartial; arrived . . .) is regarded as an Americanism and is
Judicial
fair'; it is in this sense that it is most likely to be avoided by many careful users, even in informal
confused with . contexts.
judicious
may be used in place of, but not in addition
juncture :.
Just
The phrase refers to, exactly [not
That's just ]
just exactly what I
.
at this juncture

to a critical point in time; many people need

 K
K The letter K, short for kilo-, is increas- the economy will form a key element in the
.
.
ingly used to represent 1000, especially in chancellor's strategy (Sunday Times). to

.
sums of money: kick-start the housing market.

◆ The metaphor is derived from the world of

a salary of £50K plus

motorcycling, where the verb refers to the act of

company car houses priced from £250K

.
upwards. The abbreviation is also used in
spoken language: She was earning a starting an engine by kicking or pressing a pedal.
hundred K in the City.

◆
kid The use of the noun as a synonym
This usage was adopted from the jargon of for kid

computing, where may represent 1000 or 1024. stricted

K
to informal contexts: .
`child' or `young person' is best re-

kaleidoscope .
Things were
This word is sometimes
.
very different when I was a kid. One of the
misspelt. Note particularly the -ei- and local kids broke the window. Have you got
the first o from the Greek eidos, meaning any kids?
`form'.
◆ The correct pronunciation is [kaÆ doÆskoÅp]. lõÅ
kidnap The final p of the word kidnap is

karaoke The noun karaoke, denoting a vowel: . kidnapped .

doubled before a suffix beginning with a
kidnapper.
form of entertainment in which people See also SPELLING 1.
sing along with a pre-recorded tape, causes
problems of spelling and pronunciation. Of kidult The noun kidult refers to an adult
Japanese origin, the word may be pro- who continues to enjoy childish pursuits
Æo
nounced [karra Å ki] or [karrio
Å ki] in English. and tastes. In marketing terms it also de-

kerb see CURB or KERB?

scribes consumer products and entertain-
ment, including books, films, and TV
key Some people object to the increasingly programmes, that appeal to adults as well
as children. The word, resulting from the
frequent use of the word key as an adjec-

.
tive, in the sense of `fundamental', `essen- combination of kid and adult, is a vogue
term best restricted to informal contexts:
.
tial', `crucial', `most important',

.
`indispensable', etc.: a number of key The surroundings appealed to the kidult in
me.

ADULTESCENT.
individuals to manage their top UK stores
setting up a policy committee that will take See also

In many contexts it is better replaced by one of kilo

key decisions (Sunday Times).
Æ ], is
The word , pronounced [ lo
kilo kee
◆
its synonyms. : . .
most frequently used as an abbreviation for
.
kibbutzim ◆ Some dictionaries also list as an abbreviation
kilogram a kilo of sugar 50 kilos of coal

is the plural form of kilo

for , but this usage is very rare.
Kibbutzim

the noun , denoting a collective kilometre

Note that the first syllable of the prefix -, in
kibbutz

community in Israel. is pro- kilo

such words as , , etc., is pro-
Kibbutz
nounced [ki ], rhyming with ; kilometre kilogram
nounced like the word , not .
buuts puts kib-

butzim is stressed on the final syllable kill keel

[kibuutseem].
kilometre
kick-start
This word may be stressed on
The figurative use of the verb Æ meete
the first syllable [kilo Æ ] or on the
in the sense of `take action to get second syllable [kilomiteÆ ].
The first of these pronunciations is the more
kick-start

in motion (again)' is becoming rather hack- ◆

widely accepted in British English. The second,
.
neyed, especially in the phrase
regarded by some as an Americanism, is probably
kick-start the

economy:
becoming more current in British English.
Plans to balance income tax cuts
with measures to boost business and kickstart
kindly 178
See also METER or METRE?; STRESS. knee-jerk response of many union leaders. The

kindly The word kindly may be used as an

term should be confined to informal usage
and not be overused.
adjective, meaning `kind' or `sympathetic',
A knee-jerk reaction or response is the meta-
. ◆phorical
.
or as an adverb, meaning `in a kind way':
. equivalent of the physical reflex action
a kindly policeman kindly smile
that results from a light blow just below the knee-
They

has no one-word adverbial cap.

treated us kindly.

◆ The adjective
form: . kneeled or knelt? Either word may be
kindly
.
He smiled in a kindly manner
The adverb is also used in polite or angry used as the past tense and past participle of
requests or commands: .
kindly

.. British English: .
the verb
Patrons are kindly re- . is more frequent in
kneel Knelt

..
quested to refrain from smoking Kindly allow me ; He knelt on the grass
to tell you what happened Would you kindly in American English.
In such contexts it is See also -ED or T?
kneeled

take your hand off my knee!

often better replaced by . please
knight or night? The word
kind of
var- knight
In formal contexts the phrases kind iously describes an armoured medieval
of, sort of, and type of, in which kind, sort, warrior or a romantic hero. It should not
and type are in the singular, should be be confused with night, as in day and night,

.
preceded by this or that (rather than these although both words are pronounced the
same [nõÅt].
.
or those) and followed by a singular noun:

◆ Such expressions as
this kind of story that sort of biscuit.
,
these kind of stories those
knit knitted
or ? Knitted is the more fre-

sort of biscuits , etc., are sometimes heard in in- quent form of the past tense and past parti-

formal contexts but are disliked and avoided by .

ciple of the verb knit, especially in the literal

careful users. .
sense: I (have) knitted a cardigan for the baby.

A plural noun may used if the expression is She was wearing a knitted jacket.

, an alternative form of the past tense and

rephrased: . .
Stories of this kind are very popular
◆ Knit
past participle, is largely restricted to figurative
Note that the verb agrees with , not .
stories kind
contexts, especially in combination with an adverb
Where more than one kind, sort, or type is before a noun: . .
concerned, the whole expression may be put into .
a closely knit family a well-knit

theplural: . athlete

knock-on effect
She specializes in detective stories and
:
horror stories these kinds of stories are very pop- The phrase
. In such cases, the noun that follows
knock-on ef-

.
ular kinds/ refers to a series of related causes and
may remain in the singular: . . .
fect
sorts/types of these effects:
. (Note that the verb
The reduction in taxes will have a

kinds of story are very popular knock-on effect throughout the economy.
here agrees with , not .)
kinds story
knot not
The same principles apply to , , and or ? Knot
.
means `fastening' or

in other contexts: .
kind of sort of
`tangled mass of hair or thread, etc.': She

.
type of a different type of
tied a knot in the cord. It should not be
vegetable many different types of vegetable/
vegetables . confused with not, both words being pro-

See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?

nounced [not].

The use of or in place of or know YOU KNOW

isbestrestrictedtoinformalcontexts: .
kind of sort of rather see .
somewhat
sort of like him .. . The
It's kind of warm in here
I
knowledgeable This word, meaning

spelling kinda is sometimes used in writing to `having clear knowledge or understand-

denote `kind of' in casual speech. ing', is sometimes misspelt. Note that the

kinsman kinswoman
final -e of knowledge is retained before the
or ? see NON-SEXIST suffix -able.
TERMS .
kudos
knee-jerk
This word, from Greek, is approxi-
In figurative contexts, the term mately equivalent to `prestige' or `status'.
knee-jerk is applied to an automatic, pre- Some people avoid using it on the grounds
dictable, and/or unthinking reaction, as that it sounds pretentious, although this

.
opposed to a more considered response: reservation has become less pronounced

.
A knee-jerk reaction to the problem could over the years as the word has gradually
make matters worse. Industrial action is the become more widely familiar.
 L
laboratory The usual pronunciation of laissez-faire The French expression lais-

this word in British English is [laÆborra

Æ to
Æ ri], sez-faire is used to refer to the policy of
with the stress on the second syllable; the allowing businesses to operate freely with-
second is sometimes not sounded. In out government interference or control.
The phrase can also be extended to refer to the
o
American English the stress falls on the ◆
Æ ra
Æ tori]; the non-interference with the freedom of choice of
individuals: .
first and fourth syllables, [labo
first is sometimes not sounded. parents with a laissez-faire attitude to
.
o

laborious The word laborious is sometimes

the bringing up of their children
The literal meaning of the expression is `let
misspelt, the most frequent error being the
people do (as they choose)'. The phrase has the
insertion of a u after the first o, as in labour.
rarer variant spelling . Each variant is
lack
laisser-faire
When using the verb lack, lack for in pronounced [lesay ]. fair
place of lack is unacceptable to many peo-
lama or llama ? The spelling of these

.
ple, and the superfluous for is best omitted:
words is sometimes confused. A lama is a
[not lack for] friends.

◆ The use of may be influenced by the

She did not lack
Lamaist monk, the order of Lamaism
lack for
synonymous phrase , in which the op-
want for
being a form of Buddhism of Tibet and

tional preposition serves the useful purpose of

for
Mongolia. A llama is a South American

avoiding ambiguity or confusion with in the mammal related to the camel. Note the ll-

sense of `desire': .
want
. at the beginning of this word.

lacquer
She did not want for friends

This word is sometimes misspelt.

lamentable This word has two pronun-
ciations. The traditional British English
Note that it has only one -u-: the word ends Æ nta
pronunciation is [lame Æ bl].
in -er, and not -eur as in liqueur.
◆ The stress may also fall on the second syllable
laden loadedor ? Laden, a past participle [laÆ taÆbl], although this is disliked and avoided
men
by some users.
of the verb lade, is principally used as an
adjective, meaning `weighed down' or languor Note the spelling of this word,

.
`burdened'; loaded is the past tense and past particularly the unusual -uor ending. Lan-

.
participle of the verb load: The tree was guor is a formal word that means `laziness;

.
laden with apples. We overtook a heavily weariness'; the derived adjective is spelt
laden lorry. He (has) loaded the car. The languorous.
verb lade, meaning `load with cargo', is
rarely used in modern times in any other
larva lavaor ? These two words are occa-
sionally confused. A larva is an insect in its
form, except in the term bill of lading.

is also used as an adjective in literal and is the flowing or hardened molten rock
first stage after coming out of the egg. Lava

figurative senses: . .
◆ Loaded
a loaded gun a loaded
question , `one that contains hidden implications ◆from a volcano.
The plural of is , with the second
or is misleading'. larva larvae

The two adjectives should not be confused: . syllable rhyming with . me

The van is laden with furniture implies that the van lasso A is a rope with a noose, used
is weighed down or full to overflowing with fur- for catching horses or cattle. There are two
lasso

niture; . The van is loaded with furniture simply acceptable pronunciations although [la ]
means that the van contains furniture.
soo
is the more frequent in contemporary Brit-

lady see WOMAN. ish usage.

◆ The second pronunciation [ soÅ] was once stan-
laid, lain see LAY or LIE?
la
dard but is now less frequent.
last 180
last To avoid ambiguity, the adjective Some people object to the frequency of this
usage, replacing with an appropriate syno-
last

should be replaced, where necessary, with launch

nym wherever possible.
.
an appropriate synonym, such as latest,

final, or preceding: His latest

.
[not last]
lava LARVA LAVA
see or ?

. lavatory TOILET LOO

novel was published in June. His final

[not last] June. see , or BATHROOM?

law and order
novel was published in

.
The final [not last] chapter contains a list of Careful speakers pro-
useful addresses. The preceding [not last] nounce this phrase without an intrusive
chapter contains a list of useful addresses.
The use of may also cause confusion in such
[r] sound between the words law and
◆ last
phrases as , used on a Friday, the pronunciation of other words and
. Similar care should be taken with
and
last Wednesday
which may mean `two days ago' or `nine days phrases containing the sound [aw] followed
ago'.If the context is clearly in the past, may be by a vowel, such as
replaced by before days of the current week: .
last drawing, awe-inspiring, I
on I
[not ] .
. saw it
posted it on
See also NEXT or THIS?
last Wednesday
lawful, legal or legitimate? All these
may be retained where the context makes adjectives mean `authorized by law', but

its meaning clear: .

Last

application between them: .

there are differences of sense, usage, and

..
His last novel was published

. .
the lawful
posthumously The identity of the narrator is not
revealed until the last chapter . owner a legal contract a legitimate

late Used directly before a noun denoting a ◆ means `allowed by law' or `rightful'; it is
. organization

Lawful
largely restricted to formal contexts or set phrases,
or `former': .
person, the adjective may mean `dead'
late

such as .
. .
The widow gave her late one's lawful business
is more widely used, having the additional
meaning of `relating to law': .
husband's clothes to charity The late pre- Legal
. To avoid
. . .
sident has written his memoirs the legal profession
.
: .
confusion, (in the sense of `former')
late legal advice the legal system legal action

.
is often better replaced by or The adjective is principally applied to
children born in wedlock: .
ex- former legitimate
.
◆ It is generally unnecessary to add to a . It also means`reasonable',`logical', `genuine',
the ex-chairman my former flatmate the king's legitimate
late
person's name in obituaries, death announce- or `valid': . .
son

ments, or in historical contexts.

a legitimate excuse a legitimate
. reason
lath lathe
or ? These two nouns should not lay lie
or ? The verb lay, which is usually
be confused. A lath is a thin strip of wood; a transitive ± i.e. has an object ± is often
is a machine for shaping wood, metal,
.
lathe confused with lie, which is intransitive, i.e.
etc. Note that it is the noun lath, not lathe,

.
does not have an object: I'll lay the towel
that is used in the simile as thin as a lath.
is pronounced [lahth]; is pronounced
on the sand to dry. She's going to lie down for
◆ Lath lathe
[laydh].
a while.
◆ Careful users maintain the distinction between
lather This word has various pronuncia- the two verbs in all contexts.
This confusion is probably due to the fact that
the word also serves as the past tense of . .
tions. The traditional pronunciation

..
rhymes with gather, but the pronunciation lay lie
The baby lay in his cot and screamed You'd
.
rhyming with father is becoming more
better lay the baby in his cot
The past participle of is ; the word
frequent in contemporary usage.
The pronunciation [ theÆr] is incorrect. lie lain laid
(note the spelling) is the past tense and past
◆ lay

latter see FORMER and LATTER. participle of : .

launch ..
lay They have lain in the sun for
The verb is widely used in too long .
We (have) laid our coats on the bed
This verb , meaning `rest in a horizontal posi-
launch

.
the figurative sense of `set in motion', lie
tion', should not be confused with the unrelated
.
`start', or `introduce':
verb , meaning `be untruthful'. The past tense
The campaign will

and past participle of the latter are regular: .

be launched next month They have just lie

is also used figuratively as a noun: .

launched their new perfume. He
◆ Launch He (has) lied about his age . The present participle of
gave a party to celebrate the launch of his latest both these verbs is ; the present participle of
lying
novel . the verb is .
lay laying
 181 learn
The verb has a number of specific uses: . advances, as yet largely unproved in real applica-
. . ; etc. The tions and thus carrying a certain degree of risk: .
lay to
lay eggs to lay the table to lay a ghost
expression , meaning `to bring down',
to lay low This company is cautious about adopting bleed-
should not be confused with , meaning
to lie low ing-edge technology that may cause problems in
`to stay in hiding'. the long run.
The verb is rarely used without a direct See also CUTTING EDGE.
lay
object, a notable exception being the sense of leading question A
`produce eggs': . If the hens don't lay there will
sug- leading question

be no eggs for breakfast. The verb never has a answer, such as: .
gests or prompts the expected or desired
lie
direct object. .
Did you see the defendant

See also OVERLAY OR OVERLIE?; UNDERLAY or stab his wife with a kitchen knife? Do you

UNDERLIE? approve of the wholesale slaughter of innocent

layman laywoman Many people object to the frequent use of the

animals for their fur?

or ? see NON-SEXIST ◆
TERMS term with reference to questions that are challen-
ging, unfair,embarrassing, etc.: .
.

LDC DEVELOPMENT
see .
`Are there going

leach leech
to be any redundancies at the factory?' `That's a
or ? These two words are occa- leading question.'
sionally confused since they are pronounced
leak The use of the verb and noun leak

.
in the same way. The verb leach means
with reference to the unofficial, surrepti-
`deprive of something' or `drain away':

.
tious, or improper disclosure of secret in-
The colour leached from his face. It should not

.
formation is acceptable in most contexts:
be confused with the noun leech, which
Details of the report were leaked to the press.

.
describes a bloodsucking freshwater worm:
The managing director's secretary denied all
She picked a leech off her leg.

lead led
responsibility for the leak.
◆ The verb is used both transitively and
intransitively in this sense: .
or ? These two words are often leak
.
. .
confused. means `guide by going in He leaked the story
.
Lead
front': He was leading the walking party, The story leaked out
and is pronounced [leed]. The past tense of
this verb is led. This is sometimes wrongly
leak leek
or ? These two words are occa-
sionally confused since they are pronounced

.
spelt as lead because the pronunciation is
in the same way. Leak describes an out-
the same as that of the metal: as heavy as

.
pouring of liquid or something else escaping
lead, pronounced [led].

leadership
a container: oil leaking from the pipe. It
Leadership is the state or rank should not be confused with leek, which

. .
of a leader; it also denotes qualities asso- refers to a vegetable with a white bulb and

.
ciated with a good leader: elected to the long cylindrical stem: a bowl of leek soup.
leadership to lack leadership potential. The
leaned leant or ? Either word may be used

.
use of the noun in place of leaders is disliked

.
as the past tense and past participle of the
by some people: China's leadership ap-
verb lean: She leaned/leant forwards to open
peared to be stepping up efforts to promote its
the window.
version of recent history (Daily Telegraph).
may be pronounced [leend] or [lent];
leading-edge
◆ Leaned
The adjectival use of lead- leant is always pronounced [lent].
ing-edge is best avoided where advanced or See also -ED or -T?
up-to-date

appropriate: .
would be adequate or more
leading-edge technology . a
leaped leapt or ? Either word may be used

denotes the forward verb : ..

as the past tense and past participle of the
leading-edge project.

◆ The noun leading edge

leap They leaped/leapt across the very

edge of an aerofoil, wing, etc. The noun is also ◆ may be pronounced [leept] or [lept];
wide ditch

used figuratively, in the vogue expression is always

Leaped
pronounced [lept].
:.
at the
leapt
See also -ED or -T?
leading edge This impressive product is at the

learn or teach? The use of.the verb

leading edge of both lexicographical and compu-
ter technology (Harrap catalogue).
A modern derivative of the term is
learn

in place of
bleeding- is wrong:
, which refers to the very latest technological [not
teach He's teaching
edge ] .
learning me to swim
learned 182
To is to gain knowledge; to is to .
.
◆ learn teach avoided by many users:
impart knowledge.
You mustn't let

[not leave] go of the rope.

The verb is followed by the preposition
I told the children

or inthesense`receiveinformation': .
learn of to let [not leave] him be. The expressions
about When and alone, however, are
[or ] It is
leave alone let
did you learn of about the accident? virtually interchangeable in the sense of
followed by the preposition in the sense
`gain knowledge': . .
about `refrain from disturbing, bothering, inter-
We learnt about the Vikings fering with, etc.': Leave/Let the dog alone.
last week . also means `allow or cause to be
◆ Leave alone
learned or learnt? Either word may be alone',: .in which sense it cannot be replaced by
alone Please don't leave me alone ± I'm afraid of
let

:.
used as the past tense and past participle of
. the dark
the verb learn Have you learned/learnt the
is also used as a set phrase meaning
or `still less': .
Let alone

◆ The past tense and past participle

words of the song?
may `not to mention' They can't afford
learned
be pronounced [lernd] or [lernt]; it should not be See also LET. .
minced beef, let alone fillet steak

confused with the two-syllable adjective

[ nid], meaning `erudite': .
learned
ler
.
led see LEAD or LED?
a very learned pro-
fessor
See also -ED or -T?; LEARN or TEACH? leech LEACH
see LEECH?
or

learning curve The phrase learning curve leek LEAKsee or LEEK?

refers to the process of acquiring new
knowledge or experience as if represented
leeward This word has two possible pro-
nunciations. The generally accepted pro-
by a graph. (The rate of learning is usually
Æ rd] but [looa
nunciation is [leewa Æ rd] is used
not uniform: the curve may rise steeply at
in nautical contexts.
the beginning, when a large amount of
knowledge is acquired in a relatively short
time.) It is a vogue term, often found in
legacy This word is sometimes misspelt.
Note the ending.
With the advent of computers in recent years
-acy

.
business contexts, and should not be over- ◆
used:
.
to help new employees up the learning legacy has expanded beyond its original meaning
curve Most schools have only just started of `inherited gift' or `something handed down
their second year of LMS and head teachers from an ancestor or predecessor' and may now
admit to being on a steep learning curve (The also refer specifically to essential computer soft-
Bookseller). ware that has been in use for some time but has
learningdifficulties become costly and difficult to maintain: .
.
In modern usage, this legacy

is the approved designation for any condi- software legacy system.

tion that hinders a person from absorbing legal LAWFUL LEGAL

see , or LEGITIMATE?
.
basic information or learning simple skills:
The local authority is opening a new legalize DECRIMINALIZE
see or LEGALIZE?

ing difficulties. .
department to support youngsters with learn-
They employ a number of
legendary The use of the adjective legend-

.
ary in the sense of `very famous or notor-
adults who have learning difficulties. It has ious' may be misleading or confusing: The
replaced such terms as retarded or mentally

.
legendary Dick Turpin rode a horse called
handicapped, which are now considered Black Bess. Listening to recordings of the
unacceptable.
◆ People with learning difficulties may also be
 s Segovia during the 1930s
legendary Andre

termed learning-disabled. ◆
(Reader's Digest).

The context of the second example makes it

. . .

learnt LEARNED LEARNT

see or ? clear that AndreÂs Segovia existed in fact, not
legend, but the first example is ambiguous.
lease HIRE RENT
legible readable
see or ?

least-developed countries see DEVELOP- or ? The adjective legible

MENT .
describes something that can be deciphered

leave let
and read; readable describes something that

. .
or ? The use of the verb leave in may be read with interest, enjoyment, or
place of let, especially in the expressions let ease: legible handwriting a very readable

go and let be, is regarded as incorrect and novel.

 183 letter writing
is also used as a synonym for `legible': lengthy The adjective
.
◆ Readable lengthy means `te-
The text is barely readable without a magnifying diously, excessively, or unusually long'; it
.
.
glass should not be used in place of long as a
ILLEGIBLE or UNREADABLE?
See also neutral antonym of short: The children

legionary see LEGIONNAIRE. lengthy speech. .

became very restless during the headmaster's

[not lengthy]

legionnaire
She has long

dark hair and brown eyes.

may be pronounced [ thi] or
Note the spelling of this word,
◆ Lengthy leng
[ thi]. Note the consonant sequence in
particularly the -nn-. A legionnaire is a
lenk -ngth-
the spelling.
(former) member of a military legion, such
as the French Foreign Legion, the British
Legion, or the American Legion; the noun
also occurs in the name of a serious disease,
leopard This word is sometimes misspelt.
The most frequent error is the omission of
legionnaires' disease.
should not be confused with the the which is not pronounced. o

, which has a single and specifi- less see FEWER or LESS?

◆ Legionnaire
noun legionary n
cally refers to a member of an ancient Roman less-developed country see DEVELOPMENT.
legion.
legitimate see LAWFUL, LEGAL or LEGITIMATE?
lest This word, meaning `in case some-
thing bad happens', is a relic of Old English

leisure This word, meaning `time spent

that has become relatively infrequent in

.
everyday conversation. It is followed by
free from work', is sometimes misspelt.
Note the spelling.
should or a verb in the SUBJUNCTIVE: I

is commonly pronounced [ zheÆr] in

-ei-

.
did not mention it, lest it should give her
◆ Leisure le
British English and [ zheÆr] in American English.
lee
needless pain. We should go now lest we be

leisurely
late. Many people consider its use preten-
The word leisurely may be used tious and avoid it altogether.
as an adjective or, more rarely, as an
. let Used in the imperative, let should be

.
adverb, meaning `without haste': stroll

. .
followed by an object pronoun rather than
at a leisurely pace She walked leisurely up

.
a subject pronoun: Let them try. Let him
the garden.

lend loan
finish his meal first. Let Paul and me [not I]
or ? The word lend is used only see the letter.
, an informal contraction of , is used to
. . introduce a suggestion or proposal made to the
as a verb; in British English loan is used ◆ Let's let us

other member(s) of one's group: .

principally as a noun: He lent me his pen.
Thank you for the loan of your lawn mower. . Let's stay here
The preferred negative form of is ,
isalsousedin BritishEnglish: .
The use of loan as a verb is widely regarded let's let's not
as an Americanism. It is becoming increas- although don't let's
ingly acceptable, however, with reference Let's not go to the party .
HIRE or RENT?; LEAVE or LET?
.
to the lending of large sums of money, See also
valuable works of art, etc.: The bank will
letter writing There are a number of

.
loan us the money we need to finance the
setting up of the new venture.
conventions relating to the style and layout
This picture
of a formal or semiformal letter.

1
has been loaned to the gallery by the Duke and

Duchess of Kent. The sender's address, followed by the

The use of the verb in place of is
wrong: .
◆ lend borrow date, should appear at the top of the letter,
[not ]
Can I borrow lend your umbrella, usually in the right-hand corner. The re-
please? To is to give for temporary use; to
lend cipient's name and address appear below
borrow is to take for temporary use. this, on the left-hand side of the page.

lengthways lengthwise or ? Either word

Punctuation of the address ± a comma at
the end of each line (except the final line,

.
may be used as an adverb in British Eng-
which has a full stop) and sometimes after
lish: Fold the sheet lengthways/lengthwise
the house number ± is optional.

2 The salutation (
before ironing it.

◆ As an adjective, and as an adverb in American

English, is preferred to .
Dear Sir, Dear Madam,
lengthwise lengthways Dear Miss Jones, Dear Mr Brown, or, in-
See also -WISE or -WAYS? creasingly, under American influence, Dear
leukaemia 184
James Chapman, etc., where the writer lish a level playing field for competition be-

.
wants to avoid the formality of Dear tween community countries in the single
Mr Chapman and the informality of Dear market (The Guardian). I don't mind trying

James) is set on a separate line, beginning to compete on a level playing field with the
with a capital letter and ending with a rest of the book trade, but . . . (The Book-

comma in British English, a colon in seller).

American English.
See also ABBREVIATIONS; MS, MRS or MISS? liable likely
or ? Both adjectives are used to

3
express probability, followed by an infini-
The letter itself should be divided into tive with to. Liable refers to habitual prob-
paragraphs, with or without indentation. ability, often based on past experience;

.
The style and content of the letter depend likely refers to a specific probability that
COMMER-
.
on the level of formality (see also may be without precedent: The dog is
CIALESE).
.
liable to bite strangers. The dog is likely to

4 The letter is closed with any of a number

bite you if you pull his tail.
to collapse when it is filled with books. .
The shelf is liable
The
of fixed phrases, the most frequent being
shelf is likely to collapse if it is filled with
Yours sincerely (if the recipient's name is
books. Careful users maintain the distinc-
used in the salutation) or Yours faithfully (if
tion between the two words.
an impersonal salutation, such as Dear Sir
◆ The adjectives and , which are similar
apt prone
or Dear Madam, is used). Like the saluta-
in sense and usage to , principally refer to
disposition, inclination, or tendency: .
liable
tion, this phrase is set on a separate line,
He is apt/
beginning with a capital letter and ending
prone to lose his temper .
with a comma.
also means `responsible (for)' or `subject
5 The signature is usually followed by the (to)': .
Liable
..
She is liable for their debts He is liable to
sender's name, title, and office (if appro- is interchangeable with
in the second of these senses: .
epileptic attacks. Prone
priate). liable She is prone

6 Some of these conventions also apply to to indigestion

See also
.
LIKELY.
liaison
informal letters: the position of the sender's
address, the punctuation and layout of the The noun liaison and its derived
salutation and closing phrase, etc. An in- verb liaise are often misspelt, the most
formal letter may begin with the recipient's frequent error being the omission of the
first name and end with any of a number of second i.
expressions, such as Best wishes, Yours, Love, ◆ Some people object to the widespread use of
etc. The recipient's name and address are liaisonand as synonyms for `communication',
liaise
usually omitted and it is rarely necessary to `communicate', or `(maintain) contact', and the
add the sender's name after the signature. use of to refer to an illicit sexual relation-
ship: .
liaison

leukaemia This word is sometimes mis-

..
Closer liaison between teachers and social
workers might have prevented this tragedy
spelt. Note the three sets of vowels: eu, ae,
Overseas travel will be necessary to liaise with
and ia in British English. The American

..
subsidiaries and distributors in Europe, North
English spelling is leukemia.

level The noun level serves a useful pur-

America, and the Far East
about his liaison with his secretary
His wife found out
.
pose in a variety of literal and figurative
libel or slander ? Both words refer to

.
senses but is sometimes superfluous or
defamatory statements: libel is written,

.
unnecessarily vague: a high level of un-
drawn, printed, or otherwise recorded in

.
employment (high unemployment) an
permanent form; slander is spoken or con-
increase in the noise level (more noise)
veyed by gesture.
◆ In informal contexts the word is often used
decisions made at management level (deci-
libel
sions made by the management).
in place of .
level playing field
slander
The phrase Both words may be used as nouns or as verbs.
The final of is doubled before a suffix
level play-
is increasingly used in figurative l libel
beginning with a vowel in British English; the final
ing field

.
contexts, denoting a situation where all can
compete on equal terms: These [the single r of is never doubled.
slander
European market rules] are meant to estab- See also SPELLING 1.
 185 like
library The pronunciation of this word is light. Lit
.
is the more frequent in British
.
.
Æ ri]. Careful users avoid dropping the
[lõÅbra English: Have you lit the fire? He lit his
second syllable [lõÅbri], but this pronuncia- pipe. The hall was lit by candles.

◆ Used adjectivally before a noun, is the

preferredform: . . .
tion is frequently heard. lighted

licence license
or ? In British English, the
.
a lighted torch a lighted match
. If the adjective is modified by
maybereplaceby : .
a lighted cigarette
noun is spelt
.
licence, the verb
.
license: a
anadverb,however,
.
lighted lit

.
television licence an off-licence
.
poetic
a well-lit room .
a badly lit stage

. lightning lightening
licence to license one's car (un)licensed
premises licensing hours. In American Eng- or ? These two
lish, both the noun and verb are spelt license. words are often confused. Lightning is a

lichen This word has two pronunciations

electricity: .
flash of light produced by atmospheric
thunder and lightning. Light-
Æ n] or [liche
[lõÅke Æ n]. Some people prefer the

.
first of these, which is the same pronuncia- ning is also used as an adjective to describe

tion as liken.
things that happen very quickly: the

licorice LIQUORICE
see .
lightning strike by postal workers. Lightening

.
is the present participle/gerund of the verb
lie LAY LIE
see or ? lighten: lightening someone's load.

lieu IN LIEU
see . light-year A light-year is a unit of distance,

lieutenant This word is often misspelt, the

sions as: .
not time; careful users avoid such expres-
It happened light-years ago. . The
most frequent errors occurring in the first
wedding seemed light-years away.
syllable: lieu-. The pronunciation of this
◆ A is the distance travelled by light in
light-year
syllable varies. The most frequent pronun-
one year (approximately six million million miles);
ciation in British English is as in left, in
the term is used in astronomy.
likable
nautical contexts the pronunciation is as in
let, and in American English, the pronun- see LIKEABLE or LIKABLE?
ciation is as in loot.
like
lifelong livelong
The use of like as a conjunction,
or ? The adjective life- introducing a clause that contains a verb,

. .
long means `lasting or continuing for a is disliked by many users and is best

.
lifetime': my lifelong friend his lifelong avoided in formal contexts, where as, as

admiration for her work. The adjective live- if, or as though should be used instead: The

.
long, meaning `very long' or `whole', is garden looks as if [not like] it has been

chiefly used in the old-fashioned poetic neglected for many years. As [not like]

expression all the livelong day. the headmaster said, corporal punishment is

◆ Lifelong is usually written as a solid compound, .

being an accepted ◆ The use of as a preposition, introducing a
not used in this school

the hyphenated form life-long like

but rare variant. noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, is acceptable in all
Livelong , which is etymologically unrelated to contexts: . ..
The garden looks like a jungle Like
the word , is pronounced [ long].
.. ..
live liv the headmaster, she disapproves of corporal pun-

lifestyle Some people object to the fre- ishment His sister writes like him
. (Note
me, they are keen amateur photographers
Like you and

quent use of the term , a synonym

that
lifestyle
the preposition is followed by the objectlike

etc.: . .
for `way of life', by advertisers, journalists,
pronouns , etc., not the subject pronouns
him, me

.
urban lifestyle
. , etc.)
consumer lifestyle
he, I
values lifestyle packaging
The use of in place of the preposition may
The spread of

change the meaning of the sentence: .

as like
Aids is likely to have tremendous effects on the

..
As your
personal lifestyles of many people .
, ,
.
father I have a right to know Like your father I
There is an increasing tendency today
.
..
have a right to know She plays like a profes-
for lifestyleto be written as a one-word
sional . In other
She plays as a professional
compound. It is sometimes hyphenated
contexts, the two prepositions may be virtually
(
life-style) but not usually written as two
interchangeable: .
..
He was dressed as/like a po-
separate words.
.
lighted or lit? Either word may be used as The habitual use of . in spoken conversation
liceman They treat me like/as an idiot
like
the past tense and past participle of the verb as a meaningless filler: , He was, like, really angry
-like 186
when exaggerating for effect: . ◆ Neither word is in frequent use: is largely
or to introduce speech: .
He was like 100 lineage
feet tall, restricted to formal contexts, to the world of
She was like,'- linage
Where do you think you're going?' and I was like, printing and publishing.
is best avoided, or at is also used as a variant spelling of
leastconfinedtoironicremarks: .
`Mind your own business!' Lineage
, in which case it is pronounced [ ij].
Like, who rattled linage lõÅn
your cage?
See also AS; SUCH AS or LIKE? lineament liniment or ? The noun linea-

-like .
ment, meaning `feature', is largely restricted
The suffix -like may be attached with to formal or literary contexts: the noble

. .
or without a hyphen in British English: lineaments of his face. It should not be
spadelike or spade-like autumnlike or confused with the noun liniment, denoting

is added to one- or two-syllable or stiffness: .

autumn-like. a liquid rubbed into the skin to relieve pain
◆ When - like .
words that do not end in - , the hyphen is often linger The verb
a bottle of liniment

omitted: . . .
I
dreamlike birdlike , par- preposition in the sense
paperlike
`be slow' .
is followed by the linger

ticularly in words that are well-established in the over He

English language, such as and .

Words that end in - , especially those that end in the sense `dwell on': .
. It is followed by
lingered over his breakfast
lifelike ladylike
on Don't let your
l
in - , and words of three or more syllables usually .
mind linger on the unpleasant details

retain the hyphen when adding - : . . lingua franca A

II

. .
like coal-like
.
is a language lingua franca
model-like doll-like potato-like
.
adopted as a common language by speakers

likeable likable
or ? Both spellings of this
whose native languages are different:

word are acceptable. See SPELLING 3. English is rapidly becoming the lingua franca

likely
of the world.
In British English the adverb likely, ◆ The expression is pronounced
lingua franca
meaning `probably', is not used on its own [lingwaÆ kaÆ]; the plural is
fran [lingwaÆ
lingua francas
kaÆs].
.
in formal contexts; it is usually preceded by fran
The phrase comes from Italian,
.
very, quite, more, or most: lingua franca
meaning `Frankish language'.
They will very
likely arrive tomorrow morning. I'll most

likely see you at the party.

◆ Some people avoid the problem by using linguist The noun
prob-
may denote a linguist

or by rephrasing the sentence to make person who knows a number of foreign

an adjective: .
ably likely

study of language. .
languages or a specialist in linguistics, the

..
They will probably arrive tomorrow
, Mr Evans an accom-
morning They are likely to arrive tomorrow
morning . . .
, plished linguist was a great help to us on our

As an adjective, may stand alone or be European tour At yesterday's lecture the

modified by an adverb: . .
likely
linguist Noam Chomsky expounded his theory
a likely effect a more
likely explanation . ◆A
.
is someone who can speak or
of language structure

See also LIABLE or LIKELY?

modern linguist
is studying modern European languages such as
limited Some people object to the use of French, German, and Spanish. Although the noun
is rarely ambiguous in context, it may be
`small', `little', `few', etc.: .
the adjective as a synonym for linguist
replaced, if necessary, by the synonym (for
limited

. .
polyglot
the first sense) or (for the second
a limited income
linguistician
sense).
with limited assistance of limited educa-

.
is best reserved for its original meaning liniment see LINEAMENT or LINIMENT?
tion

of `restricted': . ..
◆ Limited

.. liquefy or liquify? Both spellings of this

Their powers are limited We
have a limited choice He finds it difficult to work
in a limited space . word are acceptable, although the first is

lineage linage generally preferred.

liqueur liquor
or ? The noun lineage, pro-
nounced [liniij], means `line of descent' or or ? The spellings of these
`ancestry'; the noun linage, pronounced words are sometimes confused. A liqueur

. .
[lõÅnij], means `number of printed or written [likyoor] or, less commonly, [liker] is a sweet
lines': the emperor's lineage payment based alcoholic drink taken after a meal. Liquor

on linage. Æ r] is any alcoholic beverage.

[like
 187 loath
liquidate liquidize
.
or ? The verb liquidate
.
greatness, to denote brochures, leaflets, and
.
is used in finance: to liquidate a company other written or printed matter: They're

.
to liquidate one's assets, and as an informal sending us some literature about holidays in

euphemism for `kill': the Far East.

The principal objection is not that is an
He liquidated his

. unnecessary synonym for some other noun ± it has

rivals. To liquidize is to make something ◆ literature
liquid, usually in a blender or liquidizer:
no one-word equivalent in general use for this
sense ± but `that so reputable a word should be
Liquidize the fruit and add it to the whipped
cream.

liquify LIQUEFY or LIQUIFY? put to so menial a duty' (H.W. Fowler, A Dictionary

see
).
liquor
of Modern English Usage
see LIQUEUR or LIQUOR?
little FEW; FEWER or LESS?
liquorice
see
There are two possible pronun-
ciations of this word. The traditional pro- live The adjective
.
live,
.
meaning `not pre-

nunciation [liko Æ ris] is preferred by many, recorded': a live broadcast live music, is

.
Æ rish] is also acceptable and widely
but [liko increasingly used in the extended sense of

used. `actually present': They have never per-

◆ In American English the noun is spelt licorice . formed in front of a live audience.
◆ This usage inevitably leads to humorous associa-
lit LIGHTED LIT
see or ? tions with the principal meaning of , i.e. `living' live

literal literary literate

, or ? Literal means or `alive', in contrast to `dead'.
`word for word; exact'; literary means `re- livelong see LIFELONG or LIVELONG?
lating to literature'; literate
.
means `able to
livid The adjective may be used to
. .
read and write: (well-)educated': a literal livid

describe a range of colours, from the dark

. .
translation the literal meaning of the word
purple colour of a bruise, through the
.
literary works a literary critic They are

barely literate. a highly literate candidate. greyish-blue colour of a livid sky, to the
◆ All three adjectives are ultimately derived from pale complexion of somebody who is livid

Latin `letter', but they are not interchange- with fear.

is perhaps most frequently used in the
littera
able in any of their senses.
sense of `very angry': .
◆ Livid
Some people avoid using to mean `well- His mother will be livid
. This usage is best restricted to
literate
educated' where there is a risk of ambiguity. In a when she finds out
job advertisement, for example, may refer
literate informal contexts.
to anything from a basic ability to read and write to living room LOUNGE
degree-level qualifications. see .

In such combinations as . , the

computer literate llama LAMA LLAMA
see or ?
word literateis reduced to the sense of `compe- loaded LADEN LOADED
tent; able; experienced'. see or ?

literally loan LEND LOAN

see or ?

loath loth loathe

The use of the adverb literally as

.
an intensifier, especially in figurative con- , or ? Loath and loth are

.
texts, is disliked by many users: It literally different spellings of the same adjective,

.
rained all night. I was literally tearing my meaning `unwilling' or `reluctant'; loathe is

.
hair out by the time they arrived. a verb, meaning `detest': He was loath/loth

The effect of this usage may be misleading or

ambiguous: .
◆ to move to London. He loathes working in

, or quite
absurd: . .
We were literally starving London. Loath and loathe are frequently
.
She literally laughed her head off confused: The team would be loathe to

As the opposite of , may be

figuratively literally see the manager go. For this reason some
used to indicate that a metaphorical expression is
to be interpreted at its face value: .
users prefer loth, the more distinctive spel-
The dog had ling of the adjective.
.
literally bitten off more than it could chew ◆ The adjectives and are pronounced
loath loth

literary literate LITERAL, LITERARY [loÅth], with the final sound of ; the verb
th bath

LITERATE
, see or
loathe is pronounced [loÅdh], with the final th
?
sound of .
literature
bathe
Some people object to the use of Note the spelling of the adjective , loathsome
the noun literature, with its connotations of which may be pronounced [ soÆm] or [ soÆm]. loÅdh loÅth
locale 188
locale locality
, or location ? All three loosed the lion from its cage. . He loosened his

nouns mean `place', but they are not alto- belt. The two verbs are not interchange-
gether synonymous. Locale, the most for- able.
mal of the three, refers to a place that is The adjective , which means `free' or `not
◆ loose
tight', may be applied to something that has been
of events: . :. ..
connected with a particular event or series
loosened . The lion was loose His belt was loose
The verb is rarely used in modern times. It
an unlikely locale for a human

(example adapted from loose

is occasionally confused with the verb , which
rights convention

to a neighbourhood or geographical area: .

COBUILD corpus). often refers lose
is similar in spelling and pronunciation ( is
Locality

loose
There are a number ofpronounced [loos]; is pronounced [looz]).
bookshops in the lose
locality. Location means `site' or `situation'
and is often used as a formal or pretentious
lorry Lorry and lorry driver, the traditional
British English terms, are increasingly
.
substitute for the nouns place, position, etc.
LOCATE): being overtaken by their American equiva-
.
(see also to move to a different
lents truck and truck driver or trucker.
the location of the town hall.

lose
location

locate The verb locate and its derived noun see LOOSE or LOOSEN?
location are best avoided where find, situate,
lot The expressions a lot (of) and lots (of)

.
place, position, etc., would be adequate or are best avoided in formal contexts, where

.
more appropriate: I can't find [not locate]

.
they may be replaced by many, much, a

.
my front-door key. The shrub should be

.
great deal (of), a good deal (of), etc.: We
planted in a sheltered position [not location].
have many [not lots of] books. They received
Offices in a prestigious part of the City [not a
[not a lot of] help.

Note that should never be written

a great deal of
prestigious City location].
◆ a lot alot.

location LOCALE LOCALITY

see , or LOCATION? MANY; MUCH; SINGULAR or PLURAL?
See also

lone ALONE LONE

see or ? loth see LOATH, LOTH or LOATHE?
longevity This word, meaning `long lots see LOT.
length of life', is usually pronounced [lon-
Æti] although [longjevÆõti] is also fre-
jevõ
loud loudly
or ? Loud
.
may be used as an
.
adjective or adverb: a loud noise He
quently used.
◆ The pronunciation [long õÆti] is nonstandard.
gev
shouted as loud as he could. The adverb

longitude
loudly may be substituted for loud in all

.
This word, referring to the its adverbial uses except the phrase out loud,

distance west or east of the Greenwich meaning `audibly': She read the poem out

meridian, may be pronounced with a j- loud [not out loudly]. It is not always ac-

.
sound [lonjityood] or a g-sound [longgi- ceptable, however, to use the adverb loud in

.
tyood]. Note that there is no t before the place of loudly: They protested loudly [not
i in longitude, either in spelling or pronun- loud] and angrily. loudly [not loud] dressed

ciation, unlike latitude. in a blue-and-yellow striped jacket.

loo TOILET LAVATORY LOO

see , , or BATHROOM? lounge The lounge of a private house or

lookalike The noun lookalike denotes

flat is the room used for relaxation, recrea-

.
tion, and the reception of guests, as opposed

.
someone who closely resembles another
to the dining room: She showed the vicar

.
person, usually a famous person: a Prince
into the lounge. Some people consider the
Charles lookalike the Marilyn Monroe
synonyms sitting room and living room to be
lookalike competition.
◆ Some users consider to be an unne- ◆ The word less pretentious than lounge.
lookalike
cessary synonym, of American origin, for the noun pub, also denotes a room in a hotel,
.
lounge

. club, or airport:
.
Coffee will be served in the
double
is sometimes written as a hyphenated . lounge The passengers waited in the departure
Lookalike
compound, . . lounge
look-alike
The noun , an old-fashioned synonym for
loose or loosen? The verb means
parlour
, is derived from the French verb ,
meaning `to speak': .
loose lounge parler

means `make or become less tight': .

`release', `set free', or `undo'; the verb The maid has tidied the
. The word also has a number of
loosen
She parlour parlour
 189 lying
specificuses: . .
beauty parlour .
ice-cream parlour lowly LOW LOWLY
see or ?
The term (short for
drawing room withdrawing
low-profile PROFILE
), another synonym, has connotations of see .

grandeur and formality: .

room

.
The ladies retired to Ltd PLC see .
the drawing room
, ,
Sitting room living room drawing room , and lumbar lumber or ? These two words are
dining room are sometimes hyphenated in British identical in pronunciation and are some-
English. times confused. Lumbar is an adjective used

lour lower
or ? Lower in the sense of `look
in medical contexts, referring to the lower
.
.
part of the back and sides: a lumbar
sullen; look gloomy or threatening' may puncture the lumbar vertebrae. Lumber is

.
also be spelt lour and is pronounced to used as a noun or verb. In the sense of
rhyme with tower: clouds lowering/louring

.
`unwanted articles', the noun lumber is
over the sea. The word is etymologically chiefly found in British English: the lum-
unrelated to lower, used as an adjective to
.
ber room; in the sense of `timber' it is chiefly
mean `relatively low', and as a verb to mean found in American English: heaps of
`move down'. Lower in these senses is
.
lumber. The verb lumber means `move heav-
pronounced to rhyme with mower.
ily, awkwardly, etc.':
low lowly
An elephant lumbered

.
or ? The adjective low, the past; in the sense of `burden' it should be
restricted to informal contexts:
. . .
opposite of high, has a number of senses: I got lum-
bered with the job of delivering the leaflets.

. .
a low wall a low temperature a low voice
low morale

lowly,
to feel low.

meaning `humble' or `inferior', is

The adjective
lunch luncheon
or ? Both nouns denote a
midday meal: a luncheon is usually a formal

. .
much more restricted in usage and is for-
social occasion; lunch is often a light infor-
mal: a lowly job.
Both adjectives may be applied to the same mal
their lowly abode

is conducted: .
meal or a fuller meal at which business

noun with different connotations: .

◆
..
The Prince of Wales was the

.
the low status

..
guest of honour at the luncheon We stopped
of women in 18th-century society the lowly
status of the gardener. at a pub for lunch They discussed the terms of

As an adverb, can mean `in a low manner' ◆ The use of .

or `in a lowly manner', but it is very rarely used generally considered to be old-fashioned, `lunch'
as a synonym for is
the contract at their business lunch
lowly
luncheon

in either sense. The word may be used only in such terms as surviving
adverbially: . . .
low
and luncheon meat luncheon

.
to lie low
.
to bow low
.
low-heeled
voucher
See also DINNER, LUNCH, TEA or SUPPER?
shoes a low-cut neckline

lower LOUR LOWER

see or ?
lure ALLURE LURE
lower-case CAPITAL LETTERS
see or ?
see .
luxuriant luxurious
low-hanging fruit
or ? Luxuriant means

.
This phrase, meaning `profuse', `lush', or `fertile'; luxurious means

. .
`easy pickings' or `an easy target', is a vogue `sumptuous' or `characterized by luxury':
term of relatively recent coinage: The luxuriant vegetation a luxurious hotel. The
company has concentrated on picking off some two adjectives are not interchangeable:
low-hanging fruit. A favourite example of luxuriant is principally applied to things
contemporary business jargon, it is best that produce abundantly; luxurious to
avoided in formal contexts. things that are very comfortable, expensive,

low-key Some people object to the fre-

The noun
opulent, self-indulgent, etc.
is also used as an adjective,
but not essential': .
◆ luxury
quent use of the adjective
meaning
low-key, meaning
`desirable luxury
`of low intensity', in place of
, etc.: .
. Its
modest, re-
use as a synonym for `luxurious', espe-
. .
goods
strained, subdued, unassertive
cially in advertisements:
The

.
a luxury car a luxury

◆ The variant
reception was a very low-key affair .
is also used from time to hotel, etc., is disliked
luxury flats by some.
lying see LAY or LIE?
low-keyed
time.
 M
macabre Note the spelling of this word, vowel is optional: for example, macroeconomics
which ends in in both British and and microorganismmay be replaced with macro-
and .
-re

.
American English. It means `relating to economics micro-organism
death; gruesome': a macabre tale. The r See also HYPHEN 1.
is not always sounded in speech, the pro-
nunciations [ma Æ kahbeÆ] and [maÆ kahbreÆ] Madam Madameor ? Madam is a polite

.
being equally acceptable to most people. term of address for woman; the word may

machinations This word, meaning `de-

be written with a capital or lower-case
Would madam like a cup of coffee? .
m:
Can I
vious plots or conspiracies', is traditionally
.
help you, Madam? Madame, written with a
pronounced [makinaysho Æ nz], although the capital M, is the French equivalent of Mrs:
Æ nz]
alternative pronunciation [mashinaysho Wax models of famous people are displayed at
is becoming increasingly common. Madame Tussaud's.

machismo ◆ The usual English pronunciation of both words is

The noun
.
machismo,
[ aÆm];
denoting
mad is also pronounced [maÆ ] or
Madame dam
aggressive masculinity:
[ma Æ
the machismo of the
], anglicized
dahm forms of the French pronun-
leader , may be pronounced [ma mo Å ] or
ciation.
kiz
[ma chiz moÅ ]. Note that the does not have
ch
is also used as an impersonal salutation
andasaformaltitleofrespect: .
Madam
the sound of .
◆ Derived from a Spanish word meaning `male'
sh machine
in LETTERWRITING
(see MACHO), it is a derogatory word that is dis- uses the word.is always written with
Dear Madam . In both these
Madam President
a capital .
liked by some users of British English and is best , the plural of the French word
M

restricted to informal contexts. Mesdames

, also serves as the plural form of . It is
Ma-

macho The adjective , the Spanish

macho
dame
usually pronounced [ dam] in English. may
Madam

word for `male', has derogatory connota- The noun denotes a woman who runs a
madam
tions in English, describing a man who brothel or a girl who is impudent, conceited,
.
displays his masculinity in an aggressive
. precocious, badly behaved, etc.
or ostentatious way:
macho hero. Like MACHISMO,
a macho image
macho
the
should mad cow disease This is the popular
not be used in formal contexts or overused name for the cattle prion disease bovine
in informal contexts: it is sometimes better spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Note
replaced by masculine, virile, male, etc. that mad cow disease is not the approved
◆ The in ch , unlike
macho , is always
machismo term for the condition among scientists or
pronounced [ch], not [k]: [ oÅ]. farmers.
◆ Note also that (or ) only
mach

macro- and micro- Macro-

affects cattle.
means `large';
The human version is
mad cow disease
,a
BSE
variant CJD
micro- means `small'. Both prefixes are used
. new form of thought to
Creuzfeldt-Jakob Disease,

. .
in scientific and technical terms, such as:
be caused by exposure to BSE .

. . . .
. magic magical
macroeconomics microorganism macro-

. . or ? The adjective is
biotic microwave macrocosm microcosm magic
macroscopic microscopic microprocessor more closely related to the art or practice of

. . .
microchip. The use of macro- and micro- in magic than magical, which is used in the

. . .
other contexts, e.g. macrocontract mi- wider sense of `enchanting': a magic wand

.
croskirt, in place of the adjectives large, a magic potion a magic spell a magical
great, small, tiny, etc., is best avoided.
The insertion of a hyphen between the prefix
experience the magical world of make-
◆ believe.
macro- or and a word beginning with a
micro- ◆ The two adjectives are virtually interchangeable
 191 male
in many contexts, although is retained in maintenance The noun
certainfixedexpressions,suchas: . . which is related to the verb
magic , maintenance

magic carpet , is
, etc., and is sometimes often misspelt, a common error being the
maintain
magic lantern magical
preferred for things that happen as if by magic: substitution of
.
for in the middle
. , but not
-tain- -ten-
a magical transformation Magic of the word. Note also the
ma- ending.
, is also used in informal contexts to mean major Some people dislike the frequent
-ance

`wonderful': .
gical
The holiday was magic!

magnate magnet .
use of the adjective in place of , major great

or ? These two words important, chief, principal, serious, etc.:

are occasionally confused. A magnate is a There was certainly major news interest in the

person with great wealth or influence. A details of the background of a man convicted
magnet is a piece of iron or other substance of murdering five members of his family

that attracts iron. Figuratively, is (Daily Mail).

◆ Although is an accepted synonym of these
magnet

.
used to describe a person or place that major
attracts many people: The region became words, it should not be used to excess.
The endings of the words are pronounced majority and minority
a magnet for computer businesses.

◆ means Majority

magnate : [-ayt] and : [-it].

magnet
`more than half of the total number'; min-

magnitude . .
means `less than half of the total
ority
The noun magnitude is best number': the majority of the books a
avoided where size, extent, importance, minority of his friends.
and should not be used to
.
greatness, etc., would be adequate or more
denote the greater or lesser part of a single item: .
◆ Majority minority
appropriate: the magnitude of the problem.

◆ The expression is used in

of the first magnitude [not ] .
astronomy to describe the brightness of a star; its
the greater part the majority of the house
[not ] .
figurative use, in the sense of `greatest' or `most
less than half the minority of the meal
A may be as small as 51%; a
important', is disliked by some people: .
majority minority
a disaster may be as large as 49%. For this reason,
.
majority
of the first magnitude and are best avoided where , ,
minority most a few

magnum opus etc., would be more appropriate.

The Latin expression mag-
and
Majority may be singular or plural
minority
num opus is used to refer to the greatest
nouns. If the people or items in question are
work produced by a writer, artist, musi-
considered as a group, a singular verb is used; if
cian, etc.
◆ The phrase is pronounced [mag- they are considered as individuals, a plural verb is
magnum opus
nuÆm oÅpuÆs]. Its plural forms are used: .
..
Only a minority was in favour of the

and [magnaÆ oÅpeÆraÆ].

magnum opuses
proposal .
The majority have refused to pay
magna opera
COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR OR
Mahomet
See also
see MUSLIM or MOSLEM? PLURAL?
mail The two nouns also denote the difference be-
Since the development of worldwide tween the greater and lesser numbers; in this
electronic networks the word mail, which sense they are always singular: . The Labour
originally referred solely to traditional .
candidate's majority has increased

. male masculine
postal services, has come to represent a

.
much wider range of communications: or ? The adjective male

FEMALE: .
He spent the morning opening the mail. refers to the sex of a person, animal, or

.
The message on the screen told her she had plant; it is the opposite of a male

mail. Thus, while let me mail you the results kangaroo male genital organs. Masculine is
may still be understood to mean that the applied only to people (or their attributes)
GENDER); it is the opposite of
FEMININE: .
material in question will be sent by post, it or to words (see
could also mean that some electronic masculine strength.

means is intended. To avoid confusion, ◆ With reference to people, is used only of

male
careful users should specify the method the sex that does not bear children; it is used to
distinguish men or boys from women or girls but
has no further connotations: .
they intend to use, whether it be snail mail
(conventional post), (a typed mes- We have a male
.
e-mail

sage sent via the Internet), (a French teacher and a female German teacher
, on the other hand, may be used of
voicemail
telephone message recorded electroni- Masculine
cally), etc. both sexes; it refers to characteristics, qualities,
malevolent 192
etc., that are considered typical of men or are (respectively). was subsequently combined
traditionally associated with men: .
WõÅf
with to form , from which the noun
.
a masculine man wõÅfman
walk masculine clothes. woman is derived. The word also survives in the
wõÅf
The noun is best reserved for animals and
male noun and in compounds such as
wife and
fishwife
plants, and being the preferred terms for
man boy midwife , where the element simply means
-wife
male human beings, unless the question of age `woman' and does not necessarily refer to a mar-
makesthesenounsinappropriate: . Haemophilia is ried woman.
almost exclusively restricted to males . See also BOY; CHAIR; GENTLEMAN; MALE or
See also BOY; CHAUVINISM; MAN. MASCULINE?; MANKIND; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEX-
For names of male animals see table at ISM; WOMAN.
ANIMALS. For male, female, and neutral (gender- manageable .
inclusive) terms for people see table at NON-SEXIST This word meaning `able to

TERMS. be controlled': manageable in small num-

malevolent malicious malignant

bers, retains the -e- to indicate the softness
, or ? All of the g.

these adjectives mean `wishing harm to

manager manageress
or ? see NON-SEXIST
others', but there are differences of sense,
. TERMS.
. . mandatory
usage, and application between them: a
malevolent look malicious gossip cruel, The adjective mandatory is
malignant intentions. Æ to
usually pronounced [manda Æ ri].
◆ Malignant is the strongest of the three, describ- ◆ The alternative pronunciation [man toÆri] is
day
ing an intense desire for evil. It is common in disliked by many users and is best avoided.
medical contexts, in the sense of `cancerous', Some people object to the frequent use of
`resistant to treatment', or `uncontrollable': . as a synonym for `compulsory', `obli-
gatory', or `essential': .
a mandatory
malignant tumour . A degree in archaeology is
The adjectives and
malevolent are
malicious .
desirable, but not mandatory, for this post
interchangeable in many contexts. , the
Malicious
man-hours NON-SEXIST TERMS.
more frequent, is also used in law with reference see

to premeditated crime: . .
malicious intent mankind The use of the noun mankind to

man Many people consider the use of the

denote human beings collectively may be
confused with its second sense of `men in

.
noun man as a synonym for `person' to be

.
general' (as opposed to womankind, mean-

.
ambiguous and/or sexist: the best man for
ing `women in general'): the future of
the job All men are equal. With reference
mankind.

◆ The word , coined as a replacement

to individual human beings of unspecified
humankind
sex, it is usually possible to use person,
for the first sense of , is disliked by many
mankind
people, human being, individual, everyone,
users. Humanity may be ambiguous, having the
.
worker(s), citizen(s), etc., in place of
.
man
additional meaning of `kindness', but
is acceptable to most: .
the human
or men: the best person for the job All
race the future of the
people are equal.

Idiomatic expressions, such as human race .

◆
, , , or
the man in the
MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS.
See also

man-made see NON-SEXIST TERMS.

street to a man as one man be one's own
man , and compounds, such as , manhole man-
,
power man-made , or , should not be
man-hour
man-management
changed but may be replaced with a synonym or The term man-man-

paraphraseifnecessary: . (for agement denotes the management of people

). ).
without exception to
(for .
rather than processes, usually in an indus-

).
a man be independent be one's own man
workforce (for manpower (for
synthetic man-
trial environment: An honours graduate is

made ). required, with 3 years man-management ex-

Some users also object to the verb , pre- man

perience.
Like other compounds, the term is disliked
ferring , , , , etc.
operate staff work run
andavoidedbysomeusers: .
◆ man-

The useof in thesense of `male adult'dates

man
(
You will need to have
).
from around the 11th century. Before his time, in skills in people management Daily Telegraph
MAN.
Old English, the noun denoted a human See also

manoeuvre
man
being of either sex and the nouns and wer wõÅf This word is sometimes mis-
wereused to distinguish between male and female spelt. Note the vowel sequence -oeu- and
 193 martial
the -re ending in British English. The marginalize The verb marginalize means
American spelling is maneuver. `treat as unimportant' or `relegate to the
See also -AE- and -OE-. fringes (of society, an organization, etc.)'.
The derived adjective is in British Sometimes spelt (see -IZE or
-ISE?), it is chiefly used in the passive: .
◆ manoeuvrable
English, in American English.
marginalise

.
maneuverable

manpower NON-SEXIST TERMS

see .
Britain fears being marginalized in the EU.

mantel mantle .
Opponents of a stern military response risk

or ? A mantel, or more being marginalized on the back benches. The

commonly a mantelpiece, is a shelf forming arts are no longer marginalised (The Guar-

part of an ornamental structure round a dian). A vogue term, marginalize is disliked

by some people as an example of the in-
.
fireplace. A mantle is a cloak or something
that covers: shrouded in a mantle of secrecy. creasing tendency to coin new verbs by
◆ The spellings and
mantle are also
mantlepiece adding the suffix -ize to nouns and adjec-
possible for the fireplace shelf, but are rarer. tives. It should not be overused in formal

many In formal contexts the adjective

contexts.

marital MARTIAL
see or MARITAL?
many may be used in place of the informal
expressions
Many
a lot (of) and lots (of)
is also used in informal contexts,
(see LOT). market forces The phrase market forces

refers to anything that affects or influences

.
especially in negative and interrogative
the free operation of trade in goods or

.
sentences: She doesn't buy many clothes.
services, such as competition or demand,
Have you got many pets? In some positive
as opposed to (artificially imposed) govern-
sentences, however, a lot of and lots of are
.
ment controls. It is in danger of becoming

.
more idiomatic than many in informal
overused as a vogue term: The printing of
contexts: [not many] books.
denotes a large number (as opposed to
We have a lot of

). .
this holy work [the Bible] should be subjected
◆ Many
, which denotes a large amount); it is there- ( to market forces The Bookseller Green

fore used with a plural verb: .

much
market forces are working in the appliance

. .
Many have dis-
. ( ).
manufacturers' favour Daily Telegraph

marquess or marquis? A
appeared Many houses were destroyed
However, in the idiomatic expressions many a is a
. . . and . . . a singular verb is used: British nobleman who ranks below a duke
marquess

.
many's the
. and above an earl; a
.
Many a child has dreamt of becoming a film star is a nobleman
. of corresponding rank in other countries.
marquis
Many's the time I've walked down this road

margarine The usual pronunciation of this

The word
place of
marquis
marquess.
is sometimes used in

The original pronunciation, with a hard , as in ◆theNote that is a masculine title, despite
Æ reen].
word has a soft g [marja
marquess

, is now rarely used, even though it is counterpart of a marquessending

apparently feminine . The female
◆ g
-ess
Margaret
more in keeping with the spelling and the etymol- or marquis is called a
ogy of the word. , although the term
marchioness is some- marquise
times used for the non-British feminine title.
marginal Some people object to the use of ciation, [ kwis], and
in
have the same pronun-
Marquess
British
marquis
English, but the non-
mar
`small' or `slight': . . British title is sometimes pronounced [mar ].
the adjective as a synonym for
marginal
kee
. .
marginal changes a
marginal improvement a marginal effect
marshal MARTIAL
a
see or MARSHAL?
means `close to a margin or limit', martial marital
student of marginal ability.

.
◆ Marginal or ? These two adjectives
sometimes with reference to a lower limit:
.
are sometimes confused, being similar in

. .
marginal profits a ceremony of marginal, not spelling. means `of or relating to
.
Martial

.
primary importance war or military matters':
The adjective also has a number of specific uses,
martial music

notably in politics: . . .
martial law. Marital means `of
(or
martial arts

.
a marginal seat constitu- or relating to marriage':
) is one in which the Member of Parliament
marital problems
ency vows. The word
has only a small majority. is also used to
marital status marital

Marginal is also found in the adjectives

describe land on the edge of cultivated areas that
marital ex-
tramarital, premarital, etc., and in
is too poor to produce many crops.
martial

the compound noun and verb court-martial.

martial 194
martial marshal or ? The pronunciation of its original meaning of `make or become real': .
these two words is identical and they are They watched in horror as the spirit materialized
sometimes confused. The adjective martial before their very eyes.
means `of or relating to war or military
MARTIAL or MARITAL?). mathematics see -ICS.
matrimony
matters' (see Marshal

may be used as a noun, meaning `officer' or This word, describing the state

.
`official', or as a verb, meaning `arrange', of marriage, is sometimes mispronounced.
The correct pronunciation is [ rimoÆni] with
.
`assemble', or `guide': ◆ mat
the stress on the first syllable.
Field Marshal Mon-

.
tgomery One of the marshals pushed the

facts .
damaged car off the racetrack.

We were marshalled into the court-

to marshal the
matrix The noun matrix denotes the sub-
stance or environment within which some-
room.

◆ Note that the second element of the com- thing originates, develops, or is contained.

pound noun and verb iscourt-martial -martial

It is also a technical term in fields such as

not -marshal. mathematics, computing, printing, anato-

The word is sometimes misspelt with

marshal -ll
my, and linguistics. In general contexts

at the end. The should be doubled only before

-l
matrix is disliked by many as a vogue word

-ed, -ing, and (in British English), and in the

-er
and often better replaced by
.
setting, back-

surname .
Marshall
ground, framework, environment, etc.: the

masculine
matrix in which primitive societies evolved.

see MALE or MASCULINE? ◆ Matrix has two plural forms, or matrices

massage matrixes , either of which is acceptable to most

The verb massage is increasingly users.
used in the figurative sense of `manipulate
matt matte MAT
, see , MATT or MATTE?
. .
(figures, data, etc.) to make them more
acceptable': to massage the accounts
massage the results of the survey. This usage
to
mattress Note the -tt- and the -ss in this
word, which is often misspelt.
is best restricted to informal contexts.

masterful masterly maximal maximize

, see MAXIMUM.
or ? Masterful means
maximum The noun and adjective max-

.
`domineering'; masterly means `very skil-

.
imum refer to the greatest possible quan-
.
ful': His masterful approach made him

.
unpopular with the staff. The team reached
tity, amount, degree, etc.: a maximum of

the maximum dose.

Thenoun hastwopluralforms,usually
twenty guests
their fifth World Cup final with a display of
◆ maximum
masterly efficiency (The Guardian).
◆ The two adjectives relate to different senses of in technical contexts, and
maximums . maxima

the noun , from which they are both de- The adjective maximumis more frequent than
master
rived: `person in authority' ( ) and `expert' its synonym .
maximal

( ).
masterful
The verb means `increase to a max-
maximize
masterly
is sometimes used in place of imum'; it is best avoided where would be
adequate or more appropriate: .
increase

:.
Masterful mas-
terly , but
a masterful performance by the soloist The initial brief is
. Some peo-
many users prefer to maintain the distinction be- to maximize sales of existing products
ple also dislike the use of to mean `make
tween the two words. maximum use of': .
maximize
.
mat matt matte
, or ? The adjective matt,
may might
to maximize resources

CAN or MAY?): . .
or ? Might is the past tense of
meaning `not shiny', has the variant spel-

. .
may (see She may win.

.
lings mat and matte. Matt is the most
May we sit down? I thought she might win.

.
frequent spelling in British English: a
He said we might sit down. In the last two
matt finish matt black paint. The spelling
examples, might cannot be replaced with
mat is preferred in American English.

materialize
may. In the first two examples, however,

.
The use of the verb materialize might can be substituted for may with a

.
in place of happen or turn up is disliked by slight change of meaning: She might win

. .
some users: The threatened strike is unlikely expresses a greater degree of doubt or
to materialize. Her friends didn't materialize uncertainty than She may win. Might
so we left without them. is a more tentative request
In formal contexts the word is best restricted to
we sit down?
◆ than May we sit down?
 195 mediocre
◆ May and are both used in the perfect denoting a metal disc, cross, etc., given as
might
tense. expresses a possibility that still an award;
expresses a possibility that no fere': . .
May have is a verb, meaning `inter-
exists;
meddle

longerexists: .
might have a gold/silver/bronze medal Don't

..
She may have won: I didn't hear the . meddle in other people's affairs
result
the last lap.
media The word , frequently used to
She might have won if she hadn't fallen on
media

maybe. may be
refer to television, radio, newspapers, etc.,

.
or ? Maybe, meaning `per- as means of mass communication, is one of

.
haps': Maybe the letter will come tomorrow, the plural forms of the noun medium: The

media act as publicity agents for writers.

.
is often confused with the phrase may be,

the verb and the verb be: Television is an influential medium.

The plural of in the sense of `spiritual

may It may be
that she has missed the train. ◆ medium

mayoress intermediary' is mediums . Either plural form may

A mayoress is the wife of a male be used for other senses of the noun; `agency
mayor or a woman who assists or partners a through which something is transmitted': . the
mayor of either sex at social functions and [or ]
, `means of communication': .
mediums media of air and water for transmit-
on ceremonial occasions. The use of the ting sound English
term mayoress to denote or address a female and French are the media [or ]
mediums of instruc-
mayor is incorrect. tion .
me I ME The increasing use of mediaas a singular col-
see or ?
lective noun is unacceptable to many people and is
me my -ING FORMS
or ? see . bestavoided: . There has been a failure to educate

mean I MEAN see .

the young to the benefits of trade unions, leaving
( ).
meaningful
the field open for a hostile media The Guardian
is also used adjectivally in front of other
nouns: .
The adjective meaningful Media
should be avoided where important, signifi- a media event is an event that is delib-
erately created for extensive coverage by the mass
.
cant, serious, worthwhile, etc., would be
media.
.
adequate or more appropriate: a caring,
loving, and meaningful relationship a
mediaeval see MEDIEVAL or MEDIAEVAL?
is best reserved for its literal sense of mediate The verb
meaningful experience.

`having meaning': . . the preposition in the sense `mediate in a

◆ Meaningful is followed by mediate

. . situation': .
meaningful utterances a in
meaningful smile a highly meaningful pause An independent adviser was

means In the sense of `method', means may

called in to mediate in the dispute. In the

.
sense `mediate between people', it is fol-

.
be a singular or plural noun; in the sense of
lowed by between: Who will mediate
`resources' or `wealth' it is always plural: A
between the union and the management?

. medicine
means of reducing engine noise was developed.

.
Several different means of transport were The word medicine is sometimes
used. His means are insufficient to support a misspelt, the most frequent error being the
large family. substitution of e for the first i. This letter is
See also SINGULAR or PLURAL? sometimes not sounded in speech, resulting

meantime or meanwhile ? Meantime is

in the two-syllable pronunciation [medsin].
Some users prefer the full pronunciation
chiefly used as a noun, in the phrases in
[medisin].

. medieval mediaeval
the meantime and for the meantime; mean-

.
while is chiefly used as an adverb: He or ? The two spel-

.
wrote a letter in the meantime. We have lings of this word are both acceptable. The
enough for the meantime. Meanwhile, I had spelling medieval is far more frequent in
British English and is standard in Amer-
may also be used as an adverb, in ican English.
phoned the police.
◆ Meantime
place of meanwhile , and as a noun, in See also -AE- and -OE-.
meanwhile
place of meantime , but these uses are less fre- mediocre This word, meaning `of indif-
quent.
medal meddle
ferent quality', is sometimes misspelt. Note
or ? These two words the ending -cre.
should not be confused. Medal is a noun, ◆ Some users object to such expressions as quite
Mediterranean 196
mediocre and , considering that
very mediocre melted. .
something either is or is not mediocre.
Serve the asparagus with melted

.
butter. Molten is used only as an adjective,

Mediterranean Note the spelling of this

.
meaning `melted' or `liquefied':
molten rock.
molten

◆ The use of the adjective is restricted to

iron
word, particularly the single t, the -rr-, and
molten
the -ean ending. It may help to associate the
substances that become liquid at very high tem-
central syllables with the Latin word terra,
peratures.
membership .
meaning `earth; land', from which they are
derived. Membership is the state of

medium mediums
, see MEDIA. being a member: to apply for membership.

meet with .
The noun is also used to denote the number
In British English the phrasal of members of an organization: Member-

.
verb meet with should be restricted to the ship has increased this year. Its frequent use

. .
sense of `experience' or `receive': I hope he in place of members, however, is disliked by
hasn't met with an accident. Does it meet some people: We must consult the mem-

bership.
The American use of in the sense of
with your approval?

`have a meeting with' is disliked by many British memento

◆ meet with
The word is some- memento

users: . We met with the managing director this

times misspelt, the most frequent error

morning . being the substitution of for the first , o e

The phrasal verbs and

meet up with are through confusion with such words as
meet up
widely regarded as unnecessary synonyms for associate and moment . It may help to
momentum

`meet' and are best avoided, especially in formal the with and
mem- memory re-

contexts: . ..
I met (up with) her at the theatre
.
has two acceptable plural forms,
They
member

met (up) in the park. ◆

and
Memento
.
mega-
mementos mementoes
Some people object to the use of the
mental The use of the adjective mental as a

.
prefix mega-, meaning `great' or `large', in
synonym for `stupid', `foolish', `mentally

. . . .
nontechnical contexts, as in: mega-motor-
ill', `mentally deficient', etc., should be

.
way mega-trend mega-merger mega-bid

.
avoided as it is very likely to cause offence:
megathon.

The prefix is often used as an adjective in

megabucks

.
They must be mental to set off in such
◆
its own right, meaning `very large and impres- terrible weather. Her youngest son's a bit

sive': . The new leisure complex is really mega . mental, and the other children tease him.
◆ The principal meaning of is `of or
This usage is best restricted to very informal involving the mind': . .
mental

contexts. mental illness

. The adjective is also used in the sense
mental

In science, the prefix means `one million':

mega-
of `relating to disorders of the mind': .
arithmetic

a megaton is one million tons. In computing, the . , although recent usage

a mental

prefix mega- means 220: a is 1,048,576

megabyte
prefers .
hospital
and .
a mental patient

bytes. psychiatric hospital

and a mentally ill person would more
a psychiatric

meltdown In nuclear physics, the noun correctly be described as being

patient,
in poor mental
refers to the melting of the core . health
The term was formerly
meltdown

of a nuclear reactor, caused by a defect in mentally handicapped

the cooling system. It is also used figura- the accepted term for a person suffering from
intellectual impairment of some kind. Note that
event, especially a stock-market crash: .
tively with reference to any disastrous
the term is now avoided by many people and such
. alternatives as (see LEARNING
learning-disabled
◆ Given the very serious nature of a meltdown (in DIFFICULTIES) are preferred.
Meltdown Monday

the literal sense of the word), some people object mentholated or methylated? These two
to the figurative application of the term to com- words should not be confused.
paratively trivial issues, such as a fall in company refers to the addition of Mentholated

profits. , a medic-menthol

melted molten
inal substance found in peppermint oil;

.
or ? Melted is the past tense methylated refers to the addition of the

. .
and past participle of the verb melt; it is also poisonous substance methanol: a mentho-
used as an adjective: The chocolate (has) lated lozenge methylated spirits.
 197 methodology
meretricious meritorious
or ? Meretricious Æ mawfo
of this word is [meta Æ sis] with the
means `superficially attractive' or `insin- stress on the third syllable.
◆ The alternative pronunciation [metaÆmaw is] is
. .
cere'; means `having merit' or foÅs
possible but disliked by many people.
meritorious

`praiseworthy': meretricious glamour a

meritorious deed.

formal in usage.
Both adjectives are fairly
metaphors A metaphor is a figure of

◆ The adjective originally meant `of a speech in which a word or phrase is used,
meretricious
prostitute'; like , it is ultimately derived not
meritorious
with its literal meaning, but to suggest

from the Latin verb , meaning `to earn' or an

mereÅre
analogy with something else. The com-

`to deserve'. :. .
parison is implicit, not introduced by
.
or like

Note the spellings of the two words, particularly as the winds of change an icy voice stone

the second vowel: has the of its ◆ Many

meretricious e
.
expressions used in everyday speech are
deaf

Latin root; meritorioushas the of . i

metaphorical but they are so frequently used that
merit

merge The verb is followed by the theyarehardlythoughtofasmetaphors: .

.
the arm
, and many occur in
merge

with [or into] something else': . well-knownidioms: . .

preposition or
with in the sense `merge
into of a chair a branch of a bank

.
not up my street feel under
.
On the

[or the weather if you play your cards right

Metaphors have been used very successfully
horizon, the sea appeared to merge with
] . In the sense `merge with
with striking effect in literature. There are biblical
into the sky

: . examples: .
another business, company, etc.', it is fol-
(Psalm
119:105)andcountlesspoeticones: .
lowed by with Cadbury merged with Thy word is a lamp unto my feet

combined group': .
Schweppes , and in the sense `form a
into I see a lily on
thy brow . . . and on thy cheek a fading rose
(Keats, ). However, as
The three companies

. La Belle Dame Sans Merci

meta- Some people object to the increasing phors can often be tired and overworked: meta-
used by modern politicans and journalists,
merged into one

.
.
the

`transcending' or `of a higher order': .

use of the prefix in the sense of
meta-

.
cure for unemployment fighting against inflation
A
.
light at the end of the tunnel
suggestion of metafiction, of
Mixed metaphors, where two or more different
uncertainties

). .
found to be themselves fictionally productive
metaphors are used in one sentence, should be
. avoided: .
(
London Review of Books Could this be a

..
In resurrecting these allegations they are
symptom of a developing metaculture?
just fuelling the flames of racism The commit-
Large parts of the town centre are now
tee's task was to iron out all the bottlenecks in the
dominated by cinemas and other manifesta-
. system

◆ The prefix has a number of other accepted meter or metre? The spelling of these
tions of meta-entertainment.

meanings: `change': . ; `after', words is often confused, probably partly

`behind', or `beyond': .
metamorphosis
.
metatarsus because the American spelling of the mea-

metal mettle
or ? These two words, which
surement metre is meter.
.
In British English,

.
a meter is a measuring instrument: gas
have the same pronunciation, are some-
meter speedometer. A metre is the basic
times confused. A metal is one of a group

. .
metric measurement of length and is used
of mineral substances that are good con-
in derived measurements: kilometre

.
ductors of heat and electricity. Mettle
millimetre.
means `strength of character':
◆ is also the technical term for the regular
He was
Metre

The confusion may arise from the fact that rhythmic arrangement of syllables in poetry. Note
given no chance to prove his mettle.
◆
was originally derived from . however that in compounds describing such mea-
mettle
sures, the spelling - is followed: .
metal

metallurgy This word, meaning `the

meter penta-
, `a line having five stresses'.
meter
science of metals', is usually pronounced
[metaleÆrji], although it can be stressed on
methodology The noun methodology de-

Æ lerji]. notes a body or system of methods, rules,

the first and third syllables [meta
◆ The second pronunciation is rarer in British .
principles, etc., used in a particular area of

English but standard in American English. activity: the methodology of teaching.

The use of the noun in other contexts, especially
metamorphosis as a synonym for `method': .
◆
The usual pronunciation experimental design
methylated 198
methodology . unstructured pragmatic meth- word, meaning `a severe and recurrent
odologies, is disliked by many people and is best headache', is [meegrayn].
avoided. ◆ The alternative pronunciation [ grayn] is also mõÅ

methylated MENTHOLATED METHY- acceptable and is standard in American English.

mileage milage
see or
LATED ? or ? Mileage is the more

meticulous The adjective meticulous is

frequent spelling of this word,
an accepted but rare variant: .
milage being
The excep-

.
widely used and accepted as a synonym tionally low mileage makes this car a good buy.
for `painstaking' or `scrupulous':
.
meticu-
See also SPELLING 3.
lous attention to detail
In its figurative sense of `benefit' or `usefulness',
a meticulous secre-
◆
.
◆ Some people, however, object to the use of the
tary
the noun is avoided by some users in formal
adjective in a complimentary manner, restricting it contexts: . , ,
It was an interesting subject though

to the pejorative sense of `fussy' or `excessively and the chairman . . . got the maximum intellec-
( ).
careful': . tual mileage out of it The Guardian
If you weren't so meticulous you'd have
finished the cleaning hours ago . militate or mitigate? The verb , militate

Meticulous originally meant `timid', being ulti- which is usually followed by the preposi-
mately derived from , the Latin word for tion
ence or effect': .
metus , means `have a powerful influ-
against

`fear'. His left-wing opinions

metonym A is a word or phrase

militated against his appointment as head-

.
metonym master. The verb mitigate means `moderate'
that is used as a substitute for something or `make less severe': The judge's decision
else to which it is related or of which it is a
.
did little to mitigate the suffering of the
part. Thus, Rome may serve as a metonym bereaved parents. mitigating circumstances.
for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic ◆ The two verbs are occasionally confused, miti-
Church, Hollywood for the US film indus- gate being wrongly used in place of . militate
try, and the crown for the monarchy. Care
should be taken to use only metonyms milkman milkwomanor ? see NON-SEXIST
whose relevance will be correctly inter- TERMS.
preted. millennium This word and its plural form

metre METERsee orMETRE? millennia are often misspelt, the most fre-

mettle METAL .
quent error being the omission of the
see or METTLE? second n: Over the millenia, as earth move-

mezzanine This word, meaning `inter-

ments cause new formations

advertisement for
(Reader's Digest
Marvels and Mysteries of
mediate storey between two floors', is
the World Around Us).
usually pronounced [meza Æ neen]. The alter-
Spelling mistakes may be avoided by associating
◆
Æ neen] is sometimes used and is
native [metsa
the word, which means `a thousand years', with
closer to the original Italian.
◆ The last syllable in both pronunciations should
the - - of and
ll (from Latin
millipede millimetre mille

rhyme with and not with . `thousand') and the - - of and nn annual perennial
keen line
(from Latin `year').
micro- see MACRO- and MICRO-.
annus
The phrase was much used
the millennium

mid see AMID, AMIDST, MID or MIDST? around the year 2000 to refer to the start of the
new (third) millennium: .
middle see CENTRE or MIDDLE?
celebrations to mark the
millennium.

midget see DWARF. There is some confusion about when millennia

start and end. As there was no year 0 AD, we
midwifery This word is sometimes mis- calculate in thousand-year segments from the year
pronounced. In British English the correct 1 AD. This means that the second millennium
pronunciation is [ wifeÆ ri]. began on 1 January 1001 and ended on 31
◆ In American English may be pronounced December 2000. Despite this reckoning, in mod-
mid

-wif-
like .
wife ern usage 1 January 2000 (rather than the strictly
might see CAN or MAY?; MAY or MIGHT? correct 1 January 2001) is often considered to have
been the beginning of the third millennium.
migraine The usual pronunciation of this See also CENTURIES.
 199 miss
millionaire The word millionaire is some- minor see MINER or MINOR?
times misspelt. Note the -ll-, but only one n.
minority see MAJORITY and MINORITY.
mimic This word, meaning `imitate': . He
minus The use of the preposition minus in
likes mimicking the teachers, is sometimes

.
misspelt. Note that a k is added before the the sense of `without' or `lacking' is best

suffixes -ed, -ing, and -er. Mimicry does not, restricted to informal contexts: She came

home minus her umbrella.

◆ Some people also avoid using the noun as
however, have a k.
SPELLING 1.
a synonym for `disadvantage' in formal contexts: .
minus
See also

mincemeat The noun mincemeat princi- Having to move to the South is one of the minuses
pally denotes the sweet mixture of dried of my new job: we'll never be able to afford to buy
fruit, suet, sugar, and spices that is used to a house there . see also PLUS.
fill mince pies, traditionally baked and
eaten at Christmas. To avoid confusion, minuscule This word is often misspelt, the
meat that has been minced (minced meat) most frequent error being the substitution
is usually called mince in British English of ani for the first u. The word is pro-

and ground meat in American English. nounced [minuÆ skyool].

miner or minor ? These two words are minutiae The plural noun minutiae, mean-
occasionally confused. A miner is a person ing `small, minor, or trivial details', may be
pronounced [minewshiee] or [mõÅnewshiee]:
who works underground in a mine.
is an adjective that is the opposite of
Minor

major, . The minutiae of the problem are of no

interest to me.
.
meaning `less important; relatively unim-
portant': have a minor part in a play; ◆ , the singular form of the noun, is rarely
and is Minutia
also used to refer to a musical scale. As a used.
The noun is best avoided where
would be more appropriate: .
noun, minor means a person who is still minutiae details
legally a child, one who has not yet reached discuss the details
the age of majority. [not ] .
minutiae of a contract
and have the same pronunciation Note the spelling of , particularly the
minutiae
three final vowels .
◆ Miner minor
[ neÆr].
mõÅ -iae

miniature Miniature, meaning `small in miscellaneous This word, meaning `of a

size', is sometimes misspelt. Note the spel- variety of items', is sometimes misspelt.
ling -iat-. Note particularly the -sc-, the -a-, and

minimal minimize MINIMUM. the -eous ending.

mischievous
, see

minimum The noun and adjective mini-

The correct pronunciation of
Æ s].
this word is [mischivu
mum
.
refer to the smallest possible quantity,
The mispronunciations [mis vuÆs] and [mis-
◆ chee

.
amount, degree, etc.: a minimum of four
viuÆs] are heard from time to time but are
chee

has two plural forms, misspelt: byparticular

avoided careful speakers. The word is often
.
◆ The noun
employees the minimum requirements

or order and position attention should be paid to the

minimum
usually in technical contexts, minimums
of the vowels.
.
in the sense of `very misogynist Note the spelling of
minima
The frequent use of
small' is disliked by some users: .
minimal , misogynist
which refers to a person who hates women.
The response to

.. .
our advertisement was minimal ± we received only The word derives from Greek misos

two applications minimal effort . `hatred' and

minimal risk `woman' as in
gyne- gynaecol-

Note alsothat should neverbe usedwith a

modifier: .
minimal , the branch of medicine concerned with
ogy

.
rather minimal women's diseases.
The verb minimize means `reduce to a mini- ◆ is usually pronounced [mis inist],
Misogynist oj
mum'; it is best avoided where would be although the first syllable is very occasionally pro-
adequate or more appropriate: .
reduce
nounced with a long , as in .
The new safety i my
regulations should minimize the danger . Some Miss see MS, MRS or MISS?
people also object to the widely accepted use of
minimize to mean `play down' or `belittle': . miss The verb , meaning `regret the
to miss

minimize one's achievements . loss or lack of', is sometimes wrongly used

mission statement 200
with .
not: I miss not having a car means `I telephone or mobile phone is usually pre-
was happier before I had a car', not `I wish ferred to in formal contexts.
has largely replaced the former
mobile
I had a car'. ◆ Mobile phone
This error is not confined to informal spoken terms and in British Eng-
contexts: .
◆ cellphone cellular phone
[aship'sdoctor] lish.
Passengers . . . ask me if
( ). moccasin This word, used to describe a
I miss not being a `proper' doctor Reader's Digest
See also AIR MISS or NEAR MISS?
mission statement
soft leather shoe without a heel, is some-
A mission statement is a times misspelt. Note the -cc- but single s.
statement made by a company or other
modal see VERBS.
. modern modernistic
organization summarizing its values and
objectives: The staff have been given a new or ? The adjective
mission statement. Some people consider the modern means `of the present time' or
phrase jargonistic and avoid using it. `contemporary'; modernistic means `charac-
A variant is .
.
◆ vision statement teristic of modern trends, ideas, etc.' and is

misspelled misspeltor ? Either word may .

sometimes used in a derogatory way:
modernistic architecture.

has a wider range of sense and usage

modern society

.
be used as the past tense and past participle ◆ Modern
of the verb misspell: You have misspelt/
than modernistic , which is largely restricted to
misspelled my name.
-ED or -T?
objects, designs, thoughts, etc., that are conspicu-
See also ously modern or unconventional.
Misspelled
or [misspeld];
may be pronounced [misspelt]
misspelt is always pronounced modus operandi The Latin phrase modus

.
[misspelt]. operandi is used in formal English to refer
Note the spellings of the two words, to a particular method of working: The

particularly the single l of misspelt and committee discussed the modus operandi of the
new working party.

◆ The phrase is pronounced

the -ss- of both words.

mistrust DISTRUST MISTRUST

see or ? ran
modus operandi
[moÅduÆs opeÆ dee, opeÆ dõÅ]; its plural is
ran modi

misunderestimate ESTIMATION see .

operandi [moÅdi].
misuse ABUSE MISUSE
see or ?
modus vivendi The Latin phrase modus

mitigate MILITATE MITIGATE

vivendi is principally used in formal English

.
see or ? to denote an arrangement or compromise

mix .
Some people object to the increasing
between conflicting parties:
vivendi enabled them to complete
This modus

the job
use of the noun mix in place of range: A
without further disruption.

◆ The literal meaning of the phrase

wide mix of subjects will be taught at the
modus vivendi
college.
◆ In the sense of `combination' or `mixture', is is `way of living', but some people object to its use
found in compounds such as , `the
mix
in place of the English expression .
way of life
marketing mix
various elements that need to be coordinated in a The word modusis pronounced [moÅduÆs]; viven-

marketing plan'. Some users, however, object to di may be pronounced [vi dee] or [vi dõÅ].
ven ven

its use in formal contexts. Mohammed see MUSLIM or MOSLEM?

mnemonic The word mnemonic, referring molten MELTED MOLTEN
see or ?
to something that aids the memory (e.g. the
spelling rule `i before e except after c'),
momentary momentous or ? Momentary

.
means `lasting for a very short time'; mo-
causes spelling and pronunciation pro-

.
mentous means `of great significance': a
blems. The initial m is silent; the word is
momentary lapse The Commons . . . took
pronounced [nimonik].

mobile
the momentous step of opening its doors to the
As a noun, mobile has enjoyed a television cameras for the first time (The
massive revival in use in recent years Guardian).
through the widespread introduction of ◆ The two adjectives relate to different senses of
the noun , from which they are both
.
mobile phones (portable telephones com- moment
monly referred to simply as mobiles): I derived: `a very short time' ( ) and `sig-
momentary
tried to reach you on your mobile. Mobile nificance' ( momentous ).
 201 most
Note the difference in stress between the two more beautiful dresses may mean `her dresses are
adjectives: momentary is stressed on the first syl- more beautiful (than mine/yours/etc.)', `she has
lable, momentous on the second. The adverb other dresses that are more beautiful (than this
momentarily should also be stressed on the first one)', `she has a greater number of beautiful
syllable [ meÆntaÆrõÆli]; the pronunciation [moÅmeÆn-
moÅ dresses (than you/me/etc.)', or `she has other
terrili] is unacceptable to many people. beautiful dresses (in addition to this one)'.
mongolism DOWN'S SYNDROME. The phrase , although it implies a
plural subject, is used with a singular verb: .
more than one
see

mongoose
More
The plural of the noun than one accident has happened at this junction . If
the sentence is reworded, however, a plural verb is
mon-

used: .
goose is mongooses; the word should not be
treated as a compound of the noun More accidents than one have happened at
.
goose
(the plural of which is geese). this junction
◆ Mongoose is derived from the word , of See also COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE;
manguÅs
Indian origin, and is etymologically unrelated to SINGULAR or PLURAL?
goose . mortgage This word is sometimes mis-
monogram monograph or ? A monogram
.
spelt, the most frequent error being the
is a design made up of a person's initials: omission of the silent t.
There was a monogram on the corner of the

handkerchief. A monograph is a learned

mortgagee mortgagor or ? A mortgagor is
a person who borrows money by means of

.
book, treatise, etc., about a single subject:
a mortgage; a mortgagee is the person or
He wrote a monograph on Oliver Crom-
organization, e.g. a building society or
well. The two nouns should not be con-
bank, that lends the money. The two nouns
fused.

moot
should not be confused: the mortgagors are
The adjective moot, meaning `deba- the people who are mortgaging their prop-

.
table' or `open to question', rarely occurs erty, i.e. using it as security for a loan; the
outside the fixed phrase a moot point: mortgagees are those who receive this se-
Whether she will accept this offer is a moot curity, not the recipients of the loan itself.

The verb , meaning `put forward for de- Moslem see MUSLIM or MOSLEM?
point.

bate', is most frequently used in the passive in most The adverb is used to form the
◆ moot

formal contexts: .
most

adverbs: .
superlative of a number of adjectives and
The subject was mooted at our
.
.
last meeting This is the most expensive picture

moral morale
or ? These two spellings are
in the shop. The prize will be awarded to the

child who writes the most neatly. Most should

sometimes confused. Moral means `con-
not be used with adjectives that already

.
cerned with the principles of right and
have the superlative ending -est, such as
wrong': the gradual erosion of moral stan-
saddest, youngest, etc.
dards. Morale
.
is the extent of confidence and
◆ Other uses of the word ± as the superlative
most
optimism in a person or group: After the
of or , or in the sense of `very' ± may
cause ambiguity: .
much many
election defeat, the party's morale sank to an
This teacher has the most
all-time low.

is stressed on the first syllable [ rraÆl]. intelligent pupils may mean `this teacher has the
◆ Moral
is stressed on the second syllable [mo ].
mo
greatest number of intelligent pupils' or `this tea-
Morale rahl
cher's pupils are the most intelligent in the school';
more The adverb is used to form the . She danced most gracefully may mean `she
danced very gracefully' or `she danced more grace-
more

.
comparative of a number of adjectives and
fully than the other dancers'.
.
adverbs: She is more intelligent than her

sister. See also COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE.

The use of in place of is generally best
The trains run more frequently in the
summer months. More should not be used most very
avoided, although it is acceptable in certain con-
texts: . ..
with adjectives that already have the com-
parative ending -er, such as happier, older, I am most grateful for your assistance He
etc. spoke most rudely of his former employers .
◆ Other uses of the word ± as the compara- The adverb , meaning `mainly' or `usual-
ly', should not be confused with : .
more mostly
tive of or , or in the sense of `further' or
`additional' ± may lead to confusion: . ..
much many most He writes
She has mostly [not ] most for children Old people are
motif 202
most [not ] . In some contexts the much time at his or her computer screen) and
mostly at risk
substitution of for , or vice versa, (an aching wrist caused by repeated
changes the meaning of the sentence: .
most mostly mouse wrist
clicking of a mouse).
Our
.± mousse The noun
..
friends are mostly helpful Our friends are most
helpful .±
The shop sells most books The shop
denotes a crea- mousse

.
sells mostly books
mousse are for eating: .
my or foamy preparation. Some types of
.
motif motive
chocolate mousse

. .
or ? These words are some- salmon mousse; some are for cosmetic pur-
times confused. A motif is a recurrent poses: styling mousse body mousse. Note

.
feature which establishes a pattern the spelling of this word, which should not
throughout a work of art, etc.: a design be confused with the animals moose and

.
with a feather motif. A is a reason for mouse.

The pronunciation of this word is [moos].

motive

a course of action: no apparent motive for ◆

the crime.
moustache
motivation
This word is sometimes mis-
The use of the noun motiva- spelt. The most frequent error is the sub-
tion, which means `incentive' or `drive', in stitution of u for ou in British English. The

.
place of reason or motive is disliked and British English spelling is moustache; the
avoided by many users: his reason [not American English spelling mustache. Note
motivation] for deserting his wife and family. also the -che ending.
Some people also object to the frequent use of
the noun in its accepted sense of `providing with movable or moveable? This word has
◆

an incentive' in the context of industrial psychol- although the first spelling

two different spellings. Both are acceptable

ogy: . . As Roland omits the before the suffix - , seems

the motivation of the workforce
, which movable

Gribben remarked in the : `Motiva- be more frequent in contemporary usage.to

Daily Telegraph
e able

tion is a grossly overworked and abused term for See also SPELLING 3.
getting the best or more out of people.'
Similar objections may be applied to the use of movers and shakers
the verb in place of and of
is Movers and shakers

asasynonymfor`keen': .
motivate cause moti-
an expression used informally to refer to

. people
vated an action that may
[not ]
who get things done, either through

.
cause motivate her to change her mind a
ging or encouraging others to take action: .
their own power and influence or by ur-
highly motivated sales manager a self-motivating
entrepreneur . .
the movers and shakers of the film industry

motive see MOTIF or MOTIVE? The phrase should not be overused.

mot juste The French expression mot juste

move the goalposts To move the goalposts
is to change the rules, requirements, etc.,
.
is used in English to refer to the exactly
usually to the advantage of the person or
appropriate word or phrase: This diction-

.
organization that sets and changes the
ary of synonyms will help you find the mot
rules: The Government is moving the goal-
juste.

◆ The literal meaning of is `right word'. It

mot juste
posts again from April 6, with the cut-off point

is sometimes written or printed in italics. Its angli- [for eligibility for income support] reduced

cized pronunciation is [moÅ ]. The plural is ◆ The verb is sometimes replaced ).by or
zhoost
(
to 16 hours a week The Guardian

mots justes , with the same pronunciation as the move

. The expression is best restricted to infor-
shift

singular. mal contexts.

change

mouse The plural of the noun mouse, in

mowed mown or ? Either word may be
the sense of `small animal', is mice. In

.
used as the past participle of the verb mow:
computing contexts, where a mouse is an

When the participle is used as an adjective,

Have you mowed/mown the grass yet?
electronic device used to move the cursor

:.
◆
on the screen, the preferred plural form is
is preferred to
.
mown mowed a neatly mown
mice, though the plural form mouses is
lawn new-mown hay .
sometimes used.
The adoption of in a computing context The past tense of the verb is always
:.
mow
◆ mouse
has inspired a number of derivative terms, among mowed .
I mowed the grass yesterday

them mouse potato(a person who spends too Mr see MS, MRS or MISS?
 203 must
Ms Mrs, or Miss ? Ms, Mrs, and Miss, and pronunciation. Note the -ue- in the
shortened forms of the archaic title Mistress, first syllable, and the -li ending. The usual
are used before the names of girls and pronunciation is [mewzli], with the first
women, according to age and marital sta- syllable pronounced as in music, but the
tus, in letter writing and as polite terms of pronunciation [moozli] is also acceptable.
address.
◆ Miss is traditionally used for girls, unmarried Muhammad see MUSLIM or MOSLEM?
women, and married women who have retained
their maiden name: . . multi- Some people object to the increasing

.
Miss Mary Baker Miss
. In formal contexts,
use of the prefix multi-, meaning `many', to
Davies Miss Elizabeth Taylor
two or more girls or unmarried women with the .
coin new words that are often better ex-

same surname should be referred to as . .

pressed by a paraphrase: a multirole device
the Misses
etc. rather than
a multistage process her outstanding multi-
Brown/Smith/ the Miss Browns/
etc. .
tasking abilities (`her abilities to perform
Smiths/
, pronounced [ iz], is used before a wo-
many tasks at the same time'). Specialist

man's married name: . .

Mrs mis skills are now ignored or swamped in the drive
Mrs Anne Johnson Mrs
.
(The Guardian).

In neologisms of this kind a hyphen is sometimes

for multi-skilling
Johnson
, pronounced [miz] or [mõÆz], is used before
◆
Ms inserted between the prefix and the word to which
the name of a woman of unknown or unspecified it is attached.
marital status. It was introduced as a feminine
equivalent of the masculine title , which makes
Mr municipal The adjective municipal should
no distinction between married and unmarried be stressed on the second syllable [mewni-
men. Because of its feminist associations, how- Æ l], not the first or the third.
sipa

ever, the title is disliked by some people. is

Ms Ms
muscle mussel .
most frequently used in place of , but is best
Miss
or ? Muscle means `fibrous

avoided when referring to elderly unmarried wo- tissue' or `strength':

.
His muscles bulged as

men or young girls. he took the strain. The new squad has plenty

See also SEXISM. .

of muscle. It should not be confused with

The titles , , and are usually written

Ms Mrs Mr
mussel, which refers to a bivalve mollusc:

without a full stop. The stone was covered by mussels.

See also ABBREVIATIONS. Muslim Moslem or ? Nowadays the pre-

much The use of the adjective much in

ferred spelling for a follower of the Islamic
faith is Muslim, rather than the older spel-

. .
positive sentences is best restricted to for-
ling Moslem.
mal contexts: They own much land.
◆ is pronounced with the vowel sound as
There
Muslim

◆ Even in formal contexts, some users prefer to

is much work to be done.
in [ lim] or as in [ lim].
put muuz cup muz

replace with The most accepted spelling of the name of the

,etc.: .
much
. prophet of
a large amount of, a great deal
Islam is , rather thanMuhammad Mo-
of They own a large amount of land.
or
There
.
hammed Mahomet

may be replaced mussel see MUSCLE or MUSSEL?

is a great deal of work to be done.
In informal contexts,
:.
much
with or
a lot of lots of
must The auxiliary verb
There is a lot of work
expresses must
to be done.
LOT. .
obligation, compulsion, necessity, resolu-
See also
In negative and interrogative sentences, is .
tion, certainty, etc.:
.
We must obey the

acceptable in all contexts: .

much

.
rules. They must go. I must finish writing

.
They don't own much
this letter. You must be very thirsty. In other
land. Is there much work to do?
MANY; VERY. .
tenses, and in the negative, must is usually
See also
.
replaced by have to: We had to obey the

mucous mucus or ? These two words are

◆ The negative form
rules. They don't have to go.
(or ) ex-
presses prohibition: .
must not mustn't
sometimes confused. Mucous is the adjec-
They must not go.
tive from the noun mucus; mucus is the
The past tense is used only to express
certainty: .
must have
secretion produced by mucous membranes.
.
muesli
You must have been very thirsty
The noun muesli, denoting a type of The use of as a noun, meaning `something
must
breakfast food, causes problems of spelling necessary or essential', is best restricted to informal
mute 204
contexts: . Waterproof clothing is an absolute .
reciprocal hatred Reciprocal can also be used to
. describe an action or emotion that is done or felt in
return: .
must for a sailing holiday

mute DEAF-MUTE DUMB MUTE

see ; or ?
He praised her new novel, and she
.
mutual common reciprocal
expressed reciprocal admiration for his latest film
, or ?A mutual
my me or ? see -ING FORMS.
. myself
action or emotion is done or felt by each of
two or more people to or for the other(s): The use of the pronoun myself for

.
mutual help/destruction/admiration/hatred/

.
emphasis is acceptable to most users but
etc. The feeling is mutual.
The adjective is superfluous in such disliked by some:
.
I disapprove of such

phrases as: . .
◆ mutual behaviour myself.
should not be used in place of or in
I myself have never met her.

.
a mutual agreement a mutual ◆ Myself I me
exchange their mutual love for each other.
The frequent use of in place of , the following sentences and similar constructions:
mutual common . [not ]
meaning `shared' or `joint', is disliked by many .
My sister and I myself will do the garden-
[not
users: . a mutual friend. .
mutual interests a
ing.
].
The bill was paid by Richard and me

However, the other senses of myself

I or ME?; SELF.
can cause ambiguity: .
mutual problem.
See also

mythical mythological
common a common friend
may mean `an unsophisticated, rude friend' as well or ? Mythical

as `a friend shared by two people'. Thus expres-

sionssuchas . . . .
means `imaginary'; mythological means `of

.
our joint friend the friend we have mythology': a mythical danger a mytho-

in common could be used

the friend we share logical kingdom.

instead. ◆ Both adjectives also mean `of a myth or myths',

and are synonymous in the inwhichsensetheyarevirtuallyinterchangeable: .
principal sense of the latter: . .
Reciprocal mutual
reciprocal help a mythical/mythological character.
 N
naff The adjective naff is a derogatory the indigenous inhabitants of lands colo-

. . .
slang term meaning `inferior or worthless; nized by the West), is derogatory and
vulgar or tasteless; not stylish': a naff film offensive: The settlers intermarried with

That tie is really naff. The adjective should the natives.

be restricted to informal contexts. ◆ The noun and adjective may be applied to
native

naive, naõÈve or naõÈf? This word, meaning place: . a person, people or animal born in a specified
. As a noun, is
.
native Spaniards native
`innocent' or `credulous', is most commonly
followed by the preposition :
. As an adjective, it is followed by : .
of She's a native of
spelt or Ève.
◆ NaõÈf, the French masculine adjective, is no longer
naive naõ
Sweden to The

used, (or ) being used to describe acceptable, but some people . This usage is generally
bird is native to Australia
naive
people of both sexes.
naõÈve
prefer to avoid the
The derived noun is most commonly spelt word where there is a danger of confusion
.
native

or , although the variants and with the

naiv-
derogatory sense: the indigenous in-
ety naõÈvety
are also found.
naiveteÂ
[not ]
habitants .
natives of Tasmania

Native American
naõÈveteÂ
Naive is pronounced [nõÅ ] or [nah ].
eev eev Naivety is the
is pronounced [nõÅ veÆti] or [nah eÆti].
Native American
ee eev preferred modern term for a person des-

naked or nude ? A person wearing no

of the Americas: .
cended from one of the indigenous peoples
The rights of Native

.
clothes at all may be described as naked
Americans must be defended. It replaces such
or nude: pictures of naked/nude men.

◆ The adjective ,however, has a wider range former, terms

naked
as and Red Indian American

of usage and application than , which is acceptable.

nude
which are no longer considered
Indian

largely restricted to artistic or pornographic human

nakedness or to nudism: . . naturalist or naturist? A
.
nude photography
[not ]
is a naturalist

. [not ]
nude bathing a naked nude body buried in a
person who studies animals and plants or
shallow grave naked nude children playing
. is a nudist: .
an advocate of naturalism (in art, literature,
in the sand
is also used as a synonym for `bare' or
philosophy, etc.); a naturist

`uncovered' in other contexts: . .

Naked Naturalists will appreciate the flora and fauna
a naked room a
.
of the island; naturists can take advantage of
naked flame .
its secluded beaches

name The verb name, in the sense `name a nature Such phrases as of this/that nature

.
person or something', is followed by the
.
and in the nature of are often better replaced
preposition after in British English: He
by more concise or less vague expressions:

.
was named after his grandfather, and in
.
Crimes like that [for of that nature] should be
American English by for: The airport is
severely punished. This new method of
named for John F. Kennedy.
[for in the nature of] an

naphtha
assessment is like

examination.
The word is used in other unnecessary
This word, meaning `petroleum',

.
◆ nature
circumlocutions: is
is sometimes misspelt. Note the consonant

.
a problem of a difficult nature
is
sequence .
◆ Note also the spellings of the compounds
-phth-
a difficult problem a remark of a flippant nature

naphthaleneand .
naphthene ; etc. a flippant remark

nation see COUNTRY or NATION? naturist NATURALIST

see or NATURIST?
native The word native, used in the sense naught nought
or ? These two words are
of `nonwhite person' (originally applied to sometimes confused. Naught means `noth-
nauseous 206
ing' and is used in idiomatic expressions unless one is speaking slowly and carefully.
such as set at naught `consider unimportant' Many users dislike the alternative pronun-

.
and come to naught `produce no successful ciation, which has the main stress on the
results': All our plans came to naught. In third syllable [neseÆserrõÆli].
British English nought

ZERO): .
is used to represent
necessary This word, meaning `essential',
.
the figure 0 (see also The number
is often misspelt. Note the single c and
100 has two noughts. play the game of
the -ss-.
noughts and crosses.

◆ InAmerican English,however, naught is usedfor neÂe

the mathematical sense.
 e,
Ne the feminine form of the French

.
word for `born', is used to indicate the

nauseous The use of the adjective nause-

maiden name of a married woman:
Susan Davies, ne
 e Eliot.

◆ The pronunciation of , which is sometimes

Mrs
ous in the sense of `nauseated' or `suffering
neÂe
from nausea' is acceptable in American
written without an accent, is [nay].
.
English but is best avoided in British Eng-
should not be used
NeÂe to indicate a man's
in British man's previous married name: . a remarried, wo-
original name or pseudonym or
lish: [not ].
◆ The principal meaning of
I feel sick nauseous

English is `nauseating' or `causing nausea': . [not ]

nauseous

.
Ringo Starr born

.
a
neÂe Richard Starkey , Jacqueline Onassis
nauseous smell
[not ] .
naval navel
formerly neÂe Jacqueline Kennedy
or
sometimes confused.
? These two words are
Naval is used to de-
need Need may be used as a full verb, in
the sense of `require' or `be obliged', or as
. .
scribe something connected with the navy:

. .
an auxiliary or modal verb, indicating ne-
a naval officer naval warfare. The navel is

.
cessity or obligation: We need help. Your
the small depression in the middle of the

.
daughter needs to wear glasses. He need not
abdomen where the umbilical cord was
leave.
The use of as an auxiliary verb is indicated
Need she reply?
formerly attached, and the word is also
◆ need
used in the phrase navel orange.
by the absence of - in the third person singular
near nearly
s
or ? In the sense of `almost', and the omission of in the following infinitive.
to
The auxiliary verb is used only in questions
. .
the adverb is sometimes interchange- need
and negative sentences (see the last two examples
near
able with nearly: [or near] forgot.

above) and in certain constructions that have

I nearly

negative force, such as: .

It's near [or nearly] impossible. This use of

.. ..
near may be considered informal or archaic, All she need buy is

..
and is a safer choice in most contexts. food He need do no more than wait You
Used in combination with an adjective, espe- .
nearly
◆ need only ask Nobody need suffer
cially one that is placed before the noun, may The full verb may also be used in questions
and negative sentences: .
near need
be preferred to and is usually attached with
ahyphen: . . ..
nearly He doesn't need to
a near-perfect copy a near-successful leave Does she need to reply?
attempt . In the sense of `require', is followed by the
need

nearby near by - form of the verb or by a past participle pre-

ceded by , not by the past participle alone: .
ing
or ? There is often con-

]. .
to be
fusion as to whether this term should be
This shirt needs washing [not washed This shirt
one word or two. Nearby is the preferred
needs to be washed .
. needless to say
form for both adjectival and adverbial
senses: Wolverhampton, Dudley, and other The idiomatic expression

maystillbeusedintheadverbialsense: . .
nearby towns. needless to say is frequently used for em-

..
◆ Near by phasis, especially in informal contexts:
a town near by .
He lives near by Needless to say, the unions intend to campaign

nearly NEAR NEARLY

see or ?
against the proposed legislation.
◆ The expression is disliked by those who choose
near miss AIR MISS NEAR MISS
see or ? to interpret it literally, but is acceptable to most
people.
necessarily
negative
There are two possible pro-
nunciations for this word. In the traditional A negative word is one that is
pronunciation, the first syllable is stressed used to deny or contradict something.
Æ seÆrõÆli], but this is very difficult to say
[nese Words such as no, not, nobody, never, and
 207 netspeak
make the clause in which they with some frequency: . Neither the ship nor its
.
nothing

appear a negative one. Care must be taken cargo were able to be salvaged
as to where a negative word is placed in a When a combination of singular and plural
sentence; usually the negative word is subjects occurs in a construction,
neither . . . nor
the verb traditionally agrees with the subject that is
. . nearest to it: .
placed with the clause whose truth is being

..
denied: He said he had never been there. Neither his brother nor his parents
He never said he had been there. have been invited Neither his friends nor his
◆ The exception is with verbs such as , believe sister has been invited . The same principle is ap-
, , , etc., where the negative plied to singular subjects that are used with dif-
word is generally placed before the verb: . ferent forms of the verb: .
think except imagine

..
I don't Neither you nor he has
[rather [not ]
]. .
think you know what you're talking about have been invited Neither my husband nor I
than I think you don't know . . . She didn't have [not ] has been invited. If the resulting sen-
expect them to return before dark [rather than She tence sounds awkward or unidiomatic it may be
expected them not to return . . . ]. reordered or rephrased.
The adjective is now often used in a The alternatives presented in a
construction should be grammatically balanced: .
negative neither . . . nor
very general way to mean not only `lacking in
positive features', but also `pessimistic; unenthu- may be
siastic': . .. changed to: .
She travelled neither by boat nor train

or: .
You're taking a rather negative view I She travelled neither by boat nor by
felt very negative about all his suggestions . train .
She travelled by neither boat nor train
DOUBLE NEGATIVE. As a pronoun should be used only of
two alternatives: .
See also neither

neglectful negligent negligible

, or ? Both
neither is mine . . [not
There are two cars outside, but
None ] Neither of the three
neglectful and negligent mean `careless' or
candidates arrived on time . However, the use of
`heedless'; negligible
.
means `very small',
the construction with three or
more subjects is acceptable to some people: .
neither . . . nor

. .
`trivial', or `insignificant': a neglectful

The adjectives
mother
and
a negligent driver
are not
negligible effect.
They eat neither meat nor fish nor eggs .
◆
completely synonymous:
neglectful
often implies
negligent
The first syllable of may be pronounced
neither
negligent
habitual or more serious neglect or negligence, to rhyme with or . The pronunciation [ d-
try tree nõÅ

which may be punishable by law. heÆr] is more frequent in British English.

Note the spelling of , especially the See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE; EITHER; NOR.
nephew There are two different pronun-
negligible
two 's.
i

negligible see NEGLECTFUL, NEGLIGENT or

ciations for this word. Both [nevew] and
[nefew] are acceptable, although some peo-
NEGLIGIBLE ? ple prefer the first pronunciation.
negotiate The usual pronunciation of this ◆ In American English [ ew] is standard.
nef

verb is [nigo
tion [nigo
Å shiayt]. The variant pronuncia-

Å siayt], in which the sh sound is

nerd Nerd, a derogatory slang term for a
person who is considered boring or socially
replaced by s, is disliked by some people. inept, is sometimes misspelt. Note the -e- in

Negress Negro , see BLACK. the middle of the word, and in its adjectival

neither
form nerdy.

GEEK.
.
As an adjective or pronoun neither See also

.
is used with a singular verb:
nerve-racking
Neither towel
see RACK or WRACK?
net INTERNET
is clean. Neither of the towels is [not are]

clean. see ; NETSPEAK.

◆ In the construction, a singular net nett
neither . . . nor
verb is used if both subjects are singular and a or ? The word net, referring to

plural verb is used if both subjects are plural: . expenses, loss, packaging, etc., is sometimes
what remains after the deduction of tax,

[not ] spelt : . [or ] . [or ]

..
Neither his brother nor his sister has have

. .
nett net nett income net nett
been invited Neither his parents nor his friends
have been invited . ] .
[or ] profit [or
net nett weight 500 kg net

The use of a plural verb with the pronoun spellings are acceptable in British English,
[or ] nett . Both
to net nett £2000 a month

neither or with singular subjects in a neither . . .

construction is avoided by careful users, espe- but is the more frequent. net

cially in formal contexts, but nevertheless occurs netspeak The advent of the computer age
nor
network 208
and the development of the worldwide all but a few informal spoken contexts: . I

network of computers known as the never said a word! Never means `at no time'
WORLD WIDE WEB (or INTERNET
. .
web) or the and should not be used when referring to a
(or net) has inspired a substantial body of single occasion: I never met his wife. I did
new coinages and linguistic conventions, not meet his wife in town yesterday.

sometimes treated as a separate language ◆ Never is sometimes used informally as a sub-

stitute for a simple negative when expressing
surprise: . ..
in its own right and identified as netspeak.

..
Usages include netizens, netiquette (the con- He never expected that to happen
ventions of netspeak), or We never thought it would work I never knew
.
Netlish Weblish
(netspeak as a version of English), netwallah you could play the guitar
(a net administrator), and such technical
nevertheless see NONE THE LESS or NEVER-
terms as byte, cookie, crash, domain name,
THELESS?
New Age
firewall, hit, offline, search engine, server, and
URL. The temptation to relax the rules of The New Age movement, of
grammar, for instance by running sen- American origin, is a cultural movement
tences together without a full stop and dating from the 1980s that emphasizes
ignoring upper case/lower case distinctions, alternative modes of spiritual consciousness
may offend many users. (embodied in non-Western ideas such as
◆ Some terms and acronyms have al- reincarnation, meditation and astrology),
netspeak
ready been absorbed into mainstream English. and a holistic approach to areas such as
Examples include (meaning `clueless', from medicine and diet: . .
.
404
an error message numbered 404) and (ab-
New Age philosophy
FAQ .
breviation for `frequently asked question').
New Age music New Age publishing

See also ACRONYMS; CHAT; E-MAIL ; INTER-

next or this? The adjective is often this

NET; SMILEY; TEXT MESSAGING. used in place of next with reference to days

network .
of the current week, months of the current

.
The word network is used as a year, etc.: I'm not going to the club this
verb in telecommunications, computing, Friday. She's getting married this September.

and the media; it is also increasingly used As a result, the use of in similar contexts
◆ next
in general contexts to mean `communicate may lead to ambiguity or confusion: the phrase
, used on a Tuesday, for example, may
. . mean `three days hence' or `ten days hence'.
or make contact with other people in a next Friday
similar situation': to network with clients

Women also often mentioned the help, advice See also LAST.
. nice
and support they had received from network-
The adjective nice, in the sense of
ing with other women (The Bookseller).
`pleasant', `agreeable', `kind', `attractive',
Those four people . . . network extensively
etc., is often better replaced by an appro-

.
and draw on specialist help as appropriate

. .
priate synonym, especially in formal con-
(Alpha). Networking . . . is one of the
texts: an attractive [not nice] garden a
current buzz-words of the enterprise industry
[not nice] afternoon.

In the sense of `subtle' or `precise', is

pleasant
(The ).
In computing, is the connecting of ◆acceptable
Guardian

in all contexts: .
nice
◆ networking
computers in different places to one another as . a nice distinction

a means of transferring and sharing information. tive is ultimately derived

Nice from the Latin adjec-
, meaning `ignorant'; it was originally
neuron or neurone? The conventional used in the now obsolete sense of `foolish'.
nescius

spelling of this word, referring to a nerve

niceness nicety or ? Both these nouns are
cell, in scientific contexts is
general nontechnical
neuron.
contexts,
In more
however,
derived from NICE. Niceness is used in the
general senses of `pleasantness', `kindness',
neurone is the usual spelling.

neutral
etc.; nicety is restricted to the sense of

.
For male, female, and neutral `subtlety; precision' and specifically refers

. .
(gender-inclusive) terms for people see ta- to refined details: the niceness of the
ble at NON-SEXIST TERMS. weather/his sister a nicety of grammar

never the niceties of etiquette.

niche
The use of never saw/took/went/etc.

in place of did not see/take/go/etc., usually This word may be pronounced to

for emphasis, is avoided by careful users in rhyme with pitch or leash. The second of
 209 non sequitur
these pronunciations is closer to the French noisome The adjective noisome means
origin, and is more frequent than the `offensive' or `noxious'; it has no connec-

The word is increasingly used with refer- noun : .

anglicized [nich]. tion, etymological or otherwise, with the
◆ niche .
ence to a gap in the market, especially a gap that ◆ is derived from the verb . It is
noise a noisome smell

can be profitably filled: . .

Noisome annoy
largely restricted to formal contexts.
niche marketing Niche
retailers like Sock Shop, Tie Rack and Knobs &
Knockers have shown that they struggle when
non- The prefix non- is used to form a

(
times get hard The Guardian ). .
simple or neutral antonym of the word to

night .
which it is attached: a nonprofessional

see KNIGHT or NIGHT? non-Christian religions.

◆ The prefix , attached to the same words, may
golfer

-nik The suffix -nik, of Russian or Yiddish

un-
have stronger negative force: an or
unprofessional
origin, is used to denote somebody who is
. un-Christian act, for example, violates professional
. .
connected with or does what precedes it:
ethics or Christian principles.
beatnik peacenik refusenik. With the
Many people object to the frequent use of the
exception of refusenik these words are
prefix to coin unnecessary antonyms: .
).
non- non-
rather dated; the suffix is less frequently
(for (for
). (for ) .
presence absence nonpermanent tem-
encountered in contemporary usage and
porary nonsuccess failure nonobligatory
should not be indiscriminately attached
(for ).
optional
to other nouns and verbs.
◆A was originally a Jew who had been Note that, though in fairly wide use, the term
refusenik
refused permission to leave the Soviet Union. nonwhite to describe a person who does not
However, the word is increasingly used in more belong to the white racial grouping may be con-
general contexts to denote somebody who refuses sidered offensive by some people because of its
to do something: . assumption that white is the standard skin colour.
the remaining refuseniks .
a proposal that should satisfy
A more politically correct alternative is person of
colour.
nil ZERO
see . See also HYPHEN 1; INFLAMMABLE.
nimby Nimby, an acronym of `not in my none The use of a singular or plural verb

.
back yard', is used with reference to a with the pronoun none depends on the

.
person or people who object to proposed sense and context in which it is used:
None of the milk was spilt.

.
new developments, such as roads or power None of my
friends has/have seen the film . In the first of
.
stations, in the vicinity of their houses: the

Nimby syndrome If he has changed his mind, these examples none, like milk, must be
and is now a true non-Nimby, he should used with a singular verb. In examples of
withdraw his objection to having homes at the second type some people prefer a
(The Guardian). singular verb in formal contexts, espe-
The noun has been coined to denote
the bottom of his garden

◆ nimbyism cially if none is used in the sense of

this selfish opposition (the protesters usually have `not one'. In informal contexts, or in
no objection to the development being sited else- the sense of `not any', a plural verb is
where): . Their deep dislike of the kind of gung-ho more frequent.
development and growth-at-all-costs going on in See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?
their communities . . . is not crude Nimbyism, as
Nicholas Ridley would have us believe Daily Tele- ( none the less or nevertheless ? These

graph ). two synonyms are sometimes confused.

Traditionally has been written
no NO ONE NO-ONE YES
none the less

see or ?; and NO. as three separate words, although nonethe-

nobody NO ONE NO-ONE

see or ?
less is gradually being accepted.
is always written as one word.
Nevertheless

no-brainer This is a slang term for a ◆ In American English both words are written as
single words.
.
question or problem whose solution re-
quires little or no intelligence: The first
nonflammable see INFLAMMABLE.
non sequitur
question was a real no-brainer. As a relatively
recent vogue term, it is best restricted to The Latin expression non

very informal contexts. sequitur is used in formal contexts to refer

no one 210
to a statement that does not follow logically ten days. . They live in north London. . The

.
from what has just been said. An example wind is blowing from the north.
The adjective is more frequent and
usually less specific than the adjective : .
of a non sequitur is: If all males are mortals ◆ northern

.
then all mortals are males. north
◆ The literal meaning of is `it does not
non sequitur the northern part of the country in northern
follow'. . France
Like , is written with a capital
NON-SEXIST TERMS ± see table, page 211 when it forms part of a proper name, such as
north northern N

no one or no-one? Many users prefer the also means `of the. With or without a capital , it
.
Northern Ireland
North': a northern/Northern
N

two-word compound to the hyphe-

no one
. accent

northward northwards?
nated form . Unlike
no-one ,
anyone, everyone

and someone, no one should not be written or Northward is

.
as a one-word compound. the correct choice when an adjective is
◆ The pronoun and its synonym
no one nobody needed: a northward direction. Either
are interchangeable in all contexts. Both are used
.
northward or northwards may be used when
with a singular verb but are sometimes followed by
.
an adverb is required: They travelled

a plural personal pronoun or possessive adjective

(see THEY): .
northward from the city. The skies were

No one/Nobody likes to see their full of birds flying northwards.

children suffer. -WARD or -WARDS?

See also

nor Nor is used in place of or in the neither no sooner see HARDLY.

. . . nor construction (see NEITHER) and to
nostalgia The noun nostalgia and its deri-

.
introduce a negative alternative that stands
vatives are most frequently used with re-

.
as a separate clause: I speak neither German

.
ference to a wistful or sentimental yearning

.
nor Spanish. She hasn't been to America, nor
for the past: She remembered the seaside
has her sister. He never watches television,

and are inter- . .

holidays of her childhood with a deep nostal-
nor does he listen to the radio.

In many other contexts gia Listening to old records always makes

changeable: .
◆ nor or
. The original meaning of
me nostalgic

..
The library is not open on Thursday
`homesickness' is now rather dated.
◆ The use of the adjective in the sense of
mornings, nor/or at the weekend We have no
.
food to eat nor/or clothes to wear
`causing nostalgia', rather than `feeling nostalgia',
nostalgic

Many users prefer to where the negative is disliked and avoided by some users: .
forceofanauxiliaryverbcoversbothalternatives: .
or nor
the

.. .
nostalgic sound of the church bells

not The position of the word in a

They cannot sing or dance She has not eaten her
.
biscuits or drunk her tea not

The use of at the beginning of a sentence is negative sentence may affect its meaning
generally acceptable: . and can sometimes lead to ambiguity: .
nor

. .
Nature is slow to compen- All

.
. .
sate for deforestation Nor has man been able to children are not afraid of the dark We did

( ).
.
make good the damage Daily Telegraph not go because it was raining He is not

normalcy normality
or ? These two nouns
trying to win.
first of these
He is trying not to win.
examples, which
The
literally
are synonymous derivatives of the adjective

.
means `No children are afraid of the dark',
normal. Normality is the preferred form in
is easily reworded: Not all children are
British English; normalcy is chiefly used in

.
afraid of the dark. The second example may
American English.

north North northern .

be reordered or expanded for clarity:
, or ? As an adjec- Because it was raining we did not go. We did

.
tive, north is always written with a capital N not go because it was raining, we went

.
when it forms part of a proper name: because we were bored.

the North Sea. The noun ◆ The frequent use over recent years of as a not
one-word contradiction of what has just been said
North America
is usually written with a capital
is disliked by many people and should be restricted
north N

. to very informal contexts: .

when it denotes a specific region, such as
the northern part of England: House prices That's a really cool hat
are lower in the North. In other contexts, you're wearing ± not!
KNOT or NOT?; NOT ONLY . . . BUT
.
and as an adverb, north is usually written See also
with a lower-case n: We travelled north for ALSO.
 211 NON-SEXIST TERMS
NON-SEXIST TERMS
The following table lists words showing male, female, and neutral (gender-inclusive) terms. Cross-
references ± e.g. see MANKIND ± are also included to main entries in the where
Good Word Guide
there is a fuller discussion.
Male Female Neutral (gender-inclusive)
actor actress actor
airman airwoman pilot
author authoress author writer (see also -ESS)
or
barman barmaid bartender
businessman businesswoman (business) executive
cameraman camerawoman camera operator photographer or
chairman chairwoman chairperson chair (see CHAIR)
or
clergyman clergywoman member of the clergy
comedian comedienne comedian comic comic actor comic entertainer
or or or
congressman congresswoman member of congress
countryman countrywoman native/inhabitant of . . . compatriot or
craftsman craftswoman craftsperson craftworker
or
draughtsman draughtswoman draughter draughtsperson
or
dustman dustwoman refuse collector refuse operative cleansing operative
or or
fireman firewoman firefighter
forefather foremother ancestor forebear forerunner
or or
foreman forewoman supervisor
headmaster headmistress headteacher head or
hero heroine hero
host hostess host (tour) guide
or
kinsman kinswoman relative relation
or
layman laywoman lay person member of the laity
or
man ( ) woman
noun person individual human being (see MAN)
or or
man ( )
verb operate staff run work equip
or or or or
manager manageress manager
man-hours working hours work hours or
mankind womankind the human race human beings (see MANKIND)
or
man-made synthetic artificial manufactured
or or
manpower workforce personnel staff
or or
milkman milkwoman milk roundsperson dairy salespersonor
poet poetess poet (see also -ESS)
policeman policewoman police officer
postman postwoman delivery officer
salesman saleswomanor salesperson sales executive (sales) representative
or or or
salesgirl sales assistant shop assistant sales clerk (
or or ) American
sculptor sculptress sculptor
serviceman servicewoman member of the armed forces
spokesman spokeswoman spokesperson representative official
or or
sportsman sportswoman sportsperson
statesman stateswoman statesperson leader public figure
or or
steward stewardess (
air hostess) flight/cabin attendant
usher usherette usher
waiter waitress waiter server
or
weatherman weathergirl meteorologist weather forecaster
or
workman workwoman worker artisan
or
notable 212
notable noted . noteworthy .
, or ? Noted Æ t] is widely
alternative pronunciation [nuga
means `famous': a noted scientist The used.
area is noted for its spectacular scenery. No-
nought see NAUGHT or NOUGHT?
. nouns
table and noteworthy both mean `worthy of
notice or of being noted': a notable [or Nouns are the names of things,
noteworthy] achievement, but noteworthy is places, or people. The main division of

.
usually used to describe facts or events nouns is into countable and uncountable
rather than people: It was noteworthy that nouns. Countable nouns are those which

. .
the average price remained the same despite can be preceded by a or the or a number or

. .
the effects of inflation. word denoting number:
A person or thing that is or
a goat three

◆ notable noteworthy . Uncoun-

deserves notice, admiration or renown; a person or table nouns are not able to be counted
lemons the priest several books

thing that is has already received notice, because they are nouns of mass: .
. . Some words can be countable or
noted
admiration, or renown.
flour
water

notable noticeableor ? The adjective no-

used: . Have a beer. .
uncountable, according to how they are
Beer is fattening.
table means `remarkable' or `worthy of
Proper nouns refer to a single particular person
or thing and begin with a capital letter: .
◆

. .
note'; noticeable means `perceptible' or `ob-
Trevor
vious': a notable achievement a noticeable
. Exceptionally, proper nouns can be made
plural: . .
Jones
change in temperature. The two words
the Americas There are two Susans on
should not be confused.
The final - of the verb is retained in the staff .
◆ e
, whereas the final - of is omitted
notice
Nouns can often be used as adjectives, when
noticeable
in .
e note
they sometimes form one word with another
notable
noun, or are hyphenated, or remain as two words:
noted noteworthy NOTABLE, NOTED or . postbox . .
tea-tray . They are
Christmas cake
more likely to be hyphenated when the two nouns
, see
NOTEWORTHY
are used together adjectivally before a third noun:
?

nothing but The phrase nothing but . . . is . Christmas-cake decorations . a bathroom-fit-

used with a singular verb, even if the noun
. tings shop .
that follows but is plural: Nothing but See also HYPHEN 3.
[not were] left on the plate. The use of nouns as verbs has a long history. We
◆ When is followed by an infinitive,
crumbs was

use the verb without thinking that it

the word is omitted: .
nothing but

wasoriginallyanoun.Suchphrasesas: .
to question
to They have done nothing
. . .
to paper a
but cry since you left are also so
The same rules apply to the synonymous phrase
room to tin fruit to pencil it in
frequently used as to be wholly acceptable. How-
nothing except:. Nothing except his shoes was ever, more modern innovations, such as: .
..
Let me
found.

.. ..
example that for you They text each other every

noticeable NOTABLE NOTICEABLE? month He rubbished their policies ,

to modern
see or
are disliked by many people.
not only . . . but also The words or See also VERBS.
clauses that follow
must be grammatically balanced:
not only and
.
but also
I have
noxious obnoxious
or ? Both these adjec-
tives can mean `extremely unpleasant', but

.
lost not only my purse but also my car keys
obnoxious usually refers to a person and
[not I have not only lost . . .]. They not only

. .
noxious to something that is physically or
broke the world record for long-distance
morally harmful: their obnoxious children
swimming but also raised several thousand
noxious fumes.
pounds for charity [not They broke not
◆ Both words are ultimately derived from the Latin
only . . .].
Inmanycontextstheword canbeomitted: . noxa `injury'.
nubile
◆ also
He not only wrote to the headmaster but (also) The adjective nubile, derived from
.
consulted his solicitor the Latin word for `marriageable', is fre-

notorious see INFAMOUS or NOTORIOUS? quently applied to any sexually attractive

nougat .
young woman, especially in jocular or in-
The standard pronunciation of this formal contexts: His friend's nubile sister
word is [noogah], after the French. The was sunbathing in the garden. Some people
 213 nutritive
object to this usage, restricting the term to one to twenty; others spell out all numbers up to
its original meaning. one hundred. It is important to be reasonably
◆ The use of the adjective to describe
nubile consistent within a single piece of writing, but
attractive married women or unattractive unmar- some users prefer not to mix figures and words
ried women is therefore best avoided. in the same sentence: .
..
There are nine boys and

nuclear fifteen [not ]15 girls in his class We invited 130

The occasional use of
.
nuclear as a
[not ] .
Thetimemaybeexpressedinwordsorfigures: .
guests but only 80 eighty turned up
noun, meaning `nuclear power': a national
debate about nuclear, is disliked and avoided
twenty past three . . 3.20 .
eight o'clock .8 o'clock
by most people.
This usage is potentially confusing, as the word Times using the 24-hour clock are written as
◆
may also refer to nuclear warfare, nuclear figures: . 16.25. 0700 hours
See also A.M. and P.M.; DATES.
nuclear
missiles, nuclear fission, nuclear energy, etc. The Numbers of five or more digits are separated by
term nuclear winter refers to a period with very commas or spaces into groups of three: .
little light, heat, or growth that would follow a . .Four-digitnumbers
45,069/

nuclear war. 45 069 3,728,960/3 728 960

are usually printed or written without commas or
In the phrase nuclear family the adjective nucle-
spaces: . . .
ar simply means `forming a nucleus'. 5069 8960
Some numbers have acquired their own parti-
Nuclear is pronounced [ kleeaÆ] in British
nyoo
cular semantic value: .
English and [ kleeaÆ] in American English. It is
noo
[emergency] .
We need to review the 999
[24
sometimes mispronounced as if the word ended in hours per day, 7 days per week]. .
services. The shop is open 24/7

-cular , especially in American English. new security

[the
nude
measures introduced in the wake of 9/11
see NAKED or NUDE? terrorist attacks on the USA on 11 September
number 2001] .
The phrase a number of . . . is
See also DATES; HYPHEN 6.
nutritional nutritious
used with a plural verb; the phrase the

. .
number of . . . is used with a singular verb: or ? Nutritional
A number of pupils were late. The number means `relating to nutrition (the process

.
of pupils has increased. of taking food into the body and absorbing
AMOUNT or NUMBER?; SINGULAR or
.
See also it)'; nutritious means `nourishing': the

PLURAL? nutritional requirements of a baby a very

numbers Numbers that occur in printed or

nutritious meal.

◆ The adjective nutritionalis increasingly used with

written texts may be expressed in figures or
reference to the content of processed and other
written out in full, according to the nature of
foods: .
). .
Nutritional labelling must be made com-
the work, the context, the writer's personal
preference, or the publisher's house style.
pulsory ( Sunday Times People should have

◆ In mathematical, scientific, technical, commer- enough nutritional information to make dietary

( ).
cial, or statistical texts numbers are usually ex- changes Daily Telegraph
The more formal adjective may be used
pressed in figures throughout. in place of or
nutritive
, but it more
In other works specific measurements or sums frequently replaces the former: .
nutritional nutritious

of money, page numbers, dates, and numbers New recommen-

higher than one hundred (except two hundred, dations have been made by the Ministry of Agri-

three hundred, four thousand, five million, etc.) culture, Fisheries and Food for the way in which
(Kellogg's Rice Kris-
are usually expressed in figures. nutritive values are displayed

Some writers and publishers spell out numbers pies packet).

from one to ten only; some spell out numbers from nutritive see NUTRITIONAL or NUTRITIOUS?
 O
O oh or ? O, always written with a capital, subjective
.
means `influenced by personal

. .
is a rarer, more poetic variant of the ex- feelings, etc.': This is a subjective opinion:

.
clamation oh: O come all ye faithful. O [or I find it hard to be objective when we're

Oh] for the school holidays! `I can't come and discussing my own daughter's career.
Some users consider the adjectives to be un-
.
afraid.' `Oh ◆
necessary synonyms for
see you later, I'm well, never

.
mind.' fair, impartial, personal,
etc.
She burst into tears, crying, `Oh
biased,
The noun is best avoided where
dear! Oh dear! Oh dear!' I just thought

objective goal,
etc., would be adequate or
. . . oh, never mind.

OAP see SENIOR CITIZEN. more appropriate: .

aim, purpose, object,
[not ]
.
the purpose objective of
oar or, or ore ? These three words are this meeting. [not
Our aim
equal opportunities for all.
] objective is to provide
occasionally confused as they are pro-

. objet d'art
nounced in the same way [or]. Oar refers The plural of the phrase objet
to a paddle used to propel a rowing boat: d'art, meaning `small object of artistic

.
The oars dipped in the water. Or is a con- worth', is formed by adding -s to the first
junction linking two or more alternatives: word, objets d'art.

◆ Of French origin, the phrase is sometimes writ-

.
right or wrong. Ore refers to mineral from
which metals may be extracted: iron ore.
ten or printed in italics in English texts. Note the
obeisance spelling of , which lacks the of the English
objet c
Obeisance is a very formal word
word . object
. .
that means an attitude or gesture of defer-
ence or respect:
obeisance.
to pay obeisance
It is not synonymous with
to make obliged obligated
or ? Both these adjec-

.
an tives may be used in the sense of `morally or
obedience, although both nouns are derived legally bound': He felt obliged/obligated to
from Old French obeir, `to obey'.
◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the
report the accident.
obeisance ei ◆ The use of is largely restricted to
and the ending.
obligated
-ance formal contexts.
object has the additional meaning of `physi-
cally constrained' or `compelled': .
Obliged
The object of a clause or sentence is
They were
the noun, pronoun, or phrase that is af-
fected by the verb. The object usually
obliged to remain in their seats.
follows the verb.
An object may be or . In the
oblivious The adjective oblivious is often

sentence: .
◆ direct indirect
.
used in the sense of `unaware' or `heedless':
,
The dog buried the bone the bone
is the direct object and there is no indirect object.
He remained in the shelter of the tree,

Inthesentences: . and .
oblivious of the fact that the rain had stopped.
I gave the child a book She ◆ Some people object to this usage, restricting
, is the direct object the adjective to its original sense of `no longer
aware' or `forgetful': .
bought the child a book a book
and the childis the indirect object. Many sentences
that contain both a direct and an indirect object
Oblivious of the need for

canberephrasedusingtheprepositions or : .
caution, she stepped out of the car to photograph
.
..
to for the lions
I gave a book to the child She bought a book for The frequent use of the phrase ,
.
oblivious to
the child rather than , is unacceptable to some
Compare SUBJECT. users and is best avoided in formal contexts: .
oblivious of

objective subjective oblivious of[not ] .

to the dangers [not
oblivious of
or ? The adjective
]
to my presence .
obnoxious
objective means `not influenced by personal
feelings, beliefs, or prejudices'; its antonym see NOXIOUS or OBNOXIOUS?
 215 of course
obscene Some people object to the increas- occurrence This word is often misspelt. A

.
ing use of obscene as a general term of frequent error is the substitution of -ance
strong disapproval: Recent large pay for the -ence ending. Note also the -cc- and
awards to some company directors are obscene, -rr-, as also in occurred and occurring.
the Bishop of Manchester . . . has told the

(Daily Telegraph).
octopus The plural of the noun octopus,

◆ The primary meaning of is `offensive to is

General Synod in York
denoting a sea animal with eight tentacles,

accepted standards of decency': .

obscene
. As the word is ultimately of
octopuses

.
obscene lan-
guage .
an obscene picture
Greek origin, the plural form is octopi

The word is sometimes misspelt: note

obscene
incorrect; is permissible but ped-
octopodes

that the second syllable is identical with the word antic.

scene . oculist see OPTICIAN, OPHTHALMOLOGIST, OP-
observance observation or ? The noun
TOMETRIST or OCULIST?
observance denotes either the act of com-
plying or a ritual custom or practice;
odious odorousor ? Odious means `extre-

.
ob- mely unpleasant'; odorous, a very formal

.
denotes either the act of watching
.
servation word, means `having a particular smell':

.
or noticing or a remark or comment: an odious man an odorous room. The two

. .
observance of the rules religious observances adjectives should not be confused.
their observation of human behaviour an ◆ Like the noun , may refer to a
odour odorous
observation made by his client. pleasant or an unpleasant smell. Note that the of u

obverse CONVERSE, INVERSE, OBVERSE odour is dropped before the ending of -ous odor-

REVERSE
see or
ous .
?
The word , not , is used in the
obviate
odious odorous
saying `Comparisons are odious'.
.
To obviate something is to make it
unnecessary or to dispose of it: The man-
-oe- -AE- -OE-
see and .

oesophagus esophagus
agement's new proposals obviated our com-

plaints. It is largely restricted to formal or ? This word,

contexts and should not be used as a pre- describing the part of the alimentary canal
tentious synonym for `remove' or `get rid of'.
The verb is unconnected in meaning to spelt differently in British and American
linking the pharynx and the stomach, is
◆ obviate
the adjective , although the two words are English.
obvious
etymologically related.
is the usual spelling in
Oesophagus

Some users avoid the construction

British English, while is the ac- esophagus

is redundant: . of The preposition is sometimes wrongly

obviate the
, arguing that
cepted spelling in American English.
need for the need for
of
A reduction in inflation would obviate the need for
higher pay rises. substituted for the verb
: .
or, more have

occasion .
frequently, its contraction 've They
The verb is best avoided
.
occasion should have [not of] refused. She must've

.
where cause, bring about, etc., would be [not must of] forgotten. He could have [not
adequate: The accident was caused [not of] tried. This substitution, caused by the
occasioned] by a fault in the braking system. similarity in pronunciation between the
◆ Note the spelling of the word occasion , parti- two words when unstressed, is wrong.
cularly the and single .
-cc- s ◆ The use of such phrases as of a Friday, of an

occupied preoccupied , etc., in place of ,

etc., should be restricted to informal contexts: .
evening on Fridays, in the evening
or ? Applied to a
I
person, occupied means `busy'; preoccupied
go shopping of a Tuesday afternoon .
means `absorbed in a particular train of
. OFF 'S S' SINGULAR PLURAL
See also ; or ?; or ?

of course
thought (often to the exclusion of all else)':

. .
I was occupied with the preparations for the The phrase of course serves a
carnival. Try to keep everybody occupied. number of useful purposes, but should not

.
be used to excess.
◆ It has a variety of connotations, some of which
He was preoccupied with his marital pro-
blems. She seemed preoccupied.

◆ Being may involve the mind and/or the may cause offence.
occupied
body, whereas being usually involves Used for emphasis, either alone or to introduce
preoccupied
the mind alone. a reply, the phrase may convey impatience or
off 216
politeness: . `
.' . `
Did you remember to post my letter?' reports, memoranda, letters, leaflets, and
`Of course (I did) '`
May I use your telephone? Of other bureaucratic documents.
course (you may) .' ◆ Known informally as , officialese
gobbledygook
Used in the sense of `naturally' or `admittedly', it is characterized by the use of pompous and wordy
may be patronizing, superior, sympathetic, or language, obscure jargon, and long unintelligible
apologetic: . sentences. An example quoted by Tom Vernon in
..
It is of course impossible to com-
is from a Department of Employ-
. ment form: .
municate with the dead I knew his uncle, of Gobbledegook

..
course. I don't believe you ever met him, did you? In certain circumstances that con-
Of course you're tired, you've had a long journey dition may be modified to enable those persons
I may be wrong, of course . who claim benefit early in their insurance life to

off The use of the preposition off in place

treat as paid in one tax year all class 1 (standard
rate) contributions paid in the period starting with
of from, to indicate the source of an acqui-
the year in which they first became liable for such

.
sition, is considered wrong by many people,
contributions, and ending with the day from which
even in informal contexts: I bought it from
benefit is claimed.
[not off] my sister.

◆ The phrase is also wrong and should be Widely satirized in the media, government de-
avoidedin allcontexts: .
off of
[not ] partments have tried in recent years, with some
..
He jumped off
[not ] .
off of
success, to eliminate officialese by simplifying vo-
the wall Take your feet off
The word is usually pronounced to rhyme
off of the table
cabulary and circumlocutory phrases, shortening
off
with ; the variant pronunciation [awf] is gen- sentences, and personalizing instructions.
scoff
erally considered to be old-fashioned or affected. JARGON.
See also

See also OFF-LIMITS. officious see OFFICIAL or OFFICIOUS?

offence This word, meaning `action caus- off-limits The term off-limits, meaning
ing displeasure; illegal act', is sometimes `out of bounds' or `forbidden', originated
misspelt. Note the not in British
.
-c- -s- in American military contexts and is now
English (American English, offense).
The derived adjective is spelt in both
entering general British usage: This part of
◆ offensive
British and American English.
the factory is off-limits to visitors. Many users
prefer to retain the more traditional syno-
offer proffer
or
.
? Both verbs mean `pre- nyms.
sent for acceptance':
offered] his passport. .
He

She offered
proffered

[or
[or
prof-
off-the-wall The adjective off-the-wall is
used in informal contexts, especially in
fered] her sympathy. Offer has a much wider American English, to mean `amusingly
range of usage; proffer is largely restricted
.
unusual; eccentric or unexpected; zany':
to formal contexts, and should not be used off-the-wall humour. Care should be ta-
as a pretentious substitute for offer.

cannot be used in place of in more often The words ken to avoid overusing this expression.

complex constructions: .
◆ Proffer offer
[not and are
..
He offered prof- oftener oftenest

]
fered her a glass of champagne accepted comparative
They offered and superlative
[not ] .
proffered us £2000 for the car forms of the adverb often, but many users

official officious
or ? The adjective official
prefer more often
.
and most often, especially

.
in formal contexts: It rains most often in the
means `authorized', `formal', or `of an of-
autumn.

The of is rarely sounded, the most

Which car do you use oftener?
fice'; officious, which is generally used in a
◆ t often
derogatory manner, means `interfering',
frequent pronunciation of the word being [ eÆn]. of
`bossy', `self-important', or `offering un-
. The pronunciation [ teÆn] is heard from time to
of

.
wanted advice or assistance':
.
an official
time, but the variant [ eÆn], which sounds like
awf
strike an official visit an officious clerk.
orphan , is generally considered to be old-fash-
The two words should not be confused.
◆ In the field of diplomacy the adjective
ioned or affected.
means `informal' or `unofficial': .
officious
an officious oh O OH
see or ?
agreement . This sense is not in general usage. OK okay
officialese
or ? The term OK or okay, denot-

.
Officialese is a derogatory name ing agreement or approval, may be used as

. .
for the style of writing or language that is an adjective, adverb, noun, or verb: That's

considered to be typical of official forms, OK. The meeting went OK. Has she given
 217 ongoing
. One often talks to himself.. One should be kind to
.
us the OK/okay? They are unlikely to okay/

OK the suggestion. his friends

◆ As the term is most frequently used in informal When the pronoun represents a specific
person it is always followed by , , etc.: .
one
speech, the variations in its written form are not of his her
great importance. The twins' tastes are not identical: one drinks her
In informal writing, the extended form is okay [not ]
one's coffee black, the other drinks it white .
generally preferred for the verb, especially if in- In formal contexts the impersonal pronoun
flectional endings are to be added: .
one
The project is generally preferred to . The use of in
you one
has been okayed by the committee . place of or , however, is widely considered to
I we
The two-letter form is now rarely written be affected and is best avoided, especially in in-
with full stops in British English: . formal contexts: . [not
OK
]
..
It looks O.K. to I have One has never been
me . very good at sport [not
We hope ]
One hopes that

old age pensioner SENIOR CITIZEN OLD the situation will improve .
See also YOU.
see or
AGE PENSIONER ?
The constructions etc. and
older oldest ELDER ELDEST OLDER
one in three/five/ten/
, followed by a plural noun, should
beusedwithasingularverb: .
, see , , or one of the . . .
OLDEST
..
? One in four teachers

omelette This word is sometimes mis-

is in favour of corporal punishment
. However, a plural verb is often
One of the

:.
eggs is broken
spelt. In British English the spelling is
omelette, in American English omelet. Note
seen or heard after the construction one in . . .
One in ten men are thought to have a drink
the first e.

The word is pronounced [ lit]. problem (BBC radio news). The constructions
◆ om
and
omission are followed by a plural verb: .
one of those . . . who one of the . . . that

..
This noun, meaning `the act of He is one of those
omitting' or `something omitted', is often people who are never satisfied It is one of the
misspelt. The most frequent error is the shortest books that have ever been published .
See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?
In some contexts the word is superfluous: .
substitution of -mm- for the single -m-.
Note also the ending (not or one
, for example, may
-ission -ision

-ition). His smile was not a friendly one

on be more concisely expressed as: His smile was not

The relatively recent tendency to con-
friendly .
struct phrases around on, such as one-on-
See also EACH OTHER or ONE ANOTHER?
onerous
one (meaning `individual-to-individual' or

.
`person-to-person') and white-on-white This word, meaning `demanding
(meaning `white against white'), is disliked or troublesome': onerous tasks, has two
acceptable pronunciations, [oneÆru
Æ s] and
.
by some users and is best restricted to
informal contexts: [o Æ ru
Å ne Æ s].

one-stop
The increasing inci-
dence of white-on-white violence is worrying. The term one-stop refers to the
One-on-one is an American variant of the modern trend towards combining various

.
phrase one-to-one, which is more acceptable
. .
related facilities or services in one place or
in British English: It's time we had a proper package: a one-stop system The report . . .
one-to-one discussion about this.

ONTO or ON TO?; UPON or ON?

suggests local authorities can offer `one-stop shops'
See also where employers can find child-care, training and

one The pronoun one, representing an other contacts under one roof (Daily Telegraph).
It is a vogue word disliked by some people.
indefinite person, is usually followed in
◆ originally referred to shops
One-stop shopping
British English by
.
one's, oneself,
that sell a wide
etc., rather
range of essential items ± food,
than by , , etc.:
his himself
newspapers, books, toys, clothes, gardening and
One should be kind

.
◆ If the resulting sentence sounds clumsy or uni-
to one's friends
household goods, etc.
diomatic, it may be paraphrased: . ongoing Many people object to the use of
When one lives
, for the adjective
, etc.: .
on one's own one often talks to oneself in place of ,
example, may be changed to:
ongoing continuing

.
,
People who live
.
developing in progress ongoing re-
on their own often talk to themselves
In American English, however, is usually
search an ongoing investment programme in

, etc.: .
one . The clicheÂ
followed in such contexts by ,
manufacturing technology on-
his himself is also widely disliked.
going situation
on-line 218
The word sometimes appears in hy- poetry, in such a way as to suggest the sound
phenated form: .
◆ ongoing
described. An example is:
We put you through the world's
Keeping time, time, time,
most advanced management training courses, fol-
(
lowed by on-going personal development Execu-In a sort of Runic rhyme,
).
tive Post To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
on-line The term From the bells, bells, bells, bells.
, which relates to
on-line
(Edgar Allan Poe, ) The Bells
equipment that is directly connected to
and/or controlled by a central computer, on-stream The term on-stream relates to
an industrial process or plant that is in
.
is sometimes used in the extended sense of
`in direct communication with': on-line to production or about to go into production

.
or operation or to the launching of a new
ON-STREAM: .
the president. It should not be confused with
Rent A Film . . . will be getting advertising campaign, etc.: The rest of the

in the party spirit to celebrate a very special country should be on-stream by the end of

2005.
It is sometimes possible to replace the phrase
service which has just come on line at their
◆
with , etc.
plush, newly-refurbished premises (Little-
come on-stream open, begin
often refers specifically to The hyphen is often omitted when . is
hampton Guardian).

◆ The phrase on-stream

being connected to the Internet: . employed as an attributive adjective:
on-line
An on-
. .
Is your com-
puter on-line yet? I haven't gone on-line yet stream date of 2010 is proposed
When used as an attributive adjective the onto or on to? The preposition may
phrase is usually spelt as one word: .
today.

be written as one or two words: .

onto
Let me tell She drove
you about our online services. onto/on to the pavement. On to may also be a

only In some written sentences the adverb

combination of the adverb
preposition or infinitive
on

marker
and the
to, in
only must be carefully positioned, as near as

. .
which case it should not be written as

.
possible to the word it refers to, in order to
one word: She drove on to London.

.
convey the intended meaning: She eats fish
She drove on to find a hotel.

. onward onwards
only on Fridays [i.e. not other days]. She

eats only fish [i.e. nothing else] on Fridays. or ? In British English

Only she [i.e. She is the only one who] eats onward is principally used as an adjective,

. .
fish on Fridays. onwards being the usual form of the adverb
◆ In speech, where the stress and intonation of the meaning `ahead': Onward motion to

sentence should eliminate any ambiguity, and in march onwards.

written sentences that are not open to misinter- ◆ The adverb onward is more frequently used in
pretation, may be placed in its most idiomatic
only American English.
position, i.e. between the subject and the verb or -WARD or -WARDS?
between an auxiliary verb and a main verb: .
See also

only needs one more to complete the collection. .

He
operative The frequent use of the noun

They have only sold three books . operative in place of worker, especially in

The use of as a conjunction, in place of

only but .
nonindustrial contexts, is disliked by many

or , is best restricted to informal contexts: users: a strike by cleaning operatives at the

.
however
hospital.

fare
I'd like to go to Canada, only I can't afford the air
. ophthalmologist see OPTICIAN, OPHTHAL-
Some people object to the use of the phrase MOLOGIST, OPTOMETRIST or OCULIST?
as an intensifier, reserving it for the sense opposite.
of `regrettably': .
only too
[not ] The noun opposite is followed by

..
I am very only too pleased of, not to: Hot is the opposite of [not to] cold.
to help The new container, which is supposed to
be childproof, is only too easy to open . As a preposition,
by (not of)
opposite may be followed
but usually stands alone: .
NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.
to the
See also car park opposite (to) the station.

onomatopoeia The adjective may be used with or

:.
◆ opposite to
Onomatopoeia is the for-
from He sat on the opposite side to/from her .
. oppress repress suppress
mation of words that imitate the sound

. . . . .
associated with an object or action: cuckoo , or ? These verbs
twitter. are similar in meaning: all three refer to
It also refers to the use of words, usually in
moo clang croak hiss

◆ subjugation or restraint. Oppress means

 219 or
`subjugate by force, cruel treatment, etc.'; the optimum The adjective and noun optimum

. . .
direct object of the verb is usually a group of refer to the most favourable or advanta-

.
people a regime that oppresses women the geous condition, amount, degree, etc.: the

oppressed workers. The verb repress is also used optimum speed A temperature of 158C is the
in this sense, but more frequently refers to the optimum.

The noun has two plural forms, usually

. .
act of concealing or controlling one's feelings: ◆ optimum
I repressed the urge to hit him. in technical contexts, and . optimums optima
The frequent use of the adjective and
a repressed
. In psychology, means `banish or optimum
its synonym in the sense of `best' is disliked
desire repress

by many users: .
exclude (thoughts, feelings, etc.) from one's optimal

may lead to psychological problems: .

conscious mind or awareness', an act that a manufacturing programme

). .
designed to make optimum use of all available
(
re-
. The verb has the resources Executive Post A combination of olive
.
pressed sexuality suppress

trol': .
more general meaning of `restrain' or `con- oil and butter will produce the optimal result
The verb means `make the most of' or
also means `withhold' or `crush': . `make as efficient as possible': .
She couldn't suppress her . laughter optimize

. .
Suppress to optimize the
. potential of the business to optimize the pro-
◆ Note the differences in spelling, particularly .
to suppress information to suppress a rebellion

duction process
the of-pp- and
oppress and the single opt in see OPT OUT.
suppress
of .
-p- repress
optometrist
optician ophthalmologist optometrist GIST see OPTICIAN, OPHTHALMOLO-
OPTOMETRIST OCULIST?
oculist
, , , or
or
opt out
? All four nouns denote people
who are concerned with defects or diseases Opt out means `choose not to
of the eyes. participate or be involved', with the im-
◆ The word , which is probably the most plication
optician
included: .
that a person or organization that
familiar, may denote an or a does not opt out is automatically
ophthalmic optician
.
dispensing optician . to opt out of society schools that have opted

An ophthalmic optician is qualified to test eye- opposite situation, where people .orInorga-
out (of local the
government control)

sight and prescribe corrective lenses. A dispensing

optician makes and sells glasses (and other optical nizations are automatically excluded unless
equipment).
is a doctor who specializes may be used: .
they choose to participate, the verb opt in

An ophthalmologist A survey into public attitudes

in eye diseases. is a less frequent

Optometrist to kidney donation found that most people are

name for an ; is synon-

ophthalmic optician oculist willing to donate their kidneys but they are

ymous with ophthalmologist. ` '

against a scheme to opt out of donorship

The word is sometimes mis-

ophthalmologist ` '
rather than the present scheme of opting in

spelt, the most frequent error being the omission ( ). New Scientist

of the first . It is usually pronounced [ofthal

l
h opus The formal noun , denoting a
mo-
oÆjist]; the pronunciation of the first syllable to musical work or other artistic composition,
opus

rhyme with , rather than , is disliked by may be pronounced [ puÆs], with the long
hop scoff
many users.
Å
o o

of , or [ u Æ s], with the short

open opof o

optimal see OPTIMUM. operate. Both pronunciations are acceptable,

optimistic Many people object to the fre-

but the first is more frequent.
◆ Opus also has two plural forms, and opuses
quent use of the adjective optimistic as a opera . As the word exists as a singular noun
opera
synonym for `hopeful', `confident', `cheer-
. in its own right, some users prefer : the opuses
ful', `favourable', `encouraging', etc.:
.
She is phrase , for example, may refer to a
Mozart's opera
optimistic that the car will be found. They single operatic composition or to all Mozart's
have produced an optimistic report on the musical works.
principally relates to or When connectsverb
company's prospects.

◆ In general usage
is used: .
two or more singular
or
optimistic
a tendency to see or expect the best or to take a subjects a singular [not Perhaps

favourable view of things: . Throughout his illness

] .A
Peter or Jane knows know the answer

he remained optimistic . plural: .

plural verb is used if both subjects are

optimize
Carrots or parsnips are served with
see OPTIMUM. this dish.
oral 220
In a combination of singular and plural alter- reflexively, meaning `get one's bearings' or `adjust
oneself to new surroundings': .
◆
natives the verb traditionally agrees with the sub-
ject that is nearest to it: .
They found it

..
One large pot or two difficult to orient/orientate themselves in the un-
small ones are needed Two small pots or one familiar town .
. The same principle is applied The past participle is increasingly used in the
sense of `inclined towards': .
large one is needed
to singular subjects that are used with different
forms of the verb: . .
a commercially
Are you or your wife going to orientated service .
a science-oriented course
the concert? If the resulting sentence sounds in- Many people dislike this usage, which is generally
elegant or unidiomatic, a second verb may be avoidable and often quite superfluous: examples
added: . Am I the winner or is he? include the local government service designed to
The use of at the beginning of a sentence is rather than `to meet
generally acceptable: .
or meet locality-oriented needs
We may go to London the needs of the locality' and job advertisements
.
tomorrow Or we may stay at home . that call for experience in product-orientated de-
For the use of a comma before in a series of
or velopment (product development) or engineering-
three or more items see COMMA 1. may also beOr orientated environments (engineering).
preceded by a comma in other contexts, especially See also DISORIENT or DISORIENTATE?
if it introduces a synonym rather than an alter- Oriental
native: . , .
the policy of glasnost or openness
The use of Oriental as a noun

See also AND/OR; EITHER; NOR; OAR, OR or describing a person from one of the coun-

ORE? tries of East Asia is no longer considered

oral AURAL ORAL VERBAL

acceptable. The preferred modern alterna-
see or ?; or ORAL? tive is South-East Asian.

ordinance ordnanceor ? An ordinance is a orthopaedic or paediatric ? Both these

decree or regulation; the noun ordnance adjectives are used in medical contexts
denotes military supplies or artillery. and they are often confused. Orthopaedic

◆ Neither word is in frequent use: is refers to the treatment of bones, joints,

ordinance
largely restricted to local government contexts; muscles, etc.; refers to the treat-
paediatric

is chiefly associated with Ordnance Sur- ment of children.

◆ The - - element in both words is derived
ordnance
vey maps. paed
The similarity in spelling often leads to confusion from the Greek word for `child': an orthopaedic
between the two words. specialist was originally concerned with the bones,
joints, etc., of children but now treats people of all
ore see OAR or ORE? ages. Note that there is no connection with the
organic The adjective - element of
ped and , which is
pedestrian pedal
is applied to
organic
derived from the Latin word for `foot'.
methods of food production that do not
In American English the - - of ae and
orthopaedic

. .
make use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
etc.:
is reduced
paediatric to - - (see also
e -AE- and -OE- ).
oscillate osculate
organic farming organically produced

fruit. Some people dislike the increasing or ? To oscillate means

. .
tendency to apply the adjective directly to
.
`move from one position, mood, or value to
the produce itself: organic food organic another; fluctuate or swing': The value of
vegetables.

◆ This objection is based on the fact that all meat, .

the pound oscillated between 1.50 and 1.70

fruit, and vegetables may be described as

US dollars. His moods oscillated between
organic anger and indifference. Osculate is a much
in the principal sense of `relating to or derived from
living plants or animals'.
rarer word mainly used in humorous con-
texts to mean `to kiss'.

orient orientate
or ? Both forms of the ostensible or ostentatious ? Ostensible

.
verb are acceptable: orient, the standard means `apparent'; ostentatious means

.
form in American English, is preferred `showy': the ostensible reason for her ab-
by some users as the shorter and simpler an ostentatious display of grief.
Both adjectives are ultimately derived from the
sence
alternative, but orientate is the more fre- ◆
quent in British English. Latin verb , meaning `show', and neither
ostendere
◆ To originally meant `to face east'; the is complimentary:
orient has connotations of
ostensible
variant was probably a BACK FORMATION falseness or deception;
orientate suggests pre-
ostentatious
from the noun . The verb is often used tentiousness or vulgarity.
orientation
 221 outplacement
other than The use of other than as an
.
ourself ourselvesor ? When referring to
adverbial phrase is disliked by some users: people in general or to an individual person,
They were unable to escape other than by the singular pronoun ourself is occasionally

Its adjectival use, however, is acceptable to all: . :. .

squeezing through the narrow window. used in preference to the plural form our-
◆ selves We can decide that for ourself. `Oh

There was no means of escape other than the

.
dear, have we hurt ourself?' she said to the

narrow window This is not incorrect, but is the

is best avoided where
child. ourselves

would be more appropriate: .

Other than safer option in most contexts.
apart from

;
window apart from [not
There was a narrow
] ,
other than that there
out The verb , meaning `expose the out

was no means of escape . homosexuality of', is a relatively recent

The construction should not be coinage derived ,from the phrase come

.
other . . . than
replacedby or : homosexuality': .
out (of meaning `reveal one's
the closet)

[not ] . .
other . . . but other . . . except He
The militant gay group
had no other friend than but me Every
other card than [not ] .
except yours arrived on time
which threatened to `out' MPs and other

If the word other is omitted, however, or but

leading figures for not disclosing their homo-

except may be substituted for . than

sexuality
).
. . . said( it was all a hoax The

otherwise Some people object to the fre- increasingly ◆ The verb and its associated noun are
Guardian

used in other contexts: .

out outing
Indiscrimi-
pronoun: . [of people alleged to have collabo-
quent use of otherwise as an adjective or
nate `outings'
. . rated with the former communist secret police]
All essays, ,
finished or otherwise

must be handed in tomorrow morning The

entire workforce, union members and other- prompted Mr Havel to announce that he himself
had been listed as a `candidate for collaboration' in
( ).
wise, went on strike. Otherwise may be re-
placed by in the first of these examples 1965 The Guardian

out out of
not

and by in the second.

◆ The use of in combination with an
others or ? In recent years the pre-

.
otherwise
adverb is acceptable to all: .
positional phrase out of has been reduced
The window was
.
with increasing frequency to out: He
broken, accidentally or otherwise, by one of your
.
stormed out the door. She looked out the
children
In the sense of `or else', should not be
window. This tendency is disliked by many

preceded by : .
otherwise people and is best restricted to very infor-
or Turn the volume down, other-
.
mal contexts.
wise you'll wake the baby
outdoor outdoors
OTT .
or ? Outdoor is an ad-
OVER THE TOP.
. .
see jective, outdoors is an adverb: outdoor

ought The auxiliary verb ought, expressing .

sports outdoor pursuits to play outdoors

is also used as a noun: .

Outdoor clothes are worn outdoors.
duty, obligation, advisability, expectation,
◆ The word outdoors the

.
etc., is always followed by an infinitive with
. great outdoors .
to: They ought to visit her more often.
. outing see OUT.
. outlet
Ought we to have invited your sister? You

oughtn't to leave your car unlocked. The

.
Some people object to the frequent
meat ought to be cooked by now.

◆ The negative and interrogative forms didn't

use of the noun
in place of : outlet shop The

ought to , ,
hadn't ought to ,
did we ought to
product is available at a number of retail

had I ought to , etc., are regarded as wrong by ◆ In commercial contexts

.
also means `mar-
outlets in London

careful users. ket': .

outlet

can occasionally be replaced by .

The company has yet to find outlets for its

:.
Ought to
should The meat should be cooked by now. out of see OUT or OUT
solar-powered torches

OF?
In most contexts, however, expresses a
ought
stronger sense of duty, obligation, advisability, outplacement The noun
etc., than .
should
re-
fers to advice and assistance given to people
outplacement

SHOULD or WOULD?
See also
.
who have been made redundant (or who

our see HOUR or OUR? are about to be made redundant):

.
out-

our or us? see -ING FORMS.

placement counselling outplacement con-

sulting.
outrageous 222
◆ The use of the noun as a euphe- The term
outplacement originally denoted a greater overkill
mism for `making redundant' is best avoided. capacity than necessary for destruction, with spe-
outrageous This word,.meaning `shock- cific reference to nuclear weapons: . escalation of the arms race has reduced the pro-
The de-

ing or unconventional':
.
outrageous man-
blem of overkill

overlay overlie
ners, is sometimes misspelt. The of e outrage

is retained before the suffix -ous to indicate or ? Both verbs are used
the softness of the g. transitively; overlay has the past tense and

outside of Many people dislike the pre-

past participle overlaid; overlie
tense overlay and the past participle overlain.
has the past

positional phrase outside of, in which the

means `cover or superimpose', and is
often used in the passive: .
◆ Overlay

.
word of is incorrect. The phrase is best

;.
floorboards overlaid
avoided in formal contexts: There was a
with old rugs the atmosphere was overlaid with
[not outside of] the house.

The addition of this superfluous to the pre-

taxi outside
a sense of nostalgia . Either or overlayis overlie
◆
position may be influenced by the preposi-
of
used in the sense of `cause the death of, by lying
outside
tional phrase or by the phrase on': . The sow overlay the piglet.
out of
, which is followed by when it is used
on the
is used less frequently and means `lie
over or upon': .
Overlie

prepositionally: .
outside of
. .
rocks overlain by alluvial deposits

overly
a label on the outside of the box

outward outwards or ? In British English

Many people object to the use of the

.
adverb overly in place of too, excessively, etc.:
outward is principally used as an adjective,

.
She was not overly enthusiastic about my

.
outwards being the usual form of the ad-
idea. He is overly sensitive to the slightest

.
verb meaning `towards the outside': the
criticism.
◆ In some contexts the need for can be
to pull outwards.

The adverb is more frequently used in obviated

outward journey
overly
◆
American English.
outward
by attaching the prefix , with or
without a hyphen, to the relevant adjective: .
over-

See also -WARD or -WARDS?

. .
over see ABOVE or OVER?
overenthusiastic

over the top

oversensitive

overall The word overall is best avoided slang abbreviation

The clicheÂ
OTT,
over the top
meaning `exces-
and its

where total, whole, comprehensive, general,

.
sive' or `outrageous', should not be over-

.
average, inclusive, altogether, etc., would be used: The restaurant sketch was a bit OTT.
adequate or more appropriate:
.
his general
overtone undertone
or ? In the figurative
.
[not overall] appearance the total [not
sense of `implicit shade of meaning or
overall] cost of the project The journey will
feeling', these two nouns are virtually sy-

is superflous: .
[not overall].

In some contexts
take five days altogether
nonymous, although overtone may convey
◆ overall an
.
overall increase in production
an additional effect and undertone an un-

The use of the word in its original sense .

derlying effect. Both are more frequently
.
of`fromendtoend'isacceptabletoallusers: .
overall

. .
used in the plural: overtones of malice
the
.
overall length of the room
undertones of discontent political overtones

overexaggerate
religious undertones.
Careful users avoid this ◆ The words are not interchangeable in their other
meanings; is a technical term in music
.
emphatic form of on the grounds
denotes a hushed voice: .
exaggerate overtone
that the prefix over- is redundant: The and undertone to speak
importance of this development cannot be in an undertone.
overexaggerated.
overview
overkill
The noun overview is best

.
The frequent use of the noun avoided where survey, summary, etc., would

.
overkill in the sense of `excess' is disliked be adequate or more appropriate: a gen-

by some users: In the coverage of the eral overview of the situation.

election the media have been accused of over-
owing DUE TO OWING TO see , or BECAUSE OF?
The noun is particularly undesirable in contexts oxymoron
kill.
◆ An is a phrase in
that may be associated with the literal meaning of
oxymoron

the verb : . . .
which two apparently contradictory words
kill We must avoid overkill in the are combined:
.
a cowardly hero cruelly

presentation of our anti-abortion campaign kind.

 P
pace The Latin word pace, usually printed form used in stacking and moving stored
in italics, means `with due respect to' and is goods, and also a hard bed or straw mat-

.
used when stating an opinion contrary to tress.
that of the specified person:
profession, pace
The teaching
George Bernard Shaw, is not
palindrome A palindrome is a word,
phrase, or sentence that reads the same
a refuge for those who cannot do anything else.
◆ Pace is a two-syllable word with at least two whether read forwards or backwards. Ex-

accepted pronunciations, [ si] and [ chay].

pay pah
amples include such words as noon and

Since the word is largely restricted to formal writ- madam, such names as Anna and Hannah

ten contexts, the problem of pronunciation does and, more ambitiously, such phrases as

not frequently arise. `Able was I ere I saw Elba' (supposedly said

package
by the exiled Napoleon).

pression
The word
package deal
package and the ex-
are widely used to
pallor The noun pallor, meaning `paleness',
is sometimes misspelt. Note the final -or, as
.
denote a set of proposals or offers that must
in stupor, rather than -our.
be accepted or rejected as a whole:
palpable
a new

package of measures dealing with pay and The use of the adjective palpable
working conditions.

In other contexts is often better omitted in place of

in the extended sense of `easily perceived',

or replaced by a more appropriate noun: .

◆ package
disliked by some people: .
, ,obvious , etc., is
manifest plain
Japan's .
◆ Derived from the Latin verb , meaning
a palpable lie

). .
recent announcement of a substantial package of
(
palpare
extra spending Sunday Times `touch',
Hammicks has was originally restricted to what
could be touched or felt: .
palpable
spent over £100,000 on a retail design package .
( ).
palpable warmth

Some people also object to the frequent use of panacea The noun
The Bookseller
denotes a uni-
:.
panacea

the verb package in place of present versal remedy for all ills; it should not be
the dif-

. or troubles: .
ferent ways in which the major political parties used with reference to individual problems
were packaged during the election campaign Efficient use of energy saves

paediatric see ORTHOPAEDIC or PAEDIATRIC?

money but is not a panacea for solving carbon

(Daily Telegraph).
Often used disparagingly, the word is more
dioxide pollution

pain pane
or ? These two words are occa-
◆
frequently found in figurative contexts than in
sionally confused since they are pro-
its literal sense of `cure-all'.
nounced the same. Pain means
.
`acute
Note the spelling of , which is derived
panacea
physical or mental discomfort':
.
The mor-
from the prefix -, meaning `all', and the Greek
pan
phine should stop the pain. Her remarks
word for `cure'. It is pronounced [panaÆ aÆ]. see

.
The word refers
pane
caused him great pain. pane
to a sheet of glass or other material: The see PAIN or PANE?
explosion broke three panes of glass.
panic
pajamas
The word panic adds a k before the
see PYJAMAS or PAJAMAS?
. .
suffix -y and suffixes beginning with an e

palate This word, meaning `the top part of

or i

They panicked. .
such as -ed, -er, and -ing:
Stop panicking!
panicky

. .
the inside of one's mouth' or `sense of taste':
See also SPELLING 1.
paparazzi
a cleft palate He has a sensitive palate, is
sometimes misspelt. It should not be con- This term, referring to free-
fused with palette, the board on which an lance photographers who specialize in tak-
artist mixes colours, or pallet, a flat plat- ing unguarded shots of celebrities to sell to
paradigm 224
newspapers, is often misspelt. Note parti- parameter Many people object to the
cularly the single -p- in the middle of the frequent use of the noun parameter, a
word and the second mathematical term, as a synonym for `lim-
is the less frequently encountered
-a-.

.
◆ Paparazzo it', `boundary', `framework', `characteris-
singular form of the word. tic', or `point to be considered': A

paradigm The noun paradigm is best

of time, money, and efficiency. .
business must operate within the parameters

We keep on
avoided where example, model, pattern,

.
refining our mailing selection parameters (The

. .
etc., would be adequate or more appropri-
Bookseller). What are the parameters of the
ate: a paradigm of enterprise and initiative

Note the pronunciation of , which is

problem?
a paradigm of the problems faced by the
◆ parameter
unemployed.
specifically denotes a clear or typical stressed on the second syllable [paÆ iteÆr]. ram
◆ Paradigm
example; it should not be confused with the Care should be taken not to confuse parameter

noun , meaning `model of excellence'. with , which means `boundary' or `outer

edge': .
perimeter
paragon
The word is often encountered in the phrase Guards were posted along the perimeter.

paradigm shift , which describes a fundamental paranoid The adjective princi-

change of direction or in underlying attitudes,
paranoid

pally relates to a mental disorder (paranoia)

etc.
.
characterized by delusions of persecution
The of g , pronounced [ rraÆdõÅm], is
paradigm pa or grandeur: Often, he [a schizophrenic]
silent. In the adjective , pronounced
paradigmatic ±
[parraÆdig ik], the is sounded.
feels himself to be persecuted a paranoid

mat g delusion that occasionally leads to violence

paraffin This word is sometimes misspelt.

(Reader's Digest).
Some people object to the frequent use of
◆
Note the single r and -ff-, as in raffle.
and with reference to any in-
paragon
paranoid paranoia
see PARADIGM. tense suspicion, distrust, anxiety, fear, obsession,
paragraphs A is a subdivision of
paragraph
etc.: . It gives me an interest-free overdraft of £250
so I don't have to get paranoid at the end of the
a written passage, which usually deals with
(advertisement,
month ). Sunday Times
one particular point or theme. It expresses
The word is also used
paranoidas a noun,
an idea which, though it relates to the sense
although this may cause offence. Its synonym
of the whole passage, can to some extent
, pronounced [parraÆ ik] or [parraÆ-
paranoiac noi
stand alone.
◆ There is no specified length for a paragraph. It
ak], is less frequent.
noi

can be one sentence or over a page long. How- last threethevowels.

Note spelling of , particularly the
paranoia

ever, very short successive paragraphs, as found in

advertisements and popular journalism, can have a paraphernalia The noun ,
rather disjointed effect, while very long paragraphs sometimes used with derogatory connota-
paraphernalia

can give the impression of heavy material that can tions, denotes all the miscellaneous items
be read through only in a slow, laborious manner. associated with a particular activity: .
The most effective writing usually mixes longer
the

in more abstract contexts: .

. It is also used
and shorter paragraphs.
paraphernalia of photography

A paragraph starts on a new line and is usually

the parapher-

. is
indented. In a passage of dialogue each act of a plural noun, but it is frequently used with
nalia of buying a new house Paraphernalia

speech normally starts a new paragraph. a singular verb: . His camping paraphernalia

parallel This word is sometimes misspelt.

is stored in the attic.

acceptable.
This usage is generally

Note the single r, -ll-, and then the single l.

Note the spelling of the word, particularly the
The spelling of some derived forms and com- ◆unstressed
◆
pounds varies: . or . syllable . -phern-

. . . parentheses see BRACKETS.

paralleling parallelling par-
or
alleled parallelled parallelism parallelogram
unparalleled. parenting The word
paralyse
, which parenting

This word is sometimes misspelt. means `being a parent' or `parental care',

The spelling in British English is paralyse is increasingly used to emphasize the joint
[not -yze], in American English, paralyze. responsibility of both parents in all aspects
See also -IZE or -ISE? of a child's upbringing and to avoid the
 225 passive
sexual stereotypes and traditional roles as- .
lack of full commitment by his fellow workers
However, in actual usage such guidelines tend
and their derivatives: .
sociated with the words and
to be ignored, and the words are used inter-
mother father

. changeably, with being the more frequent.

the advantages of

partly
The H.M. Customs and Excise VAT notice onPartial
shared parenting a guide to parenting the
.
◆ This expression is disliked by those who object to Exemption (1984), for example, describes those
gifted child

the use of nouns as verbs. registered for VAT as , even though partly exempt

par excellence The French expression the notice is titled Exemption. Partial

participles
par

. .
excellence is used to refer to a person or All verbs have present partici-

.
thing that is better than all others of its ples, which are formed with -ing: seeing
kind: He is a news reporter par excellence. walking, and past participles, formed with
◆ Note that the expression comes
-d

. .
. .
par excellence or for regular verbs and in other ways
after the noun to which it refers and is sometimes
-ed

.
for irregular verbs:
written or printed in italics. Its anglicized pronun-
loved finished given

◆ Participles are often used as adjectives: .

thought.
ciation is [par seÆlahns].
gone

.
ek broken

parliament promises . They are also used, with

a leaking tap
The noun parliament, meaning
an inversion of the usual sentence construction, to
`legislative authority, assembly, or body', is
introduceasentencesuchas: .
. Attached to his wrist was a
Sitting in the corner
usually written with a capital P when it
was an old man.
denotes a specific parliament, especially
luggage label. Care should be taken with such
.
that of the United Kingdom:
introductory participles, as they are sometimes
The issue

is [ laÆ- used to link items that are quite unrelated: see

.
◆ The usual pronunciation of
will be debated in Parliament this afternoon

parliament
DANGLING PARTICIPLES.
par
meÆnt]; the pronunciations [ limeÆnt] and [ yaÆ- The pronunciation
meÆnt] are accepted variants. Note the spelling of ipl]; [ tisipl] is anmost frequently used is [par-
par parl

the word, particularly the central vowels. older

tis variant.
par
See also STRESS.
parlour LOUNGE
see . See also -ED or -T?; -ING FORMS. For irre-
VERBS.
partandparcel The phrase part and parcel,
gular parts of verbs see table at

particular .
meaning `included as an essential aspect of Used for emphasis, the adjective

.
is often superfluous:
.
something else', is sometimes rendered in- particular Do you

correctly as part and partial: Physical have any particular preference? This parti-

exhaustion is all part and parcel of being a cular dress was worn by Vivien Leigh in

`Gone with the Wind'.

Many people dislike this usage, reserving the
top athlete.

partially partly
or ? Both adverbs mean
◆
adjective for what is exceptional, special, specific,
`not completely' or `to some extent', but or worthy of note: . This discovery is of particular
there are differences of sense, usage, and
. importance .
application between them:
blind and partially sighted .
facilities for the
The course partly PARTIALLY
see or PARTLY?
consists partly
written work.
of oral work and partly of
passed past or ? These spellings are some-

In some contexts the two adverbs are virtually past participle of : .is the past tense and.
times confused. Passed

interchangeable: .
◆

as .◆ is used for all other forms: noun, adjective,

pass We passed the station
a partly/partially successful at-
. It can be helpful to think of .
The years have passed by so quickly

meaning `concerning one part; not wholly': . preposition, andadverb: .

tempt partly
Past

[i.e. only part .. . ..

Your past is catching up

..
The woman's face was partly hidden
of her face was hidden] by her veil The art
..
with you
.
the past weeks
It's five past three
She ran past the sign
The plane flew past

passive
treasures were partly on permanent loan to the
museum and partly in the possession of the Adams A passive verb is one in which the
. may then be used to mean `to a SUBJECT receives the action of the verb
limited extent; not completely': . (compare ACTIVE). The sentence .
family Partially
The woman's
[i.e. her whole face may
The play

face was partially hidden contains the

have been hidden but to a limited degree]
was written by Oscar Wilde

..
passive verb by her .
◆ The subject of a passive verb is the direct object
was written

veil His hopes were partially frustrated by the

past 226
of the verb in a corresponding active sentence. The PE AD see and BC.
subject of the above example, , is the direct
the play
peaceable peaceful
object of the active equivalent Oscar Wilde wrote
or ? The adjective

the play . peaceable, meaning `disposed to peace',

A passive verb is usually formed from part of the `peace-loving', or `not aggressive', is prin-
.
verb followedbyapastparticiple: . cipally applied to people:
.
the peaceable

..
be The woman
inhabitants of the town a peaceable tem-
was struck on the head The house had been
demolished . perament. Peaceful, the more frequent of

Many users prefer to replace a passive clause the two adjectives, means `characterized by
.
or sentence with its simpler active equivalent, .
peace', `calm', or `not violent':
.
a peaceful

but this is not always possible. One cannot scene a peaceful demonstration peaceful

convert the two examples in the previous para- coexistence.

◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the

graph into the active unless one knows who or second (see also SPELLING 3).
peaceable

what struck the woman and demolished the e

house. peak, peek, pique or ? These three words

past see PASSED or PAST? are occasionally confused since they are all

patent This word may be pronounced

pronounced in the same way [peek].
refers variously to a mountain, summit, or
Peak

Æ nt] in all senses in British English:

.
[payte
.
cap brim or, as a verb, to the action of

. .
to patent/apply for a patent for a new reaching a high point: The climbers

.
patent leather shoes, and as the
.
invention reached the peak around noon. The storm
adverb patently Æ ntli]:
[payte It is patently peaked around midnight. He tapped the peak
obvious she's lying.
In legal and official contexts, in the noun and
of his cap with his forefinger. It should not be
◆
verb senses of the word, (obtaining) the official .
confused with peek, which denotes a brief

rights to a product, is usually pronounced

glimpse: He could not resist a quick peek at
patent
[ eÆnt]. .
the menu, or with pique, which means
pat
In American English [ eÆnt] is used for all
`resentment' or `hurt pride': He changed
pat
senses.
his mind in a fit of pique.

pathetic The use of the adjective pathetic

peal peel
or ? These two words are pro-
nounced in the same way but have differ-
in the derogatory sense of `contemptible' or
.
ent meanings. Peal refers to the sound of

.
`worthless' is best restricted to informal
. .
bells ringing: the peal of church bells or a

.
contexts: The comedian made a pathetic
long loud sound a peal of distant thunder
attempt to mimic the president. Don't be so

.
peals of laughter. Peel as a noun refers to the

The principal sense of is `arousing pity

pathetic!
skin of a fruit: orange peel; and as a verb

or sorrow': .
◆ pathetic
.
means `remove the skin of a vegetable or
The sick child made several pathetic
. piece of fruit': to peel the potatoes.
attempts to stand up

pathos see BATHOS or PATHOS? peccadillo The spelling of this word, which
means `a small, unimportant offence', may
patriot This word, meaning `one who cause difficulty. Note the
and -ll-.
-cc-, single -d-,

loves his or her country', has two acceptable

pronunciations [paytrioÆ t] or [patrio
Æ t]. ◆ The plural is either or .
peccadilloes peccadillos

patron CLIENT or CUSTOMER? The word derives from Spanish , diminu- pecadillo
see
tive of `sin'.
pay-
pecado
The prefix pay- has been adopted in a
wide range of contexts in recent years in
pedal peddleor ? The word
.
pedal relates

. .
to a foot-operated lever: the soft pedal on a

. .
reference to payment for services at the
piano a pedal bin to pedal a bicycle. To

.
time they are received: pay-as-you-go
peddle is to sell small articles or illegal
pay-per-view pay-per-listen. Care should be

.
goods, such as drugs, or to put forward
taken not to overuse the prefix, especially
ideas or information: to peddle brushes/
in contexts where is is unnecessary or in-
heroin/gossip. The two verbs should not be
appropriate.

PC
confused.
see POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. ◆ The verb peddle is a BACK FORMATION from the
 227 people with disabilities
noun , denoting a person who goes from and new pennies or pence. This usage has con-
tinued,butisbestrestrictedtoinformal contexts: .
pedlar
place to place selling goods. In other senses of the
verb the spelling is often used in
place of : . .
peddle peddler Can you lend me twenty p?
pedlar a drug peddler a peddler of The pronunciation of the word was also pence
ideas . In American English is preferred for
peddler affected by decimalization: the sum of was 6d
all senses; in British English is usually re-
pedlar pronounced [ peÆns], with the stress on the first
siks
tained in its original sense. Note the single and d syllable, whereas is usually pronounced [
6p sik-
the ending of
-ar . pedlar spens ], with equal stress on both syllables.
In British English the final of the verb is penchant
doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel: .
l pedal
The noun penchant, meaning

pedalled . . The American spellings are

pedalling
`inclination' or `liking', is of French origin

pedaled, pedaling , etc. and is pronounced [pon(g)shon(g)], an an-

See also SPELLING 1. glicized form of the French pronunciation,

pedigree
in British English.
The noun pedigree
ancestral line or line of descent, specifically
denotes an
pendant pendent or ? The noun pendant,
denoting a type of necklace, has the rare
that of a purebred animal; its use as a
variant spelling pendent. The word pendent

.
synonym for `record' or `background' is
is also used as an adjective, in the sense of
disliked by some users: a pedigree of
`hanging', with the (less frequent) variant
success spanning over 50 years in the radio
spelling pendant.
and television rental and retail field (Executive

Post). peninsula peninsularor ? These two spel-

pedlar PEDAL PEDDLE

see or ?
lings are sometimes confused. A peninsula

peek PEAK PEEK PIQUE

is a long narrow section of land that is
see , or ? almost surrounded by water but which in

peel PEAL PEEL

see or ?
tive is peninsular: .
fact is joined to the mainland. The adjec-

peer pier
the Peninsular War of

or ? Peer variously means `equal', 1808 to 1814.

`member of the nobility', or, as a verb, `take

. pennies penny PENCE
, see .

. pensioner SENIOR CITIZEN

a close look at someone or something': He

OLD AGE PEN-

.
was much admired by his peers. a peer of the see or
realm He peered at the signature. It should SIONER ?
not be confused with
jetty or platform on stilts:
pier,
.
which refers to a
There were two
people People is usually a plural noun, but

.
in the sense of `nation', `race', or `tribe' it
boats tied up at the pier.

pejorative .
may be singular or plural: a nomadic

.
This word, meaning `dispara- people of Africa all the peoples of the world

ging', can be pronounced in two ways. The The French people are renowned for their
Æ tiv] is used more fre-
pronunciation [pijorra culinary expertise. The use of the alternative
quently than the more traditional [peejo Æ r- plural form persons to denote a number of
Æ tiv].
.
a human beings is best restricted to formal

pence As pence is one of the plural forms of

contexts:
use the lift. .
No more than eight persons may
There are four people [not
the noun penny, many people object to the
persons] in the waiting room.
use of the term
.
one-pence piece
With reference to a group or body of human
to denote a
◆
penny coin:
beings,
Does the machine still take one-
the word is preferred in all contexts:
. .
people
pence pieces? The plural noun is pennies
a meeting place for young people represen-
used with reference to a number of coins,
. tatives of the people

money: .
whereas
. .
usually refers to a sum of
pence
Note that the possessive of when refer- people

. .
My purse is full of pennies
ring to a single group or people in general is
The
envelopes cost fifteen pence each
formed by adding : .
Can you
's He is the people's favour-
give me ten pennies in exchange for a ten-
When referring to several groups or nations the
is formed by adding : .
ite.

◆ After the decimalization of British currency in

pence piece?
possessive s' an oppressed

1971 the abbreviation , pronounced [pee], was . peoples' organization

often used in speech to distinguish between old people with disabilities This is the pre-
p
per 228
ferred modern term for people with phy- In American English is usually written as
per cent
one word. In British English the two-word form is
:.
sical or mental disabilities, replacing such
former terms as handicapped and retarded preferred.
The building has been specifically designed to See also SINGULAR or PLURAL?
meet the needs of people with disabilities.

See also DISABLED. percentage Many people object to the use

per .
of a percentage to mean `a small part', `a
The preposition per, meaning `for each' little', or `a few': Only a percentage of the

. .
or `in each', is often better replaced by a or workforce will be present. A percentage may
an: four times a [not per] month 60p a [not be as small as 1% or as large as 99%; in the

. .
per] metre. In some contexts, however, per sense of `proportion' the noun often needs a

.
must be retained: Use two ounces of cheese qualifying adjective for clarity: A small

.
per person. The left-luggage attendant percentage of the money is used for adminis-
charges one pound per item per day. tration costs.

Many people consider the use of in place of

A large percentage of the stock

tobeexcessivelyformaloraffected: .
◆ per .
◆ When discussing a particular , pre-
was damaged in the fire

faced by , a singular verb should be used: .

by The parcel percentage
.
will be sent per Securicor the The
See also AS PER; PER ANNUM; PER CAPITA; PER When
percentage of passes is lower this year.
CENT; PER SE. is prefaced by , the verb usually
per-, pre- or pro-? These three prefixes agrees with the following noun: .
percentage a

.
A small per-
centage of new vehicles are defective. A large
sometimes cause confusion in the spelling
percentage of the work has already been done.
and usage of certain pairs of words.
See PERSECUTE or PROSECUTE?; PERSPECTIVE or Percentageis sometimes better replaced by
◆
PROSPECTIVE?; PRECEDE or PROCEED?; PREREQUI- number, amount, part , or ;
proportion a high per-

SITE or PERQUISITE?; PRESCRIBE or PROSCRIBE? centage by or ;

many much a lower percentage by
fewer or , etc.
less
per annum The Latin phrase per annum, The use of the noun as a synonym
percentage
for `advantage' or `profit' is best restricted to
. informal contexts: .
meaning `for each year', is best restricted to
There's no real percentage
.
formal contexts: You will be paid a salary of

£12,000 per annum. in sending your children to a private school

In other contexts the more informal phrase perceptible perceptive percipient
is preferred: .
◆ a
, or ?
year It costs several hundred pounds
The adjective perceptible means `perceiva-
a year, excluding petrol, to keep this car on the
road . ble', `noticeable', or `recognizable'; percep-

See also PER. tive means

.
`observant', `discerning',
.
or

per capita
`sensitive': a perceptible change a per-

The adverbial or adjectival ceptive remark.

, which is virtually synonymous with,

.
phrase is widely used in English ◆ Percipient
but less frequent than, , is largely re-
per capita

. stricted to formal contexts: .

in the sense of `for each person': perceptive
.
the
a percipient writer
The adverbs and are
minimum cost per capita a per capita

. perceptibly perceptively
◆ Some people object to this usage as an inaccu- often confused, being similar in spelling and pro-
allowance of ten pounds

rate translation of the Latin phrase, which literally nunciation: .

means `by heads': . ..
The children were perceptibly quieter
when their teacher was present She spoke
.
The estate will be divided per
capita . perceptively of the composer's orchestral works

per cent The phrase per cent is used peremptory perfunctoryor ? Peremptory

. . .
adverbially, in combination with a number, means `commanding; dogmatic; positive;

. . .
in the sense of `in or for each hundred': an decisive': a peremptory order a peremp-

increase of 25 per cent 75 per cent of the tory man in a peremptory tone of voice a
students. door.

◆ The use of as a noun, meaning `one- means `quick; careless; cursory; superficial':
peremptory knock at the Perfunctory

hundredth' or `a percentage', is disliked by some .

per cent
. Both
users: the phrase , for example, is adjectives are largely restricted to formal
a perfunctory glance at the letter

half a per cent

better replaced by .
half of one per cent contexts; they should not be confused.
See also PERCENTAGE. ◆ is usually pronounced [peÆ toÆri],
Peremptory remp
 229 personage
with the stress on the second syllable, but [ r- .
.
pe legal action against':
reÆmptoÆri], stressed on the first syllable, is an ac-
They were persecuted

for their beliefs.

ceptable alternative.
Trespassers will be prose-
cuted. The two verbs should not be con-

perennial ANNUAL, BIENNIAL or PERENNIAL? fused.

perseverance
see

perfect Many people avoid using such

The noun
sometimes misspelt. A common error is
perseverance is

adverbs as very, rather, more, most, less, least,

the addition of an extra -r- before the -v-.
etc., to qualify the adjective perfect, mean- Note also the -ance ending.

.
ing `faultless', `unblemished', `complete', or
persevere The verb
.
is followed
.
`utter': This book is in less perfect condition persevere

than that one. It was the most perfect by the preposition in or with: They

diamond that he had ever seen. The expres- persevered in [or with] their efforts to dam

sions nearly perfect and almost perfect, how- the stream.

is person, rather
ever, are generally acceptable.
◆ The pronunciation of the adjective perfect
Many people prefer to use the noun

different from that of the verb. The adjective is being whose sexthanis unspecified:
person
.
, to denote a human man

stressed on the first syllable [ fikt], whereas the

per
We need to

verb is stressed on the second syllable [peÆr ]. . fekt

take on another person to deal with the back-

perfunctory see PEREMPTORY or PERFUNC- words assubstitution of

The for in such
log

◆ person man

TORY? chairman, salesman, statesman, spokes-

, etc., is a more contro-
perimeter see PARAMETER. versial issue: .
man, layman, craftsman

.
Mr Smith has resigned as

perk PREREQUISITE PERQUISITE

see or ?
chairperson of the committee. Mrs Liz Forsdick

permissible permissive
. . . will act as `linesperson' in the third qualifying
or ? These two ( ).
round game The Guardian
Some users apply the terms
, etc., to both men and women: .
adjectives are derived from the verb permit, chairman, sales-
meaning `allow' or `authorize'. Permissible man The

ant': . .
means `permitted'; means `toler-
permissive chairman of the CBI's Smaller Firms Council,
the smallest permissible investment a Mrs ( Jean Parker ). Others use
The Guardian
the more or less acceptable feminine forms
, etc., for women: .
permissive .
attitude sometimes
Permissive chair-
implies disapproval of such tolerance (or woman, saleswoman The

used with reference to sexual indulgence: .

of the thing tolerated), especially when it is appointment was announced yesterday by Child-
(
Line's chairwoman, Miss Esther Rantzen The
. ). Guardian
◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the See also CHAIR; MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS;
the permissive society

permissible
-ibleending. SEXISM.
perpetrate or perpetuate? As a general rule the substitution of for person
, in any
Perpetrate
context,
man is best avoided if a simpler or
means `commit' or `perform';
more idiomatic
perpetuate
solution can be found: the use of
tual': . .
means `cause to continue' or `make perpe-
instead of
someone else ,
another person nobody
to perpetrate a crime
instead of
to perpetuate a
instead of
no person, crew of four four-
tradition. The two verbs should not be
, etc.
person crew
confused.
has two plurals, and : see
per pro. see P.P.
Person persons people
also PEOPLE.
perquisite PREREQUISITE or PERQUISITE? See also AGREEMENT and PERSON.
personage personality
see

perse The Latin phrase per se, meaning `by

or ? Both nouns
are applied to famous people, but they are

.
itself' or `in itself', is best restricted to
not synonymous. Personage is used in for-
formal contexts: The discovery is of little
mal contexts to refer to an important or
importance per se.
◆ Note the spelling and pronunciation of the word distinguished person; a personality is a fa-

se [say]. .
mous person from the world of show

persecute prosecute .
business, sport, etc.: members of the royal
or ? Persecute means family and other personages The shop will be
`harass' or `oppress'; prosecute means `take opened by a TV personality.
personal 230
◆ The principal meaning of the noun is
`character': . .. .
personality staff, workforce, workers, employees, people,

She has a delightful personality etc.:

.
They do not have enough personnel
Personality is more important than looks to cope with the increased workload. The

personal see PERSONALLY; PERSONNEL. word personnel is principally used to denote

personality
the employees of a large company or
see PERSONAGE or PERSONALITY? organization, considered collectively, or

personally The use of the adverb person-

. . recruitment and welfare: .
the department that is concerned with their
hospital personnel
ally for emphasis is disliked by some users:
the personnel officer.
I personally prefer to spend my holidays at
◆ Personnel may be a singular or plural noun,
home.

Similar objections may be raised to the unne- but it should not be used with a specific number:
◆
cessary use of the adjective in such ex- . We are moving four people [not ] personnel

pressions as: . .
personal
from the sales office to the production depart-

.
a personal friend
, etc.
her personal
ment .
opinion a personal visit
In some contexts, however, and Note the spelling of , particularly the
personnel
personally
may serve the useful purpose of distinguish-
per-
- - and the second , and the pronunciation of
nn e
sonal
ing between the unofficial and the official, the the word, with the primary stress on the last
private and the professional, etc.: . syllable [persoÆ ]. is sometimes con-
:.
nel Personnel

,
I personally
think you should accept their offer but as your
fused with the adjective personal There will
be strong prospects of long-term personnel devel-

..
solicitor I must advise you to make further enqui-
opment for . . . the truly commercial engineer
ries He is a business acquaintance but not a
. ( Sunday Times ).
person of colour
personal friend

personal pronouns see PRONOUNS. Person of colour is a

persona non grata

preferred modern alternative to such terms
The Latin expression
.
as coloured and nonwhite, which many

.
persona non grata is used to refer to someone people find unacceptable: This council
who is unwelcome or unacceptable: After welcomes applications from persons of colour.
his book was published, he became persona Many users find the term ponderous, how-
non grata with certain foreign powers. ever, and it has yet to enjoy wide accep-
◆ The phrase, which is sometimes written or tance.
printed in italics, literally means `person not ac- persons see PEOPLE.
ceptable' and is pronounced [persona non ta]. grah
Its plural is personae non gratae [personee non perspective or prospective?
grah tee]. is
a noun, meaning `view', `aspect', or `objec-
Perspective

personate personify
, see IMPERSONATE, tivity'; it should not be confused with the
PERSONATE PERSONIFY
.
or ? adjective prospective, meaning `expected',

personification Personification refers to .

`likely', or `future':
a prospective employer.
a different perspective

the practice of attributing human charac- In painting, drawing, etc., the noun
◆ perspec-

abstract ideas: .
teristics to animals, inanimate objects, or principally refers to the representation of
tive

. and positions on aobjects

three-dimensional and their relative sizes
The orang-utan winked at

me, for all the world like a knowing old man.

flat surface. Its figurative use
Gravity is the sworn enemy of the paraglider.
in the phrase is derived from this
.
in perspective
Such personifications are acceptable in poe-
tic and informal contexts, but should gen-
sense: You must try to put things in perspec-
tive: the loss of one customer is relatively unim-
erally be avoided in formal contexts.
◆ One aspect of is the tradition of
personification .
portant when the future of the company is at

allotting specific genders to various inanimate stake

objects, such as cars and ships, which are fre- perturb see DISTURB or PERTURB?
quently described as feminine (despite recent offi- perverse or perverted?
cial decisions to end this practice): . She's a
`obstinate' or `contrary';
Perverse
perverted
means
means
beautiful little craft.

personnel . .
`corrupt' or `characterized by abnormal
Many people object to the fre- sexual behaviour': a perverse refusal a

quent use of the noun personnel in place of perverted attack. The two adjectives should
 231 PHOBIAS
not be confused: to call a man perverted is a PHOBIAS
more serious and offensive accusation than
to call him perverse. Fear of Phobia
Both adjectives may be applied to the same air aerophobia
noun in different contexts: .
◆
animals zoophobia
..
He took a perverse
delight in making her wait He took a perverted bacteria bacteriophobia/microphobia
.
delight in torturing his victims beards pogonophobia
bees apiphobia/melissophobia
phase FAZE see or PHASE? being alone monophobia/autophobia
phenomena PHENOMENON PHENOM- being buried alive taphophobia
ENA
see or
birds ornithophobia
?
blood haematophobia
phenomenal The use of the adjective blushing
books
erythrophobia
bibliophobia
as a synonym for `extraordin-
cancer cancerophobia/carcinophobia
phenomenal

.
ary', `remarkable', `prodigious', or `out-
standing' is disliked by some: carriages amakaphobia
cats ailurophobia/gatophobia
a
phenomenal achievement.
chickens alektorophobia
phenomenon phenomena or ? Phenom- childbirth tocophobia
ena
.
is the plural form of the noun phenom-
. children paediphobia
enon: This phenomenon is of great interest. closed spaces claustrophobia
Such phenomena are not easy to explain. clouds nephophobia/
◆ The use of as a singular noun, a nephelophobia
frequent error, is wrong: .
phenomena
`The development of cold cheimophobia
the Muslim community in Britain is only a recent colour chromophobia
phenomena and needs proper research ,' Mr Ay- comets cometophobia
man Ahwal , London spokesman of the World contamination misophobia/mysophobia
, (
Muslim League said The Times ). corpses necrophobia
Careful users avoid overuse of the word phe- crossing a bridge gephyrophobia
, resisting the tendency in recent years to crossing streets dromophobia
apply the word to anything mildly unusual: .
nomenon
The crowds demophobia
increasing number of police on the streets is a crystals crystallophobia
recent phenomenon. darkness achluophobia, scotophobia
philosophy dawn eosophobia
The noun philosophy is best
daylight phengophobia
avoided where idea, view, policy, etc.,
death thanatophobia
.
would be adequate or more appropriate:
deformity dysmorphophobia
.
My philosophy is that children should be
demons demonophobia
seen and not heard. The company has a
dirt mysophobia
philosophy of sound management practices at
disease nosophobia/pathophobia
the local level.
disorder ataxiophobia
phlegm This word causes problems with dogs
draughts
cynophobia
anemophobia
dreams oneirophobia
spelling and pronunciation. Note the initial
ph- spelling, pronounced [f], and the silent
drinks potophobia
drugs pharmacophobia
g. The word is pronounced [flem].

phobia A phobia
.
is an abnormal or irra- duration chronophobia
dust amathophobia
.
tional fear or aversion: He has a phobia

about flying. She has a phobia of spiders. eating phagophobia

◆ The noun should not be used as a synonym for electricity electrophobia
`dislike', `dread', `obsession', `inhibition', etc.: . everything panphobia/pantophobia
She has a phobia of losing her car keys .. He has eyes ommatophobia
a phobia about undressing in front of other faeces coprophobia
people . failure kakorraphiaphobia
See also SUFFIXES, page 293. fatigue kopophobia
PHOBIAS 232
Fear of Phobia Fear of Phobia
fears phobophobia men androphobia
feathers pteronophobia metals metallophobia
fire pyrophobia open spaces agoraphobia
fish ichthyophobia poison toxiphobia
flashes selaphobia skin dermatophobia
flogging mastigophobia sleep hypnophobia
flood antlophobia smell olfactophobia
flutes aulophobia smothering pnigerophobia
flying aerophobia snakes ophidiophobia, ophiophobia
fog homichlophobia snow chionophobia
food sitophobia soiling rypophobia
freedom eleutherophobia solitude eremophobia
fur doraphobia sound akousticophobia
germs spermaphobia/ sourness acerophobia
spermatophobia speaking aloud phonophobia
ghosts phasmophobia speed tachophobia
girls parthenophobia spiders arachnophobia
glass nelophobia standing stasiphobia
God theophobia stars siderophobia
going to bed clinophobia stealing kleptophobia
graves taphophobia stillness eremophobia
gravity barophobia stings cnidophobia
hair chaetophobia strangers xenophobia
heart conditions cardiophobia string linonophobia
heat thermophobia strong light photophobia
heaven ouranophobia stuttering laliophobia
heights acrophobia sun heliophobia
hell stygiophobia/hadephobia surgical operations ergasiophobia
heredity patroiophobia syphilis syphilophobia
home oikophobia/domatophobia taste geumaphobia/
horses hippophobia geumatophobia
human beings anthropophobia teeth odontophobia
ice kristallophobia thinking phronemophobia
ideas ideophobia thirteen triskaidekaphobia
illness nosemaphobia thunder brontophobia/tonitrophobia
imperfection atelophobia touch haptophobia
infection mysophobia travel hodophobia
infinity aperiophobia trees dendrophobia
inoculations trypanophobia trembling tremophobia
insanity lyssophobia/maniaphobia vehicles ochophobia
insects entomophobia venereal disease cypridophobia
itching acarophobia/scabiophobia voids kenophobia
jealousy zelophobia vomiting emetophobia
lakes limnophobia walking basophobia
leaves phyllophobia wasps spheksophobia
leprosy leprophobia water hydrophobia
lice pediculophobia weakness asthenophobia
light photophobia wind anemophobia
lightning astraphobia women gynophobia
machinery mechanophobia words logophobia
man anthropophobia work ergophobia
many things polyphobia worms helminthophobia
marriage gamophobia wounds traumatophobia
meat carnophobia writing graphophobia
 233 pieÁce de reÂsistance
phone The use of the noun and verb phone up . highly polished . .
at the back of the room

in place of telephone is becoming increas- with reference to.

ingly frequent and acceptable: the tele- See also CLAUSE; SENTENCES.
phone directory is now officially entitled
`The Phone Book', the term long used to
physician physicist
or ? A physician is a

.
doctor of medicine; a physicist is a scientist
describe it in informal contexts. The shor-

.
who has specialized in physics: the number

. .
tened form phone is best avoided, however,
of physicians in the National Health Service

.
in formal contexts: The phone's ringing.
physicists involved in nuclear research. The
.
You'd better phone the doctor. The cost of
two nouns should not be confused.
◆ The term is chiefly used to distinguish
your telephone call will be refunded. Please
physician
write or telephone for an application form.
ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE. qualified medical practitioners in nonsurgical fields
See also
from surgeons. In everyday usage the term
phoney phony
doctor
or ? The more frequent is preferred; sounds formal or old-fash-
physician
spelling of this word, meaning `fake', is ioned in British English.
phoney in British English, and
American English.
phony in
physiognomy Note the spelling of this

phosphorous phosphorus
word, which means `the outward appear-
or ? Phosphor- ance of a person considered to show the
ous is the correct spelling for the adjective person's character'. The most frequent er-

.
meaning `containing phosphorus' or `of or ror is to omit the silent g.

relating to phosphorus':
probe the phosphorous clouds. Phosphorus
The craft will
is
picaresque picturesque
or ? A picaresque
story is one that deals with the adventures
.
the correct spelling for the noun referring
of a rogue. Examples of picaresque novels
to the chemical element: The industrial
in English include Daniel Defoe's Moll
uses of phosphorus.

photo
Flanders and Henry Fielding's Jonathan
The use of the noun photo in place Wild. Picturesque is used much more fre-

. .
of photograph is best restricted to informal quently and means `attractive and charm-

. .
contexts: Did you take a photo of the baby? ing; quaint' and `evocative; vivid':
picturesque language.
derives ultimately from Spanish
This pass is not valid without a photograph picturesque villages
of the holder.The plural of is . ◆ Picaresque pi-
The word is not generally used as a `a rogue; wily trickster'.
photo photos

◆ photo caro
shortened form of the verb .
photograph
picnic This word adds a before the
See also ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE.
. .
k

photo-opportunity
suffixes -er, -ed, -ing: picnickers They
Photo-opportunity (or picnicked in the woods.

photocall) is a vogue term used for a prear- SPELLING 1.

See also
ranged event
.
for press and television
picturesque see PICARESQUE or PICTURESQUE?
pidgin pigeon
photographers: Now the gloves are off,
life is one endless round of photo-opportu- or ? These two words may

.
nities, media calls, . . . and hectic journeys sometimes be confused. Pidgin is a lan-
(The Times)
.
across the country Whirling guage that is a mixture of two other lan-
from photocall to photocall, now cutting a
.
guages: pidgin English. A pigeon is a grey
birthday cake, now smiling coyly by a What- bird with short legs and compact feathers:
the-Butler-Saw machine, . . . (The Guar- the pigeons of Trafalgar Square.
dian). The is ostensibly for also has the informal, rather old-fash-
ioned sense of `concern': .
opportunity ◆ Pigeon
the camera operators, but in fact is created .
that's his pigeon
by and for the politician or media star being
photographed in order to obtain favourable
pieÁce de reÂsistance The phrase Á ce de
pie
 sistance,
re meaning `main dish of a meal;
visual publicity.
◆ Both and
photo-opportunity may bephotocall
most outstanding or impressive item', is of

spelt as two-word compounds, without hyphens. French origin and is sometimes written or
.
phrase
printed in italics in English texts: The

A phrase is a group of words that Á ce de re

designer's pie  sistance was the exquisite

. .
function together as a noun, verb, adjective, dress worn by the princess at her wedding.

adverb, preposition, etc.: the red car give Note the accents, which serve to distinguish
pier 234
Á ce,
pie pronounced [pyes], from the English sometimes confused. A plaintiff is the per-
word piece [pees], and [rezistahns] Â sistance
re son who commences legal action in a court;
Æ ns];
.
from the English word resistance [rizista plaintive means `mournful and melan-
these accents should never be omitted. choly': a plaintive song.
◆ The plural is formed by adding to the first plane The use of -s
word, .
pieÁces de reÂsistance
the noun plane as a

pier PEER PIER .

shortened form of aeroplane is acceptable
see or ?
.
in most contexts: What time does your

pigmy PYGMY PIGMY

see or ?
plane leave? More than 250 people were

pique PEAK PEEK PIQUE

killed in the plane crash.
see , or ? See also ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE; PLAIN
piteous pitiable pitiful
, or ? All these
or PLANE?
adjectives mean `arousing
pity', in which sense they are virtually
or deserving plastic The first syllable of the word plastic
may be pronounced with the short a of
interchangeable in many contexts. There plan, or with the long a of plant. The first of

.
are, however, slight differences of usage these pronunciations, [plastik], is more fre-

. .
and application between them: a piteous quent than the second, [plahstik].
Many people object to the informal use of the
a pitiful sight.

Note the spelling of , the least frequent noun tomean`(paymentby)creditcards': .

cry a pitiable figure ◆
◆ piteous
of thethree adjectives, in which the is followed by
plastic I
t
rather than (as in and ).
very rarely pay by cash these days ± I usually use
e i pitiable .
pitiful
and have the additional meaning
plastic

of `arousing or deserving contempt': .

Pitiable pitiful
platform The use of the noun
Their pitiful to platform

offer of a two per cent pay rise was immediately denote the declared policies and principles
rejected by the union . of a political party or candidate is disliked

pivotal The frequent use of the adjective

by some users as an Americanism but is
acceptable to most: . Their unilateralist

.
pivotal in the sense of `crucial or very platform will win them few votes in the
important' is disliked by some users: to
forthcoming election.

, which is playwright see DRAMATIST or PLAYWRIGHT?

come to a pivotal decision.

◆ Note the pronunciation of pivotal

stressed on the first syllable [ oÆtaÆl]. plc This abbreviation for
piv

place plaice
public limited

or ? These two words are company is often written or printed in

occasionally confused since they are pro- lower-case letters, without full stops.
◆A is a company whose
.
nounced in the same way [plays]. public limited company
shares can be bought and sold on the stock
Place

.
means `location' or `position':
exchange, as opposed to a private limited com-
Everything

pany, which has the abbreviation (spelt with a

is back in its place. What a delightful place.

It should not be confused with plaice, Ltd

capital and usually without a full stop) after its
.
which refers to a large flat-bodied sea fish: L-
They had a fine catch of plaice. name.
plain planeor ? These words are some- pleaded or pled ? In British English

. .
times confused. The main noun sense of pleaded is the usual form of the past tense

.
plain is `level, treeless expanse of land': the and past participle of the verb plead: `Save

vast plains of the prairies. Plane as a noun is a my child,' she pleaded. They had pleaded

shortened form of aeroplane, a carpenter's with him to stay.

tool, or a surface in geometry. ◆ is an American, Scottish, or dialectal variant

Pled
See also PLANE. of . pleaded
◆ Plain has several adjectival senses, including has particular significance as a legal term
Plead
`straightforward', `simple', and `clear'; the adjecti- in the context of a defendant admitting or denying
val use of means `flat': .
plane . guilt: .
a plane surface She pleaded guilty when the case came to
The idiomatic expression is used to
describe easy progress: .
plain sailing court.

switch, the rest will be plain sailing. pleasantness or pleasantry?

Once I've mended this
Pleasantness

plaintiff plaintive .
is an uncountable noun, meaning `the state
or ? These words are of being pleasant': the pleasantness of the
 235 plurals
weather. Pleasantry is chiefly used in more there are many irregularly formed plurals.

. .
formal English in the plural form pleasan- Words ending in a consonant and then -y

.
tries, meaning `polite, casual, friendly, have -ies in the plural: fairies ponies,

. .
agreeable, or amusing remarks': to ex- except for proper nouns, which have -s or
change pleasantries. -ies: I've invited the Joneses and the Hartys.

plenitude Plenitude means `abundance': . the Two Sicilies.

-fe have -ves in the plural: .

Some words ending in
halves .
-f

wives,
or

religious adornments in great plenitude. A

. .
while others simply add -s, and others allow
formal word, it is best avoided where plenty
a choice: beliefs hoofs ± hooves. Some
would be adequate or more appropriate.
◆ The word is sometimes misspelt,
plenitude
words ending in -o add -es, others just an -s.

the most frequent error being the insertion of It is impossible to formulate a general rule

a after the , as in
t n . It is pronounced
plenty
here, although note the frequently used

[ itewd].
plen
potatoes and tomatoes, which both end -es.

. . . . .
Note also that shortened forms ending in
plenty
-o

The use of plenty as an adverb, in just add -s: photos pianos radios stereos

. .
videos. Some nouns ending in -s are already
.
place of quite or very, is regarded by some

.
plural and cannot be pluralized:
.
as nonstandard: The house is plenty big trousers

enough for us. She was plenty upset when she spectacles scissors. With various animal

. . .
heard the news. names the plural form is the same as the
◆ The second of these uses is generally considered singular: deer sheep bison. The same
to be an Americanism. applies to a number of other words that can
.
The adjectival use of without is also .
be treated as either singular or plural:
unacceptable to many users: .
plenty of
the accused.
◆ Several English words have plurals not formed in
They have plenty crossroads

.
any of the ways described above: . ± .
toys to play with

plethora The phrase a plethora of implies child ± .

children ± . ± .
mouse mice
man
goose
men
geese
excess or superfluity; it should not be used foot ± . There is no rule about these words and
feet

.
as a pretentious synonym for `a large num- one cannot generalize from them; the plural of
ber of' or `plenty of': a plethora of houses for mongoose is [not
mongooses ]. mongeese
sale, for example, describes a situation in Foreign words sometimes take a regular English
which there are too many houses on the plural and sometimes the plural of the appropriate
market, far more than the number of language. Often either is regarded as correct: .
prospective buyers, with the result that chaÃteaus/chaÃteaux . Latin or Greek words often
many will remain unsold. take the plural of their original language. The - is

plum plumb ending of such nouns as and

changes to - in the plural: . . .
analysis thesis
or ? These two words are
es analyses theses
occasionally confused since they are pro-
The endings - and - may change to - (see
ix ex ices
nounced in the same way. Plum variously
APPENDIXES or APPENDICES?; INDEXES or INDICES?);
refers to the fruit of the plum tree or to
. the ending - may add an - (see FORMULAE or
a e
something of choice quality:
.
She served up
FORMULAS?); the endings - and - may on um
a dish of plums and custard. He's landed a
change to - (see MEDIA; PHENOMENON or PHE-
a
plum job with the government. It should not
NOMENA?); and the ending - may change to - us i
be confused with plumb, which means
. (see FUNGI).
`install piping for water' or `probe':
.
He
Difficulties often arise with the plurals of
has plumbed in the new sink. She plumbed
compound nouns. The general rule is that
the depths of despair. Note also the spelling
when the qualifying word is an adjective then
of plumb line, denoting a line with a weight
the noun is made plural: . . courts martial
attached that is used to check or determine
, though in less formal usage, the
second word is made plural: .
poets laureate
verticality.
Both words are pronounced [plum]. . If
poet laureates
◆
both words are nouns the second is made
plurals The regular way of forming plurals plural: . , although
town clerks woman teacher
for English words is to add an -s, except for becomes women teachers . In compounds of a
noun and a prepositional phrase or adverb, the
. . . noun is made plural: . .
words ending in -s, -x, -ch, -sh, and -z,

. . . . .
where -es is added: ships houses buses mothers-in-law hang-
foxes churches sashes buzzes. Of course, ers-on . If no words in the
men of war
plus 236
compound are nouns, then - is added at the
end: . . .
s . The two adjectives should not be
party

forget-me-nots go-betweens confused.

grown-
ups . ◆ was originally synonymous with
Politic . political
On using singular or plural verbs, see SINGULAR This sense of the word survives only in the expres-
or PLURAL? sion , meaning `the state'.
the body politic

plus The prepositional use of in the words: is stressedstresson patterns

plus
Note the different
the first
politic
of the two
syllable, po-

in all contexts: .
sense of `with the addition of' is acceptable
on the second.
litical

political correctness
,
My savings plus the money
my grandmother left me, are almost enough to Political correctness,

buy a car. or PC, is the avoidance of words, phrases,

◆ Note that the verb agrees with ; if the or actions that may be deemed offensive by
savings
sentence is reordered to make the principal a particular section of society, such as ethnic
subject a singular verb must be used: .
money

BLIND, DEAF, DISABLED or old people: .

minorities, homosexuals, women, and
The money
, ,
my grandmother left me plus my savings is almost Tradi-

enough to buy a car . ',

tional industrial terms such as `blackleg the

Some people avoid using the noun as a

synonym for `advantage' in formal contexts: .
plus `black economy' and `blacklisted' have been

banned because they might offend TUC de-

Being within walking distance of the station is one legates from ethnic minorities. Speakers have

of the pluses of living on this estate . been asked not to use descriptions deemed

The expression is tautological and

an added plus politically incorrect on grounds of race, dis-

should be avoided. (
ability and gender ). It ex-
Daily Telegraph

The construction is avoided by many tends beyond vocabulary, to the way people
plus which
speakers, particularly when beginning a new sen- are portrayed in television advertisements,
tence or clause: . children's books, etc., and the way they
I'm fed up and I've had enough.
Plus which, I'm tired. interact in their working or social lives.
The use of in the sense of `and' or `with' is The term is most frequently used in situa-
bestrestrictedtoinformalcontexts: .
plus
tions where this anxiety to avoid offence
He's afraid to
,
humorous exaggeration: .
seems excessive, and is often the subject of
..
go sailing because he can't swim plus he suffers
from seasickness She was met at the airport by The legions of the

her son plus his new girlfriend . politically correct continue to direct their

MINUS.
See also accusations of racism, sexism, stoutism and

p.m. see A.M. and P.M. inappropriate body language

of our public and private life, sniffing out
at every area

pneumatic and pneumonia Note the imaginary insults and creating antagonism in
(Daily Telegraph).

Political correctness also strives to project a more

their wake
spelling of these words, particularly the
◆
silent initial p- and the -eu- of the first
positive image of negative or undesirable qualities,
syllable.
The prefix - is derived from a Greek word with the substitution of such euphemisms as de-
◆
meaning `air', as in
pneum
, `using compressed ficiency achievement for failure. Other examples of
air', or `breath', as in
pneumatic
, `inflammation of terms proposed as politically correct alternatives
the lungs'.
pneumonia
include person of sizefor , fat aurally inconve-
for , for ,
poet poetess
or ? see -ESS; NON-SEXISTTERMS.
nienced
and
deaf birth name
companion animal for . pet
maiden name

poignant Of American origin, political correctness is often

This word, meaning `distres-
regarded in Britain as unacceptable interference
sing', is
usually pronounced [poynya Æ nt]
with English usage and thenatural development of
although [poynaÆ nt] is also acceptable. The
the English language. Nevertheless, it has served a
g is silent.
useful purpose in drawing people's attention to
policeman policewoman
or ? see NON-SEX- the need for sensitivity in their use of words and
IST TERMS. images, and not all its suggested changes are
politic political necessarily for the worse.
See also ABLED; ABLEISM; AGEISM; CHAL-
or ? Politic means `pru-
dent', `shrewd', or `cunning': political
LENGED; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM.
. . politics see -ICS.
means `of politics, government, policy-
making, etc.': a politic decision a political
 237 post-traumatic stress disorder
poltergeist The word poltergeist, denoting tion by: .
.
She was possessed by a desire for

a mischievous spirit, is sometimes misspelt. revenge. possessed by a demon.

Note the er in the middle and the
final syllable. The word is pronounced
ei in the
possessives The two ways of showing that

.
Æ rgõÅst]. a noun is one of possession are the apos-
[polte

pomegranate . .
trophe and the use of the word of: Anne's

.
Note the spelling of this car the company's profits the rabbits'
word, particularly the single and the soldiers of the Queen.

The apostrophe is used more frequently than

m burrow

-ate ending (not -ite, as in granite). Note ◆ of

and there is no firm rule as to where it is appro-
priate to use . One can say either: .
also the first e, which is usually sounded in
British English [pomigranit], but is often of the table's
or , but where there is a
recognized phrase containing : .
dropped in the American English pronun- leg the leg of the table
ciation [pomgranit]. of the Valley of

populace populous the Rocks , an apostrophe cannot be substituted.

or ? These two words
Of is usually used of inanimate things; when it is
are occasionally confused since they are
used of people an apostrophe is generally used as
pronounced in the same way [popyoola Æ s].
well: . . It is also often used for
geographical regions: . .
a friend of Peter's

.
Populace is a noun meaning `inhabitants' or
the wines of France the

.
`the ordinary people': The cries roused the
cities of Europe .
populace. This news will not go down well
In cases of joint possession the apostrophe
with the general populace. Populous is an
belongs to the last owner mentioned: .
.
Tom

.
adjective meaning `densely populated' or
and Lucy's house .
Beaumont and Fletcher's plays
`crowded': California is the nation's most
With a compound noun the last word takes the
populous state.
apostrophe: . .
the lady-in-waiting's dress the
pore pour or ? These spellings are some- county court's judge .
Care should be taken with such phrases as: one
. which might mean `the dogs
times confused. Pore as a verb means `look
of the residents' dogs
. belonging to one of the residents' or `one of the
intently': They pored over the map; pour

dogs belonging to one of the residents' or `one of

means `cause to flow': She poured the tea.

the dogs jointly owned by the residents'. It is better

The noun pore refers to a minute opening

to rephrase such an expression to avoid ambiguity.

in the skin.

portmanteau word see BLENDS. See also APOSTROPHE; 'S or S'?

Portuguese This word is sometimes mis- post- Some people object to the frequent
spelt; note the second u and the -e- that use of the prefix post-, meaning `after', to
follows it.
. .
coin new adjectives, often of a futuristic
position To position is to put carefully and nature:
literature .
post-nuclear Britain post-feminist
Russia has shivered in the cold
deliberately in a specific place; the verb is
wind of economic reality throughout the post-
best avoided where place, put, post, situate,
Communist period, or to produce cumber-
.
locate, etc., would be adequate or more

. .
some phrases that could be reworded more
.
appropriate. She positioned the mat on
elegantly: post-September 11 anxiety post-

.
the carpet to hide the stain. He put [not
retirement financial planning.
positioned] his dirty plate on top of the others.

The offices are situated

town centre.
[not positioned] in the
posthumous This word causes problems

◆ Some people also dislike the unnecessary use of

with spelling and pronunciation. In speech

the noun in many contexts. It is usually is not as in , but as in

position
Æ s]; the first syllable
the h is silent [postewmu

possible to replace the verbal phrase . post possible

or : . postman or postwoman? see NON-SEXIST

be in a
position to, for example, with be able can
I am not in a position to answer your questions . TERMS.
possessed The adjective possessed is fol- post-traumatic stress disorder The

.
lowed by the preposition of in the sense phrase post-traumatic stress disorder (or syn-

`having': He is possessed of an ability to drome) denotes a combination of largely

communicate with animals. In the sense psychological symptoms, such as irrational
`dominated', it is followed by the preposi- fear, feelings of guilt, depression, night-
pour 238
mares, etc., resulting from the shock of antonym of , may refer to a person who
practical
being involved in a highly distressing situa- lacks practical abilities.
Additional senses of include `not the-
fire, a terrorist bomb attack, or warfare: .
tion, such as a rail or plane crash, a major practical
oretical', `suitable for use', `skilled at doing or
making things', and `virtual': .
. .
The . . . constable has been diagnosed as a practical course

..
having post-traumatic stress syndrome result- in first aid a more practical layout for the kitchen
My brother is not a very practical man She has
.
ing from her experiences while on the Stevens
investigation into links between the security practical control of the company
( ). See also PRACTICALLY.
◆ Originally applied to American veterans of the
forces and loyalist groups Daily Telegraph

practically The adverb

Vietnam War, the term is sometimes regarded as a used is widely practically

modern or pretentious synonym for or `virtually', etc.: .

shell shock
as a synonym for `almost', `nearly',

battle fatigue. ◆ Some people dislike this usage, which can lead
.
I practically broke my ankle

pour see PORE or POUR? to confusion with one of the more literal senses of
power The word theword: . ,forexample,
It is practically impossible
is sometimes used
power
may mean `it is impossible in practice' or `it is
ness occasion. For example .
adjectivally to refer to an important busi-
almost impossible'.
[or lunch]
a power break-

is a meeting of influential
See also PRACTICAL or PRACTICABLE?
practice practise.
fast
people from e.g. politics, business, or the
.
or ? The noun is practice,
media that is held over breakfast (or lunch). the verb is practise: the doctor's practice the
This vogue usage is best restricted to in- doctor who practises in our town.
formal contexts. ◆ In American English both the noun and verb are
p.p . The abbreviation p.p. (or per pro.),
spelt .
practice

short for the Latin phrase

nem,
per procuratio-

is used when signing a letter on behalf

practitioner This word is sometimes mis-
spelt, the most frequent error being the
of somebody else. The Latin phrase means substitution of c or s for the final t.
`by proxy' or `through the agency of', and
the abbreviation should precede the name pray preyor ? These spellings are some-

.
of the person signing the letter. times confused. The verb pray means
◆ In modern usage the abbreviation is frequently `speak to God': pray for forgiveness. The
interpreted as `for and on behalf of' and placed verb prey, which is usually followed by
.
on

before the name of the person on whose behalf or upon, means `hunt' or `obsess':
.
The lion

the letter is signed. This `incorrect' sequence is so preys on other animals. The problem is

well-established that the correct usage could lead preying on my mind. The noun
.
prey means
to misunderstanding. `animals hunted for food': birds of prey.

practical practicable ◆ Spelling mistakes may be avoided if pray is

or ? The adjective
associated with .prayer

pre- HYPHEN 1 PER- PRE-

practical has a wide range of senses; the
principal meaning of practicable is `capable see ; , or PRO-?; PRE-
of being done or put into practice'. A WAR.
practicable
or feasible; a
suggestion is simply possible
practical suggestion is also
precautionary measure The phrase pre-

cautionary measure can usually be replaced

useful, sensible, realistic, economical, prof-
by the noun precaution, which denotes a

.
itable, and likely to be effective or success-

.
measure taken to avoid something harmful
ful: It may be practicable to create jobs for
or undesirable: The police closed the road as
everyone but this would not be a practical
a precaution(ary measure) against flooding.

Careful users maintain the distinction between precede or proceed?

solution to the problems of unemployment.
◆ means `come Precede

the two words, which is also applicable to their before', `go before', or `be before';
:. means `continue', `go on', or `advance': .
proceed

antonyms, and
. .
impractical impracticable It's

.. ..
impractical to use the washing machine when September precedes October The text is

. .
you only have a couple of shirts to wash It's preceded by an introduction I am unable to

impracticable to use the washing machine when proceed with this work They proceeded to

.
there is a power cut Unpractical , a less frequent .
dismantle the car
 239 prefix
◆ The two verbs should not be confused or mis- subject itself. Thus, in
spelt: note the different spelling but identical
the President conceded

the predicate is
pronunciation of the second syllables, and See also PREDICT or PREDICATE?
defeat conceded defeat.
-cede
[ ].
-ceed -seed
predicative see ADJECTIVES.
precedence precedent or ? The noun pre-
predict or predicate ? To predict is to
cedence means `priority' or `superiority'; the

.
noun precedent denotes a previous example foretell; the verb predicate means `affirm',

.
`declare', or `imply': It is impossible to

.
that may serve as a model (in a court of law
predict the result of tomorrow's match. They

.
or elsewhere): Should this work take pre-
predicated that the accident had been caused

.
cedence over our other commitments? The
by negligence.
◆ In British English the verb is rare and
guests were seated in order of precedence.
predicate
.
The committee's decision has set a precedent
largely restricted to formal contexts. In American
for future claims.
English, however, it is widely used as a synonym
This result is without
.
◆ Both nouns are derived from the verb
precedent
for`base'or`found': . Her decision was predicated
precede
(see PRECEDE or PROCEED?); to interchange them is In grammar and logic .
on past experience

wrong. the word is also predicate

The pronunciation of precedence

a noun (see PREDICATE).
is [ i- usedTheasverb
pres
is pronounced [ ikayt];
deÆns]. The noun is pronounced [ predicate pred

ideÆnt], but the rarer adjective is pronounced the noun is pronounced [ ikaÆt].
precedent pre-
pred
s
[pri deÆnt].
see preface see FOREWORD or PREFACE?; PREFIX or
precipitate precipitous
or ? The adjective PREFACE?
precipitate means `rushing', `hasty', `rash', or
prefer The elements that follow the verb
.
. .
`sudden'; precipitous means `like a precipice'
.
prefer should be separated by to, not than: I

.
or `very steep': a precipitate decision their
prefer cricket to football. She prefers watch-
a precipitous slope.
The substitution of for is
precipitate departure
ing television to reading a book.
◆ precipitous
disliked by some users but acknowledged by most If these elements are infinitives, the preposition
precipitate
◆

dictionaries. , however, should not be (and the second infinitive marker) may be
in informal contexts: .
to
Precipitate
used in the sense of `precipitous'. replaced by rather than

The word is also used as a verb and . In formal

contexts the sentence should be rephrased: .
He prefers to walk rather than (to) drive
precipitate
as a noun. In the pronunciation of the adjective ..
He

and noun the final syllable is unstressed [pri itaÆt]. sip

.
would rather walk than drive He prefers walking

The verb has the same primary stress pattern but to driving
Careful users avoid qualifying the verb
the final syllable is pronounced to rhyme with and its derived adjective
gate
with such
prefer

[pri itayt].
sip
adverbs as , , etc.: .
preferable

preclude see EXCLUDE or PRECLUDE? ].

more most Which dress do
[not you prefer prefer most ? Quiet background

precondition see CONDITION or PRECONDI- [not

music is acceptable but complete silence is prefer-
].
TION? The verb
able more preferable
is stressed on the second
predecessor The noun
prefer
syllable; the final is doubled before , ,
the previous holder of an office, post, etc.: .
denotes r -ed -ing
and . In the adjective , the adverb
predecessor
-er preferable
, and the noun
preferably , the stress
preference
shifts to the first syllable and the second is not
Her predecessor had left the accounts in a
. Although the words and r
doubled. The pronunciation of with
mess predecessor
preferable
the stress on the second syllable [pri aÆbl] is
decease (meaning `death') are both derived
from the Latin verb , a predecessor fer
widely disliked.
decedere

is not necessarily dead: the Latin verb

means `go away', not `die'. See also SPELLING 1.
◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the prefix or preface? The words
predecessor
-c-and and the ending.
-ss- -or
and prefix

predicate
are most frequently used as nouns
preface

The predicate is that part of a (see FOREWORD or PREFACE?; PREFIXES and SUF-
sentence or clause that includes informa- FIXES). As verbs, both can mean `add at the
tion about the SUBJECT, but excludes the beginning' or `put before', although preface
prefixes 240
. co-, col-, com-, con-, cor-
together; with: . .
is more common: She prefaced/prefixed her

speech with a few words of welcome. collect combine

Some users dislike this use of the verb , see CO-
reserving it for the literal sense `add as a prefix': . against; opposite: .
◆ prefix
contra-
counter- 1 opposite: .
contradict
2
corresponding; matching: .
The word `organized' may be prefixed by `dis-' or counteract
`un-'.
prefixes and suffixes Prefixes and suffixes
cyber- computers: .
counterpart
see CYBER-
1 take away something: .
cybercafeÂ
are elements attached to a word in order to
de-
2 go back: .
dethrone
form a new word. Prefixes are attached to
. see DE-
ten times: .
decode

. . .
the beginnings of words and include:
.
un-
deca- decagon see DECA- or
dis- anti- non- ex-. Suffixes are
. DECI-?
. . .
attached to the ends of words and include:
. deci- one tenth: . see DECA- or
decibel

◆ Prefixes are sometimes used with hyphens,

-ism -ful -dom -logy -ship.
DECI-?
sometimes not: . . : demi- half: . demigodsee DEMI-, HEMI- or
see HYPHEN 1.
disenchanted ex-husband
SEMI-?
There are some cases where a word cannot di- two: . .
through; across: .
diphthong dioxide

stand alone without its prefix: . . dia-

digital: .
diameter

. .
uncouth
, although
dis-
digi-
1 not: . .
digibox
gruntled
,
dishevelled unkempt
, etc., are occasionally used jocu- dis- 2
opposite: .
disagree dissimilar
gruntled kempt
larly. disconnectsee DIS- or
Most affixes are in productive use: they can be DYS-?
attached to any appropriate noun. However, new dys- abnormal: . dysfunction see DIS- or
coinages involving affixes are often disliked: see, DYS-?
for example, MACRO- and MICRO-. e- 1 electronic: . 2 European: .
e-mail
see E-
environment;ecology: .
e-number
eco-
PREFIXES .
eco-friendly
see ECO-
electro- electricity: .
eco-aware

em-, en- 1(usedtomakeverbs): . .

electrolysis
Cross-references, e.g. see AERO AIR?, are also
. 2 in; into: .
or enthrone
included to main entries in the
equal: .
Good Word Guide enrich enable enlist
where there is a fuller discussion. equi-
Europe; European Union: .
equidistant
Euro-
1 without; not: .
Eurocrat
a- 2 in; see EURO-
on; at: . 1 former: .
asymmetrical
ex- 2 out of:
aero-, air- aircraft: .
ashore ex-president
see AERO or see EX
outside: .
aeronautics expel
AIR? extra-
both; two: . prohibition: .
extraterrestrial
ambi- for- see FOR- or
before: .
ambidextrous forbid
ante- see ANTE- or FORE-?
1 front: . 2 before: .
antenatal
ANTI-? fore-
anthropo- human: .
foreword
see FOR- or FORE-?
against: . earth: .
anthropology foretell
anti- see ANTE- or
anti-aircraft geo- geology
ANTI-? grand- parents of one's parents; children of
arch-, archi- chief: . see ARCH- and
archenemy one's children: . .
grandfather
ARCHI- see GRAND- or
stars: .
granddaughter
astro- GREAT-?
hearing or sound: .
astronomy
audio- great- parents of one's grandparents;
self: . children of one's grandchildren: .
audiovisual
auto-
(used to make verbs): . .
autobiography
be-
two; twice: .
becalm great-grandmother great-
bi- see BI- see GRAND- or GREAT-?
book: . haemo- blood: .
bicycle grandson
biblio-
life: . . hect-, hecto- one hundred: .
bibliography haemorrhage
bio- see BIO-
less important: . half: .
biography biology hectare
by- hemi- see DEMI-, HEMI-,
one hundredth: .
by-election hemisphere
centi- or SEMI-?
time: . seven: .
centimetre
chron- chronological hepta- heptagon
 241 premier
hexa- six: . proto- first; original: .
same: . not real; pretended: .
hexagon prototype
homo- pseudo-
water: . mind; behaviour: .
homogeneous pseudonym
hydro- psycho-
much more than normal: . four: .
hydroelectricity psychology
hyper- quad-
five: .
quadrangle
see HYPER- or HYPO-? quin-
under: . again: .
hypermarket quintet
hypo- see HYPER- or re- see RE-
back: .
hypodermic reappear
HYPO-? retro- see RETRO
oneself: .
retrograde
ig-, il-, im-, in-, ir- self- see SELF
not: . . . half: .
self-confident
semi- see DEMI-, HEMI-
il-, im-, in-, ir- in; into: . .
ignoble illogical impossible semicircle
or SEMI-?
below: . seven: .
income irrigate
infra- sept-
1 between: . six: .
infra-red septet
inter- 2 from sex-
one to another: . social; society: .
intermediary sextet
see socio-
1 under: . 2 less than .
interchange sociology
INTER- or INTRA-? sub-
inside: .
subsoil
intra- see INTER- or
1 over: . 2 greater: .
intravenous subnormal
INTRA-? super-
one thousand: .
superimpose
kilo- see SUPER-
large: . together with: . .
kilometre supersonic
macro- see MACRO- sym-, syn-
practical skill and science: .
macrocosm sympathy synthesis
and MICRO- techno-
mal- bad: . see TECHNO-
1 million: . 2 big: . distant: . .
malfunction technology
mega- megawatt tele- telephone see
television
see MEGA- TELE-
1 change; after: . God: .
megaphone
meta- theo-
2 transcending: . heat: .
metamorphosis theology
see thermo-
across: .
metafiction thermometer
META- trans-
small: . three: .
transcontinental
micro- see MACRO- tri-
1 driven by a turbine: .
microscope triangle
and MICRO- turbo-
middle: . 2 powerful: .
turbojet
mid- see
one thousandth: .
midday turbo computer
milli- TURBO-
small: . beyond: .
millimetre
mini- ultra- see ULTRA
bad; badly: . 1 not: .
minibus ultraviolet
mis- un- 2 opposite:
one: . . . see NON-
mislead unhappy
mono-
many: . 1 below: .
monotony undo untie
multi- see MULTI- under- 2 too little:
new: . .
multicoloured undergrowth
neo-
mind or nerves: . one: .
neoclassical underdeveloped
neuro- uni-
not: . assistant: .
neurosis unity
non- see NON- vice-
against: . video: .
nonstop vice-president
ob- video-
octa-, octo- eight: . .
obstruct videolink

omni- all: .
octagon octopus
prelude The frequent use of the noun

correct: .
omnipotent
ortho- .
prelude in the sense of `introduction' is

1 greater than: .
orthodox
out- 2 outside: disliked by some users: The leaders had

.
outlast
an informal meeting this morning as a prelude

1 above: . 2 too much: .

outbuilding
over- overhang
The noun is principally used to denote a
to next week's summit in Geneva.

see OVERLY piece of music: .

◆ prelude
.
five: .
overdo
penta- one of Chopin's preludes

around: . premier
pentagon
peri-
1 light: .
perimeter The adjective premier is best
photo-
2 photography: .
photosynthesis avoided where foremost, principal, first,

nature: . .
photocopy etc., would be adequate or more appropri-
physio-
many .
physiology ate: We consulted one of the country's

poly-
after: . .
polygon premier authorities on the subject.
post- postscript post-war see ◆ Premier is pronounced [ yeÆr] or [ ieÆr],
prem prem
POST- the first syllable having the short of , not the
before: .
e them
pre- long of . It should not be confused with
1 in favour of: .
prelude e theme
pro- PREMIERE, which is sometimes pronounced in the
2 substitute: .
pro-African
pronoun same way.
premiere 242
premiere when it applies to two elements of a sentence: .
..
Some people dislike the use of

the first performance of': .

the word as a verb, meaning `give They went to France and Italy He behaved with
, although the preposition must
premiere

be repeated if ambiguity might otherwise arise. .

The film will be tact and discretion

◆ The verb is also used intransitively: .

premiered in New York .
The play They were arguing about physical fitness and
premiered in the West End . could have a different mean-
about drinking spirits
The noun , meaning `first perfor- ing if the second were omitted.
mance', is acceptable to all users: .
premiere about
On the use of a preposition with a particular
the world
premiere of Andrew Lloyd Webber's latest musical . verb, adjective, or noun see individual entries.
may be pronounced [ iair] or [
ieÆr]. It is sometimes spelt with a grave accent on isprerequisite or perquisite? A
Premiere prem pre-
prerequisite
m
thesecond , as in the French word from which it is privilege, or exclusive right: . is a benefit,
e
a precondition; a perquisite

derived: .
premieÁre
. .
A degree is not

See also ACCENTS. a prerequisite for a career in journalism A

premises
company car is often regarded as a perquisite.

The noun premises, In the sense of `incidental benefit' the noun

denoting a ◆
is largely restricted to formal contexts,
nying land or grounds, is always plural: .
building (or buildings) and any accompa- perquisite
the abbreviation being the usual form else-
where: .
perk
Their new premises are on the other side of the .
one of the perks of the job
. See also PREREQUISITE or REQUISITE?
◆ The singular noun , which is not used in prerequisite or requisite? Both these
railway line
premise
this context, means `assumption' or `proposition'; words
it has the variant spelling . premiss
may be used as nouns or adjectives.
relates to anything that is re-
premiss PREMISES
Requisite

see . quired, necessary, essential, or indispensa-

preoccupied OCCUPIED see or PREOCCUPIED?

ble; prerequisite
.
relates to something that is

.
required in advance: Does the building

preparation The noun preparation is

have the requisite number of fire exits? The

.
shop sells pens, paper, and other writing
sometimes misspelt, a frequent error being
requisites. Physical fitness is prerequisite
the substitution of -per- for -par-, as in
to/a prerequisite of success at sport.
desperation.
PREREQUISITE or PERQUISITE?
prepositions
See also

. . . . .
as: at with
Prepositions

of up
are such words
before that show the
prescribe proscribeor ? To prescribe is to
lay down as a rule or to advise or order as a
relation of a noun or noun equivalent to the

.
remedy; to proscribe is to condemn, prohi-
rest of the sentence.
◆ One often hears of the grammatical rule that bit, outlaw, or exile: The union has pre-

sentences should never end with a preposition. It is scribed a

.
new procedure for dealing with

truethatprepositions, as their name implies,usual- complaints.

.
Surrogate motherhood has been

ly precede the noun or pronoun to which they are proscribed in Britain. Proscribing the doc-

attached: . It was under the chair.. They drove to

tor's habit of prescribing (Daily Telegraph

, but it certainly does not have to be in headline).

The two verbs are similar in pronunciation but
thisposition. .
Birmingham
and
Which village did you stay in? In
◆
almost opposite in meaning: a book is
which village did you stay? are both possible, recommended, a
prescribed
book should not be
although the latter sounds more formal. In some read; a
proscribed
drug should be taken, a
cases it is hardly possible to put the preposition prescribed
drug is banned.
pro-

anywherebutattheendofthesentence: . scribed

. presently
What is
he up to? .Areliable
It isn't worth worrying about Some people object to the in-
rule is that the preposition should be placed where creasingly frequent use of the adverb
it sounds most natural.
pre-

.
in place of currently, at present, or
The `rule' about not ending a sentence with a
sently

.
now:
preposition originated in the fact that a Latin
Mr Iain Duncan-Smith, presently

sentence cannot end with a preposition, but there

leader of the opposition The company pre-

is no reason for this to have any implication for

sently manufactures components for the elec-

English usage. The word has long been used in this sense in
tronics industry.

◆
A preposition does not need to be repeated Scotland and America.
 243 preventive
The principal meaning of in British whose right to succeed or inherit may be super-
English is `soon': .
presently
seded by the birth of another.
.
We walked on a little further
and presently we reached the inn. I'll phone him Note the spelling of , particularly
presumptuous
presently. the second . u

preside pretence pretension pretentious-

. ness
The verb preside is followed by the , or
preposition at or over: The chairman ? The noun pretence denotes the act
presided at [or over] the meeting. of pretending; a pretension is a claim; pre-

pressure pressurize
or ? The verb pressure,
.
tentiousness means `ostentation' or `affecta-

. .
tion': She made a pretence of closing the
which literally means `apply pressure to', is
door. He has no pretensions to fame. Their

.
frequently used in the figurative sense of
pretentiousness does not impress me.
◆ In some contexts may be used in place
`coerce': They were pressured into accepting
pretence

◆ The literal meaning of the verb is supported claim; both nouns may bea false
of , especially to denote or un-
the pay rise.
pretension
pressurize
`increase the pressure in', but it is also used fig- sense of `pretentiousness'. used in the
uratively in British English: . Compare the spellings of
Aircraft cabins are
and pretension pre-

..
pressurized to maintain normal atmospheric pres-
, particularly
tentiousness the of the former and s
sure at high altitudes
. the second of the latter. In American English the
They were pressurized into
t c
accepting the pay rise
The figurative use of and of is replaced by .
pretence s

is disliked and avoided by some users, especially in prevaricate or procrastinate? To

pressurize pressurized

potentially ambiguous, contexts: .

prevar-
is to be evasive, misleading, or un-
The ability to icate

or put off: .
work effectively in a pressurised stimulating envir- truthful; to is to delay, defer,
( ).
procrastinate

.
onment is essential Daily Telegraph She prevaricated in order to avoid

prestige The noun prestige, denoting the

revealing her husband's whereabouts.
procrastinated in the hope of avoiding
He
the
high status, esteem, or renown derived
work altogether.
from wealth, success, or influence, is usual-
◆ The two verbs should not be confused: prevar-

is also used adjectivally: .

ly pronounced [presteezh].
icateis partially derived from the Latin word , varus
◆ Prestige
. .
a prestige
meaning `crooked'; contains the La-
procrastinate
company a prestige car
PRESTIGIOUS. tin word , meaning `tomorrow'.
cras

prevent
See also

prestigious The adjective prestigious is

When the verb
lowed by an -ing form in formal contexts,
prevent is fol-

.
frequently used in the sense of `having or

.
the -ing form should be preceded either by
conferring prestige': new ways of raising

.
from or by a possessive adjective or noun:

.
money for the country's most prestigious opera

.
They prevented me from winning. They
house The company will shortly be relocat-

.
prevented Andrew from winning. They

◆ The original meaning of was less

ing to prestigious new offices in the City.
prevented my winning. They prevented
prestigious
complimentary: derived from the Latin word for ◆ In informal contexts.

`conjuring tricks', it was used as a synonym for considered unnatural or the last example may be
Andrew's winning

`fraudulent' or `deceitful'. unidiomatic and the word

Unlike has the anglicized . may be omitted from
from the first two examples:
prestige, prestigious
pronunciation [pres uÆs]. .
They prevented me/Andrew winning
See also -ING FORMS.
tij

presume ASSUME PRESUME

see or ?
preventive preventative
presumptuous presumptive
or ? Either word

.
or ? Pre- may be used as an adjective or noun, but

. .
sumptuous means `bold', `forward', or `im- preventive is the more frequent: preventive
pudent'; presumptive means `based on measures preventative surgery This drug is

.
presumption or probability' or `giving rea- used as a preventive/preventative.
sonable grounds for belief': ◆ Some users consider to be a need-
preventative
lessly long variant.
It's rather

.
presumptuous of him to make such a request.
. In medical and technical contexts the adjective is
The adjective is also used in the used with reference to procedures that forestall
This is only presumptive evidence

◆ presumptive
term heir presumptive , which denotes a person disease, damage, breakdown, etc., rather than
pre-war 244
curing or repairing it: . preventive medicine . lings are often confused. The adjective
.
.
preventive maintenance principal means `of the most importance':

pre-war This word is usually hyphenated,

the principal cause;

refers to the head of an organization:

the noun principal
.
although some dictionaries list it as a one-
the principal of a college. Principle is always a
word compound.

standard: .
HYPHEN 1. noun and refers to a fundamental truth or

is generally used as an adjective: .

See also
. The adjectival
moral principles

.
◆ Pre-war pre-
war conditions reverting to pre-war practices. Its ◆
form is .
means `in theory',
principled

adverbial use is less frequent, the phrase means

In principle
`because of the principle'.
on principle

being preferred by some users: .

before

principalparts The
the war These
houses were built pre-war/before the war . of a verb
In general usage usually refers to the are the main inflected forms from which all
principal parts

pre-war
period preceding World War II, but in some con- the other verb forms can be derived. In
texts the reference may be to World War I or, more English they usually include the infinitive,
rarely, to a different war. This can occasionally lead the present participle, the past tense, and
to ambiguity or confusion: .
for example, would be: .
past participle. The principal parts of
pre-war house prices ,
.
give

in the Falkland Islands , , , give giving gave

prey PRAY
see or PREY? given. Often the past tense and past parti-

.
ciple are the same, and do not both have to
price COST
see or PRICE? be listed: walk, walking, walked. The

prima facie This Latin phrase is used

present participle is not always included
when it is derived regularly, as in: . know,
adverbially or adjectivally in the sense of knew, known.

.
`at first sight', `(based) on first impressions', ◆ For irregular principal parts see table at VERBS.
or `apparently true':
reasonable prima facie. . principle
Her argument seems

There is prima facie see PRINCIPAL or PRINCIPLE?

Largely restricted to formal contexts, the phrase prioritize
evidence to support his case.
The verb prioritize, meaning `put
◆
is pronounced [ maÆ shee].
prõÅ fay
in order of priority' or `give priority to', is
disliked by some users as an example of the
primarilyMany users prefer to stress this increasing tendency to coin new verbs by

.
Æ re
word on the first syllable [prõÅma Æ li], but adding the suffix -ize to nouns and adjec-

.
this is very difficult to say unless one is tives: The methods of increasing industrial

speaking slowly and carefully. The pro- output have been prioritized. Where women

nunciation with the stress on the second are, in fact, seen to prioritise their career, they

syllable [prõÅmerreÆli] is becoming increas- are considered in some way `unnatural', `un-

ingly common in British English, although feminine' or `on the shelf' (The Bookseller).

it is disliked by many. It is the standard

pronunciation in American English.
prior to Many people object to the unne-

See also STRESS. cessary use of the phrase prior to in place of

prime .
the simpler and more natural preposition
Some people dislike the frequent before: Players and singers rehearsed the

use of the adjective prime in the sense of works during the afternoon prior to perform-

`best', `most important', `principal', etc., (Chichester Observer).

The use of as an adjective is acceptable to

ing them in the evening

all: .
especially when it is applied to something ◆ prior

. .
that is not of the highest quality, signifi- I would like to come but unfortunately have a
.
.
cance, or rank: in prime condition the prior engagement
prime position a prime example.
prise prize
primeval
or ? For the meaning `to force

.
This word, meaning `of the first open', either spelling can be used in British
ages', is usually spelt primeval but in British English, but prise is more common: In the

English may also be spelt primaeval. end we managed to prise the lid off.
-AE and -OE. is the only possible spelling for the noun
meaning `a reward' and the verb `value greatly': .
See also ◆ Prize

primitive see SAVAGE. ..

principal principle
Gloria won first prize in the competition The
or ? These two spel- thieves made off with most of their prized posses-
 245 prodigy
. In American English, the spelling is
. .
sions prize quently, proceedings) means `something that
more common than for the sense `force
prise is done':
open'.
to follow the established procedure
to take part in the proceedings. The two

pristine The use of pristine to mean `spot-

words should not be confused.
◆ Note the difference in spelling between the
.
lessly clean', `pure', or `as good as new' is
two words, particularly the - - of ced procedure

.
acceptable to most users: a pristine table-
and the - - ofceed .
proceeding

proceed
cloth He made the packet look untouched
(Daily Telegraph). see PRECEDE or PROCEED?
A few people object to this usage, restricting the
and in pristine condition

adjective to its earlier sense of `original' or `primi- proceeding see PROCEDURE or PROCEEDING?
◆

tive': .The mists of a pristine swamp . process The noun

The pristine is always pro- process
severity of the Benedictine rule was moderated in
the course of time . nounced with the stress on the first syllable,

The second syllable of may be pro- [shortses].- -,(The pronunciation [ es], with a
Å
pro pros
pristine
nounced to rhyme with or .
mean mine
is largely restricted to American
English.) The verb
o

is also stressed on
privacy
process

This word has two pronunciations: the first syllable in most contexts; however,

.
Æ si] and [prõÅva
[priva Æ si] in British English. in the rare sense `move (as if) in a proces-
◆ The standard American English pronunciation is sion': They processed down the avenue, the

[ vaÆsi]. Æ ses].
second syllable is stressed, [pro
This rare sense, a BACK FORMATION from
prõÅ

privilege This word, meaning `special

◆
cession, is etymologically distinct from the noun
pro-

right or advantage', is often misspelt. Note and other meanings of the verb.
particularly the second -i- and the first -e-.
Remember also that there is no d as in ledge. pro-choice see PRO-LIFE.
prize PRISE PRIZE
see or ? procrastinate see PREVARICATE or PROCRAS-
pro- PER PRE- PRO- TINATE ?

prodigal
see , or ?

proactive Proactive, a technical term in

Prodigal
.
means `recklessly waste-

.
ful', `extravagant', or `lavish': Her brother
psychology, has entered general usage as a
has always been prodigal with his money.
vogue word, meaning `taking the initia-
They were prodigal of praise.
◆ The use of the adjective to mean
.
tive; acting in anticipation rather than
prodigal
reacting after the event':
. `returning home after a long absence' (based on
a proactive
approach to business
a misunderstanding of the word in the New Testa-
a proactive role in

the marketplace . This word is disliked by

ment parable of the prodigal son, Luke 15:11±32)
many people and should not be overused
in this sense.
is disliked and avoided by some careful users: .
probe In the headline language of popular
Prodigal performers from the Bosham Players are
( ).
to return home 40 years on Chichester Observer
The use of the noun , however, in the
:.
newspapers the noun is often used in prodigal
extended sense of `returned wanderer' or `repen-
probe

place of the longer or

tant sinner', rather than the traditional sense of
enquiry investigation

`spendthrift', is acceptable to most: .

Crucial questions the BBC poll probe must

( ). The prodigal
.
answer Sunday Times
See also JOURNALESE. has returned
◆ In medicine a is a slender instrument for prodigy or proteÂgeÂ? The noun
probe
examining a wound or cavity; exam- meaning `marvel', is used to denote an,
space probes
prodigy

ine and investigate the expanse beyond the earth's exceptionally talented person, especially a
atmosphere.
In nontechnical contexts is more fre- child: . , ,
Tracy Austin then 14 was starting to

quently used as a verb: .

probe
be acknowledged as one of the first child
After further gentle
,
probing Mark revealed some new details of the
(
prodigies in professional tennis Daily Tele-

incident. ). A is someone who receives

graph  ge
prote Â

procedure proceeding
help, guidance, protection, patronage, etc.,

.
or ? The noun from a more influential or experienced
procedure denotes a way of doing some- person: one of Lord Olivier's prote  s.
 ge

thing; the noun proceeding (or, more fre- The two nouns should not be confused.
produce 246
◆ Derived from the French word , mean- proteÂger [or at] French and

ing `protect', the noun has the (optional)

cants must be proficient in

proteÂge .
feminine form .
German
proteÂgeÂe
profile The noun
produce product
profile is widely used in
or ? Both these nouns the expression keep a low profile, meaning

.
denote something that is produced. Produce `be inconspicuous or unobtrusive' or `avoid
refers to things that have been produced by attention or publicity': The group has kept

growing or farming, whereas product a low profile since the arrest of its leader. This

. .
usually refers to industrially produced usage is disliked by some.
Two adjectival compounds, and
, have developed from this use: .
goods: farm produce the company's latest ◆ low-profile

.
product. high-profile a
The noun is also used in more abstract
senses: .
◆ product low-profile investigation The star has lived a low-

.. .
He is a product of the public-school profile existence since the scandal appeared in the
system the product of a vivid imagination . press
Such attitudes are the product of ignorance and See also VISIBLE.
. The noun is also used alone in a further
Both nouns are pronounced with the stress on extension of this sense: . [Joan Bakewell]
suspicion profile
She is
the first syllable. The verb , however, is
). .
produce credited with raising the profile of arts coverage on
stressed on the second syllable, [proÆ ]. dews ( television Sunday Times You can't risk loss of

productivity The noun (

profile, market share, and media appeal The
, fre-
productivity
). Bookseller
quently used in industrial contexts, relates
The word is also occasionally used as a
a profile of': .
profile
to efficiency or rate of production; it is not
verb, meaning `construct The new

.
synonymous with , which denotes
output
leader has been profiled in most of the leading

.
the amount produced: a productivity
newspapers.

profoundly deaf
bonus The installation of new machinery
will increase the company's productivity; em- Profoundly deaf is the

.
ploying more workers will only increase its preferred modern term to describe a person
output. who is both deaf and unable to speak: A

professional The adjective professional is

special school for the
replaces such former terms as
profoundly deaf.
deaf-mute
It

applied to people who are engaged in a

and deaf-and-dumb, which are now avoided

.
profession or who take part in a sport or
because of their negative connotations.

. prognosis DIAGNOSIS PROGNOSIS

other activity for gain: doctors, lawyers, and
other professional people a professional see or ?
golfer/actor/writer/musician.
is used to denote such people.
The noun pro-
program programme
or ? Both these

◆ In general usage the word , in the

fessional
words may be used as nouns or verbs. In
professional
sense of `(person) engaged in a profession', may British English the spelling is re- program

refer to any career that requires advanced learning stricted

and/or special training, such as law, medicine, with) a series of .coded instructions': . .
to the computing sense of `(provide
a

theology, accountancy, engineering, teaching, computer program to program a computer

nursing, and the armed forces. Many users object word is also the. American spelling of the
Program

to the wider application of the term to include ◆ The noun has avarietyof senses and
programme

other middle-class occupations: . uses, such as `broadcast',

programme
`list', `plan', and `sche-
. .
a marketing
professional
.
sales professionals
dule': .
recruitment
.
. .
a television programme a theatre pro-
professionals
Note the spelling of the word , professional
.
gramme
.
the programme for tonight's concert a

which has one , and - -.

f ss
research programme
.
a housing programme the

professor This word is sometimes mis- The verb

programme of events
means `plan', `schedule',
programme
or `cause to conform to particular instructions',
though some object to this usage: .
spelt. Note the single , - -, and the - f ss or

..
ending. The new road

proffer see OFFER or PROFFER? is programmed for completion next spring

.
He

proficient The adjective

has been programmed to respond in this way
In British English the final of is
: .
is fol- m program
doubled before , , , and . In Amer-
proficient
lowed by the preposition or in at Appli- -ed -ing -er -able
 247 pronunciation
ican English , , etc., are
programmed programming that arises with pronouns is in the use of the
sometimes spelt with a single . m personal pronoun, where many people are
The spelling was adopted from the
.
programme confused between the subject and object
French in the 19th century; , which is now
.
program forms. Such phrases as:
regarded as an Americanism, was the original
Everything comes
to he who waits. It was up to Julia and I,

spelling of the word in British English. though incorrect, are frequently used. Re-

progressive tense The progressive (or con-

member that after verbs and prepositions,

.
the object pronoun (me, him, her, us, them)
tinuous) tense describes those forms of verbs

.
should be used: Everything comes to him

.
that describe an ongoing or unfinished
who waits. It was up to Julia and me. The

.
action: We were driving towards London.

.
confusion can be resolved by mentally
They are deceiving themselves. Note that

.
changing the sentence slightly: Things

.
some verbs cannot be used in the progres-
come to him [not he]. It was up to me
sive tense: I am having black hair.

prohibit .
[not I]. Before verbs the subject pronouns
FORBID or PROHIBIT?
.
see (I, he, she, we, they) should be used: I [not

project The word project, as a noun, mean-

me] and my friend will come.

and her colleague are arguing.

She [not her]

ing `scheme or plan', is usually pronounced

See also I or ME?
[projekt]. The alternative [pro
Å jekt] is some-
Perhaps because of this uncertainty about the
◆

, meaning `protrude' or `esti- use of a pronoun,

personal another frequent mistake is the
times heard but is avoided by careful users.
◆ The verb project
mate for the future', is pronounced [proÆ ]. reflexive pronoun instead of a personal
pronoun: .
jekt

pro-life The adjective

It was written by another author and
is used to [not ]. me myself
A further difficulty with pronouns is that of
pro-life
describe an organization, movement, etc.,
uncertainty of reference. This can occur in sen-
tences containing : .
that supports the right to the maintenance
of the life of the unborn. Those with it We took the bus although it
. It is unclear whether the bus was late or
pro-

views are in favour of limitations on the was late

the time was late.
life

.
availability of legal abortions and a ban on
experiments on human embryos: The See also I or ME; IT; THEM.
controversial Human Fertilisation and Em-

bryo Bill faces new dissent from pro-life MPs

pronunciation The recommended pro-
nunciation of English words found in dic-
(The Guardian).

is considered by many people to be a

◆ Pro-life
tionaries and grammar books is usually

euphemism for . The term

anti-abortion pro-
what is known as RP or received pronuncia-

, describing the opposite point of view,

choice
tion, which more or less represents the

may be considered a euphemism for : speech of educated middle-class people

.
pro-abortion
from the South-East of England. Until
The pro-choice movement believes that women
comparatively recently, RP was regarded
have a right to choose whether to have an abor-
tion or not . as `correct' and other pronunciations were

prolific
sometimes thought of as, if not actually
The adjective prolific means `very incorrect, at least inferior. Most people now
productive'; it is applied to the person or accept that there is no one standard form of

.
thing that produces rather than to what is English pronunciation which is correct.
produced: A prolific author, she writes two There is great regional variety within the
or three new novels every year. United Kingdom and further variations in
Many people object to the use of as a
synonym for `abundant' or `numerous': .
◆ prolific the speech of other English-speaking coun-
Her tries, and there is nothing incorrect about a
.
prolific novels deal with a wide range of subjects pronunciation that is standard to a parti-

prone LIABLE see or LIKELY?; PROSTRATE, cular community or region.

It is perfectly valid, then, to say [bath] instead of
PRONE SUPINE
or ?
◆
[bahth] if one comes from northern England, or
pronouns are words that are for an American to say [ l] instead of [ õÅl]. mis mis
There is, however, still the possibility of mispro-
Pronouns

refer to something or someone: . . . nunciations, where a certain pronunciation is not

used to replace nouns or noun phrases to

. . . , etc. The main difficulty an accepted regional variation and would gener-
I she

him it you they

propeller 248
ally be regarded as a mistake, for example, pro- proposal or proposition? Both these
nouncing as [gist] instead of [jist]. It should nouns can mean `something that is pro-
gist
also be noted, though, that pronunciation is not posed, suggested, or put forward for con-
static; it changes over the years and new pronun- sideration', but they are not always
ciations which were originally resisted by careful interchangeable: .
speakers sometimes eventually become the stan- .
the government's latest

dard form. .. .
proposal/proposition That's an interesting

A frequent mistake is to misspell

proposition/proposal an insurance proposal
pronunciation .
as . The recommended pronuncia- ◆ The two words have other specific senses that
a business proposition

pronounciation
tion is [praÆnunsi shaÆn], not [praÆ siayshaÆn]. should not be confused: a
ay nown is an offer of
proposal
See also LAW AND ORDER and other indi- marriage; a is an invitation to extra-
proposition
vidual entries. marital sex. The verb usually relates to
proposition

propeller This word for a rotating device common than the noun in this issense):
this meaning of the noun (and much more
. He
with blades is usually spelt with the ending
; it should
propositioned his secretary not be used
-er , though is occasionally found.
-or
in place of . propose
proper nouns see CAPITAL LETTERS; NOUNS. noun Some people dislike the informal use of the
in the sense of `person', `thing',
prophecy or prophesy? These spellings etc.: . proposition

..
The new manager is a formidable proposi-
and pronunciations are sometimes con- tion Recycling may not be an economic propo-
fused. The noun meaning `prediction' is . In both these examples the adjective phrase
sition
spelt prophecy and pronounced [ isi]. could be replaced by the adjective alone.
prof
The verb meaning `utter predictions' is
spelt prophesy and pronounced [profisõÅ ]. proprietary Note the spelling of this word,
◆ Advice and are a similar noun-verb com-
advise which is used to refer to goods sold under a
bination, spelt with a for the noun and an for
c s particular trade name, especially the second
the verb. r, the ie, and the -ary ending. The a is not

proportion The noun proportion denotes a

always sounded in speech.

pro rata The Latin expression pro rata is

ratio; it is best avoided where part, number,

.
used in formal contexts to mean `in pro-
.
some, etc., would be adequate or more
portion to an amount':
.
appropriate: The proportion of female a part-time job at a

salary of £20,000 per year paid pro rata.

The expression is pronounced [proÅ
students to male students has increased.
◆ pro rata
taÆ].
Some [not A proportion] of his friends are

unemployed. rah
◆ Such phrases as and
a small(er) proportion a
proscribe PRESCRIBE PROSCRIBE
may be replaced by see or ?

, etc.: . [not prosecute PERSECUTE PROSECUTE

large(r) proportion few, less,
]
. [not
many, more many a large proportion see or ?
of our employees less ]
a smaller proportion
prospective PERSPECTIVE PROSPECTIVE
. see or ?

prostate prostrate
of their money
Some people also dislike the use of the plural
:.
or ? The word
noun in place of or
prostate

.
proportions size dimensions refers to a gland around the neck of the

..
Men of his proportions have difficulty finding bladder in men and other male mammals:
clothes that fit They set sail in a ship of enor-
.
He's going into hospital to have his prostate
mous proportions (gland) removed.

proportional proportionate It should not be confused with the adjective

◆
or ? The ad-
, which means `lying face downwards',
or `overcome': .
prostrate
jectives proportionaland are
`exhausted',
proportionate

..
He stepped over the

proportion': .
virtually synonymous in the sense of `in
prostrate body of the prisoner They were pros-

.
[or
a proportionate propor-
.
trate with anguish
]
tional increase in spending
The word
the cooking time
is also used as a verb. The
prostrate
is proportional [or ]
proportionate
adjective
to the size of
is stressed on the first syllable; the verb is
◆ In the phrase
the joint of meat .
, de- stressed on the second syllable.
noting a type of electoral system, the adjective prostrate, prone or supine?
proportional representation
and
cannot be replaced by .
Prostrate

proportional proportionatemean `lying face downwards';

prone supine
 249 psychiatrist
. In British English it is more frequently used
asanadjective: . . .
means `lying face upwards'. In these senses proven
the adjectives and are largely a proven remedy proven skills
.
prone supine
restricted to formal or literary usage, or to a proven liar
contexts where the distinction between `face The accepted pronunciation of the word proven
downwards' and `face upwards' is particu- is [ veÆn], although the pronunciation [ veÆn]
proo proÅ
larly important or relevant. Elsewhere, the is also heard from time to time, particularly in the
adjective prostrate (with its additional mean- Scottish legal phrase not proven.
ings of `exhausted' or `overcome': see PROS- proverbial
TATE or PROSTRATE?) is more frequent than The cliche the proverbial . . . is

.
often used when (part of) a proverb or

.
prone and may also be used in place of supine

.
other idiomatic expression is quoted: It's
or in the general sense of `lying flat': She lay
like taking the proverbial horse to water. We
prostrate with exhaustion.

protagonist
found ourselves up the proverbial creek.

The use of the adjective as a synonym

for `famous' or `notorious' is disliked by some: .
Some people object to the ◆ proverbial
frequent use of the noun to
.
protagonist

denote a supporter, especially a leading the proverbial British weather

or notable supporter, of a cause, movement,
idea, political party, etc.: . The Bush regime
provided or providing The expressions

.
provided (that) and providing (that) mean `on

.
has been the chief protagonist in calls for
the condition (that)': You may have a dog
action against maverick states. I would find
provided/providing that you look after it your-
myself a protagonist of a movement to intro-
self.
duce sanctions on those who do not use these
Some consider ◆ more acceptable
provided (that)
established trade tools (The
than
Bookseller). In
. The inclusion or omission of
providing (that)
such contexts protagonist may be better
is optional in most
that contexts.
replaced by an appropriate synonym, such
The use of or in place of is
wrong: .
provided providing if
as
◆ The traditional meaning of
champion, advocate , or .
is `the
proponent
usually
protagonist
unnecessary and sometimes I'll

leading or principal character in a play, story, etc.': ..

clean the windows this afternoon if/provided/pro-
[not
. Wheeler and Webb then added a third series,
viding it doesn't rain
] .
We'll miss our train if
provided/providing we don't leave soon

provident or providential? These two

starting with `Murder Gone to Earth' (1937), . . . in
which the protagonist was a country doctor Daily (
Telegraph ). In this sense it should not be necessary adjectives, both used in formal contexts,
to qualify the noun with such adjectives as should not be confused.
chief, means
, etc.
Provident
main, leading, principal `showing or exercising foresight' or

protect The verb protect

.
is followed by the
`thrifty'; providential
`relating to divine providence': .
means `fortunate' or
They
preposition from or against: This vaccina-

.
should have been more provident with their
tion will protect you from [or against] a
resources. A providential shower of rain
number of tropical diseases.

proteÂgeÂ
brought the game to an end.
see PRODIGY or PROTEÂGEÂ? providing PROVIDED or PROVIDING?
protein
see

especially the
Note the spelling of this word,
-ein ending. It is an exception
psychedelic The adjective psychedelic, de-

to the `i before e' rule (see SPELLING 5). scribing hallucinogenic drugs or their ef-

pro tem
fects, is sometimes spelt psychodelic. This
The expression pro tem is a shor- spelling is acknowledged by some diction-
tened form of the Latin phrase pro tempore, aries but is unacceptable to many users, on

.
meaning `for the time being' or `tempora- the grounds that the adjective is derived
rily': Mr Jones will take charge of the sales from the word psyche rather than the prefix
department pro tem. psycho-.
◆ The use of the adjective in the sense
proved provenor ? Proved is the past tense
psychedelic
of `vividly coloured or patterned' should be re-
of the verb prove and the usual form of its
. stricted to informal contexts.
psychiatrist psychoanalyst
past participle in British English: They
(have) proved their innocence. , see PSYCHOL-
◆ As a variant form of the past participle, is OGIST, PSYCHIATRIST, PSYCHOANALYST
proven or PSY-
largely restricted to the Scottish legal phrase CHOTHERAPIST? not
psychological moment 250
psychological moment The phrase psy- the use of emphasis and pauses; punctua-
chological moment, of German origin, is tion has to serve the same purpose with
generally used with reference to the most written language. Lack of punctuation or

.
appropriate time to produce the desired incorrect punctuation can lead to misun-
effect: derstanding and ambiguity.
The importance of punctuation in conveying
He waited until she had digested

◆
meaning can be illustrated by the various levels
the news of his promotion and then, at the

ofpunctuationinthefollowingsentences: .
psychological moment, he proposed to her.
◆ This usage derives from a misinterpretation of My son
theGerman original, which would have beenmore . The sense
who is a psychiatrist said Geoff is insane
accurately translated as . here is that one of my sons was commenting on
Geoff'smentalstate. .
psychological momentum
The expression should not be used in place of My son, who is a psychiatrist,
,
turning point nick of time , etc., or in contexts said Geoff is insane. The suggestion here is that I
where the noun would be better qualified have only one son and he was commenting on
Geoff's mental state. .
moment
by a different adjective, such as , ,
:.
crucial critical `My son, who is a psychia-
exact,or precise She lost her concentration at .' Here Geoff is com-
trist,' said Geoff, `is insane
the critical[not ]
psychological moment. menting on his son's mental state.
psychologist psychiatrist psychoana- Punctuation is sometimes a matter of rules and
lyst psychotherapist
, ,
sometimes a matter of style or personal prefer-
or ? These words
ence. A heavily punctuated passage of writing is
are sometimes confused. A psychologist is
unpleasant to read and, in general, it is preferable
a person who studies psychology, the study
to use the minimum amount of punctuation con-
of the human mind and reasons for human
sistent with conveying the meaning clearly.
See also APOSTROPHE; BRACKETS; CAPITAL
behaviour. A psychiatrist is a doctor who is
concerned with psychiatry, the branch of
LETTERS; COLON; COMMA; DASH; ELLIPSIS; EXCLA-
medicine concerned with the treatment of
MATION MARK; FULL STOP; HYPHEN; ITALICS;
mental illness. A psychoanalyst is someone
PARAGRAPHS; QUESTION MARK; QUOTATION
who treats people with mental disorders by
MARKS; SEMICOLONS; SOLIDUS.
pupil student
means of psychoanalysis, i.e., by bringing
patients' mental processes into conscious- or ? In British English the
ness by allowing them to talk freely about noun pupil denotes a child at school or a
themselves, especially their early childhood person receiving instruction from an ex-
experiences. A psychotherapist is someone pert; a student is a person who studies at an

.
who treats people with mental, emotional, institute of further or higher education,

.
or psychosomatic disorders using psycho- such as a college or university: a pupil

.
logical methods. at the local infant school a painting by one of

publicly This word is frequently misspelt;

Michelangelo's
student at Oxford.
pupils while she was a

This word does not conform to the normal rule ◆of Influenced by American usage, the application
there is no before the suffix
-k- . -ly

◆
the noun to schoolchildren, especially
that adjectives ending in have an adverb ending the older pupils at a secondary student

in , as in .
-ic
school, is becoming
-cally tragic±tragically
increasingly frequent in British English.
pudding DESSERT SWEET
see , , PUDDING or
purposely purposefully
AFTERS ?
or ? Purposely

punctilious punctual
means `on purpose; intentionally' and
or ? These two ad- usually refers to the reason for doing some-
jectives should not be confused. Punctilious thing; purposefully means `in a determined
is the more formal of the two and means way; with a definite purpose in mind' and

.
`scrupulously correct' or `attentive to de- usually indicates the manner in which

.
something is done:
.
tail'; punctual means `prompt; exactly on He purposely left his

umbrella behind.
.
time': He is very punctilious about etiquette. She strode purposefully

If you're called for an interview, be punc- into the room. The two adverbs are some-
tual. times confused.

punctuation The primary purpose of pusillanimous . The adjective pusillani-

punctuation is to clarify the writer's mean- mous, used in formal contexts to mean
ing. In speech the meaning is conveyed by `timid' or `cowardly', is sometimes misspelt.
 251 pyjamas
Note the -ll-, the single -n-, and the word's Greek origins, `dwarfish'.
should be written with an initial capital
-ous pygmaios

ending. ◆ Pygmy
putrefy letter when it is used to refer to a member of one
This word, used in formal English
to mean `decompose' or `rot', is sometimes
of the tribes of equatorial Africa.
misspelt. Note the ending -efy (like
in spite of the spelling of the related word
stupefy),
pyjamas pajamas
or ? The spelling pyja-

mas is used in British English and pajamas is

putrid.

pygmy pigmy
the usual form in American English. The
or ? Both of these spellings word comes originally from the Urdu and
are acceptable, although the y spelling is Persian pay (meaning `leg') and jama

preferred by some users as it shows the (meaning `clothing').

 Q
quality The word quality is often used quay This word for `landing place' is

. .
adjectivally as a synonym for `excellent' sometimes misspelt. Although pronounced

.
or `of superior quality': quality goods like key, note its totally different spelling.
quality fiction a quality newspaper.
people object to this usage on the grounds
Some
queer The use of queer as an informal,
often derogatory, synonym for `homosex-
that the noun quality does not always de-
ual', dates back to the early 20th century. In
note excellence: the quality of a product,
recent years it has been replaced by the
service, etc., may be good, mediocre, or
word GAY, which is not derogatory.
bad.
Although the term sounds dated in mod-
quality time
◆ queer
The phrase quality time is a ern usage when used by a heterosexual, it is
vogue expression applied to time spent in increasingly used in a non-derogatory manner
personal relationships, e.g. by working par- by homosexuals amongst themselves.
ents with their children, especially a com-
paratively small amount of time exclusively query The verb query is best avoided

.
where ask or question would be more ap-
.
devoted to the needs and interests of the
children: an hour's quality time with the
propriate: `Where do you live?' she asked

[not queried].
twins before they go to bed. Objections to the
◆ The word has connotations of doubt: a
query
phrase have become more muted as it has
is a question prompted by doubt; to is
to cast doubt on: .
query query
been absorbed into mainstream English.

quantum leap Many people object to the without query ..

They accepted his statement
.
We queried the bill
frequent use of the term quantum leap (or
quest The noun
.
is followed by the
.
quantum jump) to denote a great change or quest

.
advance: The administration must make the preposition for or of: The never-ending

`quantum leap' to negotiations with the new quest for the truth. She travelled the world in

rebel government. quest of her missing brother.

◆ The term is borrowed from the field of physics,

question see BEG THE QUESTION; LEADING
where it refers to a sudden transition that is QUESTION ; QUESTION MARK; QUESTIONS; RHETO-
discernible but far from great. RICAL QUESTION.
quarrelled quarreled
or ? In British Eng-
question mark The primary use of the

.
lish the correct spelling of the word is
question mark is as a substitute for a full
quarrelled: They quarrelled over a woman.

.
stop at the end of a sentence that is a direct

.
In American English, however, the ac-
question: Where are you going?, and at the
cepted spelling is quarreled: We should

.
end of a quoted question, within the quo-
not have quarreled over something so minor.

quasi
tation marks: `Where are you going?' he

.
The Latin word quasi, meaning `as if', asked. It is not used for an indirect question:
may be combined with adjectives, in the He asked me where I was going.
A question mark may appear after a question
thatisnotacompletesentence: .
sense of `virtual', `seemingly', `partly', or `al- ◆

bling', `so-called', or `apparent': .

most', or with nouns, in the sense of `resem- Beer? Wine? Red
It may also appear after a sentence
. .
or white?
which is not actually in question form but where
quasi-
.
◆ The hyphen is sometimes omitted but the words the rising intonation of speech would indicate a
religious quasi-official quasi-republics

are never written as a one-word compound. question: . .

You can't mean that? She's really
may be pronounced [ zõÅ], [ sõÅ] or
A question mark usually follows a request: .
Quasi kway kway going to do it?
[ zi].
kwah
 253 quit
If the request is statement. Usually a positive statement is followed
by a negative tag question, and vice versa: .
Could I possibly have a cup of tea?
more of an instruction, especially if it is lengthy, it
. .
He's
normally ends with a full stop, not a question
mark: . .
tall, isn't he? You work in a bank, don't you?
Would all ladies who wish to travel to She can't swim, can she? The clock hasn't
the gardens by coach kindly remain here for a stopped, has it? Tag questions usually require a
short time . `yes' or `no' answer but they are sometimes rheto-
If a verb of thinking follows a direct question it rical. A positive statement followed by a positive
takes a question mark unless the question is in the tag question may be more of an exclamation than
past, where it has the force of reported speech: . a question: .
.
They want higher wages, do they!
Negative tag questions usually contain the con-
One would not write: .
Where are they now, I wonder? Where were they
traction ; the full form is heard only in very
formal contexts or in dialectal English: .
now, I wondered. Where -n't not
are they now? I wonder , although it is occasionally You left
possible for a question mark to appear in the
middle of a sentence: .
the car unlocked, did you not?

is one that cannot be answered

The question Why me?
. This is disliked by queue see CUE or QUEUE?
some people who insist that, as a question mark
has the force of a full stop, it cannot appear except
quick The use of the word quick as an

at the end of a sentence, or in quotation marks or .

adverb should generally be avoided in for-

parentheses. .
mal contexts: Please reply quickly [not

A question mark can be used to show that a fact

quick] to avoid disappointment.
◆ The comparative and superlative forms
Come quick!

is dubiously true: . .
quicker
Ambrose Bierce (1842±?1914) and are more informal than
It is sometimes also used, humorously or ironically, :.
quickest more quickly
and
to express doubt: . , ..
most quickly Some plants grow more
my devoted (?) little brother
but only in very informal contexts. Similarly,
quickly/quicker than others The German athlete
. may be
doubled question marks and the combination of
ran the quickest/most quickly Quicker
preferred to when the adverb is
question marks and exclamation marks should be preceded by : .
more quickly
?
avoided in formal writing.
any Can you drive any quicker
The use of the adverb in fixed combina-
quick

questionnaire tions, such as quick-drying paint, quick-frozen

misspelt. Note the

This word is sometimes
-nn-, unlike the single food , etc., is acceptable in all contexts.
n
◆
in millionaire.
quid pro quo A
The traditional pronunciation of the first syllable given is something
quid pro quo

was [kest-] but in contemporary usage the first else: . to someone in return for something

syllable is generally pronounced as in question: ..

They felt obliged to write research

[kweschoÆ ]. nair
papers as a kind of quid pro quo for their fees

questions A
to exchange information on a quid pro quo

.
The phrase is Latin in origin,
is a word, phrase, or
question basis
◆ quid pro quo
meaning `something for something'. Its English
sentence that asks for information and
requires an answer (see also RHETORICAL
QUESTION). Questions often begin with plural is . quid pro quos

how,
.
what, when, where, which,
.
who, or
quiet quieten
or ? Both these verbs may be

. .
why: How did you find out? Where is
used to mean `soothe, calm, or allay' or

. .
it? Which one? Why?, or with an
`make or become quiet'; in the second of

. .
inverted verb: Is he old enough? Are
these senses the verb is often followed by
you hungry? Must she? Will the car be
down.
ready tomorrow?

QUESTION MARK. In British English the verb quiet is largely re-

Direct questions are al-
◆
ways followed by a
◆ Indirect questions, which occur in REPORTED
stricted to the first sense and formal usage and
quieten to the second: . We must try to quiet his
SPEECH, do not have a question mark at the ..
end: . She asked me what I was doing . doubts The children quietened down when their
. In American English the verb
Other words, phrases, and sentences may be- is
mother appeared
preferred in both senses.
come questions by the addition of a question mark quiet

in written or printed texts or by INTONATION in quit or quitted? Either word may be used
speech: . .
You've sold it? Coffee? as the past tense and past participle of the
A is an inverted form of the verb verb .
tag question
etc., that is added to a ◆ In British English is preferred by some
quit

be, have, do, can, must, quitted

quite 254
users in formal contexts, but the American variant from the expression used: .
is becoming increasingly frequent, particularly
He said he

in informal contexts: .
quit .
◆ The convention in British English has been for
was in an `ongoing situation'

..
They quitted/quit the build-
ing without delay . punctuation to come inside the quotation marks
He has quit/quitted his job

quite In the sense of `completely', `totally', only ever,

when it is part of the actual quotation. How-
the comma usually also comes within the
or `entirely', the adverb is generally
quite
quotation marks when it is followed by ,
.
he said

.
used with adjectives that cannot be quali-
. ,etc.:
Martha replied `I wish,' she said, `you would

. . not followedIn sentences where the quoted matter is

fied by very : a quite excellent result a quite
go away.'
unnecessary remark It is quite impossible!
by or similar, then the comma
.
he said
The ring is quite worthless . Used with other
takes its logical position: He loves Kipling's `If',

`somewhat', `fairly', or `rather': .

adjectives, quiteusually has the meaning
. In American English
and is constantly quoting it

.
They are
the comma would appear within the quotation
.
◆ In some contexts, however, the adverb may be
quite useful The film is quite frightening .
marks in the last example. Full stops also always
ambiguous: . .. appear within the quotation marks in American
.
The room is quite clean
English: .
The bucket
See Fowler's section on `hackneyed
is quite full
In the sense of `fairly', the adverb usually quoted material whereas in British English when the
phrases.'

precedes the indefinite article: .

quite
is not a complete sentence or
. . The adjectival use of utterance the full stop falls outside the quotation
quite an easy

, meaning`remarkable' or marks: .
question quite a long time
theexpression quite a/an
He said I should work at `improving my

`exceptional', is best restricted to informal con- Either single or double quotation marks can be
image'.

texts: . She has quite a collection .. used but when there is a quotation within a
That was quite
a meal . quotation, double marks must be used inside
quitted see QUIT or QUITTED? single ones, or vice versa: . She commented, `I

quiz Some people dislike the use of. the Quotation marks are used instead of italics for
wish he wouldn't call me ``sweetie''.'

various short literary and musical works (see TI-

verb quiz in the sense of `interrogate': The

TLES). They are also sometimes used by writers to

police quizzed him about his involvement in

indicate slang or as an apology for using a parti-

the affair . This usage is widely regarded as
JOURNALESE.
◆ A further objection to the verb is raised by those cular word or expression: . I gather my writing is

who feel that the lighthearted connotations of the . They are also used in
thought to lack `pizzazz'

noun (in the sense of `general knowledge various specialized writings to indicate meanings
game or competition') are inappropriate to the or interpretations: . The word means `from
quiz
hence

seriousness of a police interrogation. this time'.

quotation marks Quotation marks are quote The noun quote (short for quotation)

. .
used at the beginning and end of direct and the plural form quotes (short for quota-

. .
quotations: He said, `I'm going out now.' tion marks) are best restricted to informal
`All right,' she replied, `but don't be late.' Only contexts: It's a quote from Shakespeare.

.
the words actually spoken are placed with- We'd better get a quote for having the fence

. .
in the quotation marks; they are not used in repaired. Should the last sentence be in

reported speech: `I am tired,' she said.

◆ The word is also used in speech to
She quotes?

introduce a direct quotation: .

said that she was tired. However, in reported quote
speech, one might use quotation marks in The chairman said,
order to draw attention to the fact that the quote, there will be no further redundancies this
speaker has used certain words, particu- year, unquote . (The addition of at the end
unquote
larly if one wished to dissociate oneself is optional.)
 R
race The term race, denoting a particular falling from clouds or similar downpours: .
people or racial group, is avoided by many The rain eased at noon. Reign refers to the
users because of its controversial associa- rule of a monarch or other leader, while

.
tions. Preferred terms include ethnic group. rein describes one of the leather straps used

racism racialism
or ? Both these nouns are
.
to control a horse: the reign of the present

The noun
is also used in such expressions as
queen pull on the reins.
used in the sense of `racial prejudice or
◆ rein
discrimination',
in modern usage: .
racism being more fre-
`allow freedom to' and
give free rein to keep a
quent than racialism
`control strictly'. The verb means
`exercise royal authority': .
tight rein on reign
The company was accused of racism in its
King Henry VIII reigned
.
recruitment policy
. is alsoused to describe a
rack or wrack? These two words are powerful prevalent power or influence:..
from 1509 to 1547 Reign
the reign
sometimes confused. is used for a of terror in Uganda under Idi Amin Peace has
.
Rack

. .
framework for storing or displaying things: reigned in Europe since 1945
a luggage rack

used for the torturing frame: .

a shoe rack. Rack is also
on the rack.
rainbow coalition The phrase rainbow
coalition is a vogue expression of American
.
As a verb rack means `cause to suffer pain':
racked with uncertainty; one also racks
origin, denoting a political alliance of min-

one's brains. The expression rack and ruin,

ority groups (such as ethnic minorities,

.
`a state of collapse', may also be spelt wrack
pressure groups, or minor political parties):
a rainbow coalition of New Agers, peace
and ruin; nerve-racking, `causing great anx-
campaigners, and animal rights activists.
iety and tension', has the variant spelling
nerve-wracking. Wrack is seaweed.
raise raze
or ? The verb
.
means `move
racket racquet
raise

.
or ? Either spelling is ac- to a higher position': He raised the trophy

high; raze means `destroy completely':

.
ceptable for describing the implement used The
ground. The two
.
in sport for striking the ball: tennis racket/ city was razed to the

the game of rackets/racquets. spellings should not be confused.

The spelling has the additional noun ◆ The verb has the variant spelling .
racquet
raze rase Raze
senses `loud noise': . is more frequent than in modern usage.
◆ racket

, and `illegal business': .

That music is a terrible rase
racket
racket. raise or rise? Both these verbs mean `move
involved in a drugs

rage
to a higher or upright position' or `in-

. .
The word rage has been used to form crease'. Raise is transitive, rise is intransitive:

. .
a variety of compounds in recent years She raised her arm. They may raise the
denoting outbursts of anger at some incon- price. I watched the smoke rise. The
venience of modern life or the inconside- temperature was rising.

◆ The verb is also used in the sense of `bring

. . . up',`rear',or`breed': . ..
rate behaviour of others in a particular raise
situation: road rage air rage web rage. He was raised in Cornwall
As vogue terms, these phrases are best We raise Highland cattle . (Some people regard this
usage as an Americanism.) , an irregular verb,
has a number of specialized uses: .
restricted to informal contexts. Rise

rail The verb rail

.
is followed by the pre-
.. .
She rose at

The noun means `increase': . .

dawn The dough has risen
position at or against: Protesters railed at [or
rise a pay rise a
against] the reform of the abortion law.
. In American English is
rain, reign, rein
rise in unemployment raise
used in place of to denote an increase in salary,
wages, etc.: .
or ? These spellings are rise
sometimes confused. Rain refers to water ; this usage is
He asked for a raise
raison d'eÃtre 256
sometimes found in British English, but is disliked others, such as . (for a small child),
by many.
rug rat

are grudgingly affectionate.

See also ARISE or RISE?; RAISE or RAZE? rateable ratable
raison d'eÃtre
or ? Both spellings of this
The phrase à tre, of
.
raison d'e word are acceptable, but rateable is pre-
French origin, is used in English to denote ferred by some users: rateable value. See
a reason or justification for existence; it is SPELLING 3.
. rather
best avoided where reason, explanation, etc.,
would be adequate or more appropriate: The adverb rather may be used with

.
would or had, but would is more frequent in
.
Helping the bereaved is the organization's
à tre.
raison d'e The Prime Minister explained
modern usage, had being rather formal:

.
They would/had rather watch television than
the reason [not à tre] for the govern-
raison d'e
listen to the radio. She would/had rather you
ment's change of policy.

◆ Note the spelling of the phrase, particularly the stayed at home.

The contraction ' , which may represent either
circumflex accent on the first . The anglicized
e
or , is often used in informal contexts: .
◆ d

pronunciation is [ zon treÆ].

ray de
would had
.
rang see RINGED, RANG or RUNG? I'd rather write than telephone
See also SHOULD or WOULD?

rapt or wrapped? These spellings are comparative The substitution of for after a
.
rather than than
is wrong: He is more interested in

means `engrossed or absorbed': .

sometimes confused. The adjective rapt
the customs and traditions of Elizabethan times
. [not
rapt with
than ] rather than in the political events of the
wonder They listened with rapt attention .
. period

meaning `enfold': .
Wrapped is the past tense of the verb ,
Some people object to the use of before
wrap
rather a
or
She wrapped the shawl
when the following noun is qualified by an
an

can also be used figuratively: adjective, preferring to

.
◆ Note that
round the baby
it's a rather expensive car
.
wrapped
. . If the noun is not
it's rather an expensive car
He is completely wrapped up in his work
qualified by an adjective, must precede
rara avis The phrase , denoting a
rara avis the indefinite article: . .
rather
He's rather a coward
rare or unusual person or thing, is often
better replaced by the noun rarity: . The ravage ravishor ? These two verbs should
dedicated employee who is prepared to work not be confused. Ravage means `cause great

.
long hours without reward is a rara avis. damage to' and `devastate'; ravish means
◆ Of Latin origin, the phrase literally means `rare `delight or enrapture':
.
The country was

bird'. ravaged by war. They were ravished by the

The usual pronunciation of is [ aÆ beauty of the sunset.

has the additional meaning of `rape' or

rara avis rair
vis] or [ aÆ vis].
by force': .
◆ Ravish
`carry off
ay rar ay

rarefy This word, meaning `make rare or . captors

She was ravished by her

less dense', is sometimes misspelt. Note the Both verbs are largely restricted to formal con-
-efy ending, unlike purify, , etc.
intensify
texts. The word is also used as a noun, in
ravage
The variant spelling is acknowl-
rarify
such phrases as , and the word
:.
the ravages of time
edged by some dictionaries but is best in the adjectival
ravish form ravishing You look
avoided.
◆ The past participle , used as an adjective .
ravishing in that dress

meaning `exalted', `exclusive', or `thin', is the most raze see RAISE or RAZE?
rarefied

frequent form: . rarefied atmosphere. re The use of the preposition , meaning

rat
re

The word rat has been in common use `with reference to' or `in the matter of',

.
for many years as an insult for someone should be restricted to the heading or

.
who has behaved despicably or deceitfully, opening of a business letter: Re: Interest

but in recent times it has enjoyed renewed rates for personal loans. Re your advertise-

.
currency in a number of combined forms. Country Life.
In other contexts can usually be replaced by
ment in

. , etc.: .
Some, such as (for a person who ◆ re
,
mall rat
spends many hours shopping) or about concerning I am producing a doc-
[not ]
love rat

..
(for a man who cheats on his partner), are umentary about re the problems faced by
broadly contemptuous in tone, while single parents We have received many com-
 257 reason
plaints concerning [not ] real Many people object to the frequent use
re the proposed route for
.
, etc., or simply for emphasis: .
the new bypass of the adjective in place of ,
is usually pronounced to rhyme with . The
real important

. . .
Re bee
pronunciation [ray] is also heard from time to time,
serious a real

but is incorrect.
achievement a real problem the real facts
.
◆ The adverbialuse of in the sense of `really'or
in real life

See also COMMERCIALESE.

usage: .
real

re- The prefix , meaning `again', should `very' is an American or dialectal He's real
re-
. clever

real reel .
be followed by a hyphen in compounds that
might be confused with existing or more or ? Real means `existent', `actual',

.
familiar words. Such verbs as re-sound, re- or `verifiable': The country in which the
lease, and re-sign (meaning `sound again', story is set is not real. The real reason for her

`lease again', and `sign again'), for example, resignation came out later. It should not be
are thus distinguished from the verbs re- confused with reel, which describes a re-

.
sound, release, and resign. volving device of some kind or, as a verb,
REBOUND or RE-BOUND?; RECOUNT
.
See also means `stagger' or `whirl': A fisherman's

or RE-COUNT?; RECOVER or RE-COVER?; RECREA- reel. He reeled with shock.

TION or RE-CREATION?; REFORM or RE-FORM?; realism reality

RELAY or RE-LAY?; REPRESENT or RE-PRESENT?; or ? Reality is the state of

RESORT or RE-SORT? .
being real, or the state of things as they

.
really are: Daydreams are an escape from
The use of a hyphen in the words re-
reality. We must face reality. Realism is the
educate, re-election, re-entry, re-erect, re-ex-
amine, etc., is optional (see also HYPHEN 1). acceptance of reality, a practical rather than
idealistic attitude of mind: . Problems like
Some people prefer to retain the hyphen in
this must be approached with realism and
such words as re-invent, re-arrest, etc., to
common sense.
◆ In art, literature, etc., the term denotes a
avoid confusion with rein, rear, etc.
realism
Careful users avoid the tautological ad-
style in which things are depicted as they really are,
dition of the adverbs
verbs that begin with the prefix
back and again
: .
to
as opposed to abstract art, romantic literature, etc.
realistic
re-

.
She returned [not returned back] to England The frequent use of the adjective

.
in 1945. I refer you to the opening paragraph realistic as a synonym for `sensible', `prac-

.
[not I refer you back].

. .
We are redecorating tical', `reasonable', etc., is disliked by many
[not redecorating again].

.
the lounge He users: a realistic proposal a realistic
made me rewrite the article [not rewrite alternative a realistic offer.
again]. The use of again in the last example
reality REALISM
see or REALITY?
.
would imply that the article had been
written more than twice:
satisfied with my second draft and made me
He was not
reality TV The phrase reality TV refers to
those television programmes that make
rewrite the article again.
entertainment out of situations which imi-

reaction The noun reaction, which denotes tate the challenges of real life as closely as
possible, the camera appearing to eaves-
a spontaneous or automatic response, is best
drop upon its subjects. A relatively recent
.
avoided where reply, response, answer, opi-

nion, etc., would be more appropriate: On

development in popular television, reality
TV remains a somewhat jargonistic term.
.
. really
hearing the alarm his reaction was one of

panic. We had hoped for a more favourable The excessive use of the adverb
response [not reaction] from the committee. really is best avoided, even in informal
Please study these proposals and give me your contexts. Really can often be replaced by
[not reaction].

A can only occur in response to some-

opinion a different intensifier, such as very, extre-
◆ reaction
thing else; the word should not be used in place of .
mely, thoroughly, truly, etc., or omitted

, , etc.: . [not .
altogether: It was really late when they

, but: .
effect influence What was the effect
] .
arrived and we were really worried. Wait
reaction of the news on her family? What
.
until the paint is really dry. I really enjoyed
was the reaction of her family to the news? that holiday. She really hates her job.

readable see LEGIBLE or READABLE? reason Careful users regard the tautologi-
rebound 258
cal construction the reason is/was because as the first syllable, is becoming increasingly

. reciprocal
wrong, preferring the reason is/was that or a frequent.
simpler paraphrase using because alone:
see MUTUAL, COMMON or RECIPRO-
. CAL?
The reason for the delay is that [not because]
there are road works in the town centre.

reckon
The

.
reason I opened the window was that [not The use of the verb reckon in place
because] there was a wasp in the room.

.
I of think, expressing a personal opinion, is
opened the window because there was a wasp best restricted to informal contexts: He
in the room.
◆ Similar objections are raised to the use of such
reckons the other team will win.
◆ In the sense of `consider' or `regard', however,
constructions as is acceptable in all contexts: .
the reason is due to, the reason
, etc.
reckon She is
was on account of
The phrase is acceptable to
reckoned to be one of the most talented musicians
.
some users but disliked by others: .
the reason why of her generation

. In such contexts may be recoil The verb

the reason

.
why he resigned why is followed by the recoil

replaced by or omitted altogether; if a noun

that preposition or : from at She recoiled from

can be substituted for the verb, the phrase [or ] .

may be used instead: .
the at the prospect of meeting him again

reason for
he resigned . . recommend This word, meaning `praise
the reason (that)
the reason for his resignation
or suggest as suitable', is often misspelt.
rebound re-bound or ? These two spel- Note the single c and -mm-.

lings are sometimes confused. The verb

rebound means `spring back': . The ball
reconnaissance This word, meaning `ex-
ploration or survey of an area for military
rebounded. Re-bound, spelt with a hyphen,
intelligence purposes', is often misspelt.
is the past tense and past participle of the
Note the -nn- and -ss-.
◆ Note also the spelling of the verb
.
verb re-bind (or rebind), meaning `bind
reconnoitre
again': The book has been re-bound.
meaning `make a reconnaissance'.
rebound or redound
.
? Rebound means
. recount re-count or ? These two spellings
`spring back': The ball rebounded.

.
are sometimes confused. The verb recount
The success of the project threatens to rebound
means `narrate': He recounted his experi-
upon the government. In the figurative sense ences during the war. The verb re-count,
redound is sometimes used in place of re-
with a hyphen, means `count again', and
bound. However, most careful users prefer the noun re-count, which is used more

.
to restrict redound to the sense `contribute
.
frequently than the verb, means `second
or lead to': Your skilful performance re-
count': to demand a re-count of the votes.
dounds to your benefit.
Only is used as a noun: . recourse resort resource
, or ? Similarities
..
◆ rebound The rebound
bounced off Smith's arm marry someone on the in the sense, usage, form, and pronuncia-
rebound . tion of these words may lead to confusion.

receipt This word, meaning `written con- expedient: .

All three can refer to a source of help or an
Violence was our only recourse/
firmation that something has been paid or resort/resource.
received', is sometimes misspelt. Note the ◆ In the expressions and
have recourse/resort to
-ei- spelling, and the silent p. without recourse/resort to, recourse and are resort
See also SPELLING 5. virtually interchangeable but cannot be replaced
receive by is the more frequent noun in
resource. Recourse
This word is often misspelt. Note
such contexts, being used as a verb in similar
constructions: .
resort
the -ei- spelling, which conforms to the rule

..
I hope he will not have recourse to
`i before
See also
e except after
SPELLING 5.
c'.
violence .± I hope he will not resort to violence

recess
They settled the dispute without recourse to vio-
The noun may be pronounced lence .± They settled the dispute without resorting
.
recess
[rises] or [reeses]. The first pronunciation, to violence
with the stress on the second syllable, is In the expression the
as a last resort/resource
preferred by some users of British English, nouns and resort are interchangeable but
resource
but the second pronunciation, stressed on cannot be replaced by . is generally
recourse Resort
 259 reform
considered to be the more idiomatic choice in such reel see REAL or REEL?
contexts: . . refer The verb
She turned to violence as a last resort

recover re-cover
refer is stressed on the
or ? These two spellings second syllable; the final r is doubled before

.
are sometimes confused. Recover means -ed, -ing, and -er. In the noun reference the
`regain': She recovered her health. Re-cover, stress shifts to the first syllable, and the

.
with a hyphen, means `give a new cover to': second r is not doubled.
The upholsterer re-covered the chair. See also SPELLING 1.
recreation re-creationor ? The spellings
For the use of the adverb
verb refer see RE-.
back with the

referee umpire
of these words are sometimes confused.

.
Recreation means `relaxation; leisure (pur- or ? Both nouns denote a
suit)': a recreation ground. Re-creation, person who ensures that a game is played

.
with a hyphen, is less frequently used according to the rules and settles any dis-
and means `a new creation': the re-crea- putes that arise during the course of the
tion of the Wild West for the film set. game. A referee supervises such sports as

recuperate The verb recuperate, meaning

football, boxing, etc.; an
such sports as tennis,
umpire

cricket,
supervises
baseball,
`recover', is sometimes misspelt, a common
hockey, etc.
◆ A is also a person who supplies a
error being the substitution of -coup- for
referee

◆ Note that the verb is always used intransitively: .

-cup-, as in the verb recoup.
professional or character reference for a job ap-
plicant, prospective tenant, etc. The noun umpire
It will take him weeks to recuperate.
is not used in this sense.
recur The word recur, meaning `happen
. referendum The noun referendum has two
again', should never be followed by again:
plural forms, referendums and referenda.
Make sure this situation does not recur.

Red Indian NATIVE AMERICAN .

Referendums is the more frequent in gen-
see . eral usage: Their proposed referendums on

redouble reduplicate or ? The verb

.
re-
nuclear disarmament and the return of capital

punishment will be welcomed by many.

reflective reflexive
double means `increase' or `intensify': We
redoubled our efforts. The rarer and more or ? These two ad-
formal verb reduplicate means `repeat' or jectives should not be confused. Reflective
`double'; it also has the specialized sense of is used in the literal sense of `reflecting

.
`repeat (a syllable)', as in the words bye-bye, light' or the figurative sense of `thought-

.
papa, etc. ful; contemplative':
Note that in general usage does not
a reflective stripe

◆ redouble
refer to the act of doubling something.
across the back of the jacket in a reflective

REFLEXIVE): . .
mood. Reflexive is a grammatical term (see

redound see REBOUND or REDOUND? reflexive verb reflexive pro-

redundant
noun.

Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the adjective redundant in
reflexive A reflexive verb is a transitive

. .
verb in which the subject and object are

.
place of unnecessary, superfluous, irrelevant,

. .
the same: I washed myself. She hid herself
unimportant, etc.: Our second car will
behind a tree. He perjured himself. The

.
become redundant when my husband starts
directors awarded themselves large pay in-
commuting by train. The cancellation of the
creases. The pronouns myself, yourself, him-
dinner dance made the baby-sitting problem
self, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves,
redundant.

reduplicate REDOUBLE
yourselves, and themselves are called reflexive
see or REDUPLICATE? pronouns.

reek wreak . See also SELF; VERBS.

. reform re-form
or ? Reek means `stink' or
`smell strongly': The flat reeked. The or ? These spellings are

.
affair reeked of state interference. It should sometimes confused. The verb reform

.
not be confused with wreak, which means means `change by improvement': plans

.
`cause havoc' or `inflict violence': The to reform the tax system. Re-form, with a
storm wreaked havoc in the harbour. hyphen, means `form again': After a lapse
See also WROUGHT. of ten years, the club decided to re-form.
refrigerator 260
refrigerator , not , may be used to
mean `it is regrettable that': .
Note the spelling of this ◆ Regrettably regretfully
word, particularly the -er- in the middle ,Regrettably the
and the -or at the end. There is no in house does not have a garage . The increasing use
of in place of in this sense
d

refrigerator, unlike the informal short form regretfully regrettably

fridge. may be due to confusion with HOPEFULLY, THANK-
refute deny FULLY, etc.
reign, rein
or ? The verb refute means
RAIN, REIGN or REIN?
.
`prove to be false'; deny means `declare to see
be false':
producing a receipt for the camera. .
He refuted their accusations by
He denied
reiterate The verb reiterate means `repeat'

RE-): .
or `say or do repeatedly'; it should not be
their accusations but was unable to prove his
used with the adverb again (see also
innocence. The use of refute in place of deny
The Prime Minister was simply reiterating the
is avoided by many careful users but never-
promises made in the party manifesto.
theless occurs with some frequency.

regard In the sense of `consider' the verb

relation or relationship ? Both these
nouns may be used in the sense of `con-
. .
regard should be used with the preposition

.
nection' but they are not interchangeable in
as: She regards her mother as her friend.

.
all contexts: Is there any relation/relation-
This novel is regarded as the author's master-

piece. Compare CONSIDER. ship between unemployment and crime?

◆ The verb has a number of other senses

regard
.
This evidence bears no relation [not relation-

and is also used in the prepositional phrase as

ship] to the case. What is his relationship [not

, meaning `with respect to', `about', or relation] to the deceased?

◆ The noun is preferred for human
`concerning': .
regards
relationship
As regards your suggestion, the
. connections, for more abstract connec-
relation
committee will discuss it at tomorrow's meeting
should not be confused with the tions.
As regards
phrases and the less frequent A similar distinction may be applied to the use of
with regard to
, used in similar contexts, in which the
in
and the plural noun in the
sense of `mutual feelings or dealings': .
relationship relations
regard to
word is a noun and does not end in . In
regard s
. .
business

mid-sentence these compound prepositions are relations an intimate relationship

.
the govern-

often better replaced by , or

about, concerning
ment's relations with the unions
.
his relationship

regarding . with his wife

RELATION or RELATIVE?
The noun is used in a variety of other
regard
See also

expressions.
sideration for': .
means `show con-
Have regard for
They have no regard for her
relation relative
or ? Either noun may be

. The plural noun , meaning `greet- .

used to denote a person connected to an-
safety regards
ings', occurs in such expressions as
other by blood, marriage, or adoption:
with kind
(used to close a letter) and .
Most of her relations/relatives are going to the

:.
regards give one's wedding. I have a distant relation/relative in
regards to Please give my regards to your
.
Canada.
daughter when you next see her See alsoRELATION or RELATIONSHIP?
regardless IRRESPECTIVE
see . relative clause see CLAUSE; COMMA; THAT or
registry office register office WHICH?
relatively
or ? Both
these terms are used to denote the place The adverb relatively implies
where civil marriages are conducted and comparison; many people object to its
where births, marriages, and deaths are use as a synonym for `fairly', `somewhat',
recorded. is the more fre-
.
Registry office `rather', etc., where there is no comparison:
quent term in general usage,
.
register office After the heat of the kitchen the lounge felt
being largely restricted to formal contexts. relatively cool. Our records are fairly [not

regrettably regretfully relatively] up to date.

relay re-lay
or ? These two
adverbs are sometimes confused. Regretta- or ? These two spellings are

.
bly relates to something that causes regret; sometimes confused. The verb relay means

. .
regretfully relates to somebody who feels `pass on': to relay a message. The verb re-

.
regret: This year's profits are regrettably lay, spelt with a hyphen, means `lay again':
low. She regretfully turned down their offer. to re-lay a carpet.
 261 repairable
◆ The past tense and past participle of is reminiscent This word is sometimes mis-
relay
relayed ; the past tense and past participle of spelt. Note particularly the - -, as in
re-lay .
is .
sc scent

The word is also used as a noun: .

re-laid
remission or remittance? Both these
..
relay The
nouns are derived from the verb . remit
switch is operated by a relay They worked in
relays. In this usage, and in such phrases as contexts, in the sense of `payment': .
is largely restricted to official
Remittance

, is stressed on the first syllable.

relay race relay
Please

The verbs and relay may be stressed on

re-lay
.
enclose this counterfoil with your remittance

either syllable; is sometimes stressed on meanings, has

re-lay
a wider range of uses and
Remission

both. such as `reduction in the length

relevant
of a prison sentence', `abatement of the
This word is sometimes misspelt.
.
symptoms of a disease', `discharge; release':
Note particularly the second e. the remission of sins.

reliable reliant Careful users maintain the distinction between

◆
means `dependable' or `able to be trusted': .
or
the two words.
? The adjective reliable

a reliable car . Some of the author's sources are remit The noun remit is best avoided
reliable. The adjective reliant,

.
not very where task, responsibility, brief, etc., would

.
meaning `dependent', is chiefly used in be adequate or more appropriate: The
the phrase be reliant on: We were reliant quality control function will also be part of
on their assistance. (Executive Post).

As a synonym for the wordy expression

your remit

relocate The verb relocate, frequently used ◆

reference , however, denoting the scope of an
terms of

in business and industrial contexts, is

investigation, is welcomed by many users:
.
remit
.
widely regarded as a pretentious synonym
Financial matters are not part of the inquiry's
for `move':
.
the latest major firm to relocate
remit.
to Basingstoke Unemployment in the North
The verb is pronounced [ri ]. The noun
remit mit
is forcing many families to relocate.
may also be stressed on the second syllable, but its
remedial remediable
or ? Remedial means usual pronunciation is [ mit].
ree
STRESS.
. .
`intended as a remedy'; remediable means See also
`able to be remedied':
a remediable problem.
remedial treatment

The two adjectives remittance see REMISSION or REMITTANCE?

should not be confused.
renege The traditional pronunciation of
is specifically applied to theteachingof this
slow learners: . .
◆ Remedial
word, which means `not keep (a pro-
remedial education a remedial
course . mise, agreement, etc.)' is [ri ], but [ri- neeg

is less frequent than its antonym acceptable.

] is also frequently used and is
nayg

:.
Remediable
irremediable .
The damage is irremediable
Both adjectives are stressed on the second syl- theNote the spelling of , particularly renege

lable, unlike the word from which they are less frequent variant.
remedy
- ending. The spelling ege is a renegue

derived. Remedialis pronounced [ri diaÆl], mee re-

mediable is pronounced [ri diaÆbl]. mee
The verb
position : .
is followed by the pre-
.
renege

remembrance
on They reneged on the deal

The noun remembrance,

rent HIRE RENT
see or ?

repair FIX REPAIR

meaning `the act of remembering', `mem-
ory', or `memento', is often misspelt, the see or ?
most frequent error being the substitution
of -ber- for -br-, as in the verb remember.
repairable reparable
or ? Both these ad-
jectives mean `able to be repaired'; careful
Note also the -ance ending.

remind .
users apply repairable to material objects

.
The verb remind is followed by the and reparable to abstract nouns: The car is

.
preposition of in the sense `cause to think badly damaged but repairable. His loss is

of': scarcely reparable.

◆ The two adjectives relate to different senses of
The smell of pine forests reminds me of

my childhood in Scotland. It is followed by

the verb : `mend' or `restore' ( ) and
.
or in the sense `cause to remember': repair repairable
`remedy' or `make good' ( ).
about of

[or of] the promise I reparable

, which is stressed on the first syllable
She reminded me about
had made. Reparable
repel 262
[ aÆraÆbl], is less frequent than its opposite repetitious or repetitive? The adjective
:.
rep irre-
parable These allegations have done irreparable means `characterized by repeti-
.
repetitive

is stressed on the second syllable unnecessary or tedious repetition': .

harm to his political career tion'; means `characterized by
repetitious

:. .
Repairable
[ri aÆbl]; its opposite is
a re-
pair unrepairable These .
. , the more frequent of the two ad-
petitive rhythm repetitious arguments

shoes are unrepairable ◆ Repetitive

repel see REPELLENT or REPULSIVE? jectives, is also sometimes used in the derogatory
sense of , but careful users avoid this
usage: .
repetitious
repellent or repulsive? andRepellent re-
.
[not
description of the ceremony
]
a lengthy repetitious repetitive

Note the spellings of , and

pulsive mean `causing disgust or aversion'.
repetitious, repetitive
the related noun , particularly the second
Repulsive is the stronger of the two adjec-
repetition
- - which is sometimes wrongly replaced by - -.
tives, both of which are ultimately derived
e i
.
from the Latin verb , meaning
repellere
`repel':
.
His deformed body was a repellent
replace substitute or ? The verb replace

.
sight. The partially decomposed corpse was a

.
means `take the place of'; the verb substitute
repulsive sight. The principles of Commun-

.
means `put in the place of': I substituted his
ism are repellent to some; the doctrines of

.
painting for her photograph. Her photograph
Nazism were repulsive to many.

The adjective is also used in combina- was replaced with his painting.
.
His painting

tion to mean `driving away' or `resistant': .

◆ repellent
was substituted for her photograph. His

.
insect-
repellent cream .
water-repellent fabric Repellant
painting replaced her photograph.

is always used with the preposition

is a less frequent spelling of the noun and adjective ◆ Substitute
; may be used with the preposition
repellent . or (especially in passive sentences): .
for replace with

The verb is a weaker synonym of

repel . repulse
by
.
Her

The use of the verb in the sense of `disgust'

repulse
photograph was replaced by his painting
All the examples above refer to the act of
or `cause aversion' is disliked by some users, who removing and putting
restrict it to the sense of `drive back' or `rebuff': . her photograph
in its place. The two verbs are often confused in
his painting

The inhabitants repulsed the invading army .. He

such contexts, being used instead of
. may be used
repulsed her offer of friendship Repel
substitute
, but careful users maintain the distinction
in any of these senses. replace
between them.
repent The verb
.
repent may be followed by
replica Some people object to the frequent
the preposition of: He repented (of) his

.
use of replica in place of copy, duplicate,
dissolute youth.

repercussions .
reproduction, model, etc.: He bought a

.
The word repercussions is plastic replica of the Eiffel Tower. This

best avoided where result, consequence, ef- article is a replica of yesterday's editorial.

.
etc., would be adequate or more ap-
The noun principally denotes an exact
fect, legislation to ban replica guns.

propriate: ◆ replica
copy of a work of art, especially one made by the
the repercussions of a ban on
smoking in restaurants.

◆ The noun literally means `rever- original artist. The phrase is therefore exact replica
beration' or `rebound'; in figurative contexts it tautologous.
repercussion

should be restricted to indirect or far-reaching reported speech Reported speech, also

effects: . the repercussions of a serious accident
.
at one of Britain's nuclear power stations
called indirect speech, differs from direct

repertoire repertory
speech in a number of ways. In direct
or ? The noun reper- speech the actual words of the speaker
QUOTATION MARKS in
.
toire principally denotes the musical or are given, enclosed in
dramatic works, poems, jokes, etc., that a written or printed texts: Mary said, `I've

. .
person or group is able or prepared to lost my ring.' In reported speech quotation
perform: That song is not in her repertoire. marks are not used for this purpose:
The word is also used in this sense but
Mary

◆ repertory .
is more frequently applied to a company of actors ◆ Note the differences between the two examples
said that she had lost her ring

that presents a of plays at the same above. The subject pronoun usually changes to
theatre: . .
repertoire I he
or in reported speech; often changes to
.
a repertory company a repertory she we
theatre .
to act/be performed in repertory . The subject pronoun may change to in
they you I
 263 restive
reported speech if it refers to the person who is .
reporting the speech: .
The verb resort means `turn to': I hope he

. .
Peter said, `You need a will not resort to violence. The verb re-sort,
new battery.' Peter said that I needed a new with a hyphen, means `sort again';
.
re-sort

battery all the index cards.

The use of the word to introduce reported
that ◆ , both as a noun and as a verb, is pro-
Resort
speech is optional.In formal contexts is usually that nounced with a [ri ]; is pronounced
z zort re-sort
included. with an [ree ]. s sort
Note also the change of TENSE in reported resort resource RECOURSE RESORT
speech: becomes
I've lost ;she had lost you need
RESOURCE
, see , or

becomes . Thus the present tense usually ?

respectable respectful respective

I needed
changes to the simple past; and change
to ; changesto : .
has have , or ?

.
had will would He said, `Anne will These three adjectives should not be con-
be late.' ; and
He said that Anne would be late am fused. means `worthy of re-
change to ; changes to , etc.
Respectable
is was are were spect'; respectful means `showing respect';

represent re-present RE-

.
respective means `separate; several' (see
or ? These spellings
SPECTIVE or RESPECTIVELY?): In those days

.
are sometimes confused.
`act in place of':
Represent
The team will represent the
means
. .
acting was not considered a respectable profes-
sion. a respectful silence Jane and Michael

.
whole school. Re-present, with a hyphen,
collected their respective children and went
means `present again': He re-presented
home.

respective respectively
the series of lectures the following autumn.

repress see OPPRESS, REPRESS or SUPPRESS? respective

and
and respectively
The words
should be used
reproach The verb reproach
.
is followed by only where there would be a risk of ambi-
guity or confusion in their absence: . The
the preposition with or for: She reproached

.
workers explained their respective problems to
me with [or for] my carelessness.

repulse repulsive
, see REPELLENT or REPUL-
the shop steward. Toys and furniture are sold
on the second and third floors respectively.
SIVE ? Without respective, the first example could

reputable The adjective reputable should

imply that all the workers had the same
problems; without respectively, the second
Æ bl].
be stressed on the first syllable, [repyuuta
example might suggest that toys and fur-
The pronunciation [ripewta Æ bl], with the
niture are sold on both floors.
stress on the second syllable, is incorrect.
In other contexts the words are often unneces-
requisite sary or inappropriate: .
◆
PREREQUISITE or REQUISITE?
..
see Paul and Sarah got into

research The word research is traditionally

their (respective) cars and drove away
..
must be returned to its (respective) shelf
Each book
She
pronounced with the stress on the second
.
worked (respectively) in Paris, Vienna, and Rome

respite
syllable [riserch]. In recent years, however,

.
many people have taken to placing the This word, meaning `relief, delay':
stress on the first syllable [reeserch] and no respite from the toil, is often mispro-
this is now widely considered a valid alter- nounced. The stress falls on the first sylla-
native for the noun, though rarely for the ble, unlike despite, which has the stress on
verb. the second syllable.

resin rosin ◆ The second syllable may be pronounced [ pit] res

or ? Resin is a natural substance
or [ põÅt] although some users prefer the former
res
exuded by plants, insects, etc., or a synthetic
pronunciation.
restaurateur
substance that resembles natural resin. Ro-
sin is a type of natural resin used on the Note the spelling of this
bow of a stringed instrument to increase formal word for a person who runs a
friction, on the hands of a gymnast to restaurant. There is no as in restaurant.

is pronounced [restaÆraÆ ].
n
increase grip, etc. ◆ Restaurateur ter
◆ Resin is pronounced [ in]; rez rosin is pronounced restive or restless? The adjective
[ in].
roz
restive

resort re-sort .
means `resisting control'; restless means

. .
or ? The noun resort means `fidgety' or `agitated': The teacher tried
`place of rest or recreation': seaside resorts. to discipline his restive pupils. Some of the
restrain 264
congregation became restless during the long return see RE-.
sermon. The use of
is disliked by careful users.
restive in place of restless
returner A returner is a person who returns

◆ The two adjectives are etymologically unrelated: to work after an extended period of ab-

restive, which originally meant `refusing to move', sence from paid employment, such as a

is derived from the same Latin source as the noun woman who resumes her career after

rest (meaning `remainder'); , the opposite

restless
.
spending a number of years bringing up

of , is derived from the noun (meaning

restful rest
her children: Few employers are actually

`repose'), which is of Germanic origin. offering women returners a new deal . . . but

restrain CONSTRAIN .
a wealth of information on the subject is
see or RESTRAIN? available (The Guardian). Current trends

restrictive clause A restrictive clause limits

.
are centring on more widely appealing `re-
turner schemes' which offer career breaks of
the meaning of another part of a sentence:
between two and five years (The Guardian).

reveille
The pistols which are on the wall were carried

by my great-grandfather at Waterloo. Here This word may be pronounced

the restrictive clause which are on the wall [rivali] or [riveli], the former being the
makes it clear which particular pistols are more frequent pronunciation.
being referred to, and also implies that there ◆ Note also the spelling; the word is derived from
are some other pistols elsewhere in the the French `awaken'.
reÂveiller
room. Note the contrast with
which are on the wall, were carried by my
The pistols,
revenge avenge
or ? Both these verbs refer
to the act of repaying a wrong. The person
great-grandfather at Waterloo, in which the
who revenges is usually the offended or
non-restrictive clause which are on the wall,

.
injured party; a person who avenges is usual-
preceded and followed by commas, implies
ly a third party acting on behalf of another:
that these are the only pistols under con-

.
I will revenge myself on those who cruelly
sideration and conveys the incidental infor-
humiliated me. He planned to avenge his
mation that they are on the wall.
See also COMMA 3; THAT or WHICH? .
brother's death by drowning the murderer's

resuscitate .
daughter. He avenged his murdered brother.
This word, meaning `revive': ◆ This distinction is not observed by all users in all
contexts, however, and is often inter-
revenge
changeable with .
All attempts to resuscitate him with the kiss of
life failed, is often misspelt. Note particu- avenge
larly the -sc- in the middle of the word. See also REVENGE or VENGEANGE?
retch wretch
.
or ? Retch means `heave prior revenge vengeance
or ? Both these nouns

.
to vomiting': The gore made him retch. It may be used in the sense of `retaliation' or

.
should not be confused with wretch, which `retribution': The destruction of her parents'

denotes a pitiable or wretched person: home was an act of revenge/vengeance.

◆ Some users associate with the subjec-
The
revenge
tive or personal act of revenging and
wretch had no shoes and rags for clothes.

retread The noun retread denotes an old

with the objective or impersonal act of avenging
vengeance

tyre with a new outer surface; it is synon-

(see REVENGE or AVENGE?): .
..
They humiliated me,
ymous with remould. Many people object to
but I will take my revenge He sought vengeance
the metaphorical application of the word
for the murder of his brother.
reverend reverent
retread to people, such as politicians return-

.
ing to parliament after a spell out of office or ? Reverend is a title

.
or retired people returning to paid employ- used by members of the clergy: Reverend

ment: There will be a number of retreads in Jones took the service. It is abbreviated to

.
the new government. Rev. It should not be confused with rever-

retro The prefix retro-, meaning `back-

ent, an adjective meaning `respectful':
handled the relic with reverent awe.
He

reversal reversion
wards', is increasingly used as an adjective
in its own right, describing fashions, styles, or ? Reversal is the act

. . . .
ideas, etc., that have been revived from the of reversing; reversion is the act of reverting:

.
past: the retro look/sound His latest film is the reversal of this trend reversion to his

unashamedly retro. Retro British nursery former way of life. The two nouns should
food is just so now (The Guardian). not be confused.
 265 ring
reverse CONVERSE INVERSE OBVERSE
see , , or sent and past participles: ricocheting [ri-
REVERSE ? koÆ shaying] or ricochetting [riko
Æ sheting]

reversion REVERSAL REVERSION

see or ?
and ricocheted
Æ shetid].
[riko
Æ shayd] or
[riko ricochetted

review revue
or ? These two spellings are right rightly
or ? Both these adverbs may be

.
sometimes confused. Review, as a noun, is a used in the sense of `correctly' or `properly'.

.
`critical appraisal': a review of her latest

.
Right is generally placed after the verb,
novel or a `reassessment': The minister

.
rightly before the verb: Have I spelt your
ordered an urgent review of prison security. A
. .
name right? He rightly stopped at the zebra

.
revue is a light theatrical show consisting of crossing. You're not holding your fork right.
sketches, songs, etc.: the annual Christmas
She rightly held her fork in her left hand.
revue.
◆ The phrase is a
◆ Revue may also be spelt , but this is best notable
review
exception to this rule.
if I remember right/rightly

avoided in order to maintain the distinction be- has a number of other adverbial uses: .
tween the two words. Right
..
.
Turn right at the next junction They went right

rhetorical question A . .
also means `justly' or `suitably': .
is
rhetorical question
home We live right at the top of the hill Rightly

..
She was rightly

no answer is expected: .
one which is asked for effect, and to which
annoyed by their behaviour Am I rightly dressed
.
What is the world
The two adverbs are not interchange-
for the trip?
coming to? How can people behave like
able in any of these senses.
that? The question is sometimes asked so
In informal contexts is sometimes used to
to mean `with certainty': .
right

speaker: .
that it can be answered immediately by the
mean `very' and
..
Why are we on strike? I will tell
rightly
We're right pleased to see you He doesn't rightly

◆ A rhetorical question is sometimes just a re-

you why . . .
. know

phrased statement, put in question form for great- right or write?

er emphasis: .
variously means Right
Was there ever a more unfortunate
.
`correct', `good', or `of or relating to the
person?
. .
side opposite left': Everything is now right

rheumatism This word for an illness that

and proper. He was in the right. The car

turned to the right.
causes pain in the muscles or joints is
with the verb write:
sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the
.
It should not be confused
She writes a thousand

The word generally appears combined

words a day.
first syllable rheum-.

rhinoceros
◆ wright
with other words to describe someone who pur-
suesaparticulartrade: . .
The name of this animal is

. .
often misspelt. Note particularly the rh-, wheelwright shipwright
and the c in the middle of the word. millwright playwright.

rhododendron See also DRAMATIST or PLAYWRIGHT?.

rigor RIGOUR
This word is sometimes
misspelt. Note particularly the rh- at the see or RIGOR?

comes originally from rigorous

beginning and the in the middle.
The word
-do-
This word is sometimes misspelt.
◆ rhododendron
the Greek (meaning `rose') and
rhodon dendron
The u of rigour is dropped in front of the

(meaning `tree'). suffix -ous.

rhythm This word is frequently misspelt.

rigour rigor .
or ? Rigour, meaning `harsh
conditions; severity': the rigours of winter,
Note particularly the first h and the y.

ribald . .
should not be confused in British English
This adjective, meaning `coarse or with the medical rigor: rigor mortis.
crude': ribald language,
is often mispro- ◆ Note, however, that in American English rigour
Æ ld].
nounced. The pronunciation is [riba is spelt . rigor
◆ The alternative [ bawld] is regarded as unac- ring or wring? These two verbs are some-
rõÅ
ceptable by careful users.
ricochet
times confused, being identical in pronun-
This word, used to describe bul- ciation. Ring means `make a resonant

.
lets, etc., that rebound, is usually pro- sound' or `surround or mark with a ring';
Æ shay] although [riko
Æ shet] is
. .
nounced [riko wring means `twist' or `squeeze': to ring a
also acceptable. There are alternative pre- bell I asked her to ring any errors in red ink.
ringed 266
to wring one's hands . Shall I wring out the rob The verb rob, meaning `steal money or
property from' or `take away an important
The past tense and past participle of is
wet clothes?

.
◆ wring quality from' is followed by the preposition
, which should not be confused with
.
wrung rung of:
(see RINGED, RANG or RUNG?)
He robbed his employers of thousands of
pounds. The incident robbed him of his

ringed rang rung

, or ? Ringed is the past
dignity.

See also BURGLE, ROB or STEAL?

role
tense and past participle of the verb ring in

.
the sense of `surround or mark with a ring': Some people object to the frequent use

. of the noun
.
as a synonym for `place',
He ringed all the words that had been role
misspelt.
.
The birds have been ringed for `function', `position', `part', etc.: the role of
identification. Rang is the past tense and
.
religion in modern society a proven track

.
rung the past participle of the verb ring in record in a technical sales role A new

.
the sense of `sound (a bell)': She rang the manager is now sought to play a key role
bell. The telephone has not rung. in determining the company's future strategy.
◆ The substitution of for is now re-
rung rang The noun is principally used to denote
stricted to dialectal usage; it is considered incorrect
role

the part played by an actor. In psychology

in formal British English.
.
and sociology it refers to the part played by

rip-off Derived from the slang verb rip off,

.
an individual in a social situation:
role-playing.
role

The word is sometimes spelt with a circumflex

reversal
meaning `steal' or `cheat', the noun rip-off is
◆
. accent over the , as in the French word from
principally applied to overpriced goods or

whichitisderived: . .Itshouldnotbeconfused
o
the practice of charging exorbitant prices:
roÃle

.
This handbag is an absolute rip-off ± it's not
with the English noun , to which it is etymolo-
roll
even made of real leather. I had to pay £10 to
gically related.
◆ Extending this sense of `exploitation', is Roma
get in ± it's a rip-off!
rip-off
also used to denote an inferior film, book, etc., placement for the former term , which
is the approved modern re-Roma

that seeks to exploit the success of another by is felt by many people to have acquired
gipsy

imitation.
The noun should not be used in formal Note that
negative connotations over the centuries.
rip-off
contexts.
is used in both singular Roma
and plural contexts, though the correct

rise ARISE
see or RISE?; RAISE or RISE? singular form is Rom.

road street
or ? Generally the noun road is roofs rooves
or ? The plural of the word
used to denote a thoroughfare between roof, `covering of a building', is usually
roofs, pronounced [roofs] or [roovz].
The spelling of the plural is less frequent.
towns or cities or in the suburbs of a town
◆ rooves
. .
or city; a street is a thoroughfare in the town

.
or city centre: a country road
.
a one-way
root ROUT see or ROUTE?
. . rosin RESIN
street the road to Brighton the streets of

London a new housing estate on Park Road see or ROSIN?

their Oxford Street store. There are, however,
numerous exceptions to this rule, especially
roughage This word, meaning `coarse
food; dietary fibre', is sometimes misspelt.
in the naming of roads and streets.
Through its association with inner-city areas the Note the in the middle of the word. -gh-

has acquired certain negative conno- round see AROUND or ROUND?

◆
word street
tations, and it is rarely used in the names of rouse see AROUSE or ROUSE?
thoroughfares on new estates. It is used in a
number of words and expressions related to pros- rout or route? The noun
titution: . .
means rout

on the streets ,andalsoin `overwhelming defeat' or `disorderly re-

streetwalker
neutral idioms such as , meaning treat'; the noun
`much better': . `course': . . .
streets ahead means `road' or route

She's streets ahead of her sister They put the enemy to rout

, and , meaning
`suited to one's interests or experience': .
at maths (right) up one's street The procession took a different route this

. This
◆ The risk of confusion is greater when the words
summer

.
are used as verbs, especially in the past tense: .
project is right up my street
See also STREET-.
 267 Russian
They routed the enemy .. run-up Some people dislike the frequent
The procession was
routed along a different road . The of e is use of the noun
route , adopted from the
sometimes retained in the spelling of the present field of athletics, to denote the period pre-
run-up

participle. ceding an important event: .

The phrasal verb , meaning `find by .
the last few
rout out
searching' or `force out', is a variant of the verb
days in the run-up to the general election

, meaning `rummage', and is etymologically

The run-up to the anniversary of soldiers

root
unrelated to the verb discussed above.
being deployed on the streets of Northern
rout (BBC TV).
is pronounced [rowt], rhyming with , in rural or rustic? Both these adjectives relate
Ireland

Rout out
all its senses and uses. The pronunciation of route
is identical with that of in British English; in topeople,
root
the countryside, country life, country

American English may be pronounced [root] neutral farming,

route
etc. is used as a Rural

or [rowt]. opposite of ; has the urban rustic

rowlock .
connotations of simplicity, crudeness,

. . .
This word, for the device in a quaintness, or lack of sophistication: rural

. .
boat that holds an oar in place, is usually schools a rural setting rural areas rustic
pronounced [roloÆ k]. manners.

In nontechnical contexts, is sometimes

food a rustic cottage rustic

◆ rowlock Careful users maintain the distinction be-

pronounced [roÅlok]. tween the two words.

RSI The abbreviation RSI is short for Russian or Soviet ? The word Russian

repetitive strain injury; injury to muscles relates to the country of Russia, which

. .
or tendons caused by repetitive action, such formed the major part of the Soviet Union

.
as using a computer keyboard: Repetitive from 1922 to 1991, and its people: the
Strain Injury (RSI) is an umbrella term for a Russian composer Rimsky-Korsakov a Rus-

series of musculo-skeletal complaints now sian manufacturing company. The word

affecting the newspaper industry ± among Soviet is used with reference to people

.
others (The Guardian). and events of the years when the Soviet

rubbish The use of the word rubbish as a

.
Union was in existence:
a Soviet politician.
Soviet space

The noun and adjective , formerly

missions
verb, meaning `criticize severely' or `con-
◆ Russian
demn as worthless', is disliked by many
loosely applied to all the constituent republics
.
users and should be avoided in formal
of the Soviet Union and their people, should
contexts: The report rubbishes the new
not be used with reference to (the people of)
GCSE examinations.
Ukraine, Lithuania, etc., since their independence
rung see RINGED, RANG or RUNG? in 1991.
 S
's or s' ? Possessive nouns are usually `showing disrespect towards something
formed by adding 's to singular nouns, holy', sometimes causes problems with
an apostrophe to plural nouns that end spelling. Note the position of the first i

. .
in s, and 's to irregular plural nouns that and e, which are in the opposite order in

. .
do not end in s: Jane's pen the boy's father the word religious.

◆
women's clothes.
In the possessive form of a name or singular
the directors' cars
sail sale
or ? Sail means `expanse of canvas

noun that ends in , , or , the apostrophe may or

s x z
.
or cloth used to propel a vessel using wind-

may not be followed by . The final is most s s

power': The crew lowered the sail as the gale

frequently omitted in names, especially names of gathered strength. It should not be confused

three or more syllables that end in the sound [z]: . with sale,
.
which denotes the selling of

. . For words of something: a house sale.

one syllable is generally used: . sake

Euripides' tragedies Berlioz' operas

. . . .
's St James's The noun sake is usually preceded by

. . .
Palace the fox's tail Liz's house the boss's a possessive adjective or noun:
. The presence or absence of the final in
for their
secretary s
other possessives of this group depends on usage,
sake for Edward's sake for pity's sake for

convention, pronunciation, etc.: .

old times' sake.
◆ If the preceding noun ends in the sound [s] the
. . .
the princess's
possessive form is not used, although an apos-
trophe may be added: . .
tiara Jesus' apostles the rhinoceros'(s) horn
Nostradamus'(s) prophecies . for goodness sake for
See also APOSTROPHE; CONTRACTIONS; -ING . conscience' sake
FORMS; POSSESSIVES; SAKE. Such expressions as and for all our sakes for
, using the plural form of
sac or sack? These two spellings are some- disliked by some users but acceptable to most.
both their sakes, are sake

times confused. The noun is largely

They may be replaced by
sac
, for the sake of us all for
restricted to scientific contexts, where it
, etc.
the sake of both of them

. salable SALEABLE
denotes a baglike part of an animal or
plant: a fluid-filled sac. A sack is a large see or SALABLE?
In informal contexts is also a noun or verb salary wage
bag used to hold coal, potatoes, etc.
or ? Both these nouns denote

referringtodismissalfromemployment: .
◆ sack
the money paid to employees at regular

..
They got
the sack .
We sacked them
intervals in return for their services. A

The word , of French origin, occurs in the

sac
salary is usually paid monthly to profes-

compound , meaning `dead end'.

cul-de-sac
sional people or nonmanual workers; a

saccharin saccharine .
wage is usually paid weekly to manual
or ? The sweet pow- workers or servants: My salary barely

.
der that is used as a sugar substitute is spelt covers our mortgage repayments and living

.
saccharin, without a final -e; saccharine is an expenses. the minimum wage for factory

.
adjective meaning `excessively sweet': workers.
The noun is often used in the plural form
The

:. .
drink is sweetened with saccharin. a sac- ◆ wage
charine smile. wages a bricklayer's wage(s) He seems to
◆ The use of in place of
saccharine is saccharin .
spend most of his wages on cigarettes and alcohol
acknowledged by some dictionaries but is widely The noun is not used with a singular verb,
wages
regarded as incorrect. Note also the - - and - - of except in the well-known biblical quotation
cc ar the
both words. (Romans 6:23).
wages of sin is death

sack SAC see or SACK? sale SAIL SALE

see or ?

sacrilegious This word, which means saleable salable or ? Both spellings of this
 269 sate
word are acceptable, but saleable is the same by registered post. This usage is widely
more frequent in British English. See SPEL- regarded as COMMERCIALESE. Another pro-
LING 3.
.
noun, such as it or them, can usually be

salesman saleswomanor ? see NON-SEXIST substituted for same: He found an old

TERMS .
blanket and used it [not same] to line the dog's

salivary
basket.

Nouns qualified by the adjective are

usually followed by : .
This word has two possible pro- ◆ same

..
nunciations. The more traditional pronun- as He works for the same
ciation has the stress on the first syllable company as his brother-in-law She sent me the
Æ ri]. The pronunciation [sa
[saliva Æ lõÅva
Æ ri], with same book as you gave her last Christmas . In the
second example and similar sentences is often
omittedorreplacedby : .
the stress on the second syllable, is perfectly as
acceptable and is more frequently used. that the same suit that he

salmonella wore for his wedding. This usage is disliked and

This word is sometimes mis-
avoided by a few users.
sanatorium
pronounced. The correct pronunciation is
Æ nela
[salmo Æ ]. A is a medical
Unlike the in , the first in
sanatorium
◆ -l- salmon -l- salmonella establishment for the treatment and care
is clearly sounded. The word has in fact
salmonella of people, especially those suffering from
nothing to do with ; it is named after the
salmon long-term illnesses. Note the spelling of
American veterinary surgeon Daniel Elmer Salmon this word in British English, particularly
(1850±1914), who first identified this genus of the second and the o. The spelling
bacteria.
a sani-

is an American English variant.

The plural forms of both spellings may end in
tarium

salon saloon or ? Saloon is the anglicized

◆
-riums or . -ria

sanction
form of the French word salon. Both words
entered the English language in the 18th The noun sanction has two senses
century and have developed a number of that appear to contradict each other. It may

.
individual meanings. Salon is most fre- mean `official authorization or permission':

.
quently found in the names of certain The project has been given the sanction of

.
places of business, such as: beauty salon the board of directors. This use is largely

.
hairdressing salon. A saloon is a large room restricted to formal contexts, and the noun
in a public house or on a ship: We went is perhaps more frequently found in the

.
into the saloon (bar); it also denotes a type of plural form sanctions, referring to coercive

A is also a room for receiving visitors in a tion: . .

car: the most popular saloon (car). measures taken against a state or institu-
◆ salon
large house or an assembly of important political
economic sanctions against Iraq to

or artistic guests: .
.
◆ The verb means `permit' or `authorize':
impose political sanctions

.
the literary salons of 17th- sanction
century Paris . The law does not sanction the use of violence in

salubrious or salutary? . It should not be used in the sense of

such cases
means
`impose
Salubrious
sanctions'.
sank sunk sunken
`wholesome' or `conducive to health'; salu-

. .
tary means `beneficial', `causing improve- , or ? The past tense of

.
ment', or `remedial': a salubrious climate the verb sink is sank or sunk, sank being the

.
a salutary warning We decided to look for a more frequent. The usual form of its past

.
more salubrious hotel. Spending a few days participle is sunk, sunken being largely re-

.
in prison can be a salutary experience for stricted to adjectival use: The dog sank its

. .
young offenders. teeth into the man's leg.

◆ The adjective was formerly synonymous

One of the boats has

salutary We are diving for sunken treasure.

with but is rarely used in this sense sarcasm, sarcastic see IRONY.
sunk
salubrious
today. Both adjectives are ultimately derived from
the Latin word , meaning `health'.
salus sat see SITTING or SAT?
Note the spelling of , which ends in , sate, satiate or satisfy? The verb
salutary -ary
not . -ory
means `supply' or `fulfil': .
satisfy

same .
Her needs had

.
The use of same as a pronoun is best been satisfied. This should satisfy their

restricted to business or official contexts: I demands. The verbs sate and satiate may
enclose my passport, as requested; please return mean `satisfy fully', but are more frequently
satire 270
.
. .
used in the sense of `supply or fulfil to used for cutting wood etc.: The saw bit

.
excess': to satiate a person's appetite into the bark of the tree. Soar means `fly' or

.
Television viewers are sated with imported `rise rapidly': The bird soared on the breeze.

. .
comedy shows. A person who is satisfied has Inflation is soaring. Sore means `painful' or
had enough; a person who is sated or `hurting': The child has a sore elbow. My

satiated has usually had too much. Sate heart is sore.

and satiate are used in formal contexts

and are largely synonymous, but sate is
says This word is sometimes mispro-
nounced. The form of the verb say used
very rarely used as an active verb.
◆ The nouns and
satiety are derived from pronounced [sez].
satiation
in the present tense with
, he, she, or it is says

. means `the act of satiating' or

is used only in scallop The standard pronunciation of this
satiate Satiation
`the state of being satiated'; satiety
the second of these senses. Both nouns are used word, which means `a shellfish with two
only in formal contexts. flat fan-shaped shells', is [ Æ p]. An alter-
o
Note the change in pronunciation of the first native which rhymes with
skol

-t- is often
in [ shiayt] and [saÆ eÆti].
gallop
satiate say satiety heard, but avoided by careful users.
t õÅ

satire satyr
or ? Satire is the use of irony or scam The noun scam, originally a vogue

.
parody to mock folly and evil in human word of American origin, means `swindle',
behaviour, politics, religion, etc.; a satyr is a `trick', `racket', or `hoax': This [the En-
mythological creature in the form of a terprise Allowance Scheme] was a govern-

goatlike man, associated with lechery. ment scam to get the unemployed off the

The two nouns should not be confused register and pretend they were all setting up

in usage or pronunciation: satyr rhymes small businesses in the thriving enterprise

with matter, whereas the second syllable culture instead (The Guardian).

of satire rhymes with fire.

scant or scanty ? Both these adjectives
satisfy see SATE, SATIATE or SATISFY? mean `limited', `barely enough', or `mea-

saturate The verb

.
is followed by
gre'. Scant is more formal and less frequent

.
saturate than scanty, being chiefly used in front of
the preposition or in:

.
with The rug was certain abstract nouns: He paid scant
saturated with [or in] dirty water. attention to my words. She has scant regard

satyr see SATIRE or SATYR? for the law. Scanty

.
is used before or after a

savage . .
wider range of nouns: Their knowledge is
The use of the word savage to rather scanty. a scanty bikini a scanty
describe a person from a technologically collection of books.
is also used with units of measurement to
. mean `barely' or `slightly less than': .
undeveloped culture is no longer consid- ◆ Scant
ered acceptable and should be avoided: a scant two
The sailors found themselves surrounded by ounces .
Note that for similar reasons the term
savages brandishing spears.
scarcely see HARDLY.
scared
◆ primitive
may also cause offence.
.
As an adjective scared is followed by

savoir faire The French expression savoir

the preposition
As a past participle
of: He's scared of spiders.
is followed by the
preposition : .
◆ scared
faire is used in formal contexts to refer to an
by We were scared by their threats .
scarfs scarves
ability to act appropriately in different

.
situations, especially to behave with self- or ? Either scarfs or scarves is
confidence in social situations: to display/ acceptable as the plural of the noun scarf,
lack savoir faire. denoting a piece of cloth worn around the
◆ The phrase is sometimes hyphenated in English neck or on the head.
and is pronounced [savwah ]. Its literal French scarify The verb
fair
meaning is `knowing how to do'. should not be used scarify

saw, soar, sore

in place of , to which it is unrelated in scare
or ? The spellings of these meaning and origin. Scarify tends to be

. .
three words are sometimes confused. Saw is used in formal contexts and means `scratch

.
the past tense of the verb see: I saw her or break up the surface of': to scarify the
yesterday and also denotes a serrated blade skin before administering a vaccine to scarify
 271 sculptor
the topsoil of a field. In figurative contexts it which is characterized by hallucinations,

. .
is used in the sense of `wound with harsh delusions, social withdrawal, emotional in-
criticism': a scarifying review. stability, loss of contact with reality, etc.:
◆ The traditional pronunciation of is [ r-
scarify ska
rifõÅ], the pronunciation [ ifõÅ] being an accepted
Another sufferer believes during a schizophre-
skair
and frequent variant.
nic attack that he is in command of a spaceship,

(Reader's Digest).

The use of the adjective in the

2,000 years in the future

scarves see SCARFS or SCARVES? ◆ schizophrenic

extended sense of `inconsistent', `contradictory',
scenario The noun scenario is frequently `unpredictable', `capricious', etc., is disliked and
avoided by most users.
Note the spelling of and
used to denote a projected or imagined
schizophrenic schizo-
. and the difference in pronunciation be-
future state of affairs or sequence of events:
phrenia
tween the two words: is
a scenario in which the superpowers would
schizophrenic
pronounced [skitsoÆ ik], with a short ;
have recourse to nuclear weapons. Many
fren e schizo-
[skitsoÆ iaÆ] has a long .
people object to the frequency of this usage,
especially in contexts where plan, pro- phrenia freen e
gramme, scene, situation, etc., would be

adequate or more appropriate. The clicheÂs

scone The pronunciation of this word is a
favourite topic for debate; both [skon] and
nightmare scenario and worst-case scenario, Å n] are equally acceptable.
[sko
both of which mean `the worst thing that ◆ The parish of in East Scotland, the original
Scone
could happen', are also best avoided wher- site of the stone on which Scottish kings were
ever possible.
◆ The principal meaning of is `outline or crowned, is pronounced [skoon].
synopsis of a play, film, opera, etc.'. The word is Scotch, Scots or Scottish? All these ad-
scenario

usually pronounced [si ioÅ]; the variant pronun- jectives mean `of Scotland', but there are
nar
ciation [si ioÅ] is disliked by some users.
nair differences of usage and application be-

sceptic or septic? The pronunciation of tween them.

, the most frequent, is used in a wide
range of contexts: . .
◆ Scottish
these two words is sometimes confused. A
. . .
Scottish history a Scottish
(American English, ) is a per-
.
sceptic skeptic town Scottish Gaelic a Scottish name Scottish
son who has doubts about accepted beliefs dancing .a Scottish poet
or principles, and is pronounced [ tik]. The adjective was formerly used for such
is an adjective meaning `infected with purposes but is now restricted to a number of fixed
skep Scotch

harmful bacteria': .
◆ Septic
, and is pro- phrases, in the sense of `produced in Scotland' or
a septic wound
nounced [ tik].
sep `associated with Scotland': . .
.
Scotch whisky

sceptical The adjective .

is usually applied to people: .
Scotch broth Scotch mist

: .
is followed
sceptical

. .
Scots the Scots
by the preposition or
about of I remain
Guards a Scotsman .Thelasttwo
a Scotswoman
sceptical about [or ] of

See also CYNICAL or SCEPTICAL?

.
her motives
examples may be replaced by the noun , Scot
which means `a native or inhabitant of Scotland':
schedule This . . The collective name for the
timetable': .
word, meaning `plan or She married a Scot
The train was behind schedule people of Scotland is or . The
the Scots the Scottish
again , is usually pronounced [ yool] in
shed noun also denotes a variety of English spo-
Scots
British English. The word may also be ken in Scotland.
In some contexts two of the adjectives are
interchangeable: . .
pronounced [ yool], particularly in
sked

.
American English. a Scots/Scotch pine a Scot-
◆ The verb , `to plan', should not be
schedule tish/Scotch terrier .
a Scottish/Scots accent
overused. sculpt or sculpture? The verbs and
schism
sculpt

.
The traditional pronunciation of sculpture are synonymous and virtually in-
this word, meaning `separation into op- terchangeable in all contexts: He sculpted/

.
posed groups', is [sizm], with a silent ch. sculptured a copy of the Venus de Milo in
The alternative pronunciation [skizm] is marble. She paints and sculpts/sculptures in
perfectly acceptable. her attic studio.

schizophrenic The adjective schizophrenic sculptor or sculptress ? see NON-SEXIST

relates to the mental disorder schizophrenia, TERMS.
sea 272
sea seeor ? Sea
.
means `ocean' or `wide more correct form of the conjunction: . We

.
expanse of something': They set sail upon should go at once, seeing that it is already late.
the sea. A sea of eager faces. It should not be
seem When the verb seem is used in the

.
confused with the verb see, meaning `catch
negative, the word not (or other negative
sight of': Did you see that? See is also

. .
element) may be placed before or after the

.
occasionally used as a noun to refer to the

.
verb: She didn't seem to understand. She
office or jurisdiction of a bishop: the see of

.
seemed not to understand. The weather
Rome.

seamless
doesn't seem likely to improve. The weather

This word, meaning `having no seems unlikely to improve. The use of didn't

seam' or `uninterrupted', is sometimes mis- seem, doesn't seem, etc., is best avoided in
formal contexts.
. .
spelt. Note particularly the in the
Similarly, the phrases
-ea-

middle of the word: ◆ cannot seem, can't seem,

, etc., should be restricted to infor-
a seamless blouse

is an archaic word meaning mal speech: . ..

couldn't seem
◆ The word
a seamless transition from one story to another.
He couldn't seem to hear us I
. In formal writing such
seemless
`unseemly; shameful; unfitting' ( cannot seem to find the key
phrases may be replaced by or simply
Oxford English
).
:. ..
Dictionary seem unable

seasonal or seasonable? means .

Seasonal
cannot
find the key
He seemed unable to hear us I cannot

`of or occurring in a particular season';

seemless see SEAMLESS.
. .
seasonable means `suitable for the season'
or `opportune':
sonal work .
seasonal vegetables
seasonable weather .
sea-
seasonable
seize . This word, meaning `take eagerly or
by force': He seized the money and ran, is
advice. The two adjectives should not be sometimes misspelt. Note the order of the
confused. vowels -ei- which does not correspond to
secateurs This word, meaning `pruning the usual `i before
See also SPELLING 5.
e' rule.
shears', is sometimes misspelt. Note the
single -c- and the -eurs ending. self The use of the word self as a pronoun is

second secondlyor ? see FIRST or FIRSTLY? disliked and avoided by many users, even
.
second-guess
in informal contexts: tickets for husband
The verb second-guess, of and self.
◆ The noun and its plural form are
. acceptable to all users: . .
American origin, means `predict', `antici- self selves
pate', or `evaluate with hindsight': On a his usual self their
scale of difficulty of one to 10, second-guessing true selves .
the travel market this year is 12 (The Guar- The suffixes and -self are used to form
-selves
the reflexive pronouns
, etc.: .
dian). myself, yourself, ourselves,
◆ Some people object to the use of this American- themselves She killed herself while under
ism in British English. . Some people object to the
use of these pronouns for emphasis: .
the influence of drugs

secretary The word secretary is sometimes

itself will be demolished next week ..
The house
He has not
misspelt. Note the -ary ending, which is
driven the car himself .
See also MYSELF.
attached to the letters of the word secret.
◆ The of is rarely sounded in the British
a secretary
English pronunciation [ reÆtri]. Careful users al- The prefix is always attached with a hy-
phen: . . .
self-
sek
ways sound the first , however, and object to the
r
.
self-catering
.
self-confident self-pro-

pronunciation [ eÆtri]. The usual American Eng-

sek
pelled self-sufficient
See also HYPHEN 1.
lish pronunciation is [ reÆterri]. sek
Some people object to the increasing use of the
see SEA SEE prefix to coin new verbs: .
.
see or ? self- self-pick straw-

seed CEDE SEED

see or ?
berries We teach them to be aware, to self-

seeing as seeing that ). .

market, to look at the future, perhaps in a slightly
or ? The construc- (
different way The Guardian Farmers may one
tion seeing as, meaning `since', is disliked by day be able to graze `self-dipping' sheep which do

.
some people and should be used only in
very informal contexts:
out seeing as you helped us. Seeing that
not need to be dunked in chemicals to deter
We will help you ( ).
attacks by pests and parasites Daily Telegraph
is the Such verbs can often be replaced by a more
 273 sensual
acceptable phrase using a reflexive pronoun, such contain commas, the semicolon is often used to
as market oneselfin place of .
self-market separate the clauses: . , Eliot though born in

self-starter The frequent use of the noun , ; , ,

America was a British subject he lived worked
. The semicolon
and died in England can also be
, especially in job advertisements,
self-starter
used in order to establish subsets in a long list or
to denote a person with initiative who can
series separated by commas: . Applicants must

many users: .
work without supervision, is disliked by
,
have a good honours degree preferably in English;
We need an ambitious self-
,
a lively writing style a knowledge of magazine
starter with experience in production control
, publishing and proven editorial experience; an
and man-management .
,
ability to work under pressure to cooperate with
sell-by date This phrase literally means , .
colleagues and to work flexible hours
`the date by which perishable goods should
semiotics semiology
, SEMANTICS see ,
be sold', but it is increasingly used in
SEMIOTICS SEMIOLOGY
or ?

. senior citizen old age pensioner

figurative contexts, meaning `no longer

.
useful or effective; out-of-date': The gov- or ?
ernment is past its sell-by date. ideas that Both these expressions are used with re-
have passed their sell-by date. The phrase ference to people who are over the age of

.
should not be overused in this sense. retirement. The expression is
Other phrases adopted from commercial usage
senior citizen

:.
◆ considered a euphemism by most:
include and
There

. .
best-before date shelf-life the best- are courses for senior citizens at the university.

before date for new entrants to the profession Senior citizens are entitled to reduced bus
She was forced to admit that she was approaching and train fares. The term old age pensioner

the end of her shelf-life as a marriage prospect. specifically denotes a person who receives a

semantics semiotics
, or semiology ?
state retirement pension.
◆ Old age pensioner , oftenshortened to pensioner
Semiotics (or semiology) is the study of the
or abbreviated to , may have connotations of
dependence: .
OAP
properties of sign systems, especially as
.
helping old age pensioners in the
used in human communication. Semantics,
community pensioners who are unable to pay
one part of semiotics, is the study of the
.
their fuel bills

sensible sensitive
meaning of linguistic signs. For example,
discussion of the meaning of the words or ? The most frequent

.
book, the moon, or yellow belongs to seman- meaning of sensible is `having or showing

. .
tics, whereas the wider cultural aspects of common sense; not foolish; practical': a

.
raising one's eyebrows when people greet sensible child sensible advice the sensible thing
each other at a distance belongs to semio- to do sensible shoes. Sensitive means `easily

.
tics. hurt or irritated', `having awareness', `deli-

semi- DEMI-
see , HEMI- or SEMI-? .
cate', or `reacting to very small differences':

semicolons . .
sensitive skin He's very sensitive about his large

.
Unlike many of the other nose. We are sensitive to your problems. a

a sensitive instrument.

Note that, by extension, denotes a

punctuation marks, there is no occasion sensitive issue

◆ sensibility
person's emotional or aesthetic awareness, while
when the semicolon cannot be replaced

refers more generally to a person's emo-

by another form of punctuation or sentence

tional or physical responses: .

construction and its use appears to be sensitivity
gradually declining. It is mainly used be- Her association with

.
tween clauses that are linked by sense but famous painters of the day is a testament to her
artistic sensibility. The school must show sensi-
.
are not joined by a conjunction, and that
tivity to the parents' wishes.
.
could each stand as a separate sentence: I
am very tired; I am also hungry.

was dark; the rain fell in torrents.

The night
sensitive The adjective sensitive is followed

It is frequently used before such phrases as by': . by the preposition to in the sense `affected

:.
◆
,
however none the less , and nevertheless
in the sense `self-conscious': .
This
, and by
He is too sensitive to criticism

precaution is recommended ; , however it is not

about She is

. .
very sensitive about her large nose

The semicolon can sometimes be replaced by a sensual or sensuous? Both these adjec-
compulsory

comma, but in sentences where clauses already tives relate to the gratification of the senses.
sentence adverb 274
Something that is sensual appeals to the anti-communist sentiment. . These are my

body, arousing or satisfying physical appe- sentiments on the matter. Sentimentality is the
tites or sexual desire; something that is state of being sentimental, with particular

.
sensuous appeals to the senses, sometimes reference to excessive indulgence of the

. .
especially the mind, being aesthetically emotions: the sentimentality of the film

pleasing or spiritually uplifting: to indulge She kept his handkerchief under her pillow

.
for reasons of sentimentality.
may also refer to indulgence of the
in the sensual pleasures of eating and drinking

. .
◆ Sentiment
emotions, but it is more neutral than
the sensual movements of the striptease artist

:.
sentimental-
.
the sensuous movements of the ballerina to
appreciate the sensuous music of Elgar's cello ity He seems to be totally lacking in sentiment

sometimes separate
concerto.
◆ The use of the adjective sensual
This word is often misspelt. Note

implies disapproval, whereas is generally replace the first with . It may help to
sensuous
the vowels; the most frequent error is to

used in a favourable manner. -a- -e-

Sensuous was coined originally by the English associate the central syllable with the -par-

poet John Milton in the mid-17th century. central letters of the word
◆ The verb
.
is followed by the preposition
apart

sentence adverb A sentence adverb is .a :.

separate
from Keep raw meat separate from cooked
word that qualifies an entire sentence: . meat
Militarily the campaign was a great success.
should be noted that sentence adverbs that
It
septic SCEPTIC SEPTIC
see or ?

relate more to the speaker's attitude than to sequence of tenses When you change a

. .
the content of the sentence itself may incur verb from the present tense to the past

.
criticism: Personally I think it's a mistake. tense, other verbs in the sentence may

.
Thankfully no one was hurt. Hopefully change too, according to a fixed pattern.
everything will go well. This is known as the sequence of tenses: He

sentences A sentence can be defined as `a

said, `I

knew
know
it was
it is
too late. .
too late.' ± He said that he

She said, `I am glad I

grammatically complete unit consisting of
sold my house.' ± She said that she was glad
one or more words, which starts with a
she had sold her house.
capital letter and ends with a full stop,
See also TENSE.
serf surf
question mark, or exclamation mark'.
◆ The old rule that `all sentences must contain a or ? These two words are occa-
verb' holds good for most kinds of writing but it is sionally confused, as they are pronounced
a rule that is often legitimately broken, for exam-
ple: . . . in the same way. Serfs were agricultural
Whatever for? For heaven's sake! Yes, of labourers in feudal times, who had to work
course . Verbless sentences are often used for on their master's land. is the breaking
stylistic effect, particularly in order to emphasize
Surf

orqualifyapreviousstatement: .
swell of the sea. As a verb surf means `ride

..
It was an illusion, the surf' or in the informal expression surf
he told himself. A trick of the light He's as rich as the net, to look generally on the Internet for
Croesus. Possibly richer . any information that interests one.
Sentence structure and word order in English sergeant
are partly a matter of rules and partly a matter of The spelling of sergeant is often a

style. The normal word order is subject-verb-ob- source of error. A sergeant is a middle-

ject; for example: . The dog bit the postman

ranking noncommissioned officer in an

cannot be changed to The postman bit the dog

army, etc., or an officer in a police force.

without changing the sense of the sentence. How- A sergeant-major is a noncommissioned

ever, one can choose one's word order in sen- officer of the highest rank. A serjeant-at-

tences like: . arms is an officer in a parliament; a serjeant-

..
After lunch we could go for a walk. ±
We could go for a walk after lunch Even more
at-law a former rank of barrister.

delicious is her chocolate mousse. ± Her chocolate

.
serial see CEREAL or SERIAL?
mousse is even more delicious
See also INVERSION. series The word series can be treated as

sentiment sentimentality
either a singular or a plural noun, depend-

. .
or ?A sentiment ing upon whether one or more series is
is a feeling, emotion, attitude, or opinion: being discussed: A series of programmes has
 275 shall
been agreed . . Several series of programmes mistress-piece and to person the telephones

have been agreed. do little to further their cause.

seriously See also POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.

The adverb seriously
The most frequent examples of sexism include
is best
◆

be adequate or more appropriate: .

avoided where or
very would
extremely
the use of the noun in place of man ; or person lady
in place
They
of girl ; , , and as pro-
woman he him his

. .
seemed to be having a very [not ]
nouns
seriously good
of common gender; and the titles and Mrs
time Her parents are extremely [not
. See HE
ser-
or SHE
Miss ; MAN ; MS , MRS or MISS ?;
] .
◆ The adjective
iously rich
WOMAN .
is also overused in the The problems of sexism arising from occupa-
serious
sense of `great', especially in the phrase tional titles fall into three categories. The words
serious
money , meaning `a large amount of money'. and , for example, are of neutral
serve The verb . is followed by the gender but are traditionally associated with men
engineer nurse

and women respectively. For this reason the terms

serve
preposition or : [or
, etc., are sometimes
as for The sofa serves as

] . female engineer, male nurse

used to avoid confusion. This is often quite un-
for a spare bed

service The verb is best avoided

service
necessary: . Dr Tony Butterworth, 40, a former

.
where serve would be adequate or more
male nurse, has been appointed Britain's first
appropriate: Labour MPs have accused
Professor of Community Nursing at Manchester
Thames Water officials of spending too much
( ).
University Daily Telegraph

). .
time on privatisation issues rather than servi-
The ban on sexual discrimination in job adver-
(
cing customers Daily Telegraph
tisements has encouraged the substitution of neu-
A national

organization has been formed to service the

tral synonyms for occupational titles that specify
are sex: and , for example, may
.
◆ The principal meanings of the verb
local groups
foreman charwoman

`overhaul': . , and be replaced byby and and

service
supervisor cleaner; fireman
The mechanic serviced the car
`pay interest on a debt'. cameraman and firefighter; camera-operator
and by
serviceable This word,
policeman policewoman police officer;
and by
be used; durable': .
meaning `ready to salesman saleswoman sales representative
or
The television had been . shop assistant
, is some- See also NON-SEXIST TERMS; PERSON.
The use of feminine suffixes is also disliked by
repaired and was now serviceable

some users: .
times misspelt. The is retained before the
e

..
suffix -able in order to retain the soft c The feÃte was opened by the come-

..
sound. dienne Victoria Wood Her sister is an usherette
See also SPELLING 3. at the local cinema He married a successful

serviceman or servicewoman? see NON- . authoress

SEXIST TERMS. See also -ESS.

session CESSION
see or SESSION? sexy Sexy, an informal adjective meaning

sewed sewn
`arousing sexual interest' or `sexually

.
or ? Either word may be used aroused', has increasingly become used as
as the past participle of the verb sew: I a synonym for `attractive', `enjoyable', `ex-

.
have sewn/sewed a patch over the hole. Sewn citing', or `fashionable' in contexts that are

.
is often preferred to sewed, especially when completely devoid of sexual connotations:
the participle is used as an adjective: a `Crime,' according to an independent televi-

:.
neatly sewn hem.
The past tense of is always .
sion producer recently, `is very sexy this year.'
◆ sew sewed She (The Guardian).
.
Boots wanted a presence in
sewed the lace along the edge
The verb and its derivatives should not be
some of the sexier parts of the retailing business
sew (The Guardian).
confused with (see SOWED or SOWN?).
sexism
sow

The use of sexist language can

Shakespearean Shakespearian
or ? This

.
word, meaning `of or having the character-
often be avoided by the substitution of istics of Shakespeare': a Shakespearean
neutral synonyms or simple paraphrases, sonnet, may end with -ean or with -ian.

shall will
without recourse to clumsy or controversial
neologisms. Those opponents of sexism or ? The traditional distinction
who coin such expressions as the artist's between shall and will is that shall is used in
shaved 276
the first person and will in the second and sheer see SHEAR or SHEER?
third persons as the future tense of the verb
to be and that will is used in the first person
sheikh The preferred pronunciation of this
word, which means `an Arab chief or
and shall in the second and third persons to
ruler', is [shayk]. The alternative pronun-
express determination, compulsion, inten-
ciation [sheek] is not generally accepted.

.
tion, willingness, commands, promises, etc.:
. ◆ Note the spelling of this word; the spelling sheik

. . is an accepted variant.
I shall wash the dishes later. He will come

shelf-life
back tomorrow. We will not obey you.

They shall apologize immediately. see SELL-BY DATE.

◆ In informal contexts the problem rarely arises, sheriff
the contraction being used to represent both
'll
This word is often misspelt. Note

shall and in all persons.

will
the single -r- in the middle of the word and

Outside England, especially in American, Scot- the -ff ending.

tish, and Irish English, the distinction between shall shibboleth The noun is fre-
and is more simply defined, being used in
shibboleth

will shall quently used to denote a catchword, slogan,

all persons to express determination, compulsion, maxim, clicheÂ, etc., especially one that is
etc., and as the future tense of the verb ,
will to be old-fashioned or obsolescent: .
with an increasing tendency to use in all
We were
will unimpressed by his speech, in which he did

senses. Modern usage in England is following this

trend, although is retained in official contexts:
little more than repeat the old shibboleths of

.
shall the party.

Passengers shall remain seated until the vehicle ◆ Shibboleth traditionally refers to a custom or
is stationary . practice that serves to distinguish the members of
The use of and in questions is a more one party, sect, race, etc., from those of another.
complex issue. .
shall will
means `Do you want In the Old Testament (Judges 12:6) the word is
me to stay?' .
Shall I stay?
is a suggestion or used as a test to distinguish the Ephraimites, who
proposition. .
Shall we go?
means `Am I/Are we could not pronounce the sound [sh], from the
going to win?' .
Will I/we win?
means `Are Gileadites.
yougoingto pay thebill?' .
Shall you pay the bill?
is
Will you pay the bill?
shined shone
a request. or ? Shone is the past tense

shaved shaven
and past participle for most senses of the

. .
or ? Shaved is the past tense verb shine; shined is restricted to the mean-

. .
of the verb shave and the usual form of the ing `polished': The sun (has) shone all day.

past participle: He (has) shaved off his He shone his torch on the statue. They (have)
beard. Shaven, a variant form of the past shined our shoes.

.
participle, is largely restricted to adjectival
. ship see BOAT or SHIP?
shone
use: the shaven heads of the monks a clean-

shaven young man. see SHINED or SHONE?

she HE SHE
see or ; FEMALE or FEMININE? shoot see CHUTE or SHOOT?

shear sheer or ? Shear

.
means `cut or break shorn see SHEARED or SHORN?
off' or `remove or deprive':
sheared off halfway up. .
The mast had
Millions have been
should or would ? In reported speech,
conditional sentences, and other indirect
sheared off the budget. It should not be
constructions, the use of should and would

. .
confused with sheer, which means `utter'
follows the pattern of shall and will (as the
or `vertical': sheer cheek a sheer drop.

sheared shorn
future tense of the verb to be); would is
or ? Sheared is the past tense always used in the second and third persons

. . .
of the verb shear; shorn is the usual form of and often replaces should in the first person:

. . .
its past participle: They sheared the sheep. We said we should/would stay until Satur-

.
They have shorn the sheep. You will be shorn day. She thought you would fail. If you

of your power. were in trouble I should/would help you.

The past participle isused inthe technical
He
◆ sheared would open the door if he had the key. Would

sense of `deformed', `distorted', `fractured', or `bro-

ken': . .
is also the correct choice when asking a
.
isalsousedasanadjective: .
The head of the screw has sheared off question: Would you like to see the rest of

.
Shorn a shorn lamb
.
the house?
his shorn hair See also SHALL or WILL?
 277 silhouette
◆ A similar convention applies to the use of
in polite or formal constructions: .
should
and
for `more thorough analysation [sic]' of the

..
would We results.
is enclosed in square brackets and inserted
..
should/would be delighted to see you I should/ ◆ Sic
immediately after the word or phrase it refers to.
..
would like to buy a pair of sandals She would be
pleased to oblige They would prefer to play The use of italics is optional.
outside . sick ill
In informal contexts, the distinction between or ? In British English to feel sick is

should and does not arise, the contraction

would
.
to feel nauseated or queasy, to feel ill is to

'd being used to represent both and

should would
feel unwell: She was sick yesterday
.
usually

in all persons. means `she vomited yesterday': She was ill

In the sense of `ought to' is used in all yesterday means `she was not well yester-

persons: . ..
should
day'.
We should visit her more often
. There is some-
You
The adjective is not usually used in this sense
beforeanoun, beingpreferred: . [not ]
◆ ill

times a risk of ambiguity in the first person: .

should be able to see it from here
sick a sick ill

may be a
I
. ( may, however, precede a noun in the
sense of `bad': . . .
man Ill
thought I should accept their offer
paraphrase of `I thought I ought to . . .' or the ill fortune
.) is also used with reference to absence
ill treatment ill

past tense of `I think I shall . . .' fromworkbecauseofillness: .

health Sick
. .
In the sense of `used to' is used in all . .
to go sick off sick

persons: .
would
sick pay sick leave

..
When we were on holiday we would
In American English and are interchange-
sick ill
sometimes spend all day on the beach Before his
able in most contexts, being the more formal of
ill
retirement he would always get up at seven
. the two adjectives.
sideline
o'clock
On the use of (or ) for
should would of (or should Some people dislike the increasing
) see OF.
.
would have use of the verb sideline, meaning `prevent
See also RATHER; SUBJUNCTIVE. from taking part' or `put out of action':

shrank shrunk shrunken

, or ? Shrank is
This country

United Nations.
must
.
not be sidelined

The old guard has been

at the

the past tense of the verb shrink and shrunk

◆ Of sporting origin, the verb has been

sidelined by the new administration.
the usual form of its past participle, the
sideline
variant shrunken
.
being more frequently
used in American English since the 1940s, usually
used as an adjective:
.
He shrank from
with reference to illness or injury that puts a player
telling her
.
the truth. My pullover has
out of action.
siege
shrunk. A shrunken old woman stood in
the doorway. This word, meaning `the surround-
◆ The use of in place of
shrunk shrank is also ing of a fortified place to force a surrender',
acknowledged by some authorities. is sometimes misspelt. Note the order of

Siamese twins see CONJOINED. the vowels -ie-, which conforms to the

sibling
normal `i before e' rule.
The noun sibling, which denotes a See alsoSPELLING 5.
brother or sister, is a useful word that is
sight or site? see CITE, SIGHT or SITE?
significant
unfortunately disliked by many users and

. . .
largely restricted to formal contexts and The adjective significant means

.
sociological jargon: the twins' relationship `having meaning': a significant detail a
sibling rivalry. significant gesture.

The use of and to simplify such ◆ Its frequent use as a synonym for `important',
with their siblings

sentences as: . `large', `serious', etc., is disliked by some users: .

◆ sibling siblings

and: . . .
He would like to have a sibling a
[rather than ]
a brother or sister to play with significant writer a significant increase a
[rather than
All her siblings ]
brothers and sisters .
significant problem
have left homehas yet to gain general acceptance. silhouette This word, meaning `outline;
sic The Latin word sic, meaning `so' or shadow', is sometimes misspelt, the most
`thus', is used in printed or written text frequent error being the omission of the
(often in a quotation) to indicate that an silent -h-. Note also the -ette ending.
The word derives from the name of the French
politician EÂtienne de
unlikely, unexpected, questionable, or mis- ◆
(1709±67), per-
.
spelt word or phrase has in fact been Silhouette
accurately transcribed: He spoke of a need haps because of his small-minded economies.
silicon 278
silicon silicone
or ? Silicon is an element as dead as a doornail/the dodo
that occurs in sand and is used in alloys, as deaf as a post
as drunk as a lord
.
glass manufacture, and the electronics in-
dustry: silicon chip. Silicone is a compound as dry as a bone/dust
as dull as ditchwater
.
that contains silicon and is used in lubri-
cants, polishes, and cosmetic surgery: as easy as A.B.C.
silicone rubber. as fat as a pig
◆ The two words should not be confused. The final as fit as a fiddle/a flea
syllable of is unstressed; the final syllable of
silicon as flat as a pancake
silicone rhymes with . bone as free as a bird/air
similar as fresh as a daisy
Note the spelling of this adjective,
as gentle as a lamb
particularly the single -m- and -l- and the
as good as gold/new
-ar ending.
◆ The adjective is followed by the preposi- as green as grass
tion : .
similar
.The alternative as guilty as sin
to Their car is similar to ours
is incorrect. as happy as a sandboy/Larry
similar as
as hard as nails/iron
similes A simile is a figure of speech which, as heavy as lead
like a metaphor, suggests a comparison or as helpless as a newborn babe
analogy, but a simile expresses the compar- as honest as the day is long
as hungry as a horse
. .
ison explicitly and is usually introduced by
like or as: teeth like pearls as wide as the as keen as mustard
ocean. (In the second example the first as, as large as life
as light as a feather
Similes are used in many well-known idioms: .
before wide, is optional.)
as like as two peas in a pod
. .
◆
good as gold dry as dust , and
bold as brass as mad as a hatter/a March hare
many similes are so overworked as to have become as nutty as a fruitcake
clicheÂs: . . as obstinate as a mule
.
to run like the wind a voice like thunder
.
eyes like stars as old as the hills
Similes can, however, be used to good effect, as patient as Job
particularly in humorous or ironical prose: . Jeeves as plain as a pikestaff
coughed one soft, low, gentle cough like a sheep as playful as a kitten
(P.G. as pleased as Punch
). .
with a blade of grass stuck in its throat
Wodehouse, The Inimitable Jeeves A laugh as poor as a churchmouse
swept through the conference hall as a drip of as proud as a peacock
water might sweep through the Kalahari ( The as pure as the driven snow
Times ). They are more often used seriously in as quick as lightning
poetry: as quiet as a mouse
Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass, as regular as clockwork
Stains the white radiance of Eternity. as right as rain
(Shelley, Adonais ) as round as a barrel
as safe as houses
SIMILES as sharp as a needle/a razor
as bald as a coot as sick as a dog/a parrot
as black as coal/soot as silent as the grave
as blind as a bat as slippery as an eel
as bold as brass as slow as a snail
as bright as a button as sly as a fox
as brown as a berry as snug as a bug in a rug
as busy as a bee as sober as a judge
as clean as a new pin/a whistle as soft as butter
as clear as a bell/crystal as sound as a bell
as cold as ice as steady as a rock
as common as muck as stiff as a poker
as cool as a cucumber as straight as a die/an arrow
 279 singular
as strong as an ox/a horse sine qua non The expression sine qua non,

as sure as eggs is eggs which is largely restricted to formal con-

as sweet as a nut/honey
.
texts, denotes an essential or indispensable
as thick as thieves/two short planks condition or requirement: Mutual trust is a
as thin as a rake sine qua non of a successful marriage.

as tough as old boots ◆ Of Latin origin, the phrase literally means `with-
as ugly as sin out which not'.
as weak as water The word may be pronounced [ ni], [ i],
sine sõÅ sin
as white as a sheet/a ghost/snow or [ ay]; may be pronounced [kway] or
sin qua
as wise as an owl/Solomon [kwah]; may rhyme with or .
non gone bone

simplistic The adjective simplistic means

singeing singing
or ? Singeing is the pre-

.
sent participle of the verb singe, meaning

.
`oversimplified' or `naive'; it should not be
`burn slightly': It is difficult to iron this

.
used in place of simple: a simplistic ex-
blouse without singeing the lace. The -e of
planation of the theory of relativity a simple
singe is retained in singeing to keep the -g-
[not simplistic] explanation for her behaviour.
is generally used in a derogatory soft and to distinguish it from singing,
.
the

manner: .
◆ Simplistic
present participle of the verb sing: The
His simplistic solution to the problem
.
was rejected without further discussion
birds were singing in the trees.

is pronounced [ ing]; is pro-

simulate stimulate
◆ Singeing sinj singing
or ? These two verbs nounced[ ing].Carefulspeakersdonotinsertthe
sing
are sometimes confused. Simulate means hard sound, as in , into
g , , etc.
single singing singer

. singular plural
`feign', `imitate', or `reproduce for the pur-
or ? As a general rule a

. .
pose of study, training, experiment, etc.':
singular verb is used with a singular subject
to simulate indifference simulated leather
and a plural verb is used with a plural

.
The process is simulated in the laboratory.
subject. Problems arise when the subject is

.
Stimulate means `arouse' or `excite': He
a noun or phrase that can be singular or
stimulated his pupils' interest. a stimulating
plural and when a singular subject is se-
experience.

See also DISSEMBLE, DISSIMULATE or SIMU- parated from the verb by a number of
.
LATE? plural nouns (or vice versa): A list of

simultaneity
the names and addresses of new members is

The traditional pronuncia- [not are] available on request.

tion of this noun, derived from SIMULTA- ◆ Such nouns as ,

audience , ,
government jury
NEOUS , is Æ lta
[simu Æ neeiti], although , ,
committee family crowd herd, , etc., and other
Æ lta
[simu Æ nayiti] is also heard. The American collective nouns followed by ( of a bunch of flow-
English pronunciation is [sõÅm-]. , ,
ers a flock of geese a gang of thieves , etc.), are
simultaneous used with a singular verb if the people or items in
This word, meaning `hap-
question are considered as a group and with a
pening at the same time', may cause pro-
plural verb if they are considered as individuals.
See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; COMMITTEE;
blems with pronunciation. The usual
Æ ltayniu
pronunciation is [simu Æ s]. The Amer-
GOVERNMENT; -ICS; KIND OF; MAJORITY and MIN-
ican English pronunciation is [sõÅm-].
ORITY; NUMBER.
since AGO SINCE?; BECAUSE, AS, FOR or Any corresponding pronouns or possessive ad-
jectives should agree with the chosen verb: .
see or
SINCE ? The

sincerely [not ]
..
audience were asked to remain in their its
The adverb sincerely is some-
seats The jury has to consider all the evidence
times misspelt. Note the -cere- in the mid-
before it [not ] . American
they can reach a verdict
dle, and the -ly (not -ley) ending.
English treats groups as singular more than British
sinecure The noun sinecure, meaning `a Englishdoes: . ,but:
Harvard plays Yale Oxford play
job or position in which payment is re- Cambridge .
ceived for little or no work', is often mis- Measurements, sums of money, percentages,
etc., are used with a singular verb if they are
considered as a single entity: .
pronounced. The correct pronunciation of

.. ..
this three syllable word is [sõÅnikewr]: the -i- Four metres is
is long, as in wine, and the first -e- is not all we need Ten pounds is not enough
silent. Fifteen per cent is a generous increase .
sink 280
Two or more nouns joined with are used purpose, but it should not be used to excess:
with a plural verb unless they represent a single .
and

concept: . . .
We discussed our financial situation with

..
His sister and her friend were killed in
.
the bank manager They are trying to

is quitesuperfluous: .
the accident Gin and tonic is a popular drink .
However, nouns and phrases joined to the prin- ◆ Insomecontexts
improve the unemployment situation

isacrisis; .
situation
cipal subject with , , , ,
as well as together with plus a crisis situation is an interview situation
etc., are regarded as parenthetical; the verb an interview.
agrees with the principal subject alone: . See also ONGOING.
A
, , sixth This word may be pronounced
..
valuable painting as well as her engravings
was destroyed in the fire , [siksth] or [sikth], although some people
Her engravings
,
together with a valuable painting were destroyed
. dislike the omission of the second [s] sound.

sizeable sizable
in the fire
See also ANY; EITHER; FOOT or FEET?; MORE; or ? Both spellings of this
NEITHER; NONE; ONE; OR; PLUS; THERE IS or word are acceptable. See SPELLING 3.
THERE ARE?; TOGETHER WITH. skilful
sink sync
The adjective skilful, meaning `pos-
or ? Sink is a verb meaning `go sessing skill', is sometimes misspelt. The
final of is dropped in British English
. .
down' or `reduce' or a noun meaning `basin l skill
before the suffix -ful. In American English,
.
for washing': as the sun sinks in the west

Hopes were sinking fast. the kitchen sink. It the -ll is retained: skillful.

. skill
should not be confused with sync, which is
.
The noun skill is followed by the
an abbreviated form of synchronization:
preposition at or in: The job requires
The two systems run in sync.
[or in]

siphon syphon
considerable skill at dealing with

or ? This word, meaning difficult people.

`(draw off liquid by means of a) tube using slander see LIBEL or SLANDER?
atmospheric pressure', can be spelt with an
or a y. slang Slang is unauthorized language, of-
Some users prefer the spelling, since this
i
◆ i ten but not necessarily coarse, which stands
reflects the original Greek siphoÅn. in the linguistic hierarchy between general

Sir
.
Sir is a polite term of address for a man:
informal speech and the specific vocabul-
aries of professional and occupational jar-
Thank you very much, sir. The word is gon. Innovative and dramatic, slang is the
usually written with a lower-case s- in such most ephemeral of language, continually
contexts, but as an impersonal salutation in coining new terms and discarding old ones,
LETTER WRITING
.
it is always written with a which are either abandoned to obscurity or
capital S-: Dear Sir.
, with a capital -, is also the title of knights standard language.
transferred into the respectability of the

and baronets: . .
◆ Sir S
Sir Lancelot ◆ Slang includes shortening of words: .
Sir Humphrey (busi-
Appleby . Note that it is correct to use with a ness) . (vibrations); onomatopoeic words: .
Sir
biz

person's first name alone but not with his surname ;rhymingslangorabbreviationsofit: .
vibes

alone: . [not ]. (sister) .

zap skin and
Sir Humphrey Sir Appleby (feet, from );
.
blister plates plates of meat

sitting or sat? The substitution of , the terms from the criminal and drug subcultures:
(a police informer, or alternatively marijuana)
sat

. (time spent in prison) .

grass
past participle of the verb , for the pre-
sit
porridge (an speed

dialects of English: .
sent participle is found in some
sitting
amphetamine drug).
They
Many slang terms are existing words which are
were sitting

[in some dialects ] sat .

given new meanings. Examples include: .
is correctly used in the passive form of the (impressive)
in the garden

and .
cool

transitiveverb : .
◆ Sat
(great). wicked

.
sit
A sparing
We were sat at this table by the
use of slang can be effective, except
head waiter
when the context is too formal for it to be appro-
site or cite? See CITE, SITE or SIGHT? priate. However, slang often becomes obsolete or
sitting room see LOUNGE. old-fashioned very quickly and the use of out-of-
date or overworked slang can make speech or
situation In the sense of `state of affairs' writing seem dated and tedious.
the noun situation often serves a useful See also DRUGS SLANG.
 281 so
slash The symbol /, called a slash, is widely smear The increasing use of the noun
used in computing, both in command lines smear to denote a defamatory attack, often

.
for computer software and in e-mail ad- involving slander or libel, is disliked by

.
dresses. Note that a forward slash (/) is the many users: Their allegations of professional
form used in Internet addresses, while a misconduct are the latest in a series of smears.

backward slash (\) is used to identify com- the victim of a smear campaign.

puter files, etc. ◆ The noun is particularly frequent in the headline

See also SOLIDUS. language of popular newspapers.
sled sledge sleigh
, or ? All these nouns smelled smelt or ? Either word may be

.
denote vehicles that are used on snow for used as the past tense and past participle of
transport or recreation. the verb smell: The cake smelled/smelt

◆ Sledge , the most frequent in British English, is . delicious

replacedby in American English. usually See also -ED or -T?

sled Sleigh
refers to a large sledge that is pulled by animals; may be pronounced [smelt] or
Smelled

the smaller sledge that is used for sliding downhill [smeld]; is always pronounced [smelt].
:.
smelt

is also known as a smiley A

.
toboggan a picture of Father
is the popular name for an
smiley
Christmas on his sleigh children playing on their
sledges/sleds . , a symbol used in electronic com-
emoticon

munications to indicate the writer's re-

sleight The word sleight, most frequently sponse. The restrictions
keyboards mean that most smileys are
imposed by
used in the phrase sleight of hand (`dexterity
in using the hands to perform conjuring rendered sideways.

:-) smiling
tricks, etc.') is sometimes misspelt and mis-

(-: smiling back

pronounced. Note the -ei- spelling and the
pronunciation [slõÅt] not [slayt].
:-)) very happy
slough Slough is pronounced [slow], rhym- :-( sad
ing with how,
.
in the sense `swamp; state of :-< very sad
hopeless dejection': in the slough of despond, >:( angry
and [sluf] when referring to the cast-off skin :-* kiss
of a snake or the verb `shed or abandon'. [] hug
slow The use of the word as an
SMS TEXT MESSAGING
slow

.
adverb should generally be avoided in for- see .
mal contexts:
in prison. .
Time passes slowly [not
You'd better drive slow in this fog.
slow]
snail mail MAILsee .

◆
and
The comparative and superlative forms
are more informal than
slower
or sneaked snuck .
? is the standard Sneaked

:.
slowest more slowly
past form of :
and
sneak They sneaked into the

..
most slowly She eats more slowly/slower
. liked by many people, although its history
The alternative form
house. is dis- snuck
than you Michael works the slowest/most slowly
may be preferred to when the in American English goes back to the 19th
adverb is preceded by : .
Slower more slowly
any I can't walk any
century. Today it remains confined largely
slower .
The use of the adverb in fixed combina- so The phrase
to the USA.
slow
tions, such as , , etc., is sometimes reduced, expressing
slow-moving traffic a go-slow
purpose,
so that

is acceptable in all contexts. to in informal so

smart .
contexts. In formal speech and writing
In modern usage the adjective smart, the word that should be retained: The
meaning `intelligent', is often applied to gate had been left open so (that) we could

.
devices that use sophisticated electronic drive in.

To introduce a result or consequence may be

. used alone in all contexts: .
technology: smart card (a plastic bank ◆ so
card with an integral microprocessor) The gate had been left
, .
.
smart house (a house with computer-con- open so we drove in
trolled heating, lighting, etc.) smart weap- The phrase , which also expresses purpose,
so as
is followed by an infinitive with and should not
:.
on (a bomb or other missile that can be to
automatically guided to its target). be confused with so that She wore gloves so as
soar 282
..
not to leave fingerprints ◆ It is also used, as in this book, to indicate that
She wore gloves so that
[not ] . is both of two alternatives are correct or appropriate:
best avoided where would be adequate: . .
as she would not leave fingerprints So as to
to He .
a terrible/terrific amount of work
. The solidus is used in the percentage sign %,
and is sometimes used for writing fractions: . .
closed the window (so as) to keep out the rain
See also AS; IN ORDER THAT and IN ORDER TO; 2/3
SO-CALLED. It is used instead of the word in expressions
like: . .Itisusedincertainabbreviations: .
per

soar see SAW, SOAR or SORE? . . It is also used to separate successive time
35 km/hr

units: . .
a/c c/o
so-called The adjective is gener-
so-called
and in dates: . .
the financial year 2003/04
1/11/03
July/August

A further use of the solidus is to indicate the

ally used in an ironic sense, implying that

propriate; . . breaks in lines of verse, when a poem is not set out

the following word is inaccurate or inap-

. in its separate lines: .

a so-called friend their so-called
We are the hollow men/We
.
supporters This year's so-called disastrous
summer was actually quite good, the London are the stuffed men/Leaning together (T.S. Eliot)
Weather Centre said yesterday (Daily Tele- See also SLASH.
graph).

The increasing use of the adjective in neutral be soluble or solvable? Either adjective may
contexts is disliked by some users: .
◆
solved: .
used to describe something that can be
The so-called
black economy regularly comes under fire . .
a soluble/solvable problem Soluble

Note that it is unnecessary to put quotation is more frequently used to describe some-

marks around an expression immediately follow- thing thing that dissolves easily in water: .
that can be dissolved, especially some-

ing :
so-called . [not
the so-called special services
soluble

] . aspirin

Used without a hyphen after the noun it qua- somebody or someone? The pronoun
the so-called `special services' .

lifies, so calledmay be interpreted more literally: . and its synonym

somebody are someone
the peewit, so called because of its characteristic interchangeable in all contexts.
cry . ◆ Both are used with a singular verb but are

sociable or social? sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun

means
Sociable
or possessive adjective (see THEY): . Somebody/
`friendly', `companionable', or `convivial';
.
Someone has parked their car in our drive

. . someday, someplace, sometime

social means `of society' or `promoting

. .
companionship': a sociable guest a soci- and
able dinner party a social worker a social Someday and sometime, which both mean

The two adjectives are not interchangeable in standard English: .

club. `at some undefined time', are accepted as

.
◆
these senses, although both may be applied to the
I shall get round to it

samenoun: .
someday. We must go there sometime.

.
a sociable evening with friends at the , however, is considered an
.
Someplace

informal contexts: .
pub a social evening for new members Americanism that should be restricted to
Both words also mean `gregarious', sociable
being used in the sense of `liking the company
I know I left that file

of others' and in the sense of `living with ◆ Note that is sometimes rendered as
here someplace.

others': . two words: .

social someday

..
She is more sociable than her sister, who We met some day soon after the
hardly ever goes out .
Ants are social insects , whereas
Liberation is always rendered
sometime
See also ANTISOCIAL, ASOCIAL, UNSOCIAL or as one word when used as an adjective or adverb.
UNSOCIABLE? See also SOMETIME or SOME TIME?
sole soulor ? Sole means `single': . A sole somersault Note the spelling and pronun-
walker paced the beach. It should not be ciation of this word, which means `acro-
confused with soul, meaning `spirit'. batic roll'. The first two syllables are

solidus The solidus is also known as the

pronounced like
somer-;
summer, but are spelt
the last syllable is pronounced like

.
stroke, slant, slash mark, oblique, or virgule.
salt, but spelt -sault.

-something
Its main use is in separating alternatives: A

.
doctor must use his/her diagnostic skill in such Many people dislike the fre-
cases. You need butter and/or margarine to quent use of the words twentysomething,

make pastry. thirtysomething, fortysomething, etc., with

 283 sowed
reference to people in their twenties/thir- sound bite A sound bite is a segment of a

.
ties/forties/etc. These words may be used as speech, especially one made by a politician,
adjectives or nouns: The studio panel was specifically designed to be extracted for

.
formed . . . of five well-heeled thirtysomething news reports and media coverage. An ex-
artsy liberals (Sunday Times). He was ample of a sound bite is the statement made

. .
reluctant to admit to being fortysomething. in 1988 by the then US President George
Are the thirtysomethings leaving childbear- Bush (father of George W. Bush): Read
(The Guardian). my lips: no new taxes. Of American origin,
◆ The expression derives originally from the pop-
ing too late for safety?

Britain: .
the term has become a vogue expression in
ular 1980s American television series Thirtysome-
, which described the lives and lifestyles of a
Political debate has been replaced

thing .
group of people born in the late 1940s or early source The use of the word
by sound bites and spin

1950s and who had therefore reached their thir- verb, meaning `find a source of', is disliked
as a source

ties during the 1980s. by many users: .

sometime some time
He had difficulty sourcing
the material for his thesis.

In commercial contexts the term is used

or ? These spellings

with reference to the discovery of suppliers: .

are occasionally confused. Sometime is used ◆ sourcing

.
as an adverb to mean `at some point in
Responsible for a team of buyers and accountable
.
time': I'll come and see you sometime, and
for the effective sourcing and procurement of all
( ).
as an adjective to mean `former': Sir Percy
the company's supplies Executive Post

south South southern

Cooper, the sometime President of the Yacht-

. .
ing Association. Some time means `a period , or ? As an adjec-
of time': I need some time to think.

.
I've tive, south is always written with a capital S
been worried about her for some time now.

.
when it forms part of a proper name:

sooner HARDLYsee .
South Africa the South Pole. The noun

sophisticated
south is usually written with a capital S

.
The adjective sophisticated is when it denotes a specific region, such as

.
frequently applied to machines or devices, the southern states of the USA: The
in the sense of `complex' or `advanced': secession of the South precipitated the Amer-
Our client . . . develops and manufactures ican Civil War.

In other contexts, and as an adverb, is

usuallywrittenwithalower-case : .
sophisticated electrical and electronic products ◆ south

..
(Sunday Times). s Many birds fly
◆ This usage may be extended to the methods or
and systems

..
south for the winter Only the south wall of the
techniques involved in producing such equipment:
.
city remains intact The island of Tasmania lies to
. When it is extended to
sophisticated technology the south of Australia .
people, however, there is a risk of confusion with The adjective is more frequent and
usually less specific than the adjective : .
southern
the principal sense of the adjective, `refined' or
`cultured': . .
south
the best-documented UFO case in the southern slopes .
in southern Italy
history ± one which has managed to perplex and Like south, southern is written with a capital S
astonish some of the most sophisticated scientists when it forms part of a proper name, such as the
( ). Some people also . With or without a capital , it also
means `of the South': .
in the world The Bookseller Southern Cross S
dislike the increasing tendency to describe children speaking with a southern/
and adolescents as simply because
sophisticated Southern drawl .
they are at ease with modern technology and have southward or southwards?
expensive tastes (largely due to their susceptibility the correct choice when an adjective isis Southward

to marketing and peer pressure), as such attributes needed: .

have little to do with refinement or culture. Either
a southward direction.

.
or may be used when
sore
southward southwards

SAW, SOAR or SORE?

.
see an adverb is required: They travelled

sorry The adjective sorry

.
is followed by the
southward from the city.
full of birds flying southwards.
The skies were

preposition for or about: I'm sorry for [or See also -WARD or -WARDS?
about] what I said yesterday.

sort of KIND OF.

Soviet RUSSIAN
see or SOVIET?
see
sowed sown
soul
or ? Either word may be used
see SOLE or SOUL? as the past participle of the verb sow, but
spam 284
is the more frequent: . In British English the noun
◆ is sometimes specialty
used in place of . It is chiefly used to
sown I have sown/

: . denote an area of medicine that is specialized in.

sowed some more parsley in the herb garden. speciality
◆ Thepasttenseoftheverbsowisalways sowed
.
The verb and its derivatives should not be specially see ESPECIALLY or SPECIALLY?
They sowed the field with wheat

specialty see SPECIALITY or SPECIALTY?

sow
confused with (see SEWED or SEWN?).
sew

spam Spam is a trade name for a type of species This word is normally pronounced
tinned chopped meat. With the develop- [speesheez]. The alternative pronunciation
ment of electronic communications, how- [speeseez] is avoided by careful users. Like

.
ever, it has acquired a new use as a noun series, the word has the same form in the
referring to unsolicited, usually commer- singular and plural: a species/several dif-

.
cial, messages sent via e-mail to a large ferent species.

number of recipients:
on your PC.
How to block spam
spectrum The noun spectrum is best

FLAMING. .
avoided where range would be adequate
See also
. .
or more appropriate:
span see SPUN or SPAN?
a wide spectrum of

experience across the whole spectrum at the

spastic The term spastic is no longer con-

other end of the political spectrum.

◆ The noun principally denotes the series

spectrum
sidered acceptable as a description for a of colours produced when white light is dispersed.
person who has cerebral palsy and is now It has two plural forms, and
spectra . spectrums
also dated as an insult for a person who
lacks physical coordination or is in some speculate The verb speculate
.
is followed
way incompetent. by the preposition on or about: There's no

spatula The noun spatula, meaning `flat-

point in speculating on
happen.
[or about] what might

bladed utensil', is sometimes misspelt. Note

that the word ends in -a, not -ar or -er.
speeded sped or ? Sped is the past tense

-speak
and past participle of the verb speed in the
Some people object to the overuse sense of `move or go quickly'; speeded
of the suffix -speak, meaning `jargon' or relates to the sense of `drive at excessive

.
`characteristic language', which is attached speed' and to the phrasal verb speed up,

. .
to nouns, proper names, or prefixes and is meaning `accelerate': We sped through the

.
derived from the term newspeak coined by water. The days have sped by. He has never

. .
George Orwell in his novel Nineteen speeded on a motorway. The workers speeded

. .
Eighty-Four: computerspeak techspeak up when the supervisor arrived.
econospeak Joy-rides bill themselves as `the

travel sickness tablet for children', which is, to

spelled spelt or ? Either word may be used

.
as the past tense and past participle of the
say the least, a cheeky bit of marketing-speak
verb spell: Have I spelt/spelled your name
(Sunday Times).
See also -BABBLE. right?

-ED or -T?
◆ In view of its etymology, it is appropriate that the See also Spelled may be pro-

suffix should have established itself in the English nounced [spelt] or [speld]; spelt is always

language during the 1980s. pronounced [spelt].

spearhead spellcheckers A spellchecker is a facility in

.
The verb spearhead is best
computer software that draws the user's
avoided where lead would be adequate:
attention to misspelt words, i.e. words that
an opportunity exists for a profit-oriented
do not match any word in the computer's
manager who can spearhead the company's
dictionary. It is important to remember
continued expansion.

speciality specialty
that spellcheckers do not highlight words
or ? Speciality is used that are correctly spelt but used in the
in British English and specialty in American wrong context, e.g. to for too, lead for
English to denote a special skill or interest led, their for there, that for than, or form

. .
or a product, service, etc., that is specialized for from. Overreliance on spellcheckers can
in: Wildlife photography is his speciality. result in such mistakes' being made with
Steak tartare is a speciality of the house. increasing frequency.
 285 split infinitive
See also HOMOGRAPH, HOMONYM or HOMO- . . . . . .
. . . . . .
achieve belief believe brief chief diesel

PHONE? and individual entries.

. . . . .
field frieze grief hygiene niece piece

spelling English spelling is notoriously

. . .
priest relief relieve reprieve shield

. .
shriek siege thief yield. Examples of
difficult to learn, for native English speak-

. . . . .
words `except after c' include: ceiling
ers as well as foreign students. However, it

. .
conceit conceive deceit deceive perceive
is to some extent governed by rules, some

. . . . .
receipt receive. Exceptions include:
of which are described below.

1Doublingofconsonants . . .
caffeine Keith Neil protein seize Sheila

. .
Final consonants species weir weird. When the sound

. . . . . .
are sometimes doubled when a suffix starting represented is [ay] then ei is used: beige

. . . . .
with a vowel is added. With single-syllable deign eight feign feint freight heinous

. . . . .
words this applies when the final consonant is neighbour reign rein reindeer sleigh

preceded by a single vowel: hit ± hitting veil vein weigh weight.

drop ± dropped. If the word has more than one See also -ABLE or -IBLE?; -AE- and -OE-;
syllable, the consonant is doubled if the last AMERICANISMS; -ANT or -ENT?; -IZE or -ISE?;
PLURALS; and individual entries.
. .
syllable is stressed and the final consonant is
preceded by a single vowel:
commit ± committed.
refer ± referred
Exceptions are words
spelt see SPELLED or SPELT?
.
with a final -l, which is doubled even if the spend The use of the word spend as a noun,

. .
syllable is unstressed: traveller (but traveler in

.
meaning `amount spent' or `amount to be

.
American English); and worshipped han- spent': an advertising spend of £20,000, is

. . .
dicapped kidnapped (not always doubled in disliked by many people and is best re-
American English) leapfrogged jetlagged placed by an appropriate synonym or para-
outfitter. A final -c is not doubled, but is phrase.
changed to
a vowel: .
ck before a suffix beginning with
panic ± panicked. spilled spilt
or ? Either word may be used

2 y and i When a suffix is added to a word verb spill: .

as the past tense and past participle of the
He has spilt/spilled his coffee. .
.
that ends in -y, the y becomes an i only if The children spilled/spilt out of the school .

.
the preceding letter is a consonant:
.
silly ±
See also -ED or -T?
. .
sillier hurry ± hurried. Exceptions are:
.
Spilt is the usual form of the adjective in

.
said laid paid and in words where a suffix British English: It's no use crying over spilt
beginning with an i is added, such as -ing: milk.
try ± trying.
may be pronounced [spild] or
3 Final -e
Spilled

When a suffix beginning with a [spilt]; spilt is always pronounced [spilt].

vowel is added to a word with a silent final
-e, the e is dropped: . rate ± rating. A
spin In recent years the word spin has
acquired a new meaning, referring to the

.
growing trend is to drop the -e- before
.
practice of presenting or interpreting facts

. .
the suffixes -able and -age: likeable ±
or events in a favourable light: This story is
likable sizeable ± sizable mileage ±

◆A is a person employed by a political

a prime example of Labour government spin.

.
milage. If the word ends in -ge or -ce the
spin doctor
e is not dropped before a and o: outrageous
party, government department, etc., to manipu-
peaceable. The e
.
is not dropped if the suffix
late that organization's public face in the light of
begins with a consonant:
cept -ly (see 4 below).
excitement, ex-
currentevents: . Almost everyone who took part in

4 -ly suffix
the travelling circus of the election became so
When -ly is added to a word it bewitched by the spin doctors, photo opportu-
nities and in-jokes of each campaign that we lost
.
remains unchanged except for the endings
( ).
. .
-ll and -le which change to -lly and -ly: sight of one fundamental reality The Observer
The expression derives from the spin given to a
. . .
noble ± nobly.
ball in certain sports in order to control its direction
nice ± nicely full ± fully

Exceptions are: wholly.

through the air or the way in which it bounces.
truly duly

5 ie and ei
split infinitive
The rule `i before e except after
c' applies to most words where the sound A split infinitive occurs

. .
those letters represent is [ee]. Examples of when an adverb is inserted between to

words that have `i before e' include: and the infinitive form of a verb: to
spoiled 286
boldly go.
.
The practice is disliked by some spoonful . Most users prefer to form the
but very widely used: Microsoft, the world's -FUL
plural -fuls: spoonfuls. See .
largest software corporation, would be forced
sportsman sportswoman or ? see NON-
to radically alter the way it does business with
(The
SEXIST TERMS
Guardian).
.

Split infinitives have a long history and the spouse

rivals and suppliers

◆
objection to them is comparatively recent. As with
The use of the noun spouse in place

the opposition to ending sentences with preposi- .

of husband or wife is best avoided where the

tions, grammarians based their objections on the

sex of the person is known: The broad-

rules of Latin grammar.

caster Sue Baker and her husband [not spouse]

Since so many people dislike split infinitives it is

were the guests of honour.

The words and may, however,

probably best to try to avoid them, at least in
◆ spouse spouses
serve as useful replacements for the phrases `hus-
formal speech and writing. They can sound awk- band or wife', `husbands and wives', etc., espe-
ward or unpleasant, particularly when more than ciallyinformalcontexts: .
one word comes between and the verb: . ..
Please give details of any
to He
. . . However,
other properties owned by you or your spouse
tries to on the one hand explain
there are some sentences where it is preferable to
Use of the car park is restricted to members and
.
split an infinitive, especially in order to avoid am-
their spouses
The noun is usually pronounced [spows],
biguity: . .The
spouse
He failed to entirely comprehend me the pronunciation [spowz] being an accepted var-
revised ordering He entirely failed to. . . or He iant.
would suggest
complete, not partial, failure. .
failed to comprehend me entirely
We expect to sprang sprung or ? Sprang and sprung are
further modernize our services . The revised order- both used as the past tense of the verb
ing . . . suggests spring. Sprang
.
is the standard form in Brit-
..
We expect further to modernize
moreover They were plotting secretly to destroy ish English: The man sprang from the

. Was the plotting or the intended destruc- Both and

.
are com-
tion secret? .
the files bushes. sprang sprung

.
I would not expect anyone who has monly used in American English: She

not read Joyce fully to understand the play . Read sprung out of the door. The lizard sprang out

Joyce fully or understand fully? of his hand. Note that sprung is the only
Another argument for disregarding the rule is acceptable form of the past participle in
.
that sometimes the rhythm of spoken English both British and American English: The

makes the split infinitive sound natural and its

avoidance awkward. Compare: .
lizard had sprung out of his hand.

enjoy myself with

I hope to really
.
I hope really to enjoy myself
spun spanor ? Spun is the past tense and
part participle of the verb in modern
spoiled spoilt
spin

. .
or ? Either word may be usage; span is an archaic form of the past
tense: He spun the wheel.
.
used as the past tense and past participle of This yarn has

the verb spoil: The bad weather spoiled/ been spun by hand.

spoilt our holiday.

See also -ED or -T? squalor .
This word, meaning `dirtiness;
wretchedness': the squalor of the slums,

.
Spoilt is the usual form of the adjective in
is sometimes misspelt. In both British and
British English: a spoilt child.
American English the ending is -or as in
Spoiled may be pronounced [spoild] or
tremor, not -o(u)r as in colour.

squaw
[spoilt]; spoilt is always pronounced [spoilt].

spokesman spokeswoman or ? see NON- Squaw is a Narragansett word

SEXIST TERMS .
meaning `woman' and became a generic

sponge
term for any woman of Native American

.
The verb sponge is followed by the origin. In recent years, however, the word
preposition off or on: You can't sponge off has acquired negative connotations
[or on] your family for the rest of your life. through its more general use and it is

spontaneity The traditional pronuncia-

now considered unacceptable in virtually
every context.

squeaky clean
tion of this noun, meaning `the quality of
behaving in a natural, impulsive way', is The adjective squeaky
Æ neeiti] but the pronunciation [spon-
[sponta clean, which originated in advertising, is
Æ nayiti] is probably more frequently heard.
ta often used in the figurative sense of `be-
 287 steal
. .
.
yond reproach' or `above suspicion': the is the only form of its past participle: The

.
squeaky clean image of this generation of pop- room stank/stunk of cigarette smoke. These
stars The president must be squeaky clean. boots have stunk [not stank] of manure since

Users of this expression should be aware of my visit to the farm last week.
its possible derogatory connotations: there
stare STAIR
see or STARE?
state-of-the-art
may be an implication that the person or
thing so described is too good to be true. The adjective state-of-the-

stadiums stadia or ? Stadiums is the more

art, which relates to the current level of
technical achievement, development,

.
usual plural of the noun stadium, but either

.
knowledge, etc., is disliked by some users:
word may be used: New football stadiums
Heart of the system is a state-of-the-art

.
have been built throughout Britain in recent

.
desktop copier with a host of time-saving
years. The city has two football stadia.

stair stare
features (Sunday Times). state-of-the-art

.
or ? means `one of a series computer technology.

It is best avoided where or

Stair

would be adequate or more appropriate: .

of steps': The stair creaked beneath his foot. ◆ modern up-to-date

. .
It should not be confused with stare, which They
means `look hard': [Venture Scouts] use state-of-the-art camp stoves
( ).
She stared in horror. a
sad, faraway stare. for cooking Daily Telegraph

stalactite or stalagmite ? Stalactites and statesman stateswomanor ? see NON-SEX-

stalagmites are tapering masses of calcium IST TERMS.
carbonate that form in limestone caves. A
stalactite hangs from the roof; a stalagmite
stationary stationery or ? These two

`not moving': .
words are often confused. Stationary means
rises from the floor.
◆ The classic method of distinguishing between means `writing materials': .
; a stationary car stationery

the two words is to associate the of ◆ To avoid confusion remember that

c stalactite
.
is
office stationery

with that of and the of

ceiling with sold by a
g stalagmite
, a trader whose name, like
stationery

that of .
ground
and , ends in - .
stationer

stanch staunch
baker grocer er
or ? Either word may be
statistics see -ICS.
status
used as a verb, meaning `stop (the flow of)',

.
staunch being more frequent than stanch in In British English the word status
Æ s], with the
.
modern usage: I staunched/stanched the should be pronounced [staytu

.
flow of blood with a handkerchief. She first syllable like state. The pronunciation
staunched/stanched the wound. This offer Æ s], with the first syllable as in static, is
[statu
is no remedy to recruitment and retention an American English variant.
problems within our
staunch STANCH
universities: It won't
see or STAUNCH?
is also a rare variant of the adjective stay stop
staunch the brain drain (The Guardian).

, meaning `loyal' or `firm': .

◆ Stanch or ? The substitution of the verb
staunch a staunch for in the sense of `reside tempora-
.
stop stay

is pronounced [stahnch]. English: .

supporter rily' or `remain' is found in some dialects of
The word stanch [in some dialects
is occasionally pronounced in the same
We stayed

Staunch ] .
way, but its usual pronunciation is [stawnch], ◆ The use of the verb with reference to a
stopped with my sister for a few days

break in a journey is generally acceptable: .

stop
rhyming with .
launch We

standing or stood? The substitution of .

stopped at my sister's house for a cup of tea on the
way home

steal BURGLE
stood, the past participle of the verb , stand
ROB or STEAL?
.
for the present participle standing is found in see ,
some dialects of English:
[in some dialects
She was standing
stood] in front of the mirror.
steal steel
.
or ? Steal means `take something

is correctly used in the passive form of the illegally': He stole three cars in two days. It

transitive verb : .
◆ Stood

.
should not be confused with steel, which
stand The bottle should be stood
in a cool place for two hours . refers to a hard alloy of iron: The building

stank stunk .
is mostly steel and glass. In informal contexts,
or ? Either word may be used steal is a noun meaning `bargain': At £10
as the past tense of the verb stink, but stunk it's a steal.
step 288
step steppe
or Step variously means `foot- signed to or unaffected by suffering': . a

.
step', `footprint', `raised surface', `stage in stoical attitude to death, is pronounced

.
progress', etc.: He paused a few steps away [sto
Å ikl]. The -o- and -i- are pronounced

. .
separately, not as the sound of soil.
The word may be used as a variant of
from the body. She heard steps on the floor oi

or as a noun: .
◆ stoic
.
above. She mounted the step. The next step

It should not stoical She's a real stoic

Spelt with a capital -, the noun and adjective
will be to contact the vendors.

.
be confused with steppe, which denotes a S
broad, treeless, plain: the harsh climate of Stoic refer to a school of ancient Greek philosophy.
the Siberian steppes.
stood STANDING STOOD?
step-
see or
see HALF- or STEP-? stop STAY STOP
see or ?
stereo- This word has the alternative pro- storey storyor ? These two spellings are
Å ] and [steerio
nunciations [sterrio Å ], both of
.
sometimes confused. The word storey,
which are acceptable, although the former
.
meaning `level of a building': He lives
is more frequent in contemporary usage. on the second storey. a multi-storey car park,

steward or stewardess ? see NON-SEXIST .

is spelt with an e; the plural is storeys. Story

TERMS. means `tale': Tell me a story; its plural is

sticky The word sticky has acquired at least

stories.

◆ In American English the sense `level of a build-

two new meanings in recent years. Many ing' may also be spelt , with the plural .
story stories
people use it to refer to small self-adhesive
straight strait or ? The word straight is
.
squares of paper widely used as memos in

. .
most frequently used as an adjective or
everyday life: She pressed a sticky on the
adverb: a straight line I went straight
front door to remind her husband to feed the

.
there. It is sometimes used as a noun,
pets. It is also used in computing to describe
meaning `straight line or part': the home

.
the electronic equivalent of a paper remin-
straight (of a racecourse). The word strait is
der: A sticky popped up on the screen
an archaic adjective meaning `narrow; re-
reminding him to check his e-mail. The term
stricted'; in modern usage it is most fre-
may also be encountered in electronic com-
quently found in the form of the plural
munications as an adjective describing an

.
noun straits, meaning `difficult circum-
Internet site that attracts and retains large
stances': in dire straits. In the sense of
numbers of visitors.

stiletto .
`narrow channel', the noun strait (or straits)
Note the spelling of this word, also occurs in proper names: the Straits of
which refers to a woman's shoe with a Dover.
high narrow heel, particularly the -l- and The two words have different origins:
◆ straight
the -tt-. comes from the Old English `to stretch', streccan
◆ The plural is either or , the whereas is ultimately derived from the Latin
stilettos stilettoes strait
former being accepted by more authorities. `to bind tightly'.
stringere
The
stimulant or stimulus? Both these nouns certain compoundtwo spellings are interchangeable only in
words (see STRAITJACKET and
are used to denote something that stimu-
STRAITLACED ).
lates activity. is specifically ap-
Stimulant
See also STRAIGHTENED or STRAITENED?
straightaway straight away .
plied to drugs, alcohol, etc., whereas

. .
stimulus is a more general synonym for or ? This
`incentive': Caffeine is a stimulant. They expression, meaning `without delay': I'll
responded to the stimulus of competition. A be going to the shops straightaway, may be
stimulant increases activity; a stimulus in- written as one word or two.
itiates activity.
◆ The plural of is straightened or straitened? These words
, which may be are
stimulus stimuli
pronounced [ ewlõÅ] or [ ewlee].
stim stim
means `made straight': .
sometimes confused. Straightened

stimulate
The road has been
see SIMULATE or STIMULATE? straightened. Straitened, which is derived

stimulus see STIMULANT or STIMULUS?

from
STRAIGHT
the archaic
STRAIT?),
adjective strait (see
.
stoical
or means `restricted':
The adjective stoical, meaning `re- in straitened circumstances.
 289 student
strait STRAIGHT STRAIT
see or ? slang usage in its own right, meaning `accepted by
straitened STRAIGHTENED young people or those familiar with the latest
see or STRAITENED? trends, etc.': . .
He isn't street enough
straitjacket straitlaced
and A straitjacket,
strength This word is sometimes mispro-
a constricting jacket used to restrain a
nounced [strenth]. The correct pronuncia-
violent person, and also in extended senses,
tion is [strength], but the variant

.
`something that restricts', may also be spelt
pronunciation [strenkth] is acceptable to
straightjacket: The government finds itself in
most users.

stress
a straitjacket/straightjacket. In the same way,

.
straitlaced, meaning `puritanical', may also Some languages have a fairly regular
be spelt straightlaced: a very straitlaced/ stress pattern but English stress patterns are
straightlaced maiden aunt. varied and subject to change over time. As
See alsoSTRAIGHT or STRAIT? foreign words become absorbed into the

strata see STRATUM or STRATA? English language they often change their
.
.
stress to a more English-sounding one:
stratagem strategy or ? A stratagem is a chauffeur.

◆ Two-syllable words are more likely to be stressed

bureau

. on the first syllable, but when a word serves as

scheme, trick, or ruse; strategy is the art of

. both a noun (or adjective) and a verb it is normally

planning a campaign: to devise a new

stressed on the first syllable as a noun (or adjec-

stratagem the strategy involved in a game of

tive), but the second as a verb: . . .

chess.
◆ The use of in the extended sense of
strategy
. . . .
permit rebel
`plan' or `method' overlaps with that of . present conflict insult absent
Most three-syllable words have their stress on
stratagem
Both nouns are ultimately derived from the
Greek word for `a general' and are principally the first syllable, and several of those words which
applied to warfare, a being an artifice have their stress on the second are widely coming
to be pronounced with the stress on the first: .
stratagem
for deceiving the enemy and being the . . Words with four or more
strategy
science or art of conducting a war. contribute subsidence
syllables usually have their stress on the second or
stratum or strata ? Strata
.
is the plural third syllable. Some people find difficulty in pro-
form of the noun
.
stratum: from a different nouncing those multisyllabic words that tradition-
social stratum in one of the upper strata of ally have been stressed on the first syllable and
the rock. such words are coming to be pronounced with the
◆ The use of as asingular nounis wrong, but
strata stress on a later syllable: . .
nevertheless is occurring with increasing fre- .
applicable demon-
.
quency, especially in figurative contexts: .
strable formidable
in that Individual words may be stressed in speech for
.
strata of society emphasis: in written and printed texts such words
street see ROAD or STREET? are indicated by italics: . I walking in the rain.
like
INTONATION.
street- In such words and phrases as street-
See also

stringed strung or ? Stringed is an adjec-

wise and street credibility, street- refers to the
culture of young people, especially young tive derived from the noun string; strung is

. .
the past tense and past participle of the verb
. .
working-class inhabitants of the inner ci-

.
ties: a streetwise kid. This year's batch of string: a stringed instrument a twelve-

.
school-leavers are optimistic and streetwise, stringed guitar His squash racket was strung

according to a study commissioned by the by an expert. The children (have) strung

decorations around the room.

is also used adjectivally before a noun,

TSB bank (The Guardian). The meaning

often in combination with an adverb: .

has recently widened to include the culture ◆ Strung
a newly
. .
of those familiar with the latest trends,
fashions, topical issues, etc.: To be success- strung violin
ful in the public relations industry, you need

more than just street credibility. . Ladas and

strive The verb strive
.
is followed by the
preposition for or after: Some minority
Skodas snubbed as car thieves opt for `street
groups are still striving for [or after] equality
cred' (headline, The Guardian).
-CRED. of opportunity.

is occasionally used as an adjective in student see PUPIL or STUDENT?

See also
◆ Street
stumble 290
stumble The verb stumble
.
is followed by public: . He declined to comment further as

the preposition or on: the matter was still sub judice.

◆ The expression is pronounced [sub dõÆsi]. Its
across I stumbled
[or on] the solution to the problem. joo
literal meaning is `under a judge'.
across

stunk STANK or STUNK?

subjunctive
see

stupefy This word, meaning `bewilder or

The subjunctive
matical set (`mood') of forms of a verb used
is the gram-

amaze', is sometimes misspelt. Note the to express possibilities or wishes rather than
ending -efy (like putrefy), in spite of the facts. With most verbs the subjunctive
spelling of the related word stupid.
form is its basic form minus the -s ending
stupor .
This word, meaning `a drowsy of the third person singular, but
the past tense subjunctive were.
to be

The sub-
has
dazed state': in a drunken stupor, is some-

.
times misspelt. Note the final -or, as in junctive is largely falling into disuse but

. . .
torpor, rather than -our.
survives in such idioms as: be that as it may

subconscious unconscious or ? Both these may.

as it were far be it from me come what

adjectives mean `without (full) awareness', The main use of subjunctives is in clauses in-
◆
troduced by and expressing a proposal, desire,
: .
but implies a greater degree of
.
subconscious that

.
consciousness than or necessity: .
.
unconscious a subcon- It is vital that she leave immediately
.
◆ In psychology both words relate to parts of the ..
scious desire unconscious resentment I suggested to Mark that he drop in for a coffee

mind that can influence behaviour.

sometime They demanded that he answer their
. This usage is more popular in American
has the additional senses of `not English than in British English, where
questions
is
conscious',`unaware',and`unintentional': . .
Unconscious should
often inserted before the verb:
..
He lay It is vital that
.
..
unconscious for two hours They were uncon- she should leave immediately
scious of the danger The other use of subjunctives is in clauses in-
It was an unconscious
. troduced by , or :.
.
insult if, though supposing If you were

subject The .
to go, you might regret it It's not as though he
of a clause or sentence
subject
. It is now very unusual to use such
were a bachelor
is the noun, pronoun, or phrase that con-
trols the verb (see also ACTIVE; PASSIVE). The
a construction with any subjunctive form other
than . were
subject usually precedes the verb, unless the
IF; WERE or WAS?
See also

. subordinate clause see CLAUSE.

clause or sentence is a question. In the

.
sentence: The dog buried the bone, the
dog is the subject. In the sentence:
like them?, the pronoun
Does he

is the subject.
subpoena This word, referring to a writ

◆ In more complex sentences, the subject may be a

he
requiring a person to appear in court, is

clause,suchas inthesentence: .
Why she resigned
sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the

Why she resigned remains a mystery . Æ bpeena

-oe-. The pronunciations [su Æ ] or [su
Æ-

The subject determines the form of the verb: a Æ]

peena are both acceptable.
The word comes from the Latin ,
singular subject is used with a singular verb and a ◆
meaning `under penalty'.
sub poena

pluralsubjectisusedwithapluralverb: . She often

The present participle of the verb
[singular subject , singular `issue with a subpoena' is ; the past
subpoena

verb ]. .
goes to the cinema she
subpoenaing
goes
[plural subject , plural verb ]. .
The children go to school by bus
tense and past participle are , pro-
subpoenaed
children go
. In the last example, note
The legs
nounced [- neÆd].
pee

subsequent
of the table are loose
that the verb agrees with , not with
the legs the see CONSEQUENT or SUBSE-
table. QUENT?
Compare OBJECT. subsidence
See alsoPREDICATE; SINGULAR or PLURAL? The traditional pronunciation

subjective see OBJECTIVE or SUBJECTIVE? .

of this word, which means `falling or sink-
Æ bsõÅdeÆns].
ing': cracks due to subsidence, is [su

sub judice ◆ The alternative pronunciation [ sideÆns] is also

sub
The legal term sub judice is
widely used and is generally acceptable.
subsidiarity
Latin in origin and is used to refer to a case
that is still being considered by a court of The noun subsidiarity is often
law and therefore cannot be discussed in used in the context of the European Union,
 291 suffer from
where it refers to the principle that political succeed ACCEDE EXCEED
see or ?
decisions should be made at the lowest
level. Thus some issues may be dealt with
successfully successivelyor ? These two
adverbs are sometimes confused. Success-
by countries that belong to the EU rather

.
fully means `with success'; successively
than by the EU itself.

subsidiary .
means `in succession': The surgeons oper-
The noun and adjective sub- ated successfully. The sales figures fell for

sidiary, which means `auxiliary; subordi- several months successively.

nate', is sometimes misspelt. Note that
the word ends in -iary, not -uary or -ary.
such The use of the construction such . . .

substance abuse substance misuse .

that (or such . . . who) in place of such . . . as

.
or ? is avoided by careful users: such tools as
These terms are often treated as synon- [not that] are needed for the job such people

ymous, although substance abuse always im- as [not who] are eligible for supplementary
plies deliberate misuse of drugs, chemicals, benefit.

◆ The construction may, however,

be used to indicate a result: .
etc., while substance misuse can encompass such . . . that
both deliberate and accidental misuse. He earns such a

substantial or substantive? Both these pittance that he can't afford to buy food for his
.
family
adjectives refer to the basic substance or
The use of or such before an adjective
such a/an
essence of something, but neither is in
preceding a noun, in the sense of `so' or `very', is
frequent use in this sense. Substantial usual-
disliked by a few users but acceptable to most: .
etc.': .
ly means `of considerable size, importance,
. ..
.
Such careless driving should not go unpunished I
a substantial improvement a sub-
.
..
have never seen such a small house You have

used to mean `real; firm': .

stantial meal . Substantive , a rarer word, is
such beautiful clothes It was such a difficult
substantive
.
question

◆ In grammar, the word

measures to curb inflation .
The phrase is reserved for construc-
is a noun or tionsdescribingtheconsequencesofsomething: .
such that
substantive
adjective relating to words that have the function
of a noun. The gravity of the situation was such that the

Note that substantial is stressed on the second See also SUCH AS or LIKE?
whole project was threatened.

syllable [suÆb shaÆl]. As a noun is

stressed on the first syllable [ staÆntiv], but as such as or like?
stan substantive

an adjective it is more frequently stressed on the example; introduces a comparison: .

sub introduces an
Such as

second syllable [suÆb tiv].

like

. .
stan
Some people object to the use of as
Dairy products, such as milk and cheese,

a pretentious synonym for `large', `big', etc.; .

substantial should be kept in a cool place Dairy

..
a
. The increasing tendency to use
products, like fresh meat, should be kept in

. .
substantial pay rise
in this sense is widely regarded as
a cool place He directed several horror films,

incorrect: .
substantive such as Dracula He directed several horror

Substantive numbers of students are .

. ◆ The potentially ambiguous use of in place of
films like Dracula
opting for more vocational courses like

substitute see REPLACE or SUBSTITUTE? is disliked by some people but frequently

occurs in general usage: .
such as

subsume The verb

He gave Danielle gifts
means `incor- like a £1,500 ruby and diamond necklace, a
( ).
subsume
porate within a larger category or group' or matching ring and earrings Daily Telegraph
The use of in place of is largely
restricted to formal contexts: .
`classify under a general rule or heading'; it such as like

nym for `include' or `contain': .

should not be used as a pretentious syno- Shoes such as
.
for : .
these are ideal for indoor sports
Careful users avoid substituting
The concept
such as as
[not ]
of a classless society is subsumed within the

doctrine of Marxism . When the Post Office is closed, as such as on

subtle This word, meaning `slight', `un- ..

Sundays, stamps may be obtained from the ma-

derstated', or `ingenious': .
chine outside The pizza can be cooked in a

.
subtle differences
[not
number of ways, as by ]such as by baking it in
in meaning subtle innuendoes , is sometimes
a hot oven for twenty minutes . In the second
misspelt. Note particularly the -b- in the
example may be
as by replaced by . such as

suffer from or suffer with?

middle of the word.
◆ The word is pronounced [ aÆl]. sut Suffer from
SUFFIXES 292
-ed 1 (used to make the past tense and
past participles of verbs): .
means `have (an illness or disability)'; suffer

because of (an illness or disability)': . .

with means `experience pain or discomfort extended
2 showing or having a
. . quality or state: . .
I suffer gained
from hay fever I have been suffering with surprised long-
. sightedsee -ED or -T?
is often followed by a possessive. It -ee
my hay fever today

1 a person to whom something is

done or given: .
◆ Suffer with
should not be used in place of .
suffer from 2a
addressee
person in a particular state or
SUFFIXES condition: . see -EE or -ER?
refugee
-eer a person who does something or is
Suffixes are elements attached to the ends of words concerned with something: .
and include: . . . . . .
1 (cause to) become: .
-ism -ful -dom -logy -ship mountaineer
Cross-references, e.g. see -ABLE or -IBLE?, are also -en 2
made of: .
harden
included to main entries in the
-enabled capable of working with: .
Good Word Guide wooden
where there is a fuller discussion. WAP-
See also PREFIXES and SUFFIXES. enabled see ENABLE
-ence, -ency see -ance
-able -ible 1 able to be . . .: . 2 that -ent see -ant
may cause: .
enjoyable
3 that -er 1 (also -r) (used to make the
,

belongs to: . comparativeofadjectives): . .

objectionable
see -ABLE
. 2 (also -or) a person or
fashionable faster
or -IBLE?
an action, condition, or charge: . thing that does something: .
nicer tidier
-age
. . .
cooker
3 a person
obsessed by . . .; addicted to: . working in a job: . .
breakage postage sailor transmitter
-aholic
4 a person who lives in a place: .
writer painter
see -AHOLIC
1anaction: . 2relatingto: .
shopaholic
-al 5 a person or thing that
. . has or is something: .
removal Londoner
postal central dental teenager
-an, -ian 1 (a person) coming from a country: see -EE or -ER?; -ER or -OR?
. 2 a person who is an -ery, -ry 1 a place where an activity or
expert at something: . business is done: .
Canadian
2 a group
of things: . 3 a condition: .
bakery

4 the practice of: .

mathematician cutlery
-ance, -ence, -ancy, -ency
a quality, state, or action: .
bravery cookery
-es see -S
. -ese a place of origin or language: .
.
assistance ascendancy
-ant, -ent (a person or thing) that does
something: . . . -ess
Chinese journalese
(used to make the feminine of
nouns): . .
pleasant student
see -ANT or -ENT? see -ESS
like;belongingto: . .
dependent lioness countess
-ar -est (used to make the superlative of
1 connected with: . adjectives): . .
solar molecular
-ary 2a
person doing something: . 1 small: .
monetary fastest tidiest
-ette 2 (used to make
3 a place for: . feminine nouns): .
cigarette

1 having a quality: .
missionary aviary usherette
-ate 2 a -fold having a number of parts or
chemical compound: . multiplied by a number: .
fortunate
3
cause to have or become: . 1 having a quality: .
carbonate fivefold
-ful 2 the
amount that a . . . can hold: .
painful
see -ATE
(used to make adjectives): .
hyphenate
-atic see -FUL
makeorbecome: . .
spoonful
-fy, -ify
an action, state, or condition: . -gate a political scandal: .
problematic simplify liquefy
-ation see
.
Irangate
-GATE
-babble jargon: . an angle: .
pronunciation moderation
see -BABBLE -gon
killing: .
technobabble polygon
-cide -hood a state or condition; time of being
a state or quality: . something: . .
insecticide
-cy
1 a state or condition: .
secrecy manhood childhood
-dom 2 -i (a person) belonging to a region or
an area ruled: . people: . .
freedom
3 a group
of people: .
kingdom Iraqi Bangladeshi
officialdom -ian see -an
 293 SUFFIXES
-ible see -able -man a person who lives in a place or does
-ic, -ical relatedto: . . poetic see -IC
fanatical something: . chairman
or -ICAL? -ment a state, condition, quality, result, or
-ice (used to make abstract nouns): . process: . .
.
enjoyment management

the furthest: .
cowardice arrangement
-ics a science, subject, or group of -most
activities: . . .
eastmost
-ness a state, quality, or condition;
example of this: . .
physics politics
see -ICS
a chemical compound: .
acrobatics kindness
-ide
person connected with . . .: .
cyanide brittleness
-ie see -y -nik
-ify see -fy see -NIK
made of; like; connected with: . like: .
refusenik
-ine -oid humanoid
-or see -er
1 a place for: .
crystalline
-ing 1 (used to make the present -ory 2 having
participle of verbs): . a quality: .
observatory
2 an
action, process, or result; thing: . having a quality: .
eating contributory
-ous
. .
poisonous
see -phile (a person) liking something very
much: .
meeting wedding welding
-ING FORMS
an action, process, or state: . -phobia fear: .
francophile
-ion
. resisting something: .
claustrophobia
-proof
having a quality: .
creation tension waterproof
-ious -r see -er
outburst of anger: .
suspicious
-ise see -ize -rage road rage
-ish 1 (belonging to) a country or -ry see -ery
language: . 2 about: . -s, -es 1 (used to make plurals): . .
. 2 (used to make the
Swedish books
3 like, having the bad
qualities of: . .
seventyish pencils horses
third person singular of present
4 to some extent: . . tense of verbs): . .
childish foolish

of. . .: . . .
brownish eats rides
-'s
1asystemofbeliefs,etc.: . .
tallish John's house's children's
-ism see 'S or S'?
2 a quality, practice, or action: . 1 a state: . 2 a skill: .
socialism houses'
-ship
.
friendship
see -ISM
causing: .
heroism criticism craftsmanship
-ist 1 (a person) following a system of -some
beliefs,etc.: . jargon, characteristic language: .
troublesome
2aperson -speak
who does something: .
communist
see
motorist computerspeak see -SPEAK
-IST or -ITE? -th 1 (used to make adjectives from
-ite (used in the name of a chemical numbers): . 2 a state: .
substance): .
fifth width
-tion an action, process, state, or result;
a disease: . thing: . .
bauxite
-itis
a quality, state, or condition: .
tonsillitis completion imagination
-ity, -ty -ty see -ity
. -ward, -wards
in a direction: .
stupidity flexibility
-ive that will cause something; having a see
quality: . .
homewards
-WARD or -WARDS?
make or become: . showing direction: .
productive digestive
-ize, -ise see -IZE
equalize -ways see
sideways
or -ISE? -WISE or -WAYS?
-less not having: . -wise 1 in such a way: . 2 as far
something small: . as . . . is concerned: .
harmless crosswise
-let
like: .
droplet weatherwise
-like see -LIKE see -WISE or -WAYS?
someone or something small: .
dreamlike
-ling -woman awomanwholivesin aplaceordoes
something: .
a science or subject: . . 1havingaquality: . . .
duckling saleswoman
-logy biology -y dusty sandy
2 (also -ie) (used as an
1 (used to make adverbs): . affectionatename)small: . .
geology sunny
-ly
2 having qualities of: . .
nicely bunny
3 the act of doing
3 happening at regular times: . something; condition or state: .
brotherly daddy auntie

yearly enquiry . envy

sui generis 294
sui generis The Latin expression sui gen- degree', to coin new nouns and adjectives: .
.
eris is used in formal contexts to refer to a a superbug that is resistant to most antibiotics

.
unique person or thing, one that is in a class those superfit people who put the rest of us to

of its own: The taxation rules were sui shame.

generis, and could not be applied generally. See also MACRO- and MICRO-; MEGA-.
◆ The expression means literally `of its own kind' supercilious This word, meaning `haughty
and is pronounced [sooi eÆris]. jen

suit suite
in a condescending disdainful manner', is
or ? These two nouns should not sometimes misspelt. Note the single c and
be confused. A suit is a set of clothes, one of single l.

.
the four sets of playing cards, or an action
. superior The adjective
.
superior is followed

.
in a court of law: a trouser suit to follow
by the preposition to: This wine is superior
suit a lawsuit. A suite is a set of furniture, a
to the wine we had in the restaurant.
set of rooms, a group of followers, or a
superlative see COMPARATIVE and SUPERLA-
. .
musical composition with several move-
TIVE.
.
ments:
supersede
to reupholster a suite the honey-

a ballet suite.
and are most frequently confused in
moon suite This word, meaning `replace',
◆ Suit suite
the expressions (a pair of trousers, mistake is to confuse the ending with
is sometimes misspelt. The most frequent
three-piece suit
a jacket, and a waistcoat) and (a the
-sede
three-piece suite
sofa and two armchairs).
ending of .
comes from the Latin
-cede precede

Note the difference in pronunciation between `to sit above'.

◆ Supersede supersedere,

the two words: is pronounced [sweet]; is supervise

suite suit
, meaning `oversee': .
pronounced [soot] or [syoot], although the last of Supervise

these pronunciations is becoming less frequent sometimes misspelt; the ending cannot
She supervised , is
the plans for the party

and may be considered old-fashioned. : see -IZE or -ISE?

-ise

suite or sweet? These two words are be◆ Note spelt

also the ending of , not .
-ize
-or supervisor -er
occasionally confused since they are both
pronounced [sweet]. variously means supine PROSTRATE PRONE see , orSUPINE?
. supper DINNER LUNCH TEA
Suite
SUIT or SUPPER?
SUITE?): .
`set of matching furniture', etc. (see or see , ,
a new suite of software applications
. supplement COMPLEMENT see or SUPPLE-
MENT
This suite is the composer's masterpiece. He

It should not ?

suppose supposing
arrived with a suite of advisers.

.
be confused with sweet, which as a noun or ? Either word may
refers to a chocolate, toffee, etc.: What is be used to introduce a suggestion or hy-

.
and as an adjective
.
your favourite sweet? pothesis, suppose being preferred by some

. .
means `sugary', `pleasing', `kind', etc.:
.
a users in formal contexts: Suppose/Suppos-
sweet taste a sweet gesture How sweet of ing we sell the car? Suppose/Supposing the
them! train is late.
summon summons or ? To summon is to ◆ Only
`assuming': .
can be used in the sense of `if' or
supposing
I'll buy her some chocolates on the
.
send for, call upon, or muster; to summons
way home, supposing the corner shop is still open
.
is to serve with a legal summons (an order
to appear in court):
.
I was summoned to the
suppress see OPPRESS, REPRESS or SUPPRESS?
managing director's office.

monsed for speeding.

He was sum-
sure This word, pronounced [shor], is
The verb may be used in place of the sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the
:.
◆ summon
verb . at the beginning of the word.
is used as a ◆ The use of as an intensifying adverb is
summons He was summoned for speeding su-

Of the two words only sure

noun: . disliked by many people and is best restricted to
summons

.. . very informal contexts: .

I received a summons from the managing
director He received a summons for speeding I was sure relieved to see

sunk sunken SANK, SUNK or SUNKEN? your car.

surf SERF
, see

super- see or SURF?

surprised
Some people object to the frequent
use of the prefix super-, in the sense of Surprised is followed by the pre-
`surpassing all others' or `to an excessive position by in the sense of `taken unawares'
 295 swelled
. .
.
and by at in the sense of `amazed': The citement': Don't keep me in suspense any

thief was surprised by the owner of the car. I longer! Suspension means `the act of sus-
was surprised at her ignorance. pending' or `the state of being suspended';
◆ In the second sense may also be it is also used in the figurative senses of
surprised
followed by an infinitive with or a clause intro- `interruption; deferment; postponement'
duced by : . . . and `temporary debarment or expulsion':
to

. .
that He was surprised to see you
They were surprised that we won .
The idiomatic use of a DOUBLE NEGATIVE in such
the suspension of an insurance policy The

sentences as
offending players face suspension from the

. The two nouns are not interchange-

I shouldn't be surprised if it doesn't
is acceptable to most users in informal con- able in any context.
team
rain
texts, provided that the meaning is clear. The suspicious see SUSPECT or SUSPICIOUS?
construction is best avoided if there is a risk of
ambiguity. sustainable In modern usage the adjective
surveillance This word, meaning `careful sustainable has developed a specialized ap-

.
observation', is usually pronounced [servay- plication to natural resources that can be

.
Æ ns]. The pronunciation [servaye
le Æ ns], imi- renewed: sustainable forests, and to activ-

tating the French original, sounds rather ities that do not damage the environment:
sustainable development.
affected.

susceptible The adjective susceptible is swam swum or ? Swam is the past tense of
.
.
followed by the preposition to in the sense the verb swim; swum is the past participle:
of `easily influenced or affected' and by of The dog swam to the shore. the lake where
they had swum.

. .
in the formal sense of `capable' or `admit-
ting':
hay fever .
susceptible to flattery susceptible to

susceptible of a different inter-

swap swopor ? Both spellings are accep-

. .
table for this informal word meaning `ex-
pretation.

◆ Note that ends in , not .The

susceptible -ible -able
change': to swap stamps swop homes for a

-sc- combination can also cause spelling mistakes. holiday. Swap

ling, but
is the more traditional spel-
is a frequently used variation.
suspect suspicious The Middle English from which the
swop

or ? The word ◆ swappen

word originates meant `to strike', from the custom
suspect

may be used as a verb, noun, or adjective.

Suspicious functions only as an adjective. In of striking or shaking hands on a bargain.
its adjectival sense of `causing suspicion' or
swat swotor ? These spellings are some-

.
`open to suspicion', suspect is sometimes

.
times confused. Swat means `strike with a

.
virtually synonymous with suspicious: a
blow': to swat flies. This word may also be
suspect/suspicious package The scheme
spelt swot, although this spelling is disliked
sounds rather suspect/suspicious. However,

.
by many careful users. Swot is an informal

.
only suspicious can be used in the sense
word meaning `study hard': swotting for
of `feeling or showing suspicion': The
exams.

sweet DESSERT SWEET

police were suspicious [not suspect] of her

behaviour. Similarly, only suspect can be see , , PUDDING or

AFTERS SUITE SWEET
. .
used in the sense of `possibly false or un- ?; or ?
reliable':
system is suspect.
a suspect banknote
As a noun, suspect
The braking
describes
swelled swollen
or ? Either word may be
used as the past participle of the verb swell.
a person who is under suspicion of being
Swelled is the more neutral form; swollen
responsible for a crime or other misdeed.
◆ Note the difference in pronunciation between .
often indicates an undesirable or harmful

the verb , which is stressed on the second

suspect
increase or expansion:
.
The population has

syllable [suÆs ], and the noun and adjective;

pekt
swelled in recent years. The disaster fund was

stressed on the first syllable [ pekt].sus

.
swelled by a generous contribution from the

suspense suspension .
mayor. His wrist has swollen to twice its

or ? Both these normal size. The stream was swollen by the

:.
nouns are derived from the verb suspend, melted snow.

The past tense of is always

..
meaning `hang'. is largely re- ◆ swell swelled The
.
Suspense

is the usual form of the adjective: .

stricted to the figurative sense of `a state population swelled His wrist swelled
of uncertainty, anxiety, insecurity, or ex- Swollen She
swingeing 296
..
crammed a few more sweets into her swollen She is suffering from the only-child syndrome.

pockets My ankle is badly swollen. The adjective ◆ In medicine the noun denotes a group syndrome
is largely restricted to the informal Amer- of signs and symptoms that indicate a physical or
, denoting con- mental disorder: .
swelled
ican English phrase swelled head . Down's syndrome
ceit, which is usually replaced by in synecdoche This term, describing a word
swollen head
British English.
swingeing
that is used to refer to something of which
Note the pronunciation and it is just a part, is sometimes misspelt. Note

. .
spelling of this word, which means `severe': particularly the -y- and the -doche ending,
swingeing cuts in public expenditure and do not be tempted to put an -h- after
swingeing tax increases. The word is pro-
.
the first -c- as well. An example of synec-
nounced [swinjing]; the -e- distinguishes it doche is: I've got some wheels so we can drive
from swinging and indicates the softness of
The word is pronounced [si doÆkee].
over there tonight.
the g. ◆ nek
SPELLING 3.
`to synergy, pronounced
See also
◆ The word derives from Old English swengan
In technical contexts the noun

beat or flog'. synergy with a soft sound g

swipe The verb swipe has acquired a new

[sineÆji], denotes the combined action and
increased effect of two or more drugs,
meaning with the advent of electronic muscles, etc., working together. The intro-
credit and debit cards, etc., describing
.
duction of the noun synergy into general

.
the action of passing such a card through usage is disliked by some: Synergy, as
an electronic reading device: Let me swipe business people know, is bringing several ele-
your card for you. Careful users restrict the ments together to make a product greater than
word to informal contexts.
.
the parts (Islwyn Borough Council adver-

swollen see SWELLED or SWOLLEN? tisement). [of the Cadbury-Schweppes

swop see SWAP or SWOP?

merger] The growth of

has provided the magic synergy which such

vending machines

swot see SWAT or SWOT? mergers are always supposed to produce (The

syllable A syllable is a unit of a word that

Guardian).

◆ The concept of synergy is sometimes explained

contains a vowel sound or something that in mathematical terms as 2+2=5.
resembles a vowel sound. The words
tune, and through have one syllable; the
by,
synonymous Note the spelling of this
words doctor, table, and open have two word, particularly the vowel sequence -y-
o-y-o.

The phrase means `being a

syllables; the word secretary has three syl-
◆ synonymous with
synonym of', but in general contexts it is frequently
lables if the a is not sounded and four

usedinthesenseof`closelyassociatedwith': .
syllables if the a is sounded.

syllabus The plural of this word, which ..

The

..
verb `jump' is synonymous with `leap' Our name
means `the subjects studied in a particular is synonymous with excellence Loft living car is
course', is usually syllabuses. Syllabi, pro- synonymous with the affluent young urbanite life-
nounced [-bõÅ], is the less frequent plural .
style
form. ANTONYM.
See also
symbol The noun symbol is followed by
syphon see SIPHON or SYPHON?
. systematic systemic
the preposition of in the sense `an emblem':

.
An olive branch is a symbol of peace, and by or ? The adjective

.
for in the sense `a sign': A diagonal cross is systematic means `methodical; well-ordered;

.
the symbol for multiplication. well-planned': a systematic approach to the

CYMBAL or SYMBOL?
See also problem You must try to be more systematic.

sync see SINK or SYNC? A rare synonym of systematic, the adjective

syndrome
systemic is most frequently found in biolo-
Some people object to the fre- gical contexts, in the sense of `affecting or

. .
quent use of the noun syndrome in non- spreading through the whole system, body,

.
medical contexts to denote any set of plant etc.': a systemic disease a systemic

characteristics, actions, emotions, etc.: fungicide.

 T
-t -ED -T
see or ? tariff This word is sometimes misspelt.

table d'hoÃte On a menu in a restaurant,

Note the single r and the -ff ending.

à te
table d'ho refers to a meal that consists of
set prearranged courses with a limited
task This verb is used in business jargon to
.
mean `assign a job to someone': Susan was
selection of dishes and served to all guests tasked with investigating potential suppliers.

task force A
at a fixed price.
◆ The expression comes from French and means is a group of people
task force

literally `host's table'. Its anglicized pronunciation formed in order to undertake a particular
is [tahbeÆl ]. objective, usually of a military nature: .
.
doÅt The

aÁ LA CARTE.
See also captain led a task force to blow up the bridge.

tactics see -ICS. A task force was sent to the Falklands.

◆ The most frequent use refers to subsections of

tag question see QUESTIONS. the armed forces dispatched to deal with particular
tail tale crises. However, it is sometimes used in a civilian
or ? Tail variously refers to the
context: . A Home Office task force is to inves-

.
flexible rear part of an animal or to the end
tigate the rise in crime.
.
of something:
tasteful tasty
The horse's tail brushed his

face. The tail of the aircraft was riddled with or ? These two adjectives

.
bullet holes. It should not be confused with relate to different senses of the word taste.
tale, meaning `story': a sad tale about Tasteful is applied to things that indicate
doomed love. good taste, in the sense of `aesthetic dis-
take BRING see or TAKE? crimination'; tasty is applied to things that
.
tall HIGH
see or TALL? tasteful furnishings .
have good taste, in the sense of `flavour':
a tasty meal. Careful
tantamount The adjective
.
tantamount is users maintain the distinction between the
two words.
followed by the preposition to:
also has the slang meaning of `sexually
Her offer

attractive': .
◆ Tasty
was tantamount to bribery.
, and is some-
target The noun is now most fre- times used to mean `excellent; notable': .
His sister's rather tasty

.
target a tasty
quently used in its metaphorical meaning . Some people object to
song a tasty little villain
these extended usages.
or : .
of `an aim or goal'. The verb form is more

tautology
recent, and is often followed by on at

.
The advertising campaign is to be carefully Tautology is the avoidable re-

. .
targeted at the 18±25 age group. a benefit petition of an idea already expressed in
which is easy to understand, popular, fair, . . . different words: a new innovation a

.
and actually targets those who genuinely need brief moment. Many well-established Eng-

. . .
(The Guardian). lish phrases contain tautologies: circle

Although many people object to the use of

it
◆ round free gift join together all-time

as a verb, it has a long history: the

cites an example from 1837. ◆ Itisnotdifficulttoavoidthecrudertautologies: .
target , etc.
Oxford record

.
English Dictionary
Note that the final is not doubled in front of ,
suffixes: . .
t a dead corpse an empty bottle with nothing in it
targeted .targeting but many tautologies arise unintentionally from
Targetis often used in expressions such as carelessness about the meanings of words. To
target
, meaning `the date set for the completion of speak of is tautologous because
work, etc.': . . means `unlawful killing'. In .
date unlawful murder
target markets consumer-targeted murder She repeated
material . is redundant as
it again, again means `tosay repeat
tea 298
again'. People also speak of .
.
. tee see TEA or TEE?
SALT talks OPEC
countries ,presumablynotrealizing teem see TEAM or TEEM?
a PIN number
that the word following the abbreviation is a
repetition of the final word of the abbreviation. tele- The prefix , from a Greek word tele-

Tautologies are in general to be avoided but can meaning `far', is found in such words as
sometimes be used deliberately for emphasis: . a , etc. It is in-
television, telephone, telescope

tiny wee mite . . .

creasingly used in the senses of `relating to

tea DINNER
see , LUNCH, TEA or SUPPER? .
television' or `by telephone':
.
telebook
.
tea tee . .
telecast televangelism teleshopping

.
or ? Tea refers to a hot drink or to a telemarketing teleworking Telecommuting

.
light afternoon meal: Would you like a cup is the name given to working from home by

of tea? Time for tea. It should not be linking up to your office computer over the
confused with tee, which refers to the small telephone line (The Guardian). These neolo-

.
peg on which a golfer places the ball before gisms are disliked by some people, despite
playing the first shot of a hole: The ball the fact that most of them retain the ori-
kept rolling off the tee. ginal sense of `far', since a thing transmitted

teach see LEARN or TEACH? by television or telephone must originate at

team or teem ? These two words are

a distance.

telephone see PHONE.

televise
sometimes confused, being identical in pro-
nunciation. Team is most frequently used as This word is often spelt incor-

.
a noun, meaning `group of people (or rectly with a instead of an s.
To avoid mistakes remember that the in
z

.
animals) who work or play together': ◆ s tele-
remains unchanged. is one of the
a

.
vision Televise
verbs ending in that cannot be spelt : see
valuable member of the sales team the

is a verb, meaning `pour' or `bound': .

. -ise -ize
-IZE or -ISE?
captain of the hockey team a team of oxen

.
Teem

It was teeming with rain.

teeming with tourists.
The village was
temerity timidity
or ? The word temerity is

The word is also used as a verb, often sometimes mistakenly used where timidity

followed by , meaning `join to make a team': .

◆ team
is intended, though their meanings are
up
Michael teamed up with Peter. completely different. Temerity means `au-

technical technological
dacity or recklessness'; timidity means `lack-
or ? Technical ing courage or self-confidence; easily
means `having or concerned with special frightened or alarmed'.
practical knowledge of a scientific or me- ◆ The two words are not exact opposites. The
chanical subject'; opposite of
means `using is or ,
timidity courage confidence
which have positive connotations, whereas
technological

science for practical purposes' and is used temer-

has negative ones. It suggests a rash contempt
cal processes: . .
particularly of modern advances in techni- ity
of danger or disapproval, with a lack of reserve
. that may be interpreted as ill-mannered: .
technical skills a technical
. He had
◆ A second meaning of the word is .
college a technological breakthrough

technical the temerity to interrupt the meeting

`marked by a strict interpretation of law or a set temperature
of rules': . .
a technical offence a technical
means `the de- Temperature

advantage . gree of heat or cold as measured on, for

techno-
example, a thermometer'. To take someone's
The prefix techno- relates to art, temperature is to use a thermometer to
craft, technology, or technical matters. determine the person's body heat.
The word is often used to denote abnormally
highbodyheatorfever: . .
Some people object to its frequent use in ◆
the coining of new words in the sense of running a temperature
`relating to high technology, especially She's got a temperature , but this is best avoided in
writing and formal contexts. A metaphorical use of
. .
computers'. may be used with or
describes the emotional state of a
Techno-

.
without a hyphen: temperature
group of people: the is raised or low
technophobia tech-

techno-politics. temperature
according to whether they are agitated or calm.
nofreak
See also HI-TECH.
technological see TECHNICAL or TECHNOLOGI- temporal or temporary ? These two
CAL? words are sometimes confused. Temporal
 299 terminate
. In sentences referring to the future as
.
means `relating to secular, ordinary, or capital city
viewed from the past, the subordinate verb usually
. changestothepasttense: .
worldly things; not spiritual': temporal
matters/authority; `relating to time': I hope they will succeed
becomes .
spatial

.
and temporal connections; and `relating to I hoped they would succeed
the parts of the brain near the temples': The present tense is not used solely in expres-
sions of events in the present. It is frequently used
to express the future: . ..
temporal arteritis. Temporary means `lasting

. .
for only a limited period of time; not I leave on Thursday The
permanent: President speaks to the nation tonight . The present
is also habitually used in newspaper headlines to
temporary accommodation

describepastevents: .
a temporary loss of memory.
◆ The adjective temporarymay be pronounced as Van makes U-turn into path
a three- or four-syllable word, with the stress on (
of coach The Times ).
the first syllable: [ praÆri] or [ poÆraÆri]. The
tem tem The verb form that is generally used for expres-
four-syllable pronunciation is preferred by some sing recent events or actions is the ,
present perfect
careful users. The pronunciation [ paÆri], omit- which is formed by adding to the past parti-
cipleofaverb: . ..
tem have
ting the [-(oÆ)r-] sound, is widely regarded as care-
..
You've already told me He's just
less or incorrect. seen his mother Has she turned up yet? In
The adverb should be stressed on informal American English the simple past tense
isused insuchsentences: . ..
temporarily
the first syllable in British English; the pronuncia-
..
You already told me
tion [tempoÆ ili] is restricted to American English.
rair He just saw his mother and
Did she turn up yet?

temporize EXTEMPORIZE or TEMPORIZE? this form is also beginning to be used in British

see
English.
tense The tense of a verb is a set of forms See also PARTICIPLES; SEQUENCE OF TENSES;
expressing distinctions of time. Some mod- SUBJUNCTIVE; VERBS.
ern grammarians say that fundamentally
terminal terminus
or ? Used as a noun

. .
there are only two real tenses in English,
meaning `end or finishing point' these
the present: It is hot today, and the past: It
words are often synonymous. Both can
was cloudy yesterday. The future is simply
mean the finishing point of a transport

.
formed by the addition of will or shall, etc.:
line, but in Britain terminal is used for
It will be fine tomorrow, and all other
airlines, terminus for railways, while either
changes of tense are marked by using be,
can be used for bus routes. Terminal as an

.
have, or both combined, with the past or

.
adjective can mean `of, at, the end' or

. .
present participle of the verb: She is
`leading to death': a terminal illness.
dancing.
.
He was talking. I'll be thinking
. ◆ Other meanings of as a noun include: `a
terminal
of you.
.
They had ridden for three days. I
device on a wire or battery for an electrical con-
.
shall have finished it by then.
.
They had slept
nection', and `an instrument through which a user
until noon.
.
He had been praying. She has
can communicate with a computer'.
terminate
been working. They will have been travel-
ling all day. Terminate, meaning `bring to an
◆ The tense system becomes more complicated end, form the ending of, close', is increas-
when there is more than one verb in a sentence. In ingly used in the context of ending employ-
such sentences there is a main clause, containing ment. From speaking of
the most important verb, and a subordinate clause
terminating

or clauses containing the other verb(s): .

someone's contract, etc., some people have

.
I thought gone on to use as a synonym for
.Herethemainclause isin
terminated

that I knew him I thought dismissed:

the past tense, and the subordinate clause
The workers were terminated
that I when profits fell.

knew him followstheleadofthemainclauseandis ◆ Terminate is also used of buses and trains to

in the same tense. This is by no means always the mean `stop at a particular place and go no further':
case,foritisquitepossiblefortheclausestoreferto . . An extension of its
different times: .
This train terminates here
. sense `bring to an end' has resulted in its adoption
asaeuphemismforkillingsomeone: .
I believe I met him last week
When the main clause is in the future, the verb of
the subordinate clause is usually in the present: .
Orders have
I gone out for the general to be terminated.
will look him up when I go to London . When the Another popular use relates to ending pregnan-
mainclauseisinthepastbutthesubordinateclause cies. A termination is synonymous with an abor-
expresses some permanent fact, then that clause , although largely confined to medical contexts
canbeinthepresent: .
tion
She had learnt that Paris is a and not the preferred term in popular use.
terminus 300
, with the addition of
Terminated with or , is a
in B4 before
fashionable alternative to in sports BBL be back later
commentaries: .
resulted in
The match terminated in a draw . BCBC beggars can't be choosers
terminus TERMINAL TERMINUS? BRB be right back
see or
Bsy busy
terrible terrific
or ? Terrible can be used as BTDT been there, done that
a general term of disapproval or can mean
. CUl8r see you later
.
`very bad' or `causing distress':
.
a terrible c%l cool
singer a terrible accident a terrible sight. CUO see you online
Terrific,
.
on the other hand, expresses ap- EZ easy
proval:
.
Chartres has a terrific cathedral. F2T free to talk?
Both can mean `unusually great': There's a G2G got to go
terrible/terrific amount of paperwork here. HHOJ ha ha, only joking
◆ The adverbs and
terribly may be used
terrifically LO hello
as intensifiers to express either approval or disap- M8 mate
proval: . .
a terribly/terrifically dull lecture a MMYT mail me your thoughts
terribly/terrifically good book. Msg message
While both words derive from , they are terror NE1 anyone
now far removed from any suggestion of fear. NOYB none of your business
Both should be restricted to informal contexts. PCM please call me
teÃte-aÁ-teÃte This compound, meaning `in- ROTFL
RUOK
rolling on the floor laughing
are you ok?
SWDYT so what do you think?
timate conversation between two people', is

TXT text
of French origin. Note the accents, which

XLNT excellent
should not be omitted when the term is

Xxx kisses
used in English texts.
The anglicized pronunciation is [taytah ].
YYSW yeah, yeah, sure, whatever
◆ tayt

text Since the advent of TEXTMESSAGING, the Zzzz I'm tired

word text has been increasingly used as a
verb to describe the process of sending
than .
is used to link two halves of
.
keyed text from one mobile telephone or Than

.
pager to another: Please text the details to comparisons or contrasts: Jack is taller than

Some people dislike this appropriation Jill. I am wiser now than I was at that time.
Care must be taken with pronouns following
me.
of the noun as a verb but it is now generally ◆
. The general rule is to remember the
missing verb: .
accepted as a standard form. than

text messaging You are older than I (am). If

The introduction of the
there is no obvious implied verb the object
Short Message Service (SMS) in the 1990s,
form follows: . Rather you than me! However,
enabling the transmission of keyed mes-
the form that is considered correct by careful
sages by mobile telephone or pager (text
users sometimes sounds stilted: . She runs
messaging), has led to the development of an
NETSPEAK. is correct, but
is more frequently used. .
faster than he She runs faster
abbreviated form of The small
than him She runs
screen size on which messages appear
faster than he does is both correct and natural-
means that extensive use is made of acro-
sounding.
nyms and other abbreviations, often based
Note that it isincorrect to follow with :
.
than what
on the sound of individual letters and
He is cleverer than [not ]
than what I am.

thankfully
numbers, which are not always immedi-
ately comprehensible. For a selection of As an adverb from thank,

.
these see the table below. thankfully means `in a thankful, relieved,
See also SMILEY. or grateful way': They received the good

.
news thankfully. It is also used to mean `it is
@TEOTD at the end of the day a matter of relief that': Thankfully, he has

10Q thank you survived the operation.

1OTD one of these days ◆ Many people dislike the second use of thank-
2Day today , although it is not as widely objected to as the
fully
4eva for ever similar use of HOPEFULLY. It can also occasionally
 301 their
lead to such ambiguous statements as: . Thank- what I want you to do.. That is what I expected
.
fully, she went to church on Sunday you to do. The use of in place of in such
this that

thank you contexts may be ambiguous and is best avoided.

. that which
Thank you, thanks, many thanks,

etc., are expressions of gratitude: Thank or ? Whether to use that or

depends on whether it appears in a
.
you for a lovely evening. They are also used which

in acceptance: `Have a sweet.' `Thanks, I restrictive or non-restrictive clause. That

.
and are both used in restrictive (or
.
will.', as a polite refusal in conjunction with which
defining) clauses:
.
no: `Have a sweet.' `No, thanks.', in a firm the school that/which they

and less polite refusal: I can manage go to. Note that a restrictive clause is not
preceded by a comma. In non-restrictive
.
without your advice, thank you very much,
and to show pleasure: Now David's got a (or non-defining) clauses, those conveying

.
new job, we're doing very nicely, thank you parenthetical or incidental information,
only can be used:
can indicate responsibility or blame: .
very much. which The programme,

..
◆ Thanks which was broadcast by the BBC, caused

Thanks to your coaching, I passed my exam much controversy. Non-restrictive clauses

Thanks to their incompetence, we lost the con- are always preceded by a comma and,
. , , and unless at the end of a sentence, followed
are general expressions of relief: .
tract Thank heavens thank goodness thank
by one. On the use of or who/whom, see
.
God Thank that

WHO.
◆ Some people dislike the use of in restric-
heavens you're all right. `Peace has been de-
which
tive clauses, maintaining that only can be
clared.' `Thank goodness!'
is sometimes spelt as one word or that
used. However, the usage described aboveis wide-
Thank you
hyphenated, when it is used as a noun or attribu-
tively: . .. spread and generally accepted. is also use- Which
ful to relieve a sentence that already has several
We said our thankyous and left a thank-
.
s: . .
you letter

that That is used as a conjunction or

that His Ford Capri He remembered that that
was the car which [not ] that had run out of petrol
relative pronoun to introduce various types on the M1 .
of clause, and in some cases can be omitted, See also COMMA 3; RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE.
both in written and spoken English. As a
conjunction it can usually be omitted: . I'm
the The is the most frequently used word
in the English language. Its pronunciation
.
sure (that) you're lying. It cannot be left out
when used with a noun: the fact that grass
is usually a straightforward matter. Before
is green, or with certain verbs, usually of a consonants it is pronounced [dheÆ]; before
formal nature, for example assert, contend.
vowels or an unaspirated h it is pronounced
[dhee]. The use of [dhee] before consonants
.
It must not be left out when its omission
could lead to ambiguity: I said last week
has become frequent in recent years, parti-
you were wrong might mean either `I said cularly by broadcasters, but it is disliked by
many people.
that last week you were wrong' or `I said
One use of is to single out one of a class as
the best or most significant of a class: .
◆ the
last week that you were wrong'.
Used as a relative pronoun can be omitted the
. the
Is that

whenitistheobject: .
◆
,butnot
that
Michael Jackson? It's . In
place to go for curry

when it is the subject: .

the man (that) I love
. these cases is emphasized and pronounced
the

The use of as an adverb: .

that
the thing that upsets me
He's not that fat [dhee].
is best avoided in formal contexts. theft BURGLE ROB STEAL
see , or ?

that this or ? The difference between the their there they're

, or ? These three

.
pronouns that and this, referring to objects words are sometimes confused. Their

.
or people, is one of distance. That is further means `of them or belonging to them':

. .
away from the speaker than this: Give me their house. There means `in or to that place':

When the pronouns represent abstract con- : .

that. Take this. over there. They're is a contraction of they
◆ .
cepts, traditionally refers to something in ◆ Another frequent mistake is the wrong spelling
are They're/They are always late

the past (or something previously mentioned), of as . The correct usage is as in: .
that
theirs their's The
whereas refers to something in the future .
(or something about to be mentioned): .
this car was theirs
See also THEY. This is
them 302
them their -ING FORMS. ; where two nouns are regarded as a
single entity: .
or ? see white mice

theme park ,
There is fish and chips for supper
A theme park is an amusement
and where one is considering a situation in its
park in which the displays and entertain-
entirety: . There is my job and career prospects at
ments are organized round one particular
stake .
idea or group of ideas, e.g. space travel or
The use of the contraction followed by a
plural is almost universal in informal speech: .
there's
the Wild West.

themself The reflexive pronoun themself is There's two good films showing , although unac-
ceptable in formal speech and writing.
unacceptable to careful users, being asso-
ciated with the controversial singular usage
of they, them, their, etc. (see THEY): . Some-
they They, them, their, etc., are increasingly
.
being used to refer to singular entities:

.
body has been helping themself to my whisky.
Anyone can apply if they have the qualifica-
Walking through Pilsen, the casual observer
tions.
might easily think themself back in 1945 (The ◆ Such use, in conjunction with anyone, someone,
Times, cited in English Today).
, is well-established and in for-
mations such as: .
no one, everyone

thence Thence is a formal and almost No one's seen John, have they?
is becoming generally acceptable. However, many
archaic word with three meanings: `from
. careful users object to such phrases as a person on
there, from that place': We drove to York
their own . The use of and has a male bias
he his
and thence to Scotland;
.
`from that premise,
unacceptable to many, while or
he or she his or her
or for that reason': She proved that x was an
often sounds clumsy or stilted. Probably the best
.
even number and thence that it must be 42;
solution is to make the noun plural to agree with
and `from that time': His wife died ten

years ago and thence he has become a recluse.

they or : .
their people on their own .
◆ As from is contained in the meaning of thence it HE or SHE; THEMSELF.
See also
is incorrect to say from thence (see HENCE; they're see THEIR, THERE or THEY'RE?
WHENCE).
Thence is sometimes mistakenly used to mean third or thirdly? see FIRST or FIRSTLY?
`to there', instead of the even more archaic thither . third-generation This adjectival phrase,

there THEIR THERE

see , or THEY'RE? denoting something that belongs to a third

there are THERE IS

developmental stage, is particularly asso-
see or THERE ARE? ciated with computer technology, but has

therefore Therefore
.
means `for that reason,
phones: .
also come to be applied to mobile tele-
These third-generation phones offer
consequently, as this proves': I dislike
vast new commercial possibilities.

. third world
worms; therefore I avoid digging the garden.
Scotland is part of Great Britain; therefore see DEVELOPMENT.
normally appears at the beginning of thirst
the Scots are British.

.
The verb thirst is followed by the
◆ Therefore
a clause and is not followed by a comma. If it preposition for or after:
[or They thirsted for

appears parenthetically within a clause it has a ] . after revenge

comma before and after: . this Careful users avoid using as an

It appears, therefore,
.
this

and THUS are not always such definite articles as , , , etc.: .

that he must be guilty intensifier before a noun in the place of
Note that
synonymous: .
therefore
[i.e. ]
a an the
She spoke thus in such a way . Then this bloke came along and this police-

there is there are

or ? Normally, there is
man told him to keep his distance.

See also NEXT or THIS?; THAT or THIS?

. . thoroughfare
should precede a singular noun, and there
are a plural: There is a black car outside. The noun thoroughfare,
There are three bottles on the table. However, meaning `way through', is sometimes mis-
there is is widely used in various expressions spelt and/or mispronounced, the most fre-
where is formally correct. quent error being the substitution of
These include situations where the plural noun is
there are

regarded as a single unit: .

◆ - for -.
through thorough

; where the first of a list of nouns is though see ALTHOUGH or THOUGH?

There is three tons of

. thrash or thresh? The verb

coal here
singular: There is a rabbit, two gerbils, and some thrash means
 303 tobacconist
used in speech. is usually more appropriate as
. the first word of a sentence: .
`flog or beat with repeated blows' or `de- Until

.
feat': Until they go we
.
As a child, he was frequently thrashed
by his father. We thrashed the opposition. shall have no peace
means `separate seeds of cereal from Till is not an abbreviation of so ' and '
until til till
are incorrect.
Thresh
husks by beating'.
, usually with , can also mean `move timidity see TEMERITY or TIMIDITY?
violently': .
◆ Thrash about

, and is used in the idiomatic phrasal verb tire or tyre? The rubber outer part of a
He thrashed his arms about like a
windmill
meaning `discuss in detail until a solu- wheel is known as a
tion is found': .
thrash out in American tire
English and as a
Let's thrash out this problem in British English.
.
tyre

The two words are occasionally confused, partly interest': . .

together can also mean `grow weary' or `lose
Tire

because , with the meaning given above, is

He never tires of being with me.

thresh .
sometimes spelt .
They seem to tire of cricket very quickly
thrash
titillate or titivate? Literally,
threshold
titillate

Note that there is only one h in means the same as tickle but it is almost

.
the middle of this word, unlike in the word always used figuratively in the sense of
withhold. `stimulate or arouse pleasantly': Her in-

◆ Threshold may be pronounced either [ thresh- terest titillated his vanity. Titivate is occa-
hoÅld] or [ oÅld].
.
thresh sionally confused with titillate, but its

threw or through ? Threw

.
is the past
meaning is `tidy or smarten up':
titivate myself for the party.
I must

participle of the verb throw: She threw

◆ is sometimes used to mean `excite mild
Titillate
the ball up in the air. It should not be sexual pleasure' and in modern usage it often has
confused with through,
.
which means negative connotations of superficiality or self-in-
.
`across', `among', or `past': He ran through
dulgence: . Readers of sensationalist tabloids are
the grass. They fought their way through the
.
titillated by reports of sexual offences
mob.
Note the spelling of , especially the
titillate -t-

thus The slightly formal adverb and (unlike the single of

-ll- -v- ). titivate

titles
thus

.
means `in such a manner, in the way Generally the titles of literary works,
indicated, consequently': His father died musical works, works of art, films, etc., are

.
in a hunting accident and he thus became a set in italics or, in handwriting and type-

means `to this extent, up to now': . night. . She sang the title role in
baron.

..
script, underlined: I saw King Lear last

..
◆ Thus far Carmen
Thus far we have succeeded Go thus far but no
.
Constable's .
◆ The Bible and the names of its individual books
Flatford Mill
further
The word , sometimes used in American are not set in italics, and neither are the Talmud,
thusly
English, is unacceptable in written or spoken Brit- the Torah, or the Koran.
ish English. Titles of newspapers and periodicals are set in
See also THEREFORE. italics. Normally the definite article before the
tide or tied? refers to the ebb and and name is not italicized: . the . Daily Mail The Times
Tide
are exceptions.
The Economist

thing in a particular direction: .

flow of the sea or a movement of some-
The titles of long poems are usually set in italics,
. but short ones in inverted commas: . Keats's
The tide

rolled in until the rock was covered.

. Keats's `To Autumn'.
The tide
Endymion
of opinion appears to be flowing against the

It should not be confused

See also MS, MRS or MISS?
to too
prime minister.

.
with tied, the past tense and past participle or ? These two spellings are some-
of the verb tie: He tied his bootlace. times confused. To is used with the infini-

till until
or
.
? Both words mean `up to the
tive and as a preposition; too
.
is an adverb,
.
. .
meaning `also' or `excessively': to go home

.
time that, up to as far as': I will work until
Give it to me. too much noise Mary came
I drop. Carry on till you reach the traffic
too.

is tobacconist This word, for a person or

lights.
◆ They are interchangeable although until
slightly more formal and is more likely to be shop that sells tobacco, cigarettes, cigars,
till
together with 304
etc., is sometimes misspelt. Like tobacco, liquid capacity, especially a unit of 210
there is a single and -cc-; note also the gallons.
, and are all pronounced the
-b-
single -n-. ◆ Ton, tonne tun

together with same [tun].

. too
Together with means `in
addition to': The chairman of the company, see TO or TOO?
together with three of the directors, has re-

signed. Note that the verb has agrees with

torpor This word, meaning `inactive con-
dition', is sometimes misspelt. Note the
the singular noun chairman: the phrase
final -or, as in stupor, rather than -our.

tortuous torturous
introduced by together with does not form
part of the subject of the sentence. or ? means
If is replaced by , the verb
Tortuous

becomes plural: . .
◆ together with and `twisting; winding' and, figuratively, `com-

.
The chairman of the company plex, devious, or overelaborate':
.
a tortuous

and three of the directors have resigned road a tortuous policy. Torturous comes

toilet lavatory loo bathroom

, , or ? Toilet,
from torture

agonizing or painful': .
and means `inflicting torture;
a torturous illness.

able in British English: .

lavatory, and loo are virtually interchange-
is sometimes used to mean `compli-
◆ Torturous

.. ..
cated'
I need to go to the
or `twisted', but careful users restrict it to
toilet We're out of lavatory paper
the use suggesting physical or mental pain. The
Where's

the loo? Bathroom is used in American

context often leads to confusion: . a tortuous
English as a synonym for , but in toilet
might mean a complex one or might be
decision
Britain its main meaning is a room contain-
a mistake for ± one that is
a torturous decision
ing a bath but not necessarily a toilet.
is probably the most widely used term in painful to make.
British English, although is very commonly used total is used as a noun: .
◆ Toilet

, a verb: .
loo
in all but the most formal situations.
Total The total was

is usually used on signs in public places.

115 Profits this year total one

is often considered a tive suggesting completeness: .

Toilets , and an intensifying adjec-
The use of or
million pounds

.
toilet lavatory
class marker in Britain. Upper- and middle-class
a total fail-
. As a verb, it is also used
people tend to use , while lower-middle (chiefly in American English) as a slang
ure a total stranger

and regard term meaning `wreck' or `destroy utterly': .

lavatory
and working-class people use toilet
lavatory as affected or impolite. is classless. Loo
◆ Some people dislike the use of as an
He has totalled the car.

tolerance or toleration? Both these words intensifying adjective synonymous with or

total
utter
are nouns from , but
tolerate is `the
tolerance
, maintaining that
complete the word should be
act of tolerating': .
capacity to tolerate', while is `the
used only when there is a sense of parts being
toleration

.
.
added to produce a whole as in: .
His tolerance is unlimited
. the total cost
Her toleration of his habits demonstrates her
Another disputed use is where the noun already
is generally used with reference to suggests totality; some people think is re-
good nature .
total
◆ Tolerance
respect for the beliefs of others, although in the dundant in phrases like or total annihilation the

context of official government policy, is . sum total

used: . tour de force The French expression

toleration
.
religious toleration
has several technical meanings in
tour

Tolerance is used to refer to a performance or

mathematics, statistics, physics, and medicine: achievement that shows great skill,
de force

an accepted deviation from a standard measure- strength, etc.: . .

ment; the ability of substances to endure heat, ◆ The expression is sometimes spelt with hyphens,
a theatrical tour de force

stress, etc., without being damaged; the capacity . Its plural is

tour-de-force . The tours de force
of a person's body to withstand harmful sub- singular and plural are both pronounced [toor
stances, etc. deÆ ]. fors

ton tonne tun

, or ? Ton and tonne are both tourniquet This word, meaning `a ban-
large units of weight. In Britain, a ton (or dage tied tightly round an arm or leg to
long ton) is equal to 2240 pounds. In the stop bleeding', may be pronounced [toorni-
USA, a (or short ton) is 2000 pounds. A kay] or [tornikay] in British English.
◆ In American English the final syllable is pro-
ton

(or metric ton) is equal to 1000 kilo-

nounced [-keÆt].
tonne
grams. A tun is a large beer cask or a unit of
 305 transformation
toward towardsor ? In British English unions, is the , and this title
Trades Union Congress
is a rare adjective meaning `afoot', should be used when referring to that organiza-
tion.
toward
`imminent', or `favourable' or a variant of
towards, the usual form of the preposition
trafficker This word is sometimes mis-
. .
meaning `in the direction of' or `with re-

.
spelt. The word traffic adds a k before
gard to': They walked towards the hotel.

is more frequently used See .also SPELLING 1.

the suffixes -er, -ed, and -ing: drug traf-

The preposition
What are his feelings towards her?
fickers .
illegal arms trafficking
◆ toward
in American English.
See also -WARD or -WARDS?
The adjective toward toÅ
trait This word may be pronounced [tray]
is pronounced [ aÆrd]; the or [trayt], although careful users prefer the
preposition is pronounced [toÆ
toward(s) ]. first pronunciation.
word(z)
◆ In American English [trayt] is standard.
town see CITY or TOWN?
town house A town house suggests an
tranche The noun tranche is best avoided

.
where section, group, portion, or instalment
urban terraced house, usually with three

.
would be adequate or more appropriate: a
or more storeys. However, when one
tranche of the population payable in three
speaks of someone's town house one can
tranches.
also mean a house in town belonging to a
◆ Of French origin, the word entered the
tranche

.
rich person whose main residence is in the
English language via the terminology of the Stock
country: They used their town house for
Market, where it means `a block of bonds or
Veronica's ball.
government stock'.
track record The phrase track record,
tranquillity
.
This word, meaning `peaceful
meaning `record of past performance', is
state': the perfect tranquillity of the lake, is
frequently used as an unnecessary exten-
often misspelt. Note the -ll- and the final
sion of the word record or synonym for
single t.
. . transformation transfiguration trans-
`experience', especially in job advertise-
ments:
migration transmutation
a sound track record in R&D , ,
a successful track record in sales and market- or ? Transfor-
ing. Care should be taken to avoid over-
.
mation describes a fundamental change in
using this expression.
.
someone or something: She has undergone

trade names Trade names are names

a transformation in recent months. The

.
country is in the midst of a dramatic economic
given to articles by their manufacturers.
transformation. Transfiguration is virtually
Some have unoffically become treated as
synonymous with transformation but is used
quasi-generic names for articles of their
in more literary contexts: `It was less a
. .
kind, although manufacturers guard their
reform than a transfiguration. The former
protected legal status jealously Hoover
curves of sensuousness were now modu-
Biro.

◆ All nouns that are actually trade names should lated to lines of devotional passion' (Tho-

be spelt with an initial capital letter, although this mas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urbervilles). In the

is frequently overlooked, as in: . New Testament, the transfiguration of Jesus

..
Please use a black
fountain pen or biro .
She wore a crimplene dress
Christ is `the revelation of the glory of Jesus

When the noun has given rise to a verb it is Christ, shortly before his death, at which

freqeuently found spelt with a lower-case initial his disciples caught sight of him in his full

letter, though this is technically incorrect : . He

majesty' (NIV Thematic Study Bible). Trans-

hoovered the carpet . migration is quite distinct in meaning, var-

trade union trades union

iously denoting the movement of people
or ? The gen- from one place to another or to the journey

. .
erally accepted singular noun is trade union, of the soul from one body to another at
with the plural trade unions. death:
There is no good grammatical reason for the use
The transmigration of rebel Kurds.
◆
of or , although both
She did not believe in the transmigration of

.
trades union trades unions signifies a change in
are frequently used. However, the official title of
souls. Transmutation
something from one state to another:
the TUC, the central association of British trade
the

transmutation of liquid to gas.

transient 306
transient transitory
or ? Both words mean
.
usage is now sometimes found in British
`short-lived, lasting only a brief time': English.
is used in both British and Amer-
It is
just a transient/transitory phase. ◆ Transportation
The words are virtually interchangeable but have ican English to mean `the banishment of convicts':
.
◆
a sightly different feel about them. often
Transient The sentence was transportation to Australia .
suggests passing by quickly, perhaps because of is also used in formal English to mean
rapid movement from place to place: . `the state of being carried away by emotion': .
Transport
transient a
summer visitors. Transitory often carries a sugges- transport of joy .
tion of regret about the way desirable things transverse traverse
change or disappear: . the transitory nature of
or ? Transverse is an

human love . .
adjective meaning `lying or set across; at

Transient is sometimes used as a noun to denote right angles': a transverse section. Traverse

a person who stays for only a short time in any one is a verb meaning `cross; go across' or a
.
place. noun meaning `way or path across':
.
The

transitive VERBS
river traverses two counties. The traverse of
see . this mountain is dangerous to inexperienced

translate transliterate
or ? To is
climbers.

traumatic
translate
to express in a different language; to trans- Traumatic is the adjective from
literate is to write or print using a different trauma, which means `a wound or injury'
alphabet. The Greek word petra, for ex-
.
and it is still used in this sense in medical
ample, may be transliterated as petra and contexts: traumatic fever. However its
translated into English as `rock'. The two main use is with the figurative meaning
verbs should not be confused.
.
of `causing great and deeply disturbing

transmigration, transmutation see

.
emotional shock': a traumatic bereavement
.
TRANSFORMATION, TRANSFIGURATION, TRANSMI- the traumatic effects of divorce the trau-

GRATION or TRANSMUTATION? matic experience of a concentration camp.

Both and have become very

transparent This word has various pro-
◆ traumatic trauma
much overworked and are often used for cases of
nunciations, all of which are acceptable. mild distress or annoyance: .
..
I spent a traumatic
The most frequent in contemporary usage evening filling in my tax return the trauma of
is [transparreÆnt] but the pronunciations moving house .
[trahnsparreÆnt] and [transpaire
Æ nt] are also The usual pronunciation of is [ maÆ];
trauma traw
heard. The -s- is sometimes pronounced the pronunciation [ maÆ] is used less frequently.
trow
with a

transpire
z sound.
travel This word is sometimes misspelt. In

.
Transpire means `become
.
British English the final l is doubled before
known; come to light': It later transpired

. .
the suffixes -ed, -ing, and -er: well-travelled
that the President had known of the plan all
travelling fast along the motorway com-

.
along. It is also widely used to mean `hap-
AmericanEnglishretainsthesingle : . .
mercial travellers.
pen or occur': I will let you know what

.
◆ l traveled
transpires. This second use is disliked by traveler .
travelling
many careful users, although it has a well- SPELLING 1. See also
established history.
◆ Transpire is also sometimes used to mean `turn traverse see TRANSVERSE or TRAVERSE?
out or prove to be': . treble or triple? Both words can be used as
,andeven`arriveorturnup': .
He transpired to be her
cousin Subsequently
. Both such uses are tually interchangeable in meaning. How-
dozens of letters transpired
a noun, verb, and adjective and are vir-

incorrect.
transport transportation
ever, is preferred by many careful
treble

.
or ? Transport is users when the meaning is `three times as

. . .
used in British English both for the system great': treble the sum, and triple when the
and means of conveying: public transport meaning is `consisting of three parts': a

.
transport. In American triple jump.

◆ The words have distinctly different meanings in

I have my own

.
English is often used:
the context of music. refers to a high-
transportation the
Treble
pitched voice or instrument, or a singer who per-
fastest form of transportation The goods were
packed ready for transportation, and this
 307 truism
forms at this pitch, whereas is used of users would substitute such phrases as: .
rhythm: . . . .
triple trivial
a treble recorder triple time . matters trivial issues for inthe
trivial things trivia

tremble preceding example.

troop troupe
The verb tremble is followed by

the preposition at
something frightening':
.
in the sense `respond to or ? These words are some-
.
I trembled at the times confused. A troop is a military unit or

.
thought, and by in the sense `show fear,
.
with group of people or things: troops of soldiers
excitement, etc.': The children were trem- a Scout troop. Troop is also used as a verb
bling with fear.
.
in informal English to mean `move as a

tremor .
This word, meaning `shaking or
large group': Then they all trooped off

.
home. A troupe is a group of actors or
quivering action': earth tremors, is some-
performers: a troupe of travelling acrobats.
times misspelt. Note the ending -or, not
◆ The words and
trooper are also some-
trouper
-our.
times confused. A is a cavalry soldier,
triage
trooper
This word, describing the practice especially a private, and in American and Austra-
of treating sick or injured people in order lian English a mounted policeman: . swear like a
according to the seriousness of their con- trooper means `swear a lot'. A is a member
trouper
dition, is often misspelt. Note particularly of a troupe of dancers, singers, etc.
The word is pronounced [ ahj] or [ ahzh]. totrooping the colour To
the -age ending.
◆ tree tree
is troop the colour

tribe Tribe,
parade the flag of a regiment ceremo-
in its sense of `people' or `social
. .
nially along the ranks of soldiers of that
group', is often avoided by careful users regiment: trooping the colour the trooping
because of its negative connotations, which of the colour. Written with capital initials,

.
imply that the group in question is primi- the phrase Trooping the Colour refers to the
tive and uncivilized: The local tribe were annual parade in London, usually attended

Use of in a figurative sense, to describe a .

quickly subdued by the colonists. by the Queen, the Prime Minister, and
◆ tribe
family gathering or group of other people is best
other dignitaries: We went to watch the

restricted to informal contexts: .

ceremony of Trooping the Colour.
Here comes my ◆ Since the ceremony is officially called Trooping
sister with all her tribe. , some people object to the phrase the
:.
the Colour

trillion BILLION
see . Trooping of the Colour We went to watch the
. However, this example
triple TRIPLE TRIPLE
see or ? reads awkwardly without the (or the first ): .
Trooping of the Colour
of the

triumphal triumphant We went to watch (the) Trooping the Colour .A

or ? These adjec-
possible solution is to use
adjectivally: .
Trooping the Colour
tives are often confused. Triumphal is con-
We went to watch the Trooping the
nected with the celebration of a victory,
. Colour ceremony .
.
usually of a military nature: triumphal arch

A triumphal march was played as the

troupe see TROOP or TROUPE?
victorious army paraded through the streets.
truculent This adjective, which means
.
Triumphant means `victorious, exulting or
`sullenly or defiantly aggressive', is some-
.
rejoicing in success': The team were tri-

umphant. Having succeeded in her task, she times misspelt. Note the -ucu- and the -ent
returned with a triumphant smile. ending. The correct pronunciation is [truk-
◆ Triumphant is the more frequently used word, yuuleÆnt].
triumphalbeing restricted to narrower, more for- truism The narrower meaning of
mal contexts. is truism

trivia .
`a statement of self-evident truth, one con-

. .
Trivia means `matters of very minor taining superfluous repetition of an idea':
importance': the trivia of village gossip It is a truism to speak of single bachelors. The
Why waste hours fussing over the trivia of word is more widely used to mean `a

The word is actually a plural, so careful users be thought worth stating': .

everyday life? statement of a fact that is too obvious to

would not say for example: .

◆ the truism that

Such trivia is beneath .

is sometimes used as though it were a
stars are only visible at night

. However,
has a stilted and unnatural sound, so most synonym for or in such phrases as: .
my notice ◆
Such trivia are beneath my Truism
notice fact truth the
truly 308
truism that heterosexuals can contract AIDS, but tive turbid, used in formal contexts, is
such use is widely regarded as unacceptable. sometimes confused with turbulent or tur-

truly The adverb truly is sometimes mis-

gid. Turbid

dense': .
means `opaque; cloudy; muddy;
a turbid pool. The adjective tur-
spelt. Note that the final -e of true is

. .
bulent means `in a state of agitated move-
dropped when the adverbial suffix -ly is
ment or confusion': turbulent seas a
added.

try and try to

politically turbulent period of history. The

. .
or ? The two expressions are adjective turgid means `swollen' or `dis-

.
virtually interchangeable: Try and catch tended': The turgid river had overflowed
truth. is its banks.

Both and may be applied in formal

me! Try to tell the Try and

colloquial and is very frequently used; it ◆ turbid turgid

is unacceptable only in formal written and figurative contexts to linguistic or literary style,
meaning `confused' and `bombastic':
sounds better in a negative .
English. turbid turgid
◆ Note that .
context: .
try to turbid/turgid prose
and only turbo- The prefix
can be used in the past tense: .
She didn't even try to be polite

machine that is driven by a turbine: .

- is applied to a turbo
try to They tried to
break into the house . .
tsar czar
. Its association with
turbofan turbojet
or ? This word, the title of any of turbocharged cars, in which performance
the former Russian emperors, is spelt tsar, is improved by the use of a turbine, some-
czar, or, rarely, tzar. It is pronounced [zah]. times leads to a mistaken interpretation
Many users prefer the spelling , because it and application of the prefix in the sense
more accurately reflects the Russian word as writ- of `fast' or `powerful': .
◆ tsar

ten in the Cyrillic script. The spelling shows the

a turbo model of a
czar . This extension of usage is best
origin of the word from the Gothic , and avoided.
computer

kaisar
ultimately the Latin .
The word has been revived in recent years as an turbulent , turgid see TURBID, TURBULENT or
Caesar

informal title for a person who has been appointed TURGID ?

head of an official committee or other body, but in turquoise The name of this greenish-blue
this sense it is usually spelt . czar: mineral has various pronunciations. The
He is the
government's new drugs czar. most frequent in contemporary usage is

tun see TON, TONNE or TUN? [terkwoiz], but [terkwahz], [terkwois],

tunnel
and [terkoiz] are also heard.
This word is sometimes misspelt.
twelfth Careful users avoid dropping the f

.
In British English the final l is doubled
in the pronunciation of this word [twelfth].
before the suffixes -ed, -ing, and -er: They
The word is, however, frequently pro-

AmericanEnglishretainsthesingle : . .
tunnelled under the hill.
nounced without the f.

type of KIND OF
◆ l tunneled
See also SPELLING 1. see .

turbid turbulent turgid

, or ? The adjec- tyre TIRE TYRE
see or ?
 U
uber- This German prefix, meaning `over', about something, and cannot be used as a

.
has been absorbed into English in recent synonym for wholehearted or enthusiastic as

.
years to describe a person who ranks above in: Many of the group were prepared to give

.
their peers in a particular field: the project their unanimous backing.
◆ When a vote is taken someone can only be said
an
As a vogue term,
to have been , or a motion
uberchef an ubermodel.

it is best restricted to informal contexts. elected unanimously

◆ The word is sometimes rendered in its original , if every person present voted
German form, with an umlaut, as : .
passed unanimously
in favour. If there are any abstentions the motion is
uÈber There's a
certain irony in this story: a said to be passed
sceptic and , which is an abbrevia-
nem con
u tion of the Latin
È ber-rationalist finding a cure for his illness in a , `no one
nemine contradicente
mysterious hotchpotch of Chinese herbs ( contradicting'. The
Guardian). unaware or unawares?
ultimate
is an Unaware

. .
Ultimate is used mainly as an adjective meaning `not aware; not knowing

. .
adjective meaning `last, final, eventual': about; not having noticed': I was unaware

the ultimate goal, or `fundamental': ulti- that you were coming. He seemed unaware
mate truths. As a noun it has traditionally of the reaction he was causing. It is occasion-

.
simply meant `something ultimate' or `the ally used as an adverb, but the usual adverb
extreme': the ultimate in wickedness. This is unawares, meaning `unexpectedly, with-

.
last use is increasingly being extended, out warning', often in caught unawares or
particularly in advertising and journalism, taken unawares: The landslide caught the

.
to mean `the best possible; the most modern villagers unawares.
is often followed by or but
.
or advanced thing': ◆ Unaware of that
cannot precede another word in that
the ultimate in swim-

the ultimate in high technology. unawares

This vogue use, disliked by some, has some way.
ming pools
◆
similarity with the phrase . uncertain The adjective
the last word

ultra .
uncertain is fol-
Ultra is an adjective meaning `going lowed by the preposition of or about: She
beyond' or `extreme' and is also used as a was uncertain of [or about] the terms of the

prefix with other words, either with or contract.

without a hyphen. In the sense of `extre-
unconscious SUBCONSCIOUS
. see or UNCON-
.
mely' it is used in such words as: ultra-
SCIOUS?
In the sense of `beyond the range of' it is used in: under BELOW BENEATH UNDER
modern ultra-radical.

UNDER-
. .
◆ see , , or
ultrasonic . stands for NEATH
ultramicroscopic UHT ?
ultraheat-treated and for UHF . under foot underfoot
ultrahigh frequency

umbilical
or ? This term

.
This word may be stressed on should be spelt as one word, not as two
the second syllable [umbilikl] or on the separate words: It was rather wet under-

third [umbilõÅkl]. foot.

umpire REFEREE
see or UMPIRE? underhand underhandedor ? Both un-

un- NON-
see .
derhand and underhanded are used as ad-

unanimous .
jectives to mean `sly; marked by dishonesty,

.
Unanimous means `of one trickery, and deception': They used the
mind; in complete agreement': The com- most underhand/underhanded methods in

mittee reached a unanimous decision. It can their campaign.

only be used when several people all agree ◆ Both words can be used in the context of some
underlay 310
sports, meaning `with the hand below the undoubtedly
shoulder or elbow': . .
Undoubtedly, no doubt,

underhand shooting are all adverbs

. is also occa- expressing that something is not disputed.
doubtless, without (a) doubt
aiming underhanded Underhanded
sionally used to mean `short of the required num- However, and
ber of workers'.
undoubtedly without a doubt

.
express that idea much more positively and

underlay underlie
or ? Both verbs are used
strongly than the other expressions:
undoubtedly the best student in her year. No
She is

transitively; underlay has the past tense and

doubt and doubtless are much weaker ex-
past participle underlaid; underlie has the
pressions, often suggesting that the user is
past tense underlay and the past participle

.
in fact not completely certain, or is even

.
underlain. Underlay means `cover the bot-
harbouring doubts: No doubt he is very
tommost part of': to underlay the carpet
clever but I still can't understand what he is

.
with felt. Underlie is used more frequently
saying.
and means `form the cause or basis of':
◆ Asdoubtless is an adverb, is incor-
doubtlessly
This trend has underlain many of the changes
rect.
in present-day society;
.
it is most often used in
Some people mistakenly spell as
undoubtedly
the adjectival form underlying: the under-
undoubtably , perhaps confused with , indubitably
lying reasons for the conflict.
which is a more formal and even stronger expres-
underneath BELOW BENEATH, UNDER or sion, suggesting that something cannot possibly
be doubted: .
see ,
UNDERNEATH ? It was indubitably evident that he

underprivileged Underprivileged has be-

had acted in a manner which was utterly unac-
ceptable .
uneatable EATABLE
come a fashionable adjective to use in
connection with those lacking the standard see or EDIBLE?
of income and opportunities enjoyed by
unequivocally Note that the adverb un-

.
other members of the society in which they
equivocally has the ending -ally, not -ably. It
.
live: She started a clinic for underprivileged
children. Many young criminals come from
is derived from the adjective unequivocal,
meaning `clear; plain'.
.
underprivileged backgrounds. It is used as a
noun as well as an adjective:
for the underprivileged drew him
His concern

towards
unexceptionable unexceptional or ? Un-

.
exceptionable means `inoffensive; not liable
social work as a career.

◆ Its real meaning is not `lacking in privileges' but to be criticized or objected to': His

rather, `lacking in rights; disadvantaged' or at least behaviour had been unexceptionable, so he

lacking in those social and economic rights con- could not understand how he could have

sidered to be fundamental in Western developed offended his hosts.

.
Unexceptional means

society. `usual, normal, or ordinary':

was unexceptional for the time of year.
The weather
It is,
undertone OVERTONE see or UNDERTONE? however, more frequently used to suggest

underway under way or ? Careful users commonplace: .

that something is dull or disappointingly
I had heard enthusiastic

.
prefer to write this expression, meaning reports of his playing, but I found this an
`moving; in progress', as two words: unexceptional performance.
Preparations for the new project are now well
◆ The words are often confused, partly because it
under way. The one exception to this is is quite possible for something to be both inoffen-
.
when it appears as an adjective preceding sive and rather dull.
a noun:
underway
The

fuelling. .
aircraft

the
rendezvoused

then
for

underway unfair The adjective

.
unfair is followed by
project. The expression is, however, in- the preposition to or on: The present system

creasingly being spelt as one word in all is unfair to [or on] the self-employed.

is wrong. This spelling -unfriendly see -FRIENDLY.

contexts.
The spelling
probably arises from confusion with the nautical uninterested see DISINTERESTED or UNINTER-
◆ under weigh

expression , meaning `raise anchor'. ESTED?

weigh anchor

undiscriminating see INDISCRIMINATE or UN- unique Unique

.
means `being the only one
DISCRIMINATING? of its kind': Every snowflake has a unique
 311 upon
pattern. A thing is either unique or it is not, tomed to', unused is pronounced [unyoost]: .
so careful users dislike such expressions as I am unused to driving on the righthand side
so unique, rather unique, very unique, etc., of the road. The adjective unused, meaning

.
and something cannot be more unique or `not being used' or `never having been

.
less unique than something else. Almost and used', is pronounced [unyoozd]: Many

nearly are the only modifiers generally of the rooms are unused. Unused pills

acceptable with unique.

◆ The word is widely used with a weaker meaning
and tablets should be returned to the pharmacy
.
of `unrivalled; outstanding', but many people ob- unwaged The adjective and noun
for safe disposal

ject to such use. Intensifiers are often used with un-

unique :. , but such receive refers

It was absolutely unique
to anybody who does not
waged

expressions should be restricted to informal use. clude the unemployed, full-time mothers
a wage or salary. Such people in-

United Kingdom BRITAIN see .

.
or housewives, students, and old age pen-

United States United States of America

,
sioners:
the unwaged).
The membership fee is £5 (or £3 for

The euphemistic use of the

see AMERICA . term unwaged in place of unemployed, with
unlike .
Careful users avoid employing un-
reference to those who are out of work and
seeking employment, could be misleading
like as a conjunction: The man worked
and is best avoided.

unwanted unwonted .
unlike he'd ever worked in his life.

unmistakable or unmistakeable ? Both

or
means simply `not wanted':
? Unwanted
She gave
spellings of this word are acceptable, but
her unwanted clothes to the Oxfam shop.
unmistakable is the more frequent in British
English. See SPELLING 3. Unwonted
.
means `out of the ordinary; unu-

unnecessary
sual': The drug gave him an unwonted
The adjective unnecessary is feeling of euphoria.
sometimes misspelt. Note the -nn- (from The two words are confused because people
◆
the addition of the prefix sometimes mistakenly spell
un- to the ad- as unwanted un-
jective ), the single - -, and the - -.
necessary c , and frequently pronounce
ss wonted as unwonted

unorganized see DISORGANIZED or UNORGA- tid] and . should be pronounced [un-

unwanted Unwanted

NIZED? [un tid], with the

won unwonted woÅn
stressed syllable pronounced the same as the word
unpractical see PRACTICAL or PRACTICABLE? . won't

unprecedented A precedent is `an earlier unwieldy This word is often misspelt.

example or occurrence of a similar thing', Note particularly the -ie- in the middle

. up-front
so unprecedented means `never having hap- of the word.
pened before; completely new or original':
Some people dislike the increas-
His score was unprecedented in the history of
ing use of the term up-front, meaning `paid
cricket.
◆ It has recently become a popular word, parti- . .
in advance, at the beginning, or as a depos-

cularly in the where its meaning has wea- it': an up-front payment They want £500

kened to `extremely great': .

media
up-front and the remainder in monthly in-
The film is enjoying
an unprecedented success . stalments. The term should not be overused,

unreadable ILLEGIBLE UNREADABLE upload DOWNLOAD

and is best restricted to informal contexts.
see or ?
UPLOAD.
unrepairable REPAIRABLE REPARABLE upon on
see and
see or ?

unsociable unsocial ANTISOCIAL ASO-

or ? These two words are syno-

. .
, see , nyms and virtually indistinguishable in use:
CIAL UNSOCIAL UNSOCIABLE
, or ? She threw herself upon the sofa. He

until TILL UNTIL

see or ?
walked on the beach. O
Å n is more frequently

unused USED
used; upon has a more formal sound and is
Like , the word unused may rarely heard in spoken English.
be pronounced with the [s] sound of the ◆ In some cases usage is dictated by the fact that
one or the other word is normal in a particular
idiom: . .
noun use or the [z] sound of the verb use. In
the phrase unused to, meaning `unaccus- once upon a time .
on the contrary
uptalk 312
is used between two repeated nouns to ◆ actually derives from for it de-
suggest large numbers: .
Upon Urbane urban
scribes a manner which was thought to be char-
We walked mile upon
.
mile acteristic of a person who came from a city.
uptalk This term refers to the increasing urinal This word may be stressed on either
modern tendency to deliver statements as the second syllable [yuurõÅnl] or the first
though they are questions, with the voice syllable [yoorinl] in British English.
rising at the end of the sentence. Sometimes ◆ The American English pronunciation is stressed
called upspeak or HRT (high-rise terminals), on the first syllable.
uptalk is variously thought to have origi-
nated in the USA, Canada, Australia, or us WE see .

New Zealand. It has become a target of us our -ING FORMS

or ? see .
criticism in recent years, especially in Brit-
ain. Popularly associated with teenagers in US USA AMERICA
, see .
particular, it has also been detected among
older and younger speakers: . Then we
usable useableor ? Both spellings of this
word are acceptable, but usable is the more
went round to Jack's house? Which was, like,
frequent in British English. See SPELLING 3.
usage use
really great? And then we out for a meal? And
we all had the same things? or ? Usage is the way in which

.
Careful speakers avoid using uptalk, not something, especially language, is used; the

.
only because it can be irritating to the noun use denotes the act of using: This

.
listener, but also because it can project an book deals with problems of usage. in

.
image of weakness or insecurity, as if the contemporary usage the use of wood as

user lacks confidence in the opinions he or an insulator The photocopier is in use.

she is advancing with such tentative INTO- Careful users maintain this distinction be-
NATION.
.
tween the two words, avoiding such

upward upwards or
◆ Either
? In British English
phrases as: a ban on the usage of hosepipes.

or may be used in the sense of

to which something is used': .
usage use
upward is principally used as an adjective,
`amount or degree
meaning `to a higher level': .
upwards being the usual form of the adverb
, although some
increased usage/use of electricity

. people
an upward
dislike the use of in this context.
.
usage

◆ The adverb
trend .
is more frequently used in
to float upwards
also means
Usage `treatment': rough/gentle

American English.
upward
. The noun has a variety of other mean-
as `usefulness': .
usage use

See also -WARD or -WARDS?

ings, such
.
What's the use of

The phrase ,meaning `more than', is `need': ., `wear':

trying? ,
to deteriorate through use

disliked by some people: .

upwards of
, and
`the right to use': .
Do you have a use for this box?
The newly privatised
to have the use of a company
company is in contention with America's Pratt &
. car
Whitney to supply the engines for upwards of 100
Note the difference in pronunciation between
Boeing 757s that Texas Air is planning to order
( ). the noun [yoos] and the verb [yooz].
use use Usage
Sunday Times
may be pronounced [ sij] or [ zij].
upwardly mobile
yoo yoo
This is a vogue expres-
useable see USABLE or USEABLE?
used
sion used of ambitious, usually young,
USED TO,
.
people who are moving into a higher class, In the phrase used is pro-

.
income bracket, etc.: These days the City is nounced [yoost]. Used as an adjective, for
thought to be full of upwardly mobile men example in: used cars, and as the past tense
and women trying to enhance their status in and past participle of the verb use is pro-
society. nounced [yoozd].

urban .urbane
or ? Urban means `of a town used. to Used to either means `accustomed

.
or city': Unemployment is higher in urban to': I have got used to the noise, or refers to a
areas. Urbane is used of someone who is habitual action or situation in the past: She

.
sophisticated and polite, with a smooth and used to play squash regularly.

easy manner in any social situation: ◆ Difficulties arise over negative and question
forms of the phrase in its second meaning. In
He

negative forms the more formal or

turned out to be an elegant and urbane man
who charmed them all. used not to
 313 utilize
the more informal are both technology may impress some people but will
acceptable: . ..
did not/didn't use to
He used not to be so aggressive alienate others; it is therefore advisable to reserve
She did not use to like fish . Both and
usen't to the term for its original purpose.
didn't used toare heard, but are avoidedby careful See also -FRIENDLY.
users. User-hostileand user-unfriendly, opposites of
In the question form the formal and rather old- , are also found in certain contexts:
.
user-friendly
fashioned and the less formal
are both correct: .
used X to? did X use complex, user-hostile systems which require

.
to? Used there to be a lake in complicated languages to programme and are
that wood? Did Henry use to visit you? Did X (
hard to understand The Guardian ).
used to? or didn't X used to? are frequently heard, usher usherette NON-SEXIST TERMS.
though disliked by many careful users. As no form or ? see

sounds completely natural and correct many peo- utilize

ple would reconstruct the sentence and say, for Utilize means `use in a practical and
.
example: . Was there once a lake in that wood?
effective, profitable or productive way':

USED.
They utilized every machine that was avail-
See also

user-friendly .
able. It can also mean `make good use of
User-friendly is a term used something not intended for the purpose':
in computing to describe software that is She utilized her tights when the fan belt broke;

. .
simple to use, being designed to assist the or `make use of something that might be
user and forestall any potential problems: thought useless': She utilized all the scraps

a user-friendly program. for stuffing cushions.

◆ The term is increasingly found in other fields, ◆ is often used, particularly in business
Utilize
meaning `easy to operate or understand', and jargon, as though it were merely a synonym for
describing electrical appliances, cars, books, etc.: : .
.
use Successful applicants will be able to utilize
A drive to make the National Health Service . However,
their experience and skills in this field
`user-friendly' was launched yesterday (Daily Tele- careful users restrict the word to the narrower
graph) . This implied association with advanced senses described above.
vacant vacuous or ? Both these adjectives
V nunciation. Vain is an adjective, meaning

. .
mean `empty', but they are not generally `conceited; excessively proud' or `worthless;
interchangeable in usage. The adjective futile': the vain parents of talented children
vacant is most frequently applied to a flat, a vain attempt to increase productivity. Vane

. .
room, seat, post, etc., that is not occupied by and vein are nouns. A vane is a flat blade

.
a person or people: a hotel with vacant moved by wind or water: a weather vane; a
rooms The post remained vacant for several vein is a blood vessel, a thin layer of ore in
months after her resignation. The adjective rock, etc.
is also used in the phrase , meaning
`to no avail': .
is used in formal contexts often in ◆ Vain in vain
.
vacuous

.
the derogatory sense of `apparently devoid She tried in vain to dissuade him
is also used in figurative contexts, referring to
. a style, mood, quality, or trait: .
of intelligence; inane; mindless': a vacuous Vein

.
another remark in
.
remark Modern pop music is vacuous,
repetitive, and uninspiring. the same vein a vein of irony in the novel
◆ Both and may also be applied to
a person's expression, or to a gaze or stare: . vale or veil? means `valley' or `dale': It.
vacant vacuous
Vale
a
suggests a temporary lack of should not be confused with , which
The hill commands fine views of the vale.

concentration, attention, or awareness; .

vacant expression
veil
a vac-
uous expression suggests a lack of intelligence. describes
masking a view: . .
a fine layer of lace or other material

vacation
The bride lifted her veil.
In British English the primary The mountains were hidden by a veil of mist.

meaning of the noun vacation is `the period

value-added The adjective value-added,

.
when universities and law courts are not
meaning `having extra value' or `having
officially working': She went home for the

Studentsoftenshortenthewordinformallyto . ing frequency, in. recent years: .

extra features', has appeared with increas-
Christmas vacation.
value-added
◆ vac
In American English the main meaning of food products Care value-added services.

is `a holiday': .
vaca-
. in these figurative applications, as many
should be taken not to overuse the phrase

It is also used as a verb: .

tion They took a vacation in Miami
We vacationed in Europe
. people find it jargonistic

A further meaning of the word is `vacating; vantage see ADVANTAGE or VANTAGE?

last year

making vacant or empty': . vaporize Note the spelling of the verb

The landlord insisted
on immediate vacation of the house .
vaccinate
, meaning `change into vapour'.
vaporize
see INOCULATE or VACCINATE? The -u- of vapour is dropped before the

vacuous see VACANT or VACUOUS?

suffix -ize.
◆ The variant spelling is equally correct
vagary
vaporise
(see -IZE or -ISE?).
.
The noun vagary, meaning `whim',
`caprice', or `unpredictable change': the
variant CJD see MAD COW DISEASE
variegated
vagaries of the weather, causes problems of

.
pronunciation. In British English the noun This word, meaning `having
is usually pronounced [vayga Æ ri]; the pro- different colours; diverse': variegated

nunciation [vaÆ gairi] is less frequent and leaves, is sometimes misspelt. Note the e
may be regarded as an Americanism. Note between the i and the g.

also that there is no -i- after the -g-, either

in pronunciation or spelling.
various Many people dislike the use of

vain vane vein .

various as a pronoun, usually followed by
, or ? These three words are of, and seek alternative wordings: He was
sometimes confused, being identical in pro- betrayed by various of his colleagues.
 315 verbs
've OF see . in various different ways which need to be

veil VALE VEIL

see or ?
learned.
Verbs differ in their functions. One distinction is
vein VAIN VANE
◆
see , or VEIN? between transitive andintransitive verbs. A tran-
venal venial sitive verb is one that needs a direct object, for
or ? Venal means literally `for
example, . One cannot just like; one has to like
like
sale' and it is used either of individuals who
someone or something. Either it must take a direct
are capable of being `bought' or corrupted,
object: . ,oritcanbeusedinthe
passive: .
He likes chocolate

.
or of systems which operate by bribery and
She is liked by everyone . Intransitive
corruption: Their legal system is so venal
verbs do not take a direct object. , for example,
is an intransitive verb: .
Fall
that criminals openly offer bribes in court.
The leaves are falling from
Venial means `pardonable; excusable' and is
. . Some verbs can be used both transitively
and intransitively in different constructions: .
the trees
applied to minor faults and offences: He
The
was inclined to be thoughtless but that was a
boat sailed out of the harbour. ± She sailed the
venial fault in one so young.

In Roman Catholic theology a is one boat out of the harbour .

◆
that does not deprive the soul of divine grace, as
venial sin
Some transitive verbs are , where
the subject and object are the same: .
reflexive verbs

opposed to a .
mortal sin
perjure
. In this example the verb is always reflexive;
vengeance REVENGE VENGEANCE
oneself
see or ? one cannot perjure anyone or anything other than
venial VENAL VENIAL oneself. But some verbs are not always used
see or ?
reflexively: . .
venison
I introduced myself to our hostess
This word, meaning `the meat of ± I introduced Chris to our hostess .
a deer', is usually pronounced [veniso Æ n] or Auxiliary verbs are those used with other verbs,
Æ n], although the traditional pronun-
[venizo enablingthemtoexpressvariationsintense,mood,
Æ n]. voice, etc. The most frequently used auxiliaries are
, , and : . .. ..
ciation is [venzo

venue The usual meaning of venue is `the

be have do He is tired I have finished
. is used to form the passive:
.
We did not agree Be

.
place where a meeting, event, or gathering
It was discussed . Other auxiliaries include: shall,
happens': We have not yet decided on the
, and
:. ..
should, can, could, will, would, may, might
venue for the annual conference.

◆ There is a sense of people coming together to a must I shall accept the offer You must stop
. This second group of auxiliary verbs,
particular place for a purpose. However, recent immediately
which cannot be used asfullverbs (unlike , ,
usage, to the dislike of some, makes vir- venue
and ) are also called .
be have

tually synonymous with , or , as do

See also DARE; NEED.
modal verbs

the site of any activity: .

place, scene setting
A valley in South Wales is
are verbs which include an adverb,
preposition,orboth: . . .
Phrasal verbs
the venue for this experiment in self-sufficient
communal living . give in throw away
. Many such verbs have meanings which go
take

verbal oral
to
beyond the sum of their parts, for example
as in: .
or ? means `expressed in came
[i.e. obtained or received]
Verbal
words' while means `relating to the by I came by that
. Some mean no more than the
oral

words suggest: . .
mouth' or `expressed in speech'. Something engraving in Venice
can be expressed in either speech or keep down stay away . The
modern trend to extend ordinary verbs so that they
verbal

writing. However, a is
become phrasal verbs, while adding nothing to
verbal agreement

their meaning: .
generally understood to mean one that is
spoken and not written. I consulted (with) my accountant
◆ Some careful users feel that, despite the estab- is disliked by many.
lished use of in this way, it is always better to New verbs are formed in various ways. One way
is by converting nouns: .
verbal
use an , as there is no risk of
oral agreement He serviced her car (see
misunderstanding or ambiguity with the word NOUNS). A variation of this is the formation of
. compoundverbs: . . .
. . .
oral to rubber-stamp blue-pencil

verbal nouns see INFINITIVE; -ING FORMS. inflation-proof top-score fundraise

. These verbs are often disliked when first
down-

verbs
grade
introduced but they have the advantage of econ-
omy, if not of elegance. .
Verbs refer to actions, occurrences,
or existence. They vary in form according I shall word-process the
to the tense or mood used, usually in a letters is briefer than I shall produce the letters on a
predictable way but, with irregular verbs, word processor .
VERBS 316
See also COMPOUND. For other ways of We crossed the Channel via the ferry , but many
forming new verbs see BACK FORMATION; -IZE people dislike these usages, particularly the latter
or -ISE? one.
ACTIVE; FINITE VERB; INFINITIVE; -ING The pronunciation normally regarded as correct
See also
FORMS; PARTICIPLES; PASSIVE; PRINCIPAL PARTS; is [v õÅaÆ] although [veeaÆ] is sometimes heard.
SUBJUNCTIVE; TENSE. viable
verbs ± see IRREGULAR VERBS table, page 317 surviving independently': .
means `capable of living or
Viable
. a viable foetus

vermilion The noun and adjective vermi-

new communities: .
It can be used figuratively in this sense of
When the colony shows
lion, meaning `bright red', is sometimes
itself to be viable, it will be granted indepen-
misspelt. Note that vermilion has a single
dence.
-l-, unlike the word million.
The meaning has been extended to `capable of
carryingonwithoutextra(financial)support': .
◆
vertex vortexor ? A vertex is the highest
business is expected to be commercially viable
The

point or a point where two or more lines

.within two years
intersect; a is the spiralling motion of
vortex
Sometimes the meaning is even further ex-
a whirlpool or whirlwind or, metaphori-
tended to become synonymous with
:. .
workable,

a whirlpool or whirlwind: .
cally, an activity that one is drawn into like
practicable, feasible a viable partnership a
. .
the vertex of a
This loose use of
viable plan is objected to viable

; the by many careful users.

.
◆ The plural of is or
triangle the vortex of rebellion

vertex vertexes vertices

plural of is
vortex or
vortexes .
vortices
vice versa This expression, meaning `with
very Very can be used as an intensifier
.
the order reversed', is usually pronounced
[võÅse
Æ versa
Æ ]. Alternative pronunciations for

.
before most adjectives and adverbs: very
the first word are: [võÅsi] and [võÅs].
very efficiently. However, be-
vicious viscous
unpleasant

.
fore past participles much is used instead of or ? Vicious means `wicked'
very: It was much improved. The exception
. .
or `ferocious'; viscous describes a liquid that

.
is when the past participle is used adjectiv- is thick and sticky: a vicious dog viscous
ally: She was very excited.

Some words come into a grey area where either

paint.
◆ The two adjectives are sometimes confused,
can be used: .
◆
very or much She was very/much being similar in form and pronunciation. The
. usually has a more formal sound.
c
distressed Much of is soft [ uÆs]; the of is hard
There are other participles which cannot take
vicious vish c viscous
[ kuÆs]. The word is largely restricted to
either or as an intensifier, although
vis viscous
very much formal or technical contexts.
they can take if an adverb is interposed:
very The word also occurs in the expression
one cannot be but can be
vicious
very wounded very , denoting a problematic situation that
; one cannot say
vicious circle
badly wounded very mended creates new problems leading back to the original
but can say .
very neatly mended situation: . . This is often
the vicious circle of debt

veterinary This word causes problems

incorrectly rendered as .
vicious cycle

with spelling and pronunciation.

the -erin- and the -ary ending. The word
Note victuals This word, meaning `supplies of
food', is pronounced [vitlz].
is frequently pronounced [vete Æ nri], [vete
Æ- ◆ A , `a licensed purveyor of spirits', is
victualler
neÆ ri], or [vetrinri], although careful users pronounced [ leÆr].
vit
insist on the pronunciation with five sylla-
Æ rine
bles [vete Æ ri]. video- The prefix video-, from the Latin
◆ The expression veterinary surgeon is usually videre meaning `to see', is found in such
shortened to . vet words as video-recorder, videophone, and

via
video-camera. It is increasingly used in

.
Via means `by way of' and is used when the senses of `relating to video' or `by

. . .
talking of the route for a journey: They video', sometimes hyphenated and some-
went to Australia via Hong Kong. Your best times unhyphenated: videolink Video-

◆ It is also used to mean `by means of': .

route would be via the M6. conferencing is the latest factor in revolu-

, or to speak of a means of transport: .

I'll return tionizing boardroom practice around the
it via Fred world.
 317 VERBS
IRREGULAR VERBS
Cross-references, e.g. see HANGED or HUNG?, are also included to main entries in the
Good Word Guide where there is a fuller discussion.
Infinitive Past tense Past participle
abide abode, abided abode, abided
arise arose arisen
awake (see AWAKE,
AWAKEN WAKE or
,

WAKEN?) awoke awaked, awoken

be was; were been
bear bore borne
beat beat (see BEAT or BEATEN?) beaten
become became become
befall befell befallen
beget begot begotten
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
bend bent bent
beseech besought besought
beset beset beset
bespeak bespoke bespoken
bet bet, betted (see BET or bet, betted
BETTED?)
bid bade, bid bidden, bid
bide bode, bided bided
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten, bit
bleed bled bled
bless blessed, blest
(see BLESSED) blessed, blest
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broadcasted
build built built
burn burnt, burned (see BURNED or
BURNT?) burnt, burned
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cleave clove, cleft cloven, cleft
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
VERBS 318
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt, dreamed (see
DREAMED or DREAMT?) dreamt, dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt, dwelled (see DWELLED
or DWELT?) dwelt, dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbear forbore forborne
forbid forbade, forbad (see
FORBADE) forbidden
forecast forecast, forecasted forecast, forecasted
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got (see GOT) got; gotten (
American )
gild gilded gilded, gilt
gird girded, girt girded, girt
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung, hanged (see
HANGED or HUNG?) hung, hanged
have had had
hear heard heard
heave heaved, hove (see
HEAVED or HOVE?) heaved, hove
hew hewed hewed, hewn
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
inlay inlaid inlaid
keep kept kept
kneel knelt, kneeled (see KNEELED
or KNELT?) knelt, kneeled
knit knitted, knit (see KNIT or
KNITTED?) knitted, knit
know knew known
lay (see LAY or LIE?) laid laid
lead led led
lean leant, leaned (see LEANED or
LEANT?) leant, leaned
 319 VERBS
leap leapt, leaped (see LEAPED or
LEAPT?) leapt, leaped
learn learnt, learned (see LEARNED
or LEARNT?) learnt, learned
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie (see LAY or LIE?) lay lain
light lighted, lit lighted, lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
mislay mislaid mislaid
mislead misled misled
mistake mistook mistaken
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mown, mowed (see MOWED or MOWN?)
overtake overtook overtaken
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
plead pleaded, pled (see PLEADED
or PLED?) pleaded, pled
prove proved proved, proven (see PROVED or PROVEN?)
put put put
quit quitted, quit (see QUIT or
QUITTED?) quitted, quit
read read [red] read [red]
rend rent rent
ride rode ridden
ring rang (see RINGED, RANG or
RUNG?) rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
saw sawed sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn, sewed
shake shook shaken
shear sheared shorn, sheared
shed shed shed
shine shone, shined shone, shined
shoe shod shod
shoot shot shot
show showed shown, showed
shrink shrank, shrunk (see SHRUNK,
SHRANK, SHRUNK or
SHRUNKEN?) shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
VERBS 320
sink sank, sunk (see SANK, SUNK
or SUNKEN?) sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
slit slit slit
smell smelt, smelled (see SMELLED
or SMELT?) smelt, smelled
smite smote smitten
sow sowed (see SOWED or SOWN?) sown, sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped, speeded (see SPEEDED
or SPED?) sped, speeded
spell spelt, spelled (see SPELLED
or SPELT?) spelt, spelled
spend spent spent
spill spilt, spilled (see SPILLED or
SPILT?) spilt, spilled
spin spun, span (see SPUN or
SPAN?) spun
spit spat spat
split split split
spoil spoilt, spoiled (see SPOILED or
SPOILT?) spoilt, spoiled
spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
stave staved, stove staved, stove
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stank, stunk (see STANK or
STUNK?) stunk
strew strewed strewn, strewed
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled (see SWELLED or
SWOLLEN?) swollen, swelled
swim swam (see SWAM or SWUM?) swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived
throw threw thrown
 321 visible
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden, trod
unbend unbent unbent
undergo underwent undergone
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
underwrite underwrote underwritten
undo undid undone
upset upset upset
wake (see AWAKE, woke, waked waked, woken
AWAKEN, WAKE or
WAKEN?)
wear wore worn
weave wove, weaved woven
wed wedded, wed (see WED or
WEDDED?) wedded, wed
weep wept wept
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
vigorous This word, meaning `healthy and ◆ The word is also often used in a metaphorical
sense for an influence or ideology that is thought
tobecorruptingpeople'sminds: .
strong', is often misspelt. Note that the u of
vigour is dropped before the suffix -ous. the virus of anti-

vilify Note the spelling of this verb, used in

Semitism that spread throughout Germany in the
1930s . In computing, it denotes a code or program
formal contexts to mean `malign; defame',
that can spread through a computer system, cor-
particularly the single -l-.
rupting or destroying data.
virtual The word virtual has acquired new
vis-aÁ-vis Á -vis
Vis-a literally means `face to
relevance with the development of compu-

.
face' and is most frequently used as a
ter technology, being used to describe the
preposition to mean `in relation to': We

.
hypothetical environments created by com-
Á -vis the
shall have to change our policy vis-a

. .
puter games, the Internet, etc.: virtual
law. It also means `opposite' or `face to face
community virtual classroom virtual
with' and is sometimes used as a noun to
advertising. Care must be taken with the
mean `someone or something opposite an-
use of virtual and virtually in this and other
other; a counterpart'. It is also occasionally
senses, to avoid ambiguity.
◆ Virtual realityoriginally referred chiefly to inter- used as a synonym for , meaning à te-a
te Á -te
à te

active computer games, where the player's move- `aple'.private conversation between two peo-
ments may be mirrored by a character in a ◆ It is pronounced [veezah ].
hypothetical computer-generated world. The vee

phrase has since come to be used more widely, viscous see VICIOUS or VISCOUS?
in particular to television shows that invite some visible There is a recent fashionable use of
degree of viewer participation: . Television ratings

.
to mean `in the public eye; well
visible
on both sides of the Atlantic are now dominated
known': He's one of the more visible
by the virtual-reality game show.

virus
cabinet ministers. It can also be more or less
A virus is the causative agent of a synonymous with having a high profile, with

.
disease, but the word is frequently used of the meaning of `being in a position where

.
the disease itself: He's recovering from a one's actions are liable to become subject to
very nasty virus. public comment or notice': The role of
vision statement 322
◆ The American English pronunciation [ aÆmin],
võÅt
the first syllable of which rhymes with , is now
Director of Social Services is an increasingly

visible one. As some object to these uses of bite

visible, care should be taken to avoid over- acceptable in British English although disliked by
working this word. some people.
vision statement see MISSION STATEMENT. voluntarily Careful users of British Eng-

visit visitation
or ? In its most frequent use
lish stress this word on the first syllable
Æ nte
[vole Æ rili].
◆ Such users object to the alternative pronuncia-
visit is a verb meaning `pay a call on, stay
with as a guest, stay somewhere tempora-
tion, with stress on the third syllable [voleÆn rili], te

ing': . . .
rily' and a noun meaning `an act of visit-
though this is acceptable in American English.
vortex
I will visit Venice when I am in Italy

VERTEX or VORTEX?
.
He was on a visit to his daughter. A visitation see
is an official or formal act of visiting:
vicar's work includes the visitation of parishi-
The
vote The idiomatic expression to vote

oners in hospital, and is often found in with one's feet means to show disapproval
of something by staying away, not parti-
.
humorous use, referring to an unwelcome
visit: I'm awaiting a visitation from the VAT cipating in it, not buying it and so on.
man. The underlying image is of a dissatisfied
can also refer to the visit of a super- crowd of people walking out of an audi-
natural being: .
◆ Visitation
, and is also
a visitation of angels torium or a hall. Recently it has been used
used in referring to an act of affliction, either in an opposite sense meaning to show
natural or divine: . approval by attending or taking some-
.
the visitation of the Black
Death .
the visitation of God's wrath thing up in large numbers, but this is

visually impaired strictly incorrect.

vowel
Visually impaired is the
preferred modern alternative to BLIND, A vowel is the sound represented by
which is considered unacceptable by many any of the letters a, e, i, o, and u in the
people because of its negative connotations. English language. Compare CONSONANT.
◆ The presence of a vowel at the beginning of a
vital The adjective
.
vital is followed by the
word may affect the form or pronunciation of the
preposition to or for: Their co-operation is
preceding word (see A or AN?; THE).
vital to [or for] the success of the mission.
Notethatinsuchwordsas . and . ,
vitamin
unit uranium
The traditional British pronuncia- the letter produces the combined consonant
u-
Æ min].
tion of this word is [vita and vowel sound [yooÅ].
 W
w- wh-
or ? The spellings of words begin- . It must not be con-
waiver clause in a contract
fused with the verb which means `fluctuate
or hesitate; become unsteady': .
ning with w- and wh- are easily confused as waver

..
they are pronounced the same by the ma- Throughout his
jority of English speakers (exceptions in- suffering his faith never wavered a wavering
cluding Scottish speakers of English). voice.
Examples of such confusable words include
wake waken AWAKE AWAKEN WAKE
, see , , or
which and witch, watt and what, and while
WAKEN ?

wander wonder
and wile, all of which have different mean-
ings. or ? These spellings are
Note that a small number of words can be spelt
.
◆ sometimes confused. means `roam
either way with the same meaning, e.g.
Wander
wacky/ aimlessly': He wandered through the streets;

.
whacky, weal/wheal.. wonder means `be astonished at' or `think

wage wages
, see SALARY or WAGE? about':
◆
I wonder where she is.

The pronunciation of is [ deÆr]; the

wander won
waist waste or ? These two words are pronunciation of
thunder.
[ deÆr] rhymes with
wonder wun
occasionally confused since they are pro-
nounced the same [wayst]. Waist
that part of the body between the ribs and
refers to wannabee A wannabee is a person who
strives to emulate another, especially a

.
the hips and thus to any similar narrow
.
young fan who mimics a famous person
part of something: The dancer had a tiny
in appearance, behaviour, etc.: a horde of
waist. It should not be confused with waste,
Madonna wannabees.

.
which as a noun means `rubbish' or `un- ◆ The word , from the phrase
wannabee (l) want to
wanted material':
.
The process creates little
, is sometimes spelt
be (like . . .) . It is best
wannabe
waste, and as a verb `squander': to waste
restricted to informal contexts.
well-earned money.

wait or weight ? These two words are

want .
As a verb the main meanings of want
.
.
are `to desire': I want a bigger car, `to need':
occasionally confused since they are pro- That door wants mending, and `to lack': The

.
nounced the same [wayt]. Wait means `stay'
or `delay action':
They waited until the
parade had passed. It should not be confused
door wants a handle. As a noun it means
.
`something desired; a desire for something;
a lack' or is used as a synonym for poverty:

.
with weight, which is chiefly used as a noun the want experienced by the unemployed. Want
meaning `heaviness' or `relative mass':
.
He to is often used in informal contexts to mean
took the weight of the sack on his shoulders, `ought to': You want to be more careful.
and is also used as a verb (see There is controversy over whether can be
WEIGH or
usedwithapresentparticipleasin: .
◆ want
WEIGHT?). I want my hair
See also AWAIT or WAIT? . This usage is a standard regional variation
cutting

waiter or waitress? see NON-SEXIST TERMS. in British English, although more people would say
. This latter form can lead to
waive or wave? These two words are ambiguity. ..
I want my hair cut
is
I want the picture fixing on the wall
clearer than ,
`relinquish': .
sometimes confused. The verb means I want the picture fixed on the wall
which could indicate a desire for a particular
waive

means `move to and fro': . picture. .

;
The judge waived the penalty

.
I want the picture to be fixed on the
is unambiguous and avoids the use of the
wave wave

. wall
present participle, which is generally considered
goodbye The corn waved in the wind

comes from the verb : . unsuitable for any but informal use.
The noun means `ridge of water'.
◆ The noun
wave

waiver waive a
-ward 324
-ward -wards
or ? The adverbial suffixes Petrol stored in garages is subject to wastage.

-ward and -wards are used to indicate di- Another meaning, usually occurring in the
rection. Both forms are equally correct, phrase natural wastage, refers to the loss of
although -wards is usually preferred in employees through resignation, retirement,
British English and in American or death.
is sometimes used as a synonym for
-ward

English. ◆ Wastage
◆ Most of these adverbs have a related adjective but it should be confined to the meanings
waste
ending in . The adjectival suffix cannot be outlined above.
-ward
replaced by .
For further discussion and additional informa- waste see WAIST or WASTE?
-wards

tion see AFTERWARD or AFTERWARDS?, BACK- watercooler TV The term

WARD or BACKWARDS?, and other individual refers to popular television programmes
watercooler TV

entries. that are the subject of informal conversa-

ware where or ? Ware is usually used in

.
tion among friends or work colleagues (i.e.
the sort of programmes that people talk
the plural, meaning `goods' or `products':
about around the office watercooler).
Customers flocked to see the company's wares.
These may be soap operas, REALITYTV shows,
.
It should not be confused with where,
situation comedies, etc.; the term is gener-
meaning `to or at what place': Let me
ally not applied to documentaries or cur-
show you where to go.

-ware -wear
rent-affairs programmes that would
or ? The ending -ware de- provoke more serious discussion.

. wave waver WAIVE or WAVE?

notes goods of the specified type or materi-
, see
. . . way
al; the ending -wear denotes clothing:
glassware computer software knitwear The use of way as an adverb, meaning

.
leather footwear. The two endings are some-
. .
`considerably', is best restricted to informal
times confused: Dawn French, who is contexts: The film is way too long. Her
planning to open a knitware shop (The Book- hair is way too short. It should also be
seller).

In computing, the ending has been used used as an adverb meaning `extremely': .
restricted to very informal contexts when
◆ -ware
to coin a number of nouns on the model of
and . These include: .
That's a way cool jacket.

(a set of related software) .

hardware software
-ways see -WISE or -WAYS?
group-

.
ware courseware
(educational software) (software we is used to mean `I and one or more
that has yet to be produced) .
vapourware
(human other people': .
liveware
We
. .
beings). We should get a divorce

warn or worn? These two words are ◆ It was formerly used to mean `I' by monarchs: .
Shall we all go for a walk?

. . ., and is sometimes
We grant by royal decree
occasionally confused since they are pro-
used by writers to give an impression of imperson-
`caution' or `advise of danger': .
nounced the same [worn]. means
Warn
ality: . . is
We shall discuss this in a later chapter We
sometimes used to mean `you', usually in addres-
They were

warned about their behaviour. It should not

sing children or invalids in a somewhat patronizing
be confused with , the past participle
worn
. manner: .
. Are we feeling better this morning?
We are in a nasty temper today, aren't
of wear , which is also used as an adjective:
we?
That tyre is badly worn.
Mistakes are sometimes made in the use of
was see WERE or WAS?
we
and . is correct with a plural noun as the
subject: .
us We

wastage or waste? . is
.
We children used to play there Us
is used as a
Waste
correctwhenthenounistheobject: It won't help
verb, noun, and adjective. As a noun its
. us workers

. weal wheal wheel

main meanings are `squandering, using
carelessly or ungainfully': It was a com- , or ? The noun wheel,

. .
plete waste of time and money; or `rubbish; denoting a circular object, is by far the most

. .
unwanted material': Get rid of all this common of these three words: the wheels

waste. Wastage is a noun meaning `loss due of a bicycle a steering wheel a spinning

. .
to leakage, decay, erosion, evaporation, etc.' wheel. The nouns weal and wheal are inter-
the wastage of water from a reservoir changeable in the sense of `raised mark on
 325 were
(often in combination with an adverb), is
:. .
the skin (usually caused by a blow from a wed
preferred to
frequent: .
whip, cane, etc.)', being the more wedded the newlywed couple
. In the formal and figurative
weal
[or ] her twice-wed father
sense of `committed' or `closely connected', the
The weals wheals on his

is preferred to : .
.
is also an archaic or literary word meaning past participle
back suggested that he had been beaten

`welfare' or `prosperity': . . ..
◆ Weal wedded wed He
the public weal the seems wedded to the idea Malnutrition is
common weal . .
wedded to poverty

-wear WARE WEAR

see or ? Wednesday The name of this day of the

weather wether whether

, or ? These
week is usually pronounced
although careful users prefer to sound
[wenzdi],

three spellings are sometimes confused.

WEATHER CONDITIONS) the d [wednzdi] or [wednzday].

weigh weight
The noun weather (see
and the conjunction whether (see WHETHER) or ? To weigh is to measure

.
are far more common than the noun the weight of something; to weight is to add

.
wether, which denotes a (castrated) male weight to something: The box weighs 3 kg.
sheep. We weighted the tarpaulin with stones so

weather conditions Weather

that it would not blow away.
◆ Both words may be used in the figurative sense
means `the
condition of the atmosphere, especially in
of`oppress': . They were weighed/weighted down
respect of sunshine, rainfall, wind, etc.' As
.
with problems
the word contains in its meaning,
condition
is the more frequent of the two verbs,
of other senses: .
Weigh

.
careful users maintain that it is tautological
being used in a variety
.
to weigh
to talk of
. .
, as in:
weather conditions
[`raise']
The bad
[`assess']
.
anchor to weigh up the pros
weather conditions stopped play The freez-
and cons [`consider carefully']
to weigh one's
ing weather conditions in the north will not
. The verb is also used in the sense of
`bias': .
words weight
improve .

weatherman or weathergirl? see NON-

The legislation must not be weighted
. A London
towards the rich allowance
weighting
SEXIST TERMS. is an extra sum of money paid to some people who
weaved, wove or woven work in London, where the cost of living is high.
.
? The usual past
Note the spelling of the two words.
-eigh-

. .
tense of is
weave :wove She wove the cloth
is sometimes
Weight misspelt with the ending
herself .
The spider wove its web
.
is
, on
Woven
the model
-th of , etc.
length, width
See also WAIT or WEIGHT?
.
the usual past participle of : weave It was

weird
woven by hand. They were wearing woven

garments. This word, meaning `uncanny or

◆ In some senses of is used for the extraordinary', is sometimes misspelt. Note
weave, weaved
past tense or past participle, as when the
weave spelling.
means `contrive or produce a complicated story': well see AS WELL AS; GOOD or WELL?.
-ei-

. ; `lurch or stagger': .
; and `move well or well-? When used as part of an
She weaved a sinister plot

around vehicles to avoid hitting them': .

He weaved drunkenly down the street
adjectival compound, such as
The car ,
.
well-aimed
weaved in and out of all the traffic whether is hyphenated or not depends
well

web WORLD WIDE WEB

see .
on its position in relation to the noun or

Weblish NETSPEAK .
verb in the sentence. If placed before the
see . noun, a hyphen is usual: a well-aimed

wed wedded
or ? The use of the verb wed
remark.

omit the hyphen: .

If placed after the verb, it is usual to
Her remarks were well
in the sense of `marry' is rather old-fash-
aimed.

. were was
ioned, formal, or literary; in modern usage
it is chiefly found in newspaper headlines: or ? Difficulty is sometimes
Doctor weds former patient. Either wed or experienced in the use of the subjunctive

.
wedded may be used as the past tense or past form were in phrases expressing supposi-

.
participle of the verb in this sense: They tion. The basic rule is that were is used
wed [or wedded] the following spring. They when the suggestion is of something hy-

When the past participle is used adjectivally . .

were wed [or wedded] by her uncle. pothetical, unlikely, or not actually the case:
◆ If I were you, I'd leave him. She talks to
west 326
old. If the knives, etc.; a wet stone is simply a stone that is
damp.
me as if I were three years

.
supposition is factual or realistic then was
is used: I'm sorry if I was rude.

When a supposition might be possible or factual wether WEATHER WETHER

see , or WHETHER?
may be used: . wetted WET WETTED
◆
then either or was were They see or ?
behaved as if it was/were their own house . The wh- W- WH-
more doubt there is, the more appropriate it is to see or ?

use . were whammy DOUBLE WHAMMY

see .

west West western

, or ? As an adjective, wharfs wharves
or ? Either wharfs or

.
west is always written with a capital W wharves is acceptable as the plural of the

.
when it forms part of a proper name: the noun wharf, denoting a place where ships
West End the West Country. The noun west dock for loading and unloading. Wharves is
is usually written with a capital W when it the more frequent form.
denotes a specific region, such as the non-
what A difficulty in the use of the pronoun

.
communist countries of Europe and Amer-
what is whether it should be followed by a
ica: She defected to the West in 1986.

In other contexts, and as an adverb, is singular or plural verb. In general the rule

usually written with a lower-case : .

◆ west
is that when means `that which' it
what

.
w Drive west
. takes a singular verb, even if the comple-

..
until you reach the border We camped on the
west bank of the river . ment
which' it takes a plural verb: .
is plural, and when it means `those
The sun sets in the west
The adjective is more frequent and . .
What we need

usually less specific than the adjective : .

western

. .
is a ladder What he likes best is expensive

.
west
restaurants I mentioned what I thought
the western side of the island in western Scot-
land . .
cannot follow a noun or pronoun. Con-
were the most important points

Like is written with a capital structions

when it forms part of a proper name, such as are wrong.such as: .
◆ What
west, western W
the man what I was talking to

. With or without a capital , it

also means `of the West': . what or which? In a question, the use of
Western Australia W
western/Western
technology .A is a film, novel, etc., about
western or affects the interpretation of
life in the western USA in the 19th century.
what which

the meaning. chooses from a limited

Which

westward westwards? or Westward is the

range of alternatives; what is used in more

◆ Thus .
general enquiries.

.
correct choice when an adjective is needed:
Which film are you going to see?suggests
a westward direction. Either westward or
that the speaker has several possible films in mind;
westwards
.
may be used when an adverb is
whereas . What film are you going to see? shows
.
required: They travelled westward from the
that the speaker is probably unaware of the choice
city. The skies were full of birds flying
of the various films.
whatever what ever
westwards.

See also -WARD or -WARDS? or ? If ever is used to

wet wetted
.
or ? The verb to wet means
intensify what
two words in formal writing: .
the expression is written as
What ever

.
`make wet': Don't keep wetting your lips,
[`What on earth'] did he say next? In less
and `urinate in or on something': Children
formal writing, one word is sometimes

.
often wet their beds when they are anxious.
used, but careful writers object to this
The usual past tense or participle is wet:

.
usage. If whatever means `no matter what',
The baby has wet its nappy again. However,

.
it is written as one word: I'll write
in the passive, wetted is used. The sheets have

.
whatever I like. Whatever the weather he
been wetted is less ambiguous than the sheets
always wears a vest. There is no chance
have been wet.

wet whet
whatever of him winning.

or A similar rule applies to the use of

? These two spellings are ◆ how ever and
, and ,
with moisture': .
sometimes confused. means `cover however when ever whenever where ever
and , and , and
Wet

means `stimulate or sharpen': . :.

; wherever which ever whichever
and
to wet one's lips whet
whet some- who ever whoever How ever did you find

..
. out? ± However carefully I wash my hair, it always
◆ A is a stone used for sharpening
one's appetite
whetstone looks untidy Where ever did you buy such a hat?
 327 who
while whilst
..
± Wherever you travel, you'll find businesses that or ? As a conjunction while

.
accept our credit card Who ever told you that? ± means `during the time that; as long as' and
Whoever wrote this had a strange sense of hu- it is also used to mean `although; whereas':
.
.
mour I shall be doing his work while he's away on

wheal wheel, see WEAL, WHEAL or WHEEL? holiday. Elizabeth votes Labour while her

husband votes Conservative. Whilst has the

whence Whence is a formal, rarely used same meanings but is rarely used; it tends
to sound formal and old-fashioned.
. Many people dislike the use of or in
word meaning `from where; from what
◆ while whilst
the sense of `although; whereas' as it can give rise
place': The monster returned to the swamp

is more frequently used; as in: . to ambiguity. .

whence it had appeared.
While she was studying literature
could mean `during the time
◆ From whence
, although the she disliked poetry
is redundant, being contained in the mean- she was studying literature' or `although she was
The country from whence they came

studying literature'.
from
ing of , and many people consider
whence from
whence to be incorrect. However, as is whisky or whiskey? The alcoholic drink
whence
now a word whose use tends to sound either old- distilled in Scotland is spelt
fashioned, affected, or jocular it is probably better the more frequent spelling in British , which is whisky

to avoid both and

whence alto- lish. The alcoholic drink distilled inEng-
from whence
gether. USA or Ireland is spelt
the
, the usual
HENCE; THENCE.
whiskey
See also spelling in American English.
whenever when ever or ? see WHATEVER or white As a term describing skin colour,
WHAT EVER ? white is less contentious than nonwhite (see

where WARE WHERE

see or ?
NON-), but is still avoided by some users. An
whereabouts
alternative is to refer to a person's geogra-

.
The noun whereabouts, phical origin, rather than his or her skin
meaning `place where somebody or some- colour: Europeans are a minority in this part

.
thing is', may be used with a singular or of the world.
plural verb:
manuscript remains
The whereabouts of the original

[or remain] a secret. . Her

who The pronoun who is normally used in

.
reference to human beings (which being
whereabouts are [or is] unknown.

wherever where ever

used for nonhumans): the man who runs
or ? see WHATEVER the shop. However, it is acceptable to use
orWHAT EVER ? who in referring to animals, to countries in

whet WET WHET

see or ?
certain contexts, and to a group of people,
.
whether .
especially when taking a plural verb: cats

. .
Whether can be used to introduce who refuse to eat leftovers Greece, who
an indirect question: He asked whether we joined the European Community in 1981 the
were going. Here it is synonymous with if band who plays the loudest.
can be used to refer to human beings and
(see THAT or WHICH?): .
but sounds rather more formal. Whether is ◆ That
things in
.
also used to introduce alternatives or con- defining clauses
[or ]
. .
sider possibilities and is virtually inter- the man that who runs the shop the band
[or or ]
.
changeable with if: I wonder whether/if that who which plays the loudest the
she'll come. I don't know whether/if it is woman that [or , or the formally correct
who
correct. ]
whom you just saw .
In these cases there is some confusion concern- Care must be taken with the punctuation of
, as in: . phrases containing . .
◆
ing the use of whether or not He has not who The boys, who attend
decided whether (or not) to stay . Here, where the public schools, regularly drink in pubs changes its
sense is `if he is staying' the can be con-
or not meaning if the commas are omitted. Without the
sidered redundant. It is only necessary when the commas, introduces a restrictive (or defining)
sense is `regardless of whether or not' as in: .
who
He clause, suggesting specific boys: those that attend
has decided to stay, whether or not he can afford public school. With commas, the additional clause
it. merely adds extra information about the boys.
WEATHER, WETHER or WHETHER?
See also
who whom
which see THAT or WHICH?; WHAT or WHICH?
or ? Who is used when it is the
subject of a verb and whom when it is the
whodunit 328
object of a verb or preposition:
.
. the boy whose or who's ? These spellings are

. .
who delivers the papers the woman whom sometimes confused. Whose means `of

.
you just saw the people to whom I was whom' or `of which': the children, whose

. .
talking. Whom is falling into disuse, espe- father had left them political parties whose

.
cially in questions. Whom did you give it ideas are old-fashioned Whose book is that?

to? is formally correct but most people Who's is a contraction of who is or who has:
would now use who. As a relative pronoun,
◆ Some people object to the use of in the
Who's coming to dinner tonight?
should still be used, when correct, in whose
sense of `of which', referring to things rather than
whom

people: .
formal writing.
◆ While many careful users feel that it is important [not
an old teapot, the handle of which
to use whom when it is correct to do so, most ]
whose handle had been broken for many years .
wouldconsider that theuse of for who is far Others, however, find the construction
whom the . . . of
less of a mistake than the use of when an unnecessarily wordy substitute for
is correct, as in: .
whom who which
The children, whom she thought . . ..
whose
were dead, had been saved . The temptation is to wicked Like BAD, the adjective
use whom because it is felt that this is the object of used is wicked

she thought , but it is not. is a more or by young

She thought
people: .
as slang term of approval, especially

less independent part of the sentence; it could His new bike is well

even be moved to another part of the sentence. It ◆ Jonathon Green in

.
wicked

:
is not an object of that is needed, but
she thought
comments on its origin:
Neologisms new words since
`The term has arrived
a subject ( ) of the phrase
who .
were dead
1960
via two borrowings: the first from standard English
whodunit This word, used in informal via black Americans, and subsequently by the
contexts to describe a detective story, white young from their black counterparts.'
may be spelt
whodunnit.
whodunit or, less frequently,
wilful Note the spelling of this word,

◆It is, of course, an abbreviation of the ungram- which has a single l in the middle and at

matical who done it?

the end in British English. In American

whoever who ever

English the -ll ending of will is retained in
or ? see WHATEVER or the spelling willful.

WHAT EVER ?
will SHALL WILL?
whoever whomever
see or
or
unclear about the difference between these
? Many users are
window Window has various well-estab-
lished metaphorical uses. It can mean
two words. Both mean `whatever person';
WHO or WHOM?), is `something that allows people to see some-
.
.
whoever, like who (see
thing they might otherwise not see': The
used as the subject of a verb: Whoever
programme is a window on the closed world of
broke it must pay for the repair, and whom-

.
the monastery; or `an opportunity to display
.
ever, like whom, is used as the object of a
something': The exhibition is the annual
verb or preposition: Bring whomever you

Amorerecentuseis`agap;anintervaloftime': .
window of domestic design.
want to the party. Since it sounds very
◆
formal, whomever has become relatively
, though care should be
this expression: .
a window of opportunity
rare and is now commonly replaced by
whoever .
taken to avoid overworking Is

wholly see HOLY, HOLEY or WHOLLY?; SPEL-

there a window in my diary next week for that
(Vodafone advertise-
). .
meeting with Dempster?
LING 4. ment, Daily Telegraph There should be a clear

whom WHO WHOM

see or ?
window between the arrival of the interim report

whomever WHOEVER
and the publication of the final conclusions.
see or WHOMEVER? -wise -ways
whoop .
or ? The suffix -ways com-
This word, meaning `express de- bines with certain abstract nouns to form

. .
light', as in: Sally whooped excitedly, is an adverb meaning `in (such) a way, direc-
sometimes mispronounced. The correct tion, or manner': sideways lengthways. It
pronunciation is [woop]. has a more limited use than -wise, which
Note, however, that as in
.
◆ whooping whooping can combine with various nouns to mean
cough is pronounced [ hoop ing]. either `in the position or direction of':
 329 worship
. which may be replaced by or,
.
or `in the manner of': the cleaning woman
more simply, .
clockwise lengthwise

expressions as: .
to walk crabwise. The use of -wise to mean the cleaner
As a general rule, , , and are best
. . . restricted to contexts where , , or
`in respect of' in such female girl lady

.
male boy gentle-
would be used of the opposite sex.
moneywise weatherwise careerwise
taxwise performancewise is becoming in- man
creasingly popular, but is disliked by many See also MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM.
people.
wonder
with .
The verb wonder is followed by
When a singular subject is linked to the preposition at in the sense `marvel': I

. .
something else by with it should take a wondered at his strength and by about in the
singular verb: The Prime Minister with sense `speculate': I wondered about the
senior members of the Cabinet has been con- reason for his departure.

sidering the problem. The same rule applies See also WANDER or WONDER?
even when a singular subject comprises
several individuals or entities: . The band
wonk In American English the word wonk

.
is an insulting slang term for someone who
with members of the road crew has been given
is studious or works hard: That guy's a real

◆ The usual pronunciation in British English is

rooms at a local hotel.
wonk.

[widh]; [with] is a regional variation. wont This old-fashioned word is used to .

withhold This word, meaning `keep back',
mean `inclined or accustomed':
wont to have tea at 4 o'clock every day
They were
and in
is sometimes misspelt. Note the -hh- in the
the expression as is one's wont. Its pronun-
middle of this word, unlike the word
ciation is the same as that of the word won't
threshold.

◆ The correct pronunciation [widh ] should [woÅ nt].

wood or would?
hoÅld
ensure that the word is spelt correctly.
. .
Wood refers to trees or

woman As a general term for an adult

timber: They entered the wood. The frame

.
is made of wood. It should not be confused

.
female human being, woman is more ac-
with the modal verb would: She would not
ceptable than female, girl, or lady: The
do as she was told.

woolly
prize was won by a woman from Brighton.
◆ The noun (see FEMALE or FEMININE?) is
female Note the spelling of this word: -oo-
best reserved for animals and plants. It may be and -ll- in British English; -oo- and single
applied to human beings when the question of
inappropriate: .
-l- in American English. Similarly, the
age makes or
woman women He adjective woollen has -ll- in British English
shares the house with five females: his wife and and a single -l- in American English.
their four young daughters .In most other casesit is workman workwoman NON-SEXIST
considered inelegant, contemptuous, or offensive. TERMS.
or ? see

As an adjective, however, is only marginally

World Wide Web
female
less acceptable than and is preferable to
:.
woman The term World Wide

..
lady There are two female doctors and one male Web (commonly referred to simply as the

doctor at the local surgery Female drivers do not web) describes the global network of com-
have more road accidents than male drivers . puters linked by the INTERNET. In practice, the
A is a female child or adolescent. The term is
girl term is generally treated as synonymous with
often used as a synonym for `woman' but is or net, although some people make a
considered patronizing or disrespectful by some
Internet

distinction between the World Wide Web (the

people in some contexts, especially when used by mass of documents and other material avail-
men. able by such electronic means) and the
The word has connotations of nobility,
Inter-

dignity, and good manners: .

lady net (the actual connections between these

..
the Lady of the sites). In electronic addresses
It
World Wide
manor She may be wealthy but she's no lady! is abbreviated to www; in other contexts
is used in polite address, as in formal or official
Web

contexts: .
it is usually abbreviated to WWW.

..
This lady would like to speak to the
. . . However, it worn see WARN or WORN?
worship
manager Ladies and gentlemen
is sometimes regarded as a term of condescension, The single final doubles in front
especially in such phrases as ,
p

the cleaning lady of most suffixes beginning with a vowel in

worthwhile 330
British English: . worshipped . worshipper . wretch see RETCH or WRETCH?
worshipping.
single p.
American English retains the
wring The verb wring
.
is followed by the

◆ Worshipful retains the single . p

preposition from or out of: They tried in

See also SPELLING 1. vain to wring the truth from

RING or WRING?
[or out of] her.

worthwhile worth while

See also
or
tional rule is that this expression is written
? The tradi-
wright see RIGHT or WRITE?
.
as two words after a verb and as one word write see RIGHT or WRITE?
in front of a noun:
spending a little more money.
It
.
is worth while
a project that wrought Wrought is an archaic form of the
is worth while ± a worthwhile project. past tense and past participle of the verb
◆ Increasingly, however, the tendency is to write work. It is still used adjectivally in such
this expression as one word in all contexts. expression as wrought iron.

would see OF; SHOULD or WOULD?; WOOD or tense of is sometimes

,
wrongly used as the past
meaning `inflict; cause': .
◆ Wrought

WOULD? [not ]
wreak The

wove, woven see WEAVED, WOVE or WO- ..

hurricane wreaked wrought havoc through-
[not ]
out the countryside She wreaked wrought
VEN? . vengeance on the bullies

wrack RACK WRACK

see or ? www WWW , see WORLD WIDE WEB.
wrapped RAPT WRAPPED
see or ? wysiwyg The term wysiwyg, used in com-

wreak REEK WREAK

see or ?
puting and pronounced [wiziwig], is an

wreath wreathe
acronym for what you see is what you get:

or ? Wreath is a noun the display on the computer screen is an

describing a circular garland of flowers exact representation of what will appear on

. .
and foliage of the type commonly displayed the printout. The term is sometimes spelt
at funerals: There was a single wreath on the WYSIWYG or Wysiwyg: Offering full

.
coffin. Wreathe is a verb meaning `encircle' or Wysiwyg (what you see is what you get),

`twist': including the enhancements such as bold,

is pronounced [reeth], while is

The mist wreathed around the trees.

◆ Wreath wreathe italics, inverse, tone and outlines (Daily Tele-

pronounced [reedh]. graph).

 X
Xerox This word should be spelt if it ◆ Some people, particularly Christians, find the
word offensive and it is generally considered sui-
Xerox

is referring to the trademarked noun for a

type of photographic copier or process. The table only for informal writing. When reading the
verb, meaning `copy on a Xerox machine', word aloud it is preferable to pronounce it as
is spelt with a lower-case x. Christmas , and only actually to say [ maÆs] when
eks
◆ Xerox is pronounced [ oks].
zeer this spelling is emphasized.
Xmas Xmas, an abbreviation for Christmas, X-ray x-ray
or ? The noun is nearly always

.
is used particularly in commercial contexts written with a capital X; the verb is written
and newspaper headlines. The X derives with a capital or lower-case letter: He had
from the Greek chi, the initial letter of an X-ray/He was X-rayed [or x-rayed] after

Christos, the Greek for Christ. the accident.

 Y
ye Ye is the archaic plural of thou, which slavery. A yolk is the yellow part of an egg: .
subsequently became an equivalent of you. Would you like your yolk hard?
The use of ye

antique, rustic charm, as in:

(meaning `the') to suggest
. Ye Olde yoof Yoof is a phonetic respelling of the
Teashoppe, was formerly fashionable, but word youth (as pronounced by a Lon-

.
in contemporary usage is best avoided ex- doner), used with particular reference to
cept in ironic contexts. contemporary youth culture: Panels are a

◆ This second sense of actually came about

ye good idea, but they shouldn't all be authors

through medieval mistranscription of the runic who don't appeal to the `yoof' culture (The
letter thorn. Bookseller).

yes no ◆ The vogue for such humorous respellings as

and In discussing affirmative or yoof , (for love), and
lerv (for media) is
meeja
negative expressions one has the option of
. disliked by many people.
you
writing, for example, either: She said yes
to the offer or: She said, `Yes' to the offer. You is often used to mean `people in

ONE: .
The latter carries more of an implication general' in place of the slightly more

.
that the person actually used the word yes formal You certainly get a good meal

.
or no. at that restaurant.
In phrases where there is no suggestion of
You hold a hammer like

.
◆ this. [i.e. `The authorities']
someone actually using the word, it is better not
They fine you

tohave or ininvertedcommas: .
on the spot if you've not got a ticket. It's

.. .
yes no He says yes
.
really embarrassing when you forget some-

Phrases such as: .

to life She won't take no for an answer one's name. Dentists say you should clean
He said (that) yes, he agreed your teeth at least twice a day. Although
are acceptable. The is dispensable but adds
one
yes is less frequently used than it is some-
emphasis.
you

times better to use one to avoid possible

yet . Yet has various meanings: `up till now;

.
confusion as to whether the speaker is
talking personally or generally. It is also

.
so far': It has not yet been decided, `even': a
important to be consistent in the use of

.
yet greater problem, `in addition': yet more
either you or one throughout a single piece

.
presents, `at some future time': We'll do it
of writing.
yet, and `nevertheless':
The personal pronoun is either singular or
slow, yet sure.

In several of its meanings is more or less ◆plural. you

interchangeable with , but in the sense of `as personAllis attempts to indicate that more than one
◆ yet

before': .
still
is now archaic, and being addressed: , , you all you lot you

is required.
It is yet raining, yet
, etc., are informal. guys
See also -ING FORMS.
still
When the meaning is `up till now; so far' yet
cannot be used with the simple past tense, except you know The expression
in informal American English: . Did she go yet?
used by speakers who are not sure about
is you know

yoghurt The most frequent spelling of this what they have just said or who are not
sure what to say next: . I just wondered . . .
word is yoghurt. Acceptable alternatives are
yogurt and yoghourt. The usual pronun- you know . . . if you might like to come with

ciation is [yogeÆrt] in British English and me to the theatre. The expression is fre-
[yo Æ rt] in American English.
Å ge quently used with this function but is very

yoke yolk widely disliked.

young
or ? These words are sometimes

. .
confused. Yoke means `connecting bar or For names of young of animals see
bond': yoked oxen under the yoke of table at ANIMALS.
 333 yuppie
your you're
or ? These two words may be
.
yourself care to sit here, next to me? . That's a

.
confused. Your means `belonging to you': question for yourself.
your house

traction of you are: .

your rights. You're is a con-
Hurry up, you're going
yuppie Yuppie, often spelt yuppy, is a
North American coinage which came into

Notealsothespellingof : .
to be late!
frequent use in Britain in the mid-1980s. It
◆ yours That's mine not
; the spelling with an apostrophe,
yours your's, is stands for `young urban (or upwardly mo-

wrong. bile) professional' and is used to designate

yourself
well-educated young adults, living in cities,

.
Careful speakers avoid using working in well-paid occupations, and en-
yourself as a replacement for you: Would joying a fashionable way of life.
 Z
zero The digit 0 has a variety of names. The plural of is or
zero zeros zeroes . Either form
(see also NAUGHT or NOUGHT?) and is acceptable, but zeros is the more frequent, being
preferred by many users.
Nought

.
(less frequently) zero are the general terms

.
for this digit: The number 1000 has three
noughts

off the
[or
end
zeros].

± it
You've missed a nought

should be two hundred

zeugma This term denotes a figure of
speech in which a word (usually a verb
thousand, not twenty thousand. In scientific
or adjective) applies to more than one other

.
contexts, and for expressing temperatures,

.
word in the sentence, often in different
etc., zero is preferred: Water freezes at zero
senses: She drove the car too fast and her

.
degrees Celsius. Zero is also used in count-

When `spelling out' a number, such as a tele- ◆English and [is pronounced [ maÆ] in British
instructor to despair.
downs: .
five, four, three, two, one, zero
Zeugma zyoog
◆
phone number or account number, the name of Æ
ma ] in American
zoog English.
the letter (pronounced like the word ) is used
inBritishEnglish: . zoology This word, referring to the bio-
O oh
The dialling code for Liverpool is
oh-one-five-one . logical study of animals, has two pronun-
In sport, the terms and are used for a ciations. The more frequent pronunciation
scoreof0: . ..
love nil
four love in the final set is [zoo o Æ ji], though careful users prefer
At half-time ol

the score was two nil. Å o

[zo Æ ji]. ol