Formulas in Solid Mechanics

Tore Dahlberg
Solid Mechanics/IKP, Linköping University
Linköping, Sweden

This collection of formulas is intended for use by foreign students in the course TMHL61,
Damage Mechanics and Life Analysis, as a complement to the textbook Dahlberg and
Ekberg: Failure, Fracture, Fatigue - An Introduction, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 2002.
It may be use at examinations in this course.

Contents Page
1. Definitions and notations 1
2. Stress, Strain, and Material Relations 2
3. Geometric Properties of Cross-Sectional Area 3
4. One-Dimensional Bodies (bars, axles, beams) 5
5. Bending of Beam Elementary Cases 11
6. Material Fatigue 14
7. Multi-Axial Stress States 17
8. Energy Methods the Castigliano Theorem 20
9. Stress Concentration 21
10. Material data 25

Version 03-09-18
1. Definitions and notations

Definition of coordinate system and loadings on beam

Mz q ( x)
My
Tz
Ty x N Mx
Mx N y Ty
Tz
z A
My
Mz
L

Loaded beam, length L, cross section A, and load q(x), with coordinate system (origin at the
geometric centre of cross section) and positive section forces and moments: normal force N,
shear forces Ty and Tz, torque Mx, and bending moments My, Mz

Notations

Quantity Symbol SI Unit

Coordinate directions, with origin at geometric centre of x, y, z m

cross-sectional area A
Normal stress in direction i (= x, y, z) σi N/m2
Shear stress in direction j on surface with normal direction i τij N/m2
Normal strain in direction i εi
Shear strain (corresponding to shear stress τij) γij rad
Moment with respect to axis i M, Mi Nm
Normal force N, P N (= kg m/s 2)
Shear force in direction i (= y, z) T, Ti N
Load q(x) N/m
Cross-sectional area A m2
Length L, L0 m
Change of length δ m
Displacement in direction x u, u(x), u(x,y) m
Displacement in direction y v, v(x), v(x,y) m
Beam deflection w(x) m
Second moment of area (i = y, z) I, Ii m4
Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) E N/m2
Poisson’s ratio ν
Shear modulus G N/m2
Bulk modulus K N/m2
Temperature coefficient α K− 1

1
2. Stress, Strain, and Material Relations

Normal stress σx
N  ∆N  ∆N = fraction of normal force N
σx = or σx = lim   ∆A = cross-sectional area element
A ∆A → 0  ∆A 

Shear stress τxy (mean value over area A in the y direction)

Ty
τxy = (= τmean)
A

Normal strain εx
Linear, at small deformations (δ << L0)
δ du(x) δ = change of length
εx = or εx = L0 = original length
L0 dx
u(x) = displacement
Non-linear, at large deformations
L L = actual length (L = L0 + δ)
εx = ln  
 L0 

Shear strain γxy

∂u (x, y) ∂v(x, y)
γxy = +
∂y ∂x

Linear elastic material (Hooke’s law)

Tension/compression
σx ∆T = change of temperatur
εx = + α ∆T
E

Lateral strain
εy = − ν εx
Shear strain
τxy
γxy =
G

Relationships between G, K, E and ν

E E
G= K=
2(1+ν) 3 ( 1 − 2ν )

2
3. Geometric Properties of Cross-Sectional Area

e The origin of the coordinate system Oyz is

O at the geometric centre of the cross section
y
f

dA
z

Cross-sectional area A

A = ⌠ dA
dA = area element
⌡A
Geometric centre (centroid)
e = ζgc = distance from η axis to geometric
e ⋅ A = ⌠ ζ dA
⌡A centre
f = ηgc distance from ζ axis to geometric
f ⋅ A = ⌠ η dA centre
⌡A
First moment of area

S y = ⌠ zdA and Sz = ⌠ ydA

A’ = the “sheared” area (part of area A)
⌡A’ ⌡A’
Second moment of area

Iy = ⌠ z 2dA
Iy = second moment of area with respect to
⌡A the y axis

Iz = ⌠ y 2dA
Iz = second moment of area with respect to
⌡A the z axis

Iyz = ⌠ yzdA
⌡A
Parallel-axis theorems
First moment of area
Sη = ⌠ (z + e) dA = eA
⌡A
Second moment of area
Iη = ⌠ (z + e)2 dA = Iy + e 2A ,
⌡A
Iyz = second moment of area with respect to
the y and z axes
and Sζ = ⌠ (y + f) dA = fA
⌡A
Iζ = ⌠ (y + f)2 dA = Iz + f 2A ,
⌡A

Iηζ = ⌠ (z + e) (y + f) dA = Iyz + efA

⌡A

3
Rotation of axes

y Coordinate system Ωηζ has been rotated

z the angle α with respect to the coordinate
system Oyz
y
dA
z

Iη = ⌠ ζ2 dA = Iy cos2 α + Iz sin2 α − 2Iyz sin α cos α

⌡A

Iζ = ⌠ η2 dA = Iy sin2 α + Iz cos2 α + 2Iyz sin α cos α

⌡A

Iy − Iz
Iηζ = ⌠ ζη dA = (Iy − Iz ) sin α cos α + Iyz (cos2 α − sin2 α ) = sin 2α + Iyz cos 2α
⌡A 2

Principal moments of area


√
Iy + Iz  Iy − Iz  2 2
I1, 2 = ±R where R =   + Iyz
2  2 
I1 + I2 = Iy + Iz

Principal axes
− Iyz Iy − Iz A line of symmetry is always a principal
sin 2α = or cos 2α = axis
R 2R

Second moment of area with respect to axes through geometric centre for some
symmetric areas (beam cross sections)

B Rectangular area, base B, height H

y H BH 3 HB 3
Iy = and Iz =
12 12
z
Solid circular area, diameter D
y D πD 4
Iy = Iz =
64
z
Thick-walled circular tube, diameters D
y d D and d
π
z Iy = Iz = ( D 4 − d 4 )
64

4
 R t Thin-walled circular tube, radius R and
y wall thickness t (t << R)
Iy = Iz = πR 3t
z
Triangular area, base B and height H
y H BH 3 HB 3
Iy = and Iz =
B/ 2 B/ 2 36 48
z

a a a Hexagonal area, side length a

y 5√
3 a 4
a a Iy = Iz =
16
z
2a Elliptical area, major axis 2a and minor
y axis 2b
2b
πab 3 πba 3
z Iy = and Iz =
4 4

Half circle, radius a (geometric centre at e)

a
y π 8  4a
e Iy =  −  a 4 ≅ 0, 110 a 4 and e =
 8 9π  3π
z

4. One-Dimensional Bodies (bars, axles, beams)

Tension/compression of bar
Change of length
NL N, E, and A are constant along bar
δ= or L = length of bar
EA

δ = ⌠ ε(x)dx = ⌠
L L
N(x) N(x), E(x), and A(x) may vary along bar
dx
⌡0 ⌡0 E(x)A(x)
Torsion of axle
Maximum shear stress
Mv Mv = torque = Mx
τmax = Wv = section modulus in torsion (given
Wv
below)
Torsion (deformation) angle
Mv L Mv = torque = Mx
Θ= Kv = section factor of torsional stiffness
GKv
(given below)

5
Section modulus Wv and section factor Kv for some cross sections (at torsion)

R t Torsion of thin-walled circular tube, radius

y R, thickness t, where t << R,
Wv = 2πR 2t Kv = 2πR 3t
z

(s) Thin-walled tube of arbitrary cross section

s
A = area enclosed by the tube
t(s)
t(s) = wall thickness
Area A s = coordinate around the tube
4A 2
Wv = 2Atmin Kv =
⌠ [t(s)] − 1 ds
⌡s

Thick-walled circular tube, diameters D

y d D and d,
π D4 − d4 π
z Wv = Kv = (D 4 − d 4)
16 D 32

Solid axle with circular cross section,

y D diameter D,
πD 3 πD 4
z Wv = Kv =
16 32

Solid axle with triangular cross section,

a side length a
y
a/ 2 a/ 2 a3 a4 √
3
z Wv = Kv =
20 80

2a Solid axle with elliptical cross section,

y major axle 2a and minor axle 2b
2b
π πa 3b 3
z Wv = a b 2 Kv = 2
2 a + b2

b Solid axle with rectangular cross section b

y a
by a, where b ≥ a
Wv = kWv a 2b Kv = kKv a 3b
z
for kWv and kKv, see table below

6
 Factors kWv and kKv for some values of ratio b / a (solid rectangular cross section)

b/a kWv kKv

1.0 0.208 0.1406

1.2 0.219 0.1661
1.5 0.231 0.1958
2.0 0.246 0.229
2.5 0.258 0.249
3.0 0.267 0.263
4.0 0.282 0.281
5.0 0.291 0.291
10.0 0.312 0.312
∞ 0.333 0.333

Bending of beam
Relationships between bending moment My = M(x), shear force Tz = T(x), and load q(x) on
beam
dT(x) dM(x) d2M(x)
= − q(x) , = T(x) , and = − q(x)
dx dx dx 2

Normal stress
N Mz I (here Iy) = second moment of area (see
σ= + Section 12.2)
A I
Maximum bending stress
| M| I
| σ | max = where Wb =
Wb | z | max Wb = section modulus (in bending)

Shear stress
TSA’ SA’ = first moment of area A’ (see Section
τ= 12.2)
Ib
b = length of line limiting area A’
T τgc = shear stress at geometric centre
τgc = µ
A µ = the Jouravski factor
The Jouravski factor µ for some cross sections

rectangular 1.5
triangular 1.33
circular 1.33
thin-walled circular 2.0
elliptical 1.33
ideal I profile A / Aweb

7
Skew bending
Axes y and z are not principal axes:
N My (zIz − yIyz ) − Mz (yIy − zIyz )
σ= + Iy, Iz, Iyz = second moment of area
A Iy Iz − Iyz2

Axes y’ and z’ are principal axes:

N M1 z’ M2 y’
σ= + − I1, I2 = principal second moment of area
A I1 I2

Beam deflection w(x)

Differential equations
d2  d2 
 EI(x) w(x)  = q(x) when EI(x) is function of x
dx 2  dx 2 

d4
EI w(x) = q(x) when EI is constant
dx 4

Homogeneous boundary conditions

Clamped beam end x x=L
d
w(*) = 0 and w(*) = 0
dx
where * is the coordinate of beam end
(to be entered after differentiation)
Simply supported beam end x x=L
d2
w(*) = 0 and − EI 2 w(*) = 0
dx

Sliding beam end x x=L

d d3
w(*) = 0 and − EI 3 w(*) = 0
dx dx

Free beam end x x=L

d2 d3
− EI 2 w(*) = 0 and − EI 3 w(*) = 0
dx dx

8
Non-homogeneous boundary conditions
(a) Displacement δ prescribed
w(*) = δ x x=L
(a)
(b) Slope Θ prescribed O
d
w(*) = Θ z (b) O
dx

(c) Moment M0 prescribed

M0 x x=L M0
d2 (c)
− EI 2 w(*) = M0
dx x x=L
P P
(d) Force P prescribed (d)
d3
− EI 3 w(*) = P
dx

Beam on elastic bed

Differential equation
d4
EI 4 w(x) + kw(x) = q(x) EI = constant bending stiffness
dx
k = bed modulus (N/m2)
Solution
w(x) = wpart(x) + whom(x) where

k
whom(x) = {C1 cos (λx) + C2 sin (λx)} eλx + {C3 cos (λx) + C2 sin (λx)} e − λx ; λ4 =
4EI
Boundary conditions as given above

Beam vibration
Differential equation
∂4 ∂2 EI = constant bending stiffness
EI 4 w(x, t) + m 2 w(x, t) = q(x, t) m = beam mass per metre (kg/m)
∂x ∂t
t = time
Assume solution w(x,t) = X(x)⋅T(t). Then the standing wave solution is
T(t) = e iωt and X(x) = C1 cosh (µx) + C2 cos (µx) + C3 sinh (µx) + C4 sin (µx)

where µ4 = ω2m /EI

Boundary conditions (as given above) give an eigenvalue problem that provides the
eigenfrequencies and eigenmodes (eigenforms) of the vibrating beam

9
Axially loaded beam, stability, the Euler cases
Beam axially loaded in tension
Differential equation
d4 d2
EI 4 w(x) − N 2 w(x) = q(x) N = normal force in tension (N > 0)
dx dx
Solution
w(x) = wpart(x) + whom(x) where


√ 
√ 
√
N  N   N 
whom(x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 sinh  x + C4 cosh  x
EI  EI   EI 
New boundary condition on shear force (other boundary conditions as given above)
d3 d
T(*) = − EI 3 w(*) + N w(*)
dx dx

Beam axially loaded in compression

Differential equation
d4 d2
EI 4 w(x) + P 2 w(x) = q(x) P = normal force in compression (P > 0)
dx dx
Solution
w(x) = wpart(x) + whom(x) where


√ 
√ 
√
P  P   P 
whom(x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 sin  x + C4 cos  x
EI  EI   EI 
New boundary condition on shear force (other boundary conditions as given above)
d3 d
T(*) = − EI 3 w(*) − P w(*)
dx dx

Elementary cases: the Euler cases (Pc is critical load)

Case 1 Case 2a Case 2b Case 3 Case 4
P P P P P

L, EI L, EI L, EI L, EI L, EI

π2EI π2EI π2EI 2.05 π2EI 4π2EI

Pc = Pc = Pc = Pc = Pc =
4L 2 L2 L2 L2 L2

10
5. Bending of Beam Elementary Cases

Cantilever beam
P PL 3  x 2 x 3 
L, EI w(x) = 3 − 
6EI  L 2 L 3 
x
z w(x) PL 3 d PL 2
w(L) = w(L) =
3EI dx 2EI

M ML 2  x 2 
L, EI w(x) =  
2EI  L 2 
x
z w(x) ML 2 d ML
w(L) = w(L) =
2EI dx EI

q = Q/L qL 4  x 4 x3 x2
w(x) =  4 − 4 3 + 6 2
24EI  L L L 
L, EI x
qL 4 d qL 3
z w(x) w(L) = w(L) =
8EI dx 6EI

q0 q0 L 4  x5 x3 x2
w(x) =  5 − 10 3 + 20 2 
120EI L L L 
L, EI x
z w(x) 11 q0 L 4 d q0 L 3
w(L) = w(L) =
120EI dx 8EI

q0 q0 L 4  x 5 x4 x3 x2
w(x) =  − + 5 4 − 10 3 + 10 2 
120EI  L 5 L L L 
L, EI x
z w(x) q0 L 4 d q0 L 3
w(L) = w(L) =
30EI dx 24EI

11
Simply supported beam
Load applied at x = αL (α < 1), β = 1 − α
PL 3  x x3 x
w(x) = β (1 − β2) − 3  for ≤α
P + =1 6EI  L L  L
L L
x PL 3 2 2
w(αL) = α β . When α > β one obtains
z w(x) L, EI 3EI


√ 
√
 1 − β2  1+β 1+β
wmax = w L  = w(αL)
 3  3β 3α

d PL 2 d PL 2
w(0) = α β (1 + β) w(L) = − α β (1 + α)
dx 6EI dx 6EI

MA MB L2   x x2 x3  x x3 
w(x) = MA 2 − 3 +  + MB − 
6EI   L L 2 L 3  L L 3 
x d MA L MB L d MA L MB L
w(0) = + w(L) = − −
z w(x) L, EI dx 3 EI 6 EI dx 6 EI 3 EI

ML 2  x x3 x
w(x) = (1 − 3β2) − 3  for ≤α
M 6EI  L L  L
L L
x d ML d ML
w(0) = (1 − 3β2) w(L) = (1 − 3α2)
z w(x) L, EI dx 6EI dx 6EI

QL 3  x4 x3 x 
Q w(x) =  4−2 3+ 
24EI L L L

x 5 QL 3 d d QL 2
w(L/2) = w(0) = − w(L) =
z w(x) L, EI 384 EI dx dx 24EI

QL 3  x 5 x3 x
Q w(x) = 3 5 − 10 3 + 7 
180EI  L L L

x d 7 QL 2 d 8 QL 2
z w(x) L, EI w(0) = w(L) = −
dx 180EI dx 180EI

QL 3  x 5 x4 x3 x
Q w(x) = − 3 5 + 15 4 − 20 3 + 8 
180EI  L L L L

x d 8 QL 2 d 7 QL 2
z w(x) L, EI w(0) = w(L) = −
dx 180EI dx 180EI

12
Clamped simply supported beam and clamped clamped beam
Load applied at x = αL (α < 1), β = 1 − α
Only redundant reactions are given. For deflections, use superposition of solutions
for simply supported beams.
MA P + =1 PL
L L MA = β (1 − β2 )
2
x
z L, EI
MA MB MB
MA =
2
x
z L, EI
MA M + =1 M
L L MA = (1 − 3β2 )
2
x
z L, EI
Q QL
MA MA =
8
L, EI x
z
Q 2 QL
MA MA =
15
L, EI x
z
MA P MB MA = PL α β2 MB = PL α2 β
L L x
L, EI
z + =1
MA M MB MA = − M β (1 − 3α ) MB = M α (1 − 3β )
L L x
L, EI
z + =1
Q QL
MA MB MA = MB =
12
L, EI x
z
Q QL QL
MA MB MA = MB =
10 15
L, EI x
z

13
6. Material Fatigue

Fatigue limits (notations)

Load Alternating Pulsating

Tension/compression ± σu σup ± σup

Bending ± σub σubp ± σubp
Torsion ± τuv τuvp ± τuvp

The Haigh diagram

a
Y σa = stress amplitude
σm = mean stress
u σY = yield limit
up
σU = ultimate strenght
σu, σup = fatigue limits
u
λ, δ, κ = factors reducing fatigue limits
up m
(similar diagrams for σub, σubp and τuv, τuvp)
up Y U

Factors reducing fatigue limits

Surface finish κ
Factor κ reducing the fatigue limit due to
1.0 (a) surface irregularities
(b)
0.8 (a) polished surface ( κ = 1)
(c) (b) ground
0.6 (c) machined
(d) standard notch
0.4 (d) (e) rolling skin
(e) (f) corrosion in sweet water
0.2 (f) (g) corrosion in salt water
(g)

300 600 900 1200 MPa

U

14
 Volume factor λ (due to process)
Factor λ reducing the fatigue limit due to
1.0 size of raw material

0.8 (a) diameter at circular cross section

(b) thickness at rectangular cross section
(a) 20 40 60 80 100mm
(b) 10 20 30 40 50mm

Volume factor δ (due to geometry)

Factor δ reducing the fatigue limits σub and
τuv due to loaded volume.
1.0
(a) Steel with ultimate strength σU =
(b) (a) 1500 MPa
0.9 (b) 1000 MPa
(c)
(c) 600 MPa
0.8 (d) (d) 400 MPa
(e) (e) aluminium
Factor δ = 1 when fatigue notch factor Kf >
0 40 80 120 1 is used.
Diameter or thickness in mm

Fatigue notch factor Kf (at stress concentration)

Kf = 1 + q (Kt − 1) Kt = stress concentration factor (see Section
12.8)
q = fatigue notch sensitivity factor
Fatigue notch sensitivity factor q
q
1.0 Fatigue notch sensitivity factor q for steel
(a) with ultimate strength σU =
0.8 (b) (a) 1600 MPa
(b) 1300 MPa
0.6 (c) (c) 1000 MPa
(d) (d) 700 MPa
0.4 (e) (e) 400 MPa

0.2

0.1 0.5 1 2 5 10
Fillet radius r in mm

15
Wöhler diagram
a
σai = stress amplitude
ai Ni = fatigue life (in cycles) at stress
amplitude σai

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 log N
Damage accumulation D
ni ni = number of loading cycles at stress
D= amplitude σai
Ni
Ni = fatigue life at stress amplitude σai

Palmgren-Miner’s rule
Failure when ni = number of loading cycles at stress
I n amplitude σai
∑ =1
i

i = 1 Ni
Ni = fatigue life at stress amplitude σai
I = number of loading stress levels

Fatigue data (cyclic, constant-amplitude loading)

The following fatigue limits may be used only when solving exercises. For a real
design, data should be taken from latest official standard and not from this table.1
Material Tension Bending Torsion
alternating pulsating alternating pulsating alternating pulsating
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Carbon steel
141312-00 ± 110 110 ± 110 ± 170 150 ± 150 ± 100 100 ± 100
141450-1 ± 140 130 ± 130 ± 190 170 ± 170 ± 120 120 ± 120
141510-00 ± 230
141550-01 ± 180 160 ± 160 ± 240 210 ± 210 ± 140 140 ± 140
141650-01 ± 200 180 ± 180 ± 270 240 ± 240 ± 150 150 ± 150
141650 ± 460

Stainless steel 2337-02, σu = ± 270 MPa

Aluminium SS 4120-02, σub = ± 110 MPa; SS 4425-06, σu = ± 120 MPa

1
Data in this table has been collected from B Sundström (editor): Handbok och Formelsamling i
Hållfasthetslära, Institutionen för hållfasthetslära, KTH, Stockholm, 1998.

16
7. Multi-Axial Stress States

Stresses in thin-walled circular pressure vessel

R R σt = circumferential stress
σt = p and σx = p (σz ≈ 0) σ = longitudinal stress
t 2t x
p = internal pressure
R = radius of pressure vessel
t = wall thickness (t << R)
Rotational symmetry in structure and load (plane stress, i.e. σz = 0)
Differential equation for rotating circular plate
d2 u 1 d u u 1 − ν2 2 u = u(r) = radial displacement
+ − = − ρω r ρ = density
d r2 r d r r2 E
ω = angular rotation (rad/s)
Solution
B0 1 − ν2
u (r) = uhom + upart = A0 r + − ρ ω2 r 3
r 8E

Stresses
B 3+ν B 1 + 3ν
σr (r) = A − 2
− ρ ω2 r 2 and σφ(r) = A + 2
− ρ ω2 r 2
r 8 r 8

where E A0 E B0
A= and B=
1−ν 1+ν

Boundary conditions
σr or u must be known on inner and outer boundary of the circular plate
Shrink fit
δ = uouter(p) − uinner(p) δ = difference of radii
p = contact pressure
u = radial displacement as function of p
Plane stress and plane strain (plane state)
Plane stress (in xy-plane) when σz = 0, τxz = 0, and τyz = 0
Plane strain (in xy-plane) when τxz = 0, τyz = 0, and εz = 0 or constant

Stresses in direction α (plane state)

σ(α) = σx cos2(α) + σ y sin2(α) + 2τxy cos(α)sin(α) y ( )
( )
τ(α) = − (σx − σ y ) sin(α)cos(α) + τxy (cos (α) − sin (α))
2 2
x
σ(α) = normal stress in direction α
τ(α) = shear stress on surface with normal in direction α

17
Principal stresses σ1, 2 and principal directions at plane stress state


√
σx + σ y  σx − σ y  2 2
σ1, 2 = σc ± R = ±   + τxy
2  2 

τxy σx − σ y ψ1 = angle from x axis (in xy plane) to

sin(2ψ1) = or cos(2ψ1) = direction of principal stress σ1
R 2R

Strain in direction α (plane state)

ε(α) = εx cos2(α) + εy sin2(α) + γxy sin(α)cos(α) y

γ(α) = (εy − εx ) sin(2α) + γxy cos(2α) x

ε(α) = normal strain in direction α
γ(α) = shear strain of element with normal in direction α

Principal strains and principal directions (plane state)


√
εx + εy  εx − εy  2  γxy  2
ε1, 2 = εc ± R = ±   + 
2  2   2

γxy εx − εy ψ1 = angle from x axis (in xy plane) to

sin(2ψ1) = or cos(2ψ1) = direction of principal strain ε1
2R 2R

Principal stresses and principal directions at three-dimensional stress state

The determinant  σx τxy τxz
| S−σI| =0  
Stress matrix S = τyx σ y τyz
gives three roots (the principal stresses)  
 τzx τzy σz
(contains the nine stress components σij)
1 0 0
Unit matrix I = 0 1 0
0 0 1

Direction of principal stress σi (i = 1, 2, 3) is given by

(S − σi I) ⋅ ni = 0 nix, niy and niz are the elements of the unit
and vector ni in the direction of σi
ni ⋅ ni = 1
T ( T means transpose)

18
Principal strains and principal directions at three-dimensional stress state
Use shear strain εij = γij / 2 for i ≠ j  εx εxy εxz

The determinant Strain matrix E = εyx εy εyz
 
| E−εI| =0  εzx εzy εz 
gives three roots (the principal strains)
I = unit matrix
Direction of principal strain εi (i = 1, 2, 3) is given by
(E − εi I) ⋅ ni = 0 nix, niy and niz are the elements of the unit
and vector ni in the direction of εi
T
ni ⋅ ni = 1
T ( means transpose)

Hooke’s law, including temperature term (three-dimensional stress state)

1
εx = [σ − ν(σy + σz )] + α ∆T α = temperature coefficient
E x
∆T = change of temperature (relative to
1 temperature giving no stress)
εy = [σ − ν(σz + σx )] + α ∆T
E y

1
εz = [σ − ν(σx + σ y )] + α ∆T
E z
τxy τyz τzx
γxy = γyz = γzx =
G G G

Effective stress
The Huber-von Mises effective stress (the deviatoric stress hypothesis)
σvM
e =√

σ2x + σ2y + σ2z − σx σ y − σ y σz − σz σx + 3τ2xy + 3τ2yz + 3τ2zx


√
1
= {(σ1 − σ2)2 + (σ2 − σ3)2 + (σ3 − σ1)2 }
2

The Tresca effective stress (the shear stress hypothesis)

σTe = max [ | σ1 − σ2 | , | σ2 − σ3 | , | σ3 − σ1 | ] = σprmax − σprmin (pr = principal stress)

19
8. Energy Methods the Castigliano Theorem

Strain energy u per unit of volume

Linear elastic material and uni-axial stress
σε
u=
2
Total strain energy U in beam loaded in tension/compression, torsion, bending, and
shear
L
N(x)2 Mt(x)2 Mbend(x)2 T(x)2 
Utot = ⌠  + + +β  dx
⌡0  2EA(x) 2GKv(x) 2EI(x) 2GA(x)

Mt = torque = Mx Kv = section factor of torsional stiffness

Mbend = bending moment = My β = shear factor, see below

Cross section β µ Shear factor β

A ⌠  SA’ 
2
6/5 3/2 β = 2   dA
I ⌡A  b 
10/9 4/3 β is given for some cross sections in the
table (µ is the Jouravski factor, see Section
2 2
12.3 One-Dimensional Bodies)
A/A web A/A web

Elementary case: pure bending

M1 M2 Only bending momentet Mbend is present.
L, EI The moment varies linearly along the beam
with moments M1 and M2 at the beam ends.
One has
M1 x Mbend(x) = M1 + (M2 − M1)x /L, which gives
L
M M2 Utot = {M12 + M1 M2 + M22 }
6EI
The second term is negative if M1 and M2
have different signs

The Castigliano theorem

∂U ∂U δ = displacement in the direction of force P
δ= and Θ =
∂P ∂M of the point where force P is applied
Θ = rotation (change of angle) at moment
M

20
9. Stress Concentration
Tension/compression
Maximum normal stress at a stress concentration is σmax = Kt σnom, where Kt and σnom
are given in the diagrams
Kt r Kt r
3.0 P P 3.0 P P
B b B b

2.5 thickness h 2.5

thickness h
P
nom
= P
bh =
nom bh
2.0 B/b 2.0
B/b
2.0
1.5
2.0
1.5 1.2 1.5 1.2
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1.01 1.01
1.0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 r/b 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 r/b
Tension of flat bar with shoulder fillet Tension of flat bar with notch

Kt r Kt r

3.0 P P 3.0 P P
D d D d

2.5 2.5
4P
nom
= = 4 P2
d2 nom d
2.0 2.0
D/d
2.0 D/d
1.5
1.5 1.2 1.5 1.2
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1.01 1.01
1.0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 r/d 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 r/d
Tension of circular bar with shoulder Tension of circular bar with U-shaped
fillet groove

21
 a
2r
0 0
B
Kt
B/a= 5
3.2
3.0
3
2.8

2.6 2.5
2.4 2.25

2.2 B 2
nom = B - 2 r 0
2.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 r/a
Tension of flat bar with hole

Bending
Maximum normal stress at a stress concentration is σmax = Kt σnom, where Kt and σnom
are given in the diagrams
Kt d Kt d
Mb Mb Mb Mb
3.0 3.0
D
B

2.5 2.5 Mb
thickness h =
nom
d/h = 0 D 3 d D2
0.25 32 6
2.0 2.0
0.5
1.0
1.5 2.0 1.5
6 Mb
=
nom 2
(B-d)h
1.0 1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 d/B 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 d/D
Bending of flat bar with hole Bending of circular bar with hole

22
Kt r Kt Mb r Mb
Mb Mb
3.0 3.0
B b B b

2.5 thickness h 2.5

thickness h
6 Mb
nom
= 6 Mb
hb 2 nom
=
2.0 2.0 hb 2
B/b B/b
6.0
2.0 1.2
1.5 1.2 1.5 1.1
1.05 1.05
1.01 1.02 1.01 1.02
1.0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 r/b 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 r/b
Bending of flat bar with shoulder fillet Bending of flat bar with notch

Kt r Kt Mb r Mb
Mb Mb
3.0 3.0
D d D d

2.5 2.5
32 M b 32M b
nom
= =
d3 nom d3
2.0 2.0
D/d
6.0 D/d
1.5 2.0
1.5
1.2 1.2
1.05 1.05
1.0
1.01 1.02
1.0 1.01 1.02
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 r/d 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 r/d
Bending of circular bar with shoulder Bending of circular bar with U-shaped
fillet groove

23
Torsion
Maximium shear stress at stress concentration is τmax = Kt τnom, where Kt and τnom are
given in the diagrams
Kt r Kt r

3.0 Mv Mv 3.0 Mv Mv
D d D d

2.5 2.5
16 M v 16 M v
= =
nom d3 nom d3
2.0 2.0

D/d D/d
1.5 2.0 1.5
1.3 1.2
1.2 1.05
1.1 1.01
1.0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 r/d 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 r/d
Torsion of circular bar with shoulder Torsion of circular bar with notch
fillet

Kt r Kt d
4.0 2.0 Mv Mv
D

d /4 7d
3.5 Mv
8 nom
=
D 3 d D2
16 6
3.0 1.5
d
16 M v
2.5 nom =
d3

2.0 1.0
0 0.05 0.10 r/d 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 d/D
Torsion of bar with longitudinal keyway Torsion of circular bar with hole

24
10. Material data

The following material properties may be used only when solving exercises. For a real
design, data should be taken from latest official standard and not from this table (two values
for the same material means different qualities).1

Material Young’s ν α106 Ultimate Yield limit

modulus strength tension/ bending torsion
E compression
GPa K-1 MPa MPa MPa MPa

Carbon steel
141312-00 206 0.3 12 360 >240 260 140
460
141450-1 205 0.3 430 >250 290 160
510
141510-00 205 0.3 510 >320
640
141550-01 205 0.3 490 >270 360 190
590
141650-01 206 0.3 11 590 >310 390 220
690
141650 206 0.3 860 >550 610

Offset yield strength Rp0.2 (σ0,2)

Stainless steel
2337-02 196 0.29 16.8 >490 >200
Aluminium
SS 4120-02 70 23 170 >65
215
SS 4120-24 70 23 220 >170
270
SS 4425-06 70 23 >340 >270
1
Data in this table has been collected from B Sundström (editor): Handbok och Formelsamling i
Hållfasthetslära, Institutionen för hållfasthetslära, KTH, Stockholm, 1998.

25