Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1142 FM PDF
1142 FM PDF
1142 FM PDF
IMAGE
PROCESSING
Handbook
Fourth Edition
John C. Russ
Materials Science and Engineering Department
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina
CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
1142 Quark FM 5/3/02 10:26 AM Page 2
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or
for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission
in writing from the publisher.
The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or
for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Introduction
Acknowledgments
All the image processing and the creation of the resulting figures included in this book were
performed on an Apple Macintosh® computer. Many of the images were acquired directly
from various microscopes and other sources using color or monochrome video cameras and
digitized directly into the computer. Others were digitized using a digital camera (most with
a Polaroid DMC), and some were obtained using a 36-bit color scanner (Agfa), often from im-
ages supplied by many co-workers and researchers. These are acknowledged wherever the
origin of an image could be determined. A few examples, taken from the literature, are in-
dividually referenced.
The book was delivered to the publisher in digital form (on a writable CD), without inter-
mediate hard copy, negatives, or prints of the images, etc. Among other things, this means
that the author must bear full responsibility for any errors because no traditional typesetting
was involved. (It has also forced me to learn more than I ever hoped to know about some
aspects of this technology!) However, going directly from disk file to print also shortens the
time needed in production and helps to keep costs down, while preserving the full quality
of the images. Grateful acknowledgment is made of the efforts by the editors at CRC Press to
educate me and to accommodate the unusually large number of illustrations in this book
(about 2000 figures and a quarter of a million words).
Special thanks are due to Chris Russ (Reindeer Games Inc., Asheville, NC), who has helped
to program many of these algorithms and contributed invaluable comments, and to Helen
Adams, who has proofread many pages, endured many discussions, and provided the moral
support that make writing projects such as this possible.
John C. Russ
Raleigh, NC
Table of Contents
1 Acquiring Images
Human reliance on images for information
Video cameras
CCD cameras
Camera artefacts and limitations
Color cameras
Camera resolution
CMOS cameras
Focusing
Electronics and bandwidth limitations
Pixels
Grey-scale resolution
Noise
High-depth images
Color imaging
Digital camera limitations
Color spaces
Color correction
Color displays
Image types
Range imaging
Multiple images
Stereoscopy
Imaging requirements
Dots on paper
Color printing
Printing hardware
Film recorders
File storage
Storage media
Magnetic recording
Databases for images
Browsing and thumbnails
Lossless coding
Reduced color palettes
JPEG compression
Wavelet compression
Fractal compression
Digital movies
Fractal analysis
Implementation notes
Image math
Subtracting images
Multiplication and division
Image representation
Other segmentation methods
The general classification problem
9 Feature-Specific Measurements
Brightness measurements
Determining location
Orientation
Neighbor relationships
Alignment
Counting features
Special counting procedures
Feature size
Circles and ellipses
Caliper dimensions
Perimeter
Describing shape
Fractal dimension
Harmonic analysis
Topology
Three-dimensional measurements
11 3D Image Acquisition
Volume imaging versus sections
Basics of reconstruction
Algebraic reconstruction methods
Maximum entropy
Defects in reconstructed images
Beam hardening
Imaging geometries
Three-dimensional tomography
High-resolution tomography
12 3D Image Visualization
Sources of 3D data
Serial sections
Optical sectioning
Sequential removal
Stereo measurement
3D data sets
Slicing the data set
Arbitrary section planes
The use of color
Volumetric display
Stereo viewing
Special display hardware
Ray tracing
Reflection
Surfaces
Multiply connected surfaces
Image processing in 3D
Measurements on 3D images
Conclusion
13 Imaging Surfaces
Producing surfaces
Devices that image surfaces by physical
contact
Noncontacting measurements
Microscopy of surfaces
Surface composition imaging
Processing of range images
Processing of composition maps
Data presentation and visualization
Rendering and visualization
Analysis of surface data
Profile measurements
The Birmingham measurement suite
New approaches — topographic analysis and
fractal dimensions
References