PRESSURE VESSELS

Design of cylindrical & spherical

vessels under INTERNAL PRESSURE
• Any vessel which operates under pressure or pressure
is maintained is called as PRESSURE VESSELS

• Such vessels are usually designed according to

pressure vessel codes

• When the pressure higher than atmospheric pressure

is maintained inside the vessel, its called as vessel
subjected to “Internal pressure”

• When the pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is

maintained inside the vessel, its called as vessel
subjected to “External pressure”
 Basic terminology related to
pressure vessel design
1. Maximum working pressure
2. Design pressure
3. Design temperature
4. Design stress
5. Minimum wall thickness
6. Corrosion allowances
7. Welded joint efficiency factor
 1.Maximum working pressure
• A vessel must be designed to withstand the
max pressure to which it is likely to be
subjected in operation
 2.Design pressure
• This is the pressure used in the calculation of
minimum thickness of any process vessel

• Design pressure = 5 – 10% extra of max

working pressure
 3.Design temperature
• The strength of metals decreases with increasing temp…..so
the maximum allowable design stress will depend on material
temp.
• Determination of appropriate design temp is very important to
find the allowable stress values of the material

• Refer Page 116 (IS 2825)

 3.Design temperature
• The design temp is selected based on the following
considerations:
A. For unheated parts:
• The design temp is equal to the highest temp of the stored material
B. For the body parts:
– If its heated by steam or hot water, then the design temp is 10°C higher
than the max temp that any part of the body is likely to attain, in course
of operation.
 4. Design Stress (design strength)
• For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value
for the maximum allowable (design strength) that
can be accepted in the material of construction.

• This is determined by applying a suitable “design

stress factor” (factor of safety) to maximum stress
that the material could be expected to withstand
without failure under standard test conditions.

• Refer Page 115 (IS 2825)

 5.Corrosion allowances
• In design, corrosion which occurs over the life of a vessel is catered for
by a corrosion allowance, C, whose design value depends upon the
vessel duty and contents' corrosiveness

• The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added

to allow for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling .

• Corrosion is a complex phenomena and it is not possible to give

specific rules for the estimation of the corrosion allowance required
for all circumstances.

• The allowance should be based on experience with the material of

construction under similar service conditions to those for the
proposed design.
• Guidelines to be followed:
– For carbon steel, where the severe corrosion is
not expected, corrosion allowance = 1.5mm

– When severe corrosion is expected like in petrol

industries, corrosion allowance = 3mm

– If thickness of shell is > 30mm…..NO NEED of

corrosion allowances

– For stainless steel is used NO NEED of corrosion

allowances
 6. Minimum practical wall thickness
• There will be minimum wall thickness required to ensure
that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own
weight, and any incidental loads.
• As a general guide the wall thickness of any vessel should
not less than the values given below;
Welded Joints
• Pressure vessel
cylinders are
usually made from
flat plates which
are rolled then
welded
along longitudinal
joints.
Welded Joints
• On the other
hand, circumf
erential
joints are used
to attach end
closures
( dished
ends or heads
) to the
cylinder.
• The preferred types of joint and recommended
designs and profiles are given in codes &
standards

• The correct form to use for a given joint will

depend on
– the material,
– the method of welding
– plate thickness and
– the service conditions.

• Two types:
– Butt joint
– Lap joint
 Butt joint
• A butt joint is a joinery technique in which two members
are joined by simply butting them together.

• simplest joint to make since it merely involves cutting the

members to the appropriate length and butting them
together.

• Single V or U sections for thin plates

• Double sided V or U sections are used for thick plates and

• A backing strip is used where it is not possible to weld from

both sides
• Where butt joints are made between plates of
different thickness with a slope not greater
than 1 in 4 (14°)
 Lap joint
• Lap joint is made by overlapping two metal
pieces to be welded and filling the corners
formed between them by suitable welding
materials
 Welded joint Design
• Process vessels are built from preformed parts;
cylinders, heads and fittings joined by welding.

• The design of a welded joint should satisfy the

following requirements:
– Give full accessibility of welding and inspection
– Require the min amount of weld metal
– Give good penetration of the weld metal; from both
sides of the joint
• To ensure that a satisfactory quality of welding
is maintained, welding machine operators and
welders working on the pressure parts of
vessels are required to pass welder approval
tests; which are designed to test their
competence to make sound welds

• In UK the testing of welders is covered by

British Standards BS 4870, BS 4871 and BS
4872.
 Welded Joint Efficiency
• Welded joints are not as strong as the parent plate
unless welds are thoroughly inspected and, if
flawed, repaired during manufacture - all of which
is expensive.

• This strength reduction is characterized by

the weld or joint efficiency

• J = joint strength / parent strength

– which varies from 100% for a perfect weld through 75-
85% for a tolerably good weld.
• The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type
of joint and the quality of the welding.

• The soundness of welds is checked by

– visual inspection and
– by non-destructive testing (radiography).
• The value of the joint factor used in design will
depend on the type of joint and amount of
radiography required by the design code.

• Taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is

equally as strong as the virgin plate;
– this is achieved by radiographing the complete weld length
and cutting out and remaking any defects.
 Classification based on ‘J’
• Based on the welded joint efficiency J, pressure
vessels are classified as,
• Class I vessels:(J=1)
– Highest class, the vessel is fully radiographed
– Used for synthesis of toxic substances and handling
them
• Class II vessels: (J=0.85)
– Spot radiography (only in the spots where welding is
present) is done
• Class III vessels: (J = 0.7)
– Lowest class, requires only visual inspection of the
welds
• Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial
radiography, is a nondestructive testing (NDT)
method of inspecting materials for hidden
flaws by using the ability of
short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate
various materials.

• Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive

source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137)
can be used as a source of photons.
 Thickness of the shell
• The thickness of the shell shall not be less
than that calculated by the following formulae
and shall be increased, if necessary, to meet
the requirements/guidelines

• The following notations are used in the design

of spherical & cylindrical vessels subjected to
internal pressure:
 Thickness of the shell
• As per IS standards…..
• t = min thickness of the shell plates exclusive of
corrosion allowance,
• P = design pressure,
• Di = inside dia of the shell,
• Do = outside dia of the shell,
• f = allowable stress value
• J = joint efficiency factor
• Plz….take care of UNITS, (SI) given by stds!!!!!
 CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
• For cylindrical shells, the • Pressure vessel code
following formulae can be book: Page 13 – Eqn 3.1
applied to find the thickness of
the shell:
& 3.2
PDi PDo PDi PDo
t= = t= =
2 fJ − P 2 fJ + P 200 fJ − P 200 fJ + P
• By rearranging…….
200 fJt 200 fJt
2 fJt 2 fJt P= =
P= = Di + t Do − t
Di + t Do − t
• Plz….take care of UNITS, given
• Plz….take care of UNITS,
by stds!!!!! P = kgf/cm2; f =
kgf/mm2given by
stds!!!!!
 Points to remember
• whatever value u get from calculations……don’t round off the
value!!!

• u hav to compare those with the stds!!!!!..... and choose the next
highest value (std)…

• i.e., if u hav calculated thickness of the shell is 12.5mm then

choose……don’t round off to 13 mm……choose the next highest one
available……as the designed thickness!!!!

• Even if u get 12.05 mm…….don’t round off to 12 mm……choose the

next highest one available……as the designed thickness!!!!

• MIN……MIN……MIN…….
• As per IS stds…..
• Standard Plate thickness available:
• 3,5,6,7,8,9,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,25,28,32,36,
40,45,50,56,63,71,80 mm are available
 Prob 1
• A pressure vessel having outer diameter 1.3 m and
height 3.8 m is subjected to an internal pressure of 12
kgf/cm2. If the vessel is fabricated as class B vessel joint
efficiency is 85%; if the vessel is fabricated as class C
vessel, with welded joint efficiency is 70% and 50% ; if
the vessel is provided with a strip along the longitudinal
joint, joint efficiency is 100%. Calculate the vessel
thickness under these different conditions:
• Allowable stress of the material = 1020 kgf/cm2.
• Corrosion allowance is 1 mm.
 Prob 2
• A cylindrical pressure vessel 1.8 m outer diameter and 5 m in
height is subjected to an internal pressure of 8 kgf/cm2 .
Corrosion allowance is 2 mm.
• If the vessel is fabricated as :
• Class B vessel with J = 0.85
• Class C vessel with J = 0.5 and J = 0.7
• Allowable stress of the material = 1400 kgf/cm2.
• What will be the minimum thickness of the vessel ?
• If a strip of suitable size is welded all along the longitudinal
joint, (joint efficiency = 1.0), what will be the thickness of
the vessel?
 SPHERICAL SHELLS
• For spherical shells, the • Pressure vessel code
following formulae can book: Page 13 – Eqn 3.3
be applied to find the & 3.4
thickness of the shell: PDi PDo
t= =
PDi PDo 400 fJ − P 400 fJ + P
t= =
4 fJ − P 4 fJ + P • By rearranging…….
• By rearranging……. 400 fJt 400 fJt
P= =
P=
4 fJt
=
4 fJt Di + t Do − t
Di + t Do − t
• Plz….take care of UNITS,
• Plz….take care of UNITS, P = kgf/cm2; f =
given by stds!!!! kgf/mm2given by stds!!!!
• Theoretically, a sphere would be the optimal
shape of a pressure vessel.
• When it comes to spherical tanks for LPG
(Liquified Petroleum Gas), this is a gas at
normal conditions but it is pressurised and
stored in the form of liquid. Hence the storage
tank needs to be highly pressurised.(In order to
maintain LPG in liquid state)
• The Spherical Tanks used to store LPG are
called Horton Spheres.
The following are some of the reasons for considering Spherical
Tanks above any other shape :
• As a Spherical shape is uniform from all sides the pressure
gets equally distributed on all sides.
• As spherical shape has no edges, (minimal concentration of
stress) there are no chances of forming areas with uneven
pressure which can deform and puncture the tank. (Which is
not the case with Cylindrical or any other tanks.)
• Spherical shape have the least surface area to volume ratio
when compared to any other shape. Hence less material is
required for construction.
• Spherical shape also helps in neutralizing pressure coming
from all directions, this makes it more stable.
• Also the thickness required for spherical tank to withstand
same pressure is less than any other shape. Hence reduction
in cost as well as weight.
• Unfortunately, a spherical shape is
– difficult to manufacture,
– therefore more expensive,
– Possibility of leakage is more as there are many
weldings
– so most pressure vessels are cylindrical in
shape!!!
 Prob 3
• A vessel having 1.6 m outside diameter is to
operate at a pressure of 5 kgf/cm2. The
permissible stress of the material used for
fabrication is 1000 kgf/cm2. Welded joint
efficiency is 85%. Calculate the thickness
required for a cylindrical vessel and a spherical
vessel? Which vessel should be selected for
operation?
 Prob 4
• A cylindrical pressure vessel 2m internal diameter is
to operate at a pressure (absolute) 4 kgf/cm2. The
permissible stress of the material is 960 kgf/cm2.
Welded joint efficiency is 85%. What maximum
pressure will it be able to withstand if it were a
sphere?
 Spherical shell
• Pressure vessels may theoretically be almost
any shape, but shapes made of sections of
spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually
employed.
• A common design is a cylinder with
hemispherical end caps called heads. More
complicated shapes have historically been
much harder to analyze for safe operation and
are usually far more difficult to construct.
 Spherical shell
• Theoretically, a sphere would be the optimal shape of a
pressure vessel.
• Unfortunately, a spherical shape is difficult to manufacture,
therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are
cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each
end.
• Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two
covers.
• A disadvantage of these vessels is that larger diameters make
them more expensive, so that for example the most economic
shape of a 1,000 litres (35 cu ft), 250 bars (3,600 psi) pressure
vessel might be a diameter of 914.4 millimetres (36 in) and a
length of 1,701.8 millimetres (67 in) including the 2:1 semi-
elliptical domed end caps.
• A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases
or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the
ambient pressure.
• The pressure differential is dangerous and many fatal
accidents have occurred in the history of their development
and operation.
• Consequently, their design, manufacture, and operation are
regulated by engineering authorities backed up by laws.
• For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies
from country to country, but involves parameters such as
maximum safe operating pressure and temperature.
 Types of closures
• The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by
heads of various shapes.
• The heads are either welded or bolted with the
main vessel shell
• The principal types used are:
– 1. Flat plates; Figure 13.9.
– Domed heads:
– 2. Hemispherical heads; Figure 13.10a.
– 3. Ellipsoidal heads; Figure 13.10b.
– 4. Torispherical heads; Figure 13.10c.
– 5. Conical closures
• Hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are
collectively referred to as domed heads.
• They are formed by pressing or spinning; large
diameters are fabricated from formed sections.

• Torispherical heads are often referred to as dished

ends.
• The preferred proportions of domed heads are given
in the standards and codes.
 Flat plates
• Simplest cover is a flat plate
• Used for low pressure vessels
• Used for smaller dia vessels
• Also used as manhole covers in low pressure
vessels and as covers for small openings.
Code Book:
Page 25
flange on a gas pipeline
http://www.wermac.org/flanges/flang
es_welding-neck_socket-weld_lap-
joint_screwed_blind.html
• Good explanation……
 Design of flat ends
• The minimum thickness required is given by:
P
t = CDe
f

• where C = a design constant, dependent on the edge

constraint, (page 25,26, code book)
• De = nominal plate diameter,
• f = design stress
• P = design pressure inside the vessel
• Values for the design constant ‘C’ and the
nominal plate diameter De are given in the
design codes and standards for various
arrangements of flat end closures.

• The values of the design constant and nominal

diameter for the typical designs shown in
Figure 13.9 are given below:
Code Book:
Page 25
• (a) Flanged-only end, for diameters less than 0.6 m and
corner radii at least equal to 0.25t, C can be taken as 0.45;
De is equal to Di.

• (b, c) Plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet

weld, angle of fillet 45°and depth equal to the plate
thickness, take C as 0.55 and De = Di.

• (d) Bolted cover with a full face gasket, take C = 0.4 and De
equal to the bolt circle diameter.

• (e) Bolted end cover with a narrow-face gasket, take C =

0.55 and De equal to the mean diameter of the gasket.
 Design of domed ends
• Design equations and charts for the various types of domed
heads are given in the codes and standards and should be used
for detailed design.
 Hemispherical heads
• A hemispherical head is the strongest shape;
capable of resisting about twice the pressure of a
torispherical head of the same thickness.
• The cost of forming a hemispherical head will,
however, be higher than that for a shallow
torispherical head.
• Hemispherical heads are used for high pressures.
• Min thickness can be calculated by,
PDi
t=
4 fJ
 Ellipsoidal heads
• Most standard ellipsoidal heads are manufactured
with a major and minor axis ratio of 2 : 1.
• For this ratio, the following equation can be used to
calculate the minimum thickness required:
• Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will usually prove to
be the most economical closure to use.

t=
PDi C
2 fJ
1

C = 2+ K
4
2

• K = ratio of major to minor axis
 Torispherical heads
• Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are
the most commonly used end closure for
vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar.
• They can be used for higher pressures, but
above 10 bar their cost should be compared
with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head.
• The torispherical head thickness can be
calculated using
1 RC 
t=
PDi C C = 3 + 
4 RK 
• 2 fJ
Rc = Crown radius; Rk =knuckle radius
• Torispherical head with 100 – 6 design is
mostly used.
• 100 – 6 means,
– Rc = 100% dia of vessel &
– Rk = 6% of dia of vessel
• Other types are 100 –10 and 100–8
 Conical sections and end closures
• Conical sections (reducers)
are used to make a gradual
reduction in diameter from
one cylindrical section to
another of smaller diameter.
• Conical ends are used to
facilitate the smooth flow and
removal of solids from
process equipment; such as,
hoppers, spray-dryers and
PDi  1 
crystallizers t=  
• The minimum thickness can 2 fJ − P  cos  
be calculated by,.
 Prob 5
• Calculate the thickness of torispherical (100-6)
head, torispherical (80-10) heads and elliptical
head (2:1) for a vessel having 1m inner dia and
having a operating pressure of 3.5kgf/cm2.
Welded joint is fully tested so welded joint
efficiency can be considered as 100%.
Permissible stress for material of construction
is 1250 kgf/cm2
 example
• Calculate the thickness of a torispherical
heads (100-6) and (80-6) elliptical head (2:1)
and hemispherical head for a pressure vessel
having design pressure 7kgf/cm2. Dia of the
vessel is 1.5m and the permissible stress is
1250kgf/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%.
 Equal thickness???
• There are some advantages of selecting equal head
and shell thickness:
• Fabrication becomes easier
• Attachment of head to shell becomes easy.
• Fitting up of nozzle connections become easy.
• But be careful with…..min…..min….min…..thick for
each part!!!!!!
 Design problem 1
• Design a pressure vessel which is to be used as a reactor with
following specifications:
• Material of construction: IS 2002 – 1962
• Capacity of the vessel = 2m3
• Operating temp = 250°C
• Operating press = 2.5 kgf/cm2
• Feed inlet = 70mm dia
• Product outlet = 70mm dia
• Spot radiography for weldings.
• Reactants are not corrosive
• Design the vessel with Torispherical head and conical bottom
From Perry’s Chemical Engineers
Handbook, 7th Edition
 Design problem 2
• Design a pressure vessel which is to be used as a reactor with
following specifications:
• Material of construction: IS 2002 – 1962
• Capacity of the vessel = 2m3
• Operating temp = 250°C
• Operating press = 2.5 kgf/cm2
• Feed inlet = 70mm dia
• Product outlet = 70mm dia
• Spot radiography for weldings.
• Reactants are not corrosive
• Design the vessel with flat cover and elliptical bottom
From Perry’s Chemical Engineers
Handbook, 7th Edition
 Tutorial –Q1
Estimate the thickness of a conical head having a half cone
angle 38°. The diameter of the vessel is 1.5 m. Permissible
stress of the material is 1200 kgf/cm2 and a design
pressure of 10 kgf/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%.
 Tutorial –Q2
A high pressure vessel is provided with a hemispherical
head having thickness 35 mm. The inner dia is 500mm. If
the permissible stress of the material is 1400 kgf/cm2,
what maximum pressure the head will be able to
withstand? If the head is replaced with an elliptical head
having major to minor axis 2:1, what will be the required
thickness? J = 100%.
 Tutorial –Q3
Find the thickness of a cylindrical shell of diameter 5000
mm to resist an internal pressure 20 kgf/cm2. The shell is
constructed of steel whose allowable stress is 1600
kgf/cm2 and J = 100%.
 Tutorial –Q4
A pressure vessel of internal diameter 3 m is to be
operated at an internal pressure of 10 kgf/cm2. The
vessel has elliptical (2:1) head at top and conical
head at bottom with a half cone angle of 60°.
Material used for the fabrication has an allowable
stress of 1020 kgf/cm2. J = 85%. Corrosion
allowance is 2 mm. Determine the minimum plate
thickness of shell and closures.
 Tutorial –Q5
Estimate the thickness required for the component parts
of the vessel (1.5 m id and 2m high). The vessel is to
operate at a pressure of 14 bar and temperature of 300°C.
The material of construction will be plain carbon steel.
Welds will be fully radiographed. A corrosion allowance of
2 mm should be used. The allowable design stress value =
85 N/mm2. HEAD: Try for a Tori spherical (100-6),
Ellipsoidal (2:1) and bolted cover with C=0.4 and De=1.7m.
BOTTOM: Try for a Tori spherical (100-6), Ellipsoidal (2:1).
Compare and discuss the results.