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Chapter 1 Solutions

P1.1 This example shows how the First Law can be applied to individual processes and how these
can make up a cycle.

A cycle of events is shown in Fig A.10. It is made up of four processes, and the heat and work
associated with those processes is as given.

Fig A.10: Cycle of events made up of four processes.

Process 12: Q = +10J W = -18J

Process 23: Q = +100J W = 0J
Process 34: Q = -20J W = +70J
Process 41: Q = -10J W = +28J

Calculate the values of Un - U1, the net work, the net heat transfer and the heat supplied for the cycle.

Solution
This problem can be solved by applying the First Law to each of the processes in turn, when the change
in internal energy is dU   Q   W .

Process 12: dU12  U2  U1   Q12   W12  10  18  28J

Process 23: dU23  U3  U2   Q23   W23  100  0  100J
Process 34: dU34  U4  U3   Q34   W34  20  70  90J
Process 41: dU41  U1  U4   Q41   W41  10  28  38J

The change in internal energy relative to the internal energy at point 1, U1, is given by
dU1n  U n  U 1  U n  U n 1  U n 1  U n  2 ......U 2  U1
 dU n 1,n  dU n  2,n 1 ...... dU 12

Hence:
dU12  U 2  U1  28J
dU13  dU12  dU 23  28  100  128J
dU14  dU12  dU 23  dU 34  28  100  (90)  38J
dU11  dU12  dU 23  dU 34  dU 41  28  100  (90)  (38)  0J
The result dU11 = 0 confirms that the four processes constitute a cycle, because the net change of state
is zero.

The net work done in the cycle is

W   W12   W23   W34   W41
cycle
 18  0  70  28  80J
The positive sign indicates that the system does work on the surroundings.

The net heat supplied in the cycle is

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Chapter 1 Solutions

Q   Q 12   Q23   Q34   Q41

cycle
 10  100  20  10  80J

Hence the net work done and net heat supplied are both 80J, as would be expected because the state of
the system has not changed between both ends of the cycle. It is also possible to differentiate between
the heat supplied to the system, Q > 0, and heat rejected from the system, Q < 0. In this case the
total heat supplied is
 Q   Q12   Q23
cycle
 10  100  110J
while the heat rejected is the sum of the negative heat transfer terms, viz.:
 Q   Q34   Q41 .
cycle
 20  10  30J

It should also be noted that the work done, W, is the difference between the heat supplied and that
rejected. This is an important point when considering the conversion of heat into work, which is dealt
with by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
__________________________________________________________________________________
P1.2
There are two ways to solve this problem:
1. A simple one based on the p-V diagram
2. A more general one based on the p-V relationship

Work done = Area under lines.

Assuming a linear spring, then a linear (straight) line relationship joins the points.
1 105
Hence, Work done by spring = Area abca = Ws   0.5  4  3  100kJ
2 10
Work done by gas = Area adeca = Area abca + Area adbca
105
= 100  1.0  0.5 
 150kJ
103
More general method is to evaluate the work as W   pdV .
First find the relationship for the spring. If linear pg1  kV1  k ,and pg 2  kV2  k 
p g 2  p g1
k  8bar/m3 , and k   7bar
Thus V2  V1
giving pg  8V  7.

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Chapter 1 Solutions

δWg  pg dV ,
2
2
 8V 2 
giving Wg    8V  7 dV    7V 
Work done by gas,
1  2 1
 4  2.25  1  7 1.5  1 102  150kJ

δWs   ps dV
2
Work done by spring, 2
V2 
Ws    8V  8  dV  8   V   100kJ
 2 
1  1
The benefit of the latter approach is that it can be applied in the case of a non-linear spring: it is more difficult to
use the simpler approach.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.3
p1 1.5
Pressure of gas is proportional to diameter, i.e. p  d , giving p1  kd1, and hence k    5bar/m
d1 0.3
13
d3  6V 
Volume V  , thus d   
6   
Work done during process, W   pdV
3 d 2 d2
Working in terms of d dV  dd  dd
6 2
d2 k k  d 2 4 d14 
2 2
W   kd
2 1
dd  d 3
.dd    
1
2 2  4 4 
5 
0.334  0.34  105  738J
4 2  
This problem can also be solved in terms of V; however, it cannot be solved using a linear approximation. You
might have been close to the correct solution for P1.3, but it does not work for P1.4.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.4
The problem is the same as P1.3, but the final diameter is 1m.
d2 k k  d 2 4 d14 
2 2
W   kd
2 1
dd  d 3
.dd    
2 2  4 4 
The work done is 1
5  4
 1.0  0.34  105  194759J
4 2  
Using the WRONG APPROACH, assuming a linear relationship, gives
1.5  5 
W
2
 
 d 23  d13 105  165580J
6
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.5
ts at 20bar = 212.4C
Initial conditions:
ug  2600kJ / kg ; hg  2799kJ / kg; vg  0.0995m3 / kg
p  20bar; t  500C
Final conditions:
ug  3116kJ / kg ; hg  3467kJ / kg; vg  0.1756m3 / kg
To evaluate the energy added use 1st Law for closed system
Q  dU  W  dU  pdV

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 Chapter 1 Solutions

 20 105 
Q  m  3116  2600   3  0.1756  0.09957 
Hence energy added,  10 
 3  516  152.06   2004kJ
Alternative method
Constant pressure process, hence enthalpy can be used
Q  dh  m  h2  h1   3  3467  2799   2004kJ
20 105
W   0.1756  0.9957   3  456kJ
103
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.6
This is a constant volume (isochoric) process. Hence
v1  0.00317m3 /kg at critical point, and v1  0.00317m3 /kg.
But v2  xvg  1  x  v f  v f  xv fg
At p2  27.5bar, interpolation vg  0.072788m /kg, and t2  229C
3

Using the saturated water tables, vf = 0.001209m3/kg

0.00317  0.001209
Hence, x   0.0274  2.74%
0.072788  0.001209
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.7
Initial and final conditions:
p1 A  3.5bar; m1 A  1.0kg ; x1 A  1.0; u g1 A  2549kJ / kg ; u1 A  2549kJ / kg
p1B  7.0bar; m1B  2.0kg ; x1B  0.8; u g1B  2573kJ / kg ; u f 1B  696kJ / kg ; u1B  2197.6kJ / kg
p2  5bar; m2  3.0kg
Total U1  2549  4395.2  6944.2kJ / kg
Volumes
vg1 A  0.5241m3 / kg ;V1 A  0.5241m3 / kg
vg1B  0.2728m3 / kg ; v f 1B  0.1107 102 m3 / kg (interp); V1B  0.21846m3 / kg
Total volume, V1  0.5241  2  0.21846  0.9610m3 / kg
Conditions at 2
V2
V2  0.9610m3 ; v2   0.3203m3 / kg
m2
At 5bar, vg  0.3748m3 / kg ; v f  01093 102 m3 / kg
v2  v f 2 0.3192
x2    0.8541
vg 2  v f 2 0.3737
Thus U 2  3   0.8541 2562  0.1459  639   6846kJ
Total heat transfer, Q  U 2  U1  98kJ
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.8

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Chapter 1 Solutions

m  5kg ; p1  14bar; x1  0.8

vg1  0.1408m3 / kg ; v f 1  0.001149m3 / kg
u g1  2593kJ / kg ; u f 1  828kJ / kg
v1  x1vg1  1  x1  v f 1  0.1129m3 / kg : V1  5  0.1129  0.5645m3
u1  x1u g1  1  x1  u f 1  2240kJ / kg : U1  5  2240  11200kJ
Spring equation, p = kV, because p = 0 when V = 0.
When volume is 150% of initial value, p2  1.5  p1  21bar : V2  1.5  0.5645  0.8468m3
Work done, W  pV  kVdV
p1 p pV
W   pdV   kVdV   VdV  1 V22  V12   1 1 1.25
V1 2V1 2
Hence,
14  0.5645 105
 1.25  3  494kJ
2 10
Conditions at 2: V2  0.8468m ; v2  0.16936m / kg : p2  21bar
3 3

Based on steam tables condition 2 is in the superheat region: volumes listed below
p = 20bar 0.1634 0.1756
p = 21bar 0.1578 0.1696 (interpolated)
p = 30bar 0.1078 0.1161

Hence t2 = 500C
u2  3116  0.1  3108  3116   3115kJ / kg
U 2  5  3115  15576kJ
Thus
Heat transfer from 1st Law
Q  dU  W  15576  11200   494  4870kJ
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P1.9
t A  20C; ps  5.673bar; hg  195.78kJ / kg ; h f  54.87kJ / kg
Tank A: 1kg Freon-12 105
ug  hg  pg vg  195.78  5.673   0.0308  178.3kJ / kg
103
Cylinder: isobaric expansion at 2bar
Heat transferred so temperature constant at 20°C: calculate heat transfer.
Vp1  0m3 ;Vp 2  ?
Flow across valve is isenthalpic:

Initial energy, U1  178.3kJ ; initial volume, V1  0.0308m3

Final volume, V2  0.0969m3
2 105
Hence work done, W   pdV    0.0969  0.0308  13.22kJ
103
2 105
Final energy, U 2  202.27   0.0969  182.9kJ
103
Hence, heat transfer, Q  dU  W  182.9  178.3  13.22  17.8kJ
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Chapter 1 Solutions

Problems P1.10 to P1.14 require the USFEE

These examples demonstrate that it is possible to obtain solutions for problems that have flows across
the system boundaries by closed system methods.

P1.10
An insulated bottle is initially evacuated, i.e. it contains a vacuum, and then the stopper is removed
allowing atmospheric air to fill the bottle. Evaluate the final conditions in a bottle when the air has just
filled it.
Comment: This is a relatively complex problem in unsteady gas dynamics if the processes between the
removal of the stopper and the quiescent end state are considered in detail. In the flow processes
pressure waves will travel into the bottle and be reflected; these will cause the atmospheric air to start
flowing into the bottle. The waves will ultimately die out due to the flow interactions at the neck of the
bottle and fluid friction, and finally a steady state will be reached. The great strength of the approaches
of thermodynamics are that they allow the final state to be evaluated without any knowledge of gas
dynamics.

The bottle is shown in Fig A. 11; it has a volume of V. At t = 0, referred to as state 1, there is no gas in
the bottle and its pressure is zero. Hence, p1 = 0 and m1 = 0. Gas is admitted to the bottle until the
pressure of the gas in the bottle is atmospheric pressure; p2 = patm. It is possible to treat this as a closed
system problem if the system boundaries are drawn in such a way that no flow occurs across them
during the filling process. This has been done by drawing a boundary around the gas which flows into
the bottle during the process: in this case it could be an actual boundary such as an extremely flexible
balloon which has been filled sufficiently to hold all the air required to fill the bottle.

Fig A.11: Bottle being filled with atmospheric air.

The bottle is initially evacuated: ma = 0 at t = 0.

Considering the total system at time t = 0, i.e. system a + system b. The First Law can be applied to the
combined system, giving
 Q  dU   W .
In this case Q = 0, because the bottle is insulated. The total work done during the time interval is the
pdV work done on the gas in system b, because system a does not change volume and no stirring work
is done. Hence
dU  U 2  U 1    W ,
where U 1  U 1a  U 1b  0  minuin  minuin
and U 2  U 2a  U 2b  minu2  0  minu2.
Rearranging the equation gives
U 2  U1   W
where  W   patmVin  min patmvin .

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Chapter 1 Solutions

Thus U 2  min u2  min u1  min patm vin  min  uin  patm vin  ,
giving the surprising result that the specific internal energy of the gas in the bottle is not the same as
that of the atmosphere, but is
u2   uin  patm vin   hin .
i.e. the internal energy of the gas in the bottle is equal to the enthalpy of the gas that was forced into the
bottle. The reason for this is that the atmosphere did work on pushing the gas from system b into
system a.
________________________________________________________________________________
P1.11 Filling a bottle which already contains some fluid.
The analysis adopted above may be applied to a bottle which is not initially evacuated, i.e. pa1  0.

This is shown in Fig P1.11. The approach to solving this problem is similar to that adopted above. The
same technique is used to make the problem a closed system one.

As before, Q = 0, because the bottle is insulated. The total work done during the time interval is the
pdV work done on the gas in system b, because system a does not change volume and no stirring work
is done. The mass of air in the bottle at the beginning of the process will be denoted by m1, and its
specific internal energy will be u1. Hence, again
dU  U 2  U 1    W ,
but now U 1  U 1a  U 1b  m1u1  minuin
and U 2  U 2 a  U 2b  minu2  0  minu2.

Fig P1.11(a): Filling of a bottle which is not initially evacuated

Rearranging the equation gives

U 2  U1   W
where  W   patmVin  min patmvin .
Thus U 2  min u2  m1u1  min uin  min patm vin  m1u1  min  uin  patm vin  ,
where min  m2  m1. Substituting this value in the equation for u2 gives
min  uin  pin vin   min hin   m2  m1 hin  m2 u2  m1u1
which can be rearranged to give
m2  hin  u2   m1  hin  u1  .
This equation has two unknowns, m2 and u2, and, in general, has to be solved iteratively, i.e. by trial
R R
and error. In the special case of a perfect gas, where pv  RT , with cv  and cp  , it is
 1  1
possible to get the following solution.

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 Chapter 1 Solutions

Using the equation m2  hin  u2   m1  hin  u1 

and substituting the following values for the initial and final conditions
RT1 pV
u1  cv T1  , m1  1 1 ,
 1 RT1
RT2 pV
u2  cv T2  , m2  2 2
 1 RT2
and the value for the inflowing enthalpy
RTa
hin 
 1
gives
paV1 RTa RT2  p1V1 RTa RT1 
     .
RT1    1   1 RT1    1   1
This equation can be rearranged to give
Ta
T2 
p1 Ta 
  1  1
pa  T1 
If p1 = 0, then the result reduces to that for filling an evacuated bottle, viz., T2 = Ta. Fig P1.11(b)
shows how the value of T2 varies with the ratios p1/pa and Ta/T1.

1.4
Temperature ratio, T 2/T a

1.2

1
T1/Ta=1.0
T1/Ta=0.8
0.8 T1/Ta=1.2

0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Pressure ratio, p 1/p a

Fig P1.11(b): Variation of temperature ratio, T2/Ta, with pressure ratio, p1/pa, for different levels of
temperature ratio, T1/Ta.

In the case of gases which are not perfect it is not possible to derive a simple equation for the variation
of the final temperature with initial conditions, and an iteration must be performed to evaluate it.
_________________________________________________________________________________
P1.12 Discharge from a bottle
The two questions above have dealt with filling a bottle, and shown how this can be considered to be a
closed system problem. A similar approach can be applied to a bottle discharging to the surroundings.

The system is shown in Fig P1.12.

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 Chapter 1 Solutions

Fig P1.12: Bottle discharging to atmosphere.

The initial mass in the bottle (system a) is m1 with a specific internal energy of u1, while the final mass
in the bottle is m2 with a specific internal energy of u2. The mass flow out of the cylinder, into system
b, is mexh, and the mean specific internal energy of the fluid passing from system a to system b is uexh.
If the systems are insulated, then Q = 0. During the discharge process work is done by the gas on the
surroundings as the fluid "inflates" system b. This work is
 W  mexh pexhvexh .
Applying the First Law to the process
 Q   W  dE  U 2  U1 ,
which gives on substitution
0  mexh pexhvexh  m2 u2  mexhuexh  m1u1,
which can be rearranged to give
 m1  m2  pexh vexh  uexh   m2 u2  m1u1   m1  m2  hexh .
Hence
m2  hexh  u2   m1  hexh  u1  ,

m2  m1
 hexh  u1 
giving .
 hexh  u2 
The final mass has to be evaluated by trial and error in most cases because the value of hexh is an
average value during the exhausting process.
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