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IJDRBE
1,3 Post-disaster recovery
and reconstruction safety
training
322
K.R. Grosskopf
College of Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify safety hazards likely to be encountered during
post-disaster recovery and reconstruction, identify barriers to effective safety training and hazard
mitigation, and provide actionable guidance on methods to safely avoid and abate such hazards.
Design/methodology/approach – Surveys were administered to 400 participants at 13 training
sites to evaluate safety practices among reconstruction contractors and workers.
Findings – A comparison of survey results to hazards likely to cause injuries and fatalities during
post-disaster reconstruction indicates that little effort is made to assess workers’ physical condition or
immunization records prior to deployment. Furthermore, data suggest that workers lack safety training
in reconstruction-specific hazards such as electrocution, falls, chemical and biological hazards
(e.g. contaminated flood water), and equipment hazards (aerial lifts, ladders, electric equipment,
generators, etc.). Findings also indicate that training effectiveness is further compromised by limited
language and literacy skills of workers, high turnover of workers, and insufficient resources for
adequate safety training frequency and duration, especially among smaller contractors (, 100 workers).
Originality/value – The paper is based on original research funded by the US Government following
Hurricane Katrina and is intended to aid in the development of targeted training to reduce worker
injuries and fatalities during post-disaster reconstruction.
Keywords Natural disasters, Hazards, Safety training, Employees
Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Disaster
Resilience in the Built Environment
Vol. 1 No. 3, 2010
pp. 322-333
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1759-5908
DOI 10.1108/17595901011080904
Introduction
Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to:
[. . .] furnish to each of his (or her) employees employment and a place of employment which
are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious
physical harm to his (or her) employees.
For post-disaster clean-up and reconstruction activities, however, it is difficult to
anticipate the myriad of possible physical, chemical and biological hazards a worker
may be exposed to. Hurricanes, for example, are powerful storms that can affect entire
geographical regions. An unprecedented Hurricane season in 2004 saw four major
hurricanes with sustained winds ranging from 105 to 145 mile per hour at landfall,
impact 60 of 67 counties in Florida within a span of six weeks. These storms left
152 people dead and caused more than US$ 42B in damage. Hurricane Katrina less
than a year later claimed the lives of 1,836 people in at least three states and caused
more than US$ 81.2B in damage (Grosskopf, 2008).
While some workers are exposed to extreme hazards during a hurricane in order to
perform or restore emergency services, the vast majority of disaster-related injuries and
illnesses occur during clean-up and reconstruction activities. These activities are even
more hazardous in areas affected by coastal storm surge and inland flooding. Some of the Post-disaster
specific hazards associated with hurricane clean-up and reconstruction activities include: recovery
.
electrocution from downed power lines or equipment failure;
.
falls from heights;
.
impacts from falling debris;
. exhaustion from working extended shifts in protective gear and clothing; 323
.
heat stress from overexertion and dehydration;
.
illness from chemical and biological contaminants; and
.
trauma from heavy and hand-held equipment.

Since 2004, disaster reconstruction has accounted for 5-10 percent of the total US
construction market, exposing more than 500,000 workers to post-disaster reconstruction
hazards. In a survey of trade contractors involved in Katrina reconstruction, researchers
found that the majority of contractors (74 percent) were small contractors (,50 workers);
91 percent of these contractor’s workers had no formal apprenticeship training, and
54 percent spoke a language other than English, making the job of training workers more
difficult (Grosskopf, 2008). This paper provides an overview of training developed to
identify and mitigate safety hazards while performing clean-up and reconstruction
activities following a natural disaster organized in three modules:
(1) physical hazards;
(2) chemical-biological hazards; and
(3) equipment hazards.

Physical hazard training

The top four causes of construction fatalities (e.g. “focus four” hazards) in the USA are
falls, electrocutions, struck-by, and caught-in/between accidents. Of these, fall hazards
are the most common. Following a hurricane, openings, edges, and holes created by wind
or floodwater damage as well as unstable structures and falling debris cause
significantly greater fall hazards. In the USA, fall protection must be provided for each
employee on a walking or working surface above 2 m with an unprotected side or edge.
Floor covers should be labelled and capable of supporting two-times the weight of
employees, equipment, and materials that may be imposed on the cover at any one time.
Portable ladders must be positioned so the side rails extend at least 0.9 m above the
landing. Side rails must be secured at the top to a rigid support and use a grab device
when a 0.9 m extension is not possible.
Electrical hazards exist in some form in nearly all construction occupations.
However, the danger of electrocution multiplies for workers involved in clean-up and
recovery efforts following hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters. The greatest
danger exists around overhead power lines that might be downed or damaged by high
winds or floodwater. Repairing downed or damaged power lines entails many of the
same activities involved in installing, maintaining, and removing overhead circuits.
The key difference is that in emergency conditions, there are unknown hazards and the
potential for changing hazards as work progresses. Under these conditions, workers
must be extra vigilant to prevent electrocution by downed power lines, objects in contact
with fallen lines, and “back feed” from portable generators. Ideally, circuits should be
IJDRBE de-energized prior to repair work when possible. However, de-energized circuits can be
1,3 re-energized by improperly installed or operated portable generators that can send
power back to the electrical lines.
Downed wires can energize other objects, including fences, water pipes, vegetation,
buildings, communications cables, and debris. Even manhole castings and concrete
reinforcement bars (rebar) can become energized by downed wires. Electricity can also
324 energize the ground, spreading outward concentrically from the point of contact.
Dangerous voltage differentials can be created by workers walking toward or away
from a source of stray voltage. If contact is made with an energized power line while in a
vehicle, workers should be instructed to remain in the vehicle. If exiting the vehicle or
equipment is necessary because of fire or other safety reasons, the operator should jump
completely clear of the vehicle with both feet together and shuffle away in small steps
(or hop) to minimize voltage differential between their feet and avoid electrical shock
(e.g. “step voltage”). Before starting clean-up and reconstruction work, workers should
locate and identify all utilities. Workers should immediately disconnect electrical power
and ensure that electrical systems remain safely de-energized by using proper “lockout”
or “tag-out” procedures. Workers should never assume that any wire is, or is not an
electrical conductor, or, that a wire is safe to touch because it is insulated. Since high
voltage electricity can travel or “arc” through air, workers operating aerial equipment
should remain at least 3 m away from overhead wires. Workers should be especially
alert when working with ladders, scaffolds, or other platforms. Workers should not
operate portable electric tools unless they are grounded or double-insulated and
supplied power from a ground-fault circuit interrupt (GFCI) protected electrical source.
Workers should never operate electrical equipment while in contact with water.

Chemical and biological hazard training

Floodwaters may be contaminated by sewage, agricultural, or industrial chemicals or by
hazardous agents present at flooded hazardous waste sites. Although different
chemicals cause different health effects, the signs and symptoms most frequently
associated with chemical poisoning are headaches, skin rashes, dizziness, nausea,
weakness, and fatigue. Floodwater may also contain infectious organisms, including
intestinal bacteria such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella; hepatitis A, typhoid, and tetanus.
The signs and symptoms experienced by the victims of waterborne microorganisms are
similar, even though they are caused by different pathogens. These symptoms include
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, muscle aches, and fever. Most cases of
sickness associated with flood conditions are brought about by ingesting contaminated
food or water. Tetanus, however, can be acquired from contaminated soil or water
entering broken areas of the skin, such as cuts, abrasions, burns, or puncture wounds.
Tetanus is an infectious disease that affects the nervous system and causes severe
muscle spasms, known as “lockjaw.”
Good personal hygiene, and specifically proper hand hygiene, prevents disease
transmission. First, if water is suspected of being contaminated, clean-up workers may
need to wear special chemical resistant outer clothing, protective goggles, plastic or
rubber gloves, boots, and other protective clothing. Workers should wear thick,
cut-resistant gloves made of waterproof material (nitrile or similar washable material)
when working in contaminated floodwaters, handling contaminated debris, or handling
human or animal remains. To avoid waterborne disease, workers should wash hands
regularly with soap and clean running water or, a waterless, alcohol-based hand rub, Post-disaster
especially before work and meal breaks and after clean-up or decontamination work and recovery
toilet use. First aid, even for minor cuts and burns, is very important during flood
clean-up. Workers should be instructed to immediately clean all open wounds and cuts
with soap and clean water or, a waterless, alcohol-based hand rub. Most cuts, except
minor scratches, will require treatment to prevent tetanus. Workers should seek
immediate medical attention if a wound becomes red, swollen, or if discharge is 325
observed.
Workers should assume that any water in flooded or surrounding areas is not safe. If no
safe water supply is available for washing, use bottled water, water that has been boiled
for at least ten minutes or chemically disinfected drinking water. To disinfect water
for human consumption, workers should use five drops of liquid bleach to each gallon of
water, 30 minutes prior to use. Water storage containers should be rinsed periodically with
a 10 percent bleach solution. For tools, clothing, and equipment, it is preferable to use soap
and clean water because of the potential for a bleach-water solution to corrode metals and
fabrics. However, if only contaminated water is available, workers should prepare solution
of 10 percent bleach-water, wipe tool surfaces ten minutes prior to use and let air dry.
Containers used to disinfect tools and equipment should be labelled “bleach disinfected
water – DO NOT DRINK”. Workers should not mix bleach with products containing
ammonia or other cleaning chemicals.
When present in large quantities, fungi or “molds” have the potential to cause adverse
health effects, including allergenic symptoms and dermatitis (skin rash). Individuals
with serious allergies, asthma, sinusitis or other lung diseases, or weakened immune
systems (e.g. HIV and cancer patients) can develop serious secondary or “opportunistic”
infections. Molds usually appear as coloured or “woolly” mats within 24-48 hours of
exposure to moisture and often produce a foul, musty smell. To prevent or abate mold,
workers must identify and repair the source(s) of water or moisture penetration into the
building. Inorganic, impermeable materials and surfaces can be cleaned with a
10 percent bleach-water solution, or detergent and water solution for materials that may
discolour or corrode when exposed to bleach. Porous, organic materials (e.g. drywall,
insulation, carpeting, furnishings, ceiling tiles, etc.), must be immediately removed,
especially those in contact with floodwater. The working area should be well ventilated
and sealed off from the rest of the building at negative air pressure to reduce the spread
of mold spores. Mold-damaged materials should be placed in sealed plastic bags
and transferred directly from the affected area to the outside if possible. Workers should
use respiratory protection (e.g. N-95 respirator) as well as hand and eye protection.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a colourless, flammable, extremely hazardous gas with a
“rotten egg” smell. It occurs naturally in crude petroleum and natural gas, and can be
produced by the breakdown of organic matter and human/animal wastes (e.g. sewage).
It is heavier than air and can collect in low-lying and enclosed, poorly ventilated areas
such as basements, manholes, sewer lines, and underground telephone/electrical vaults.
H2S gas can be smelled at low levels, but with continuous low-level exposure or at higher
concentrations, workers can lose their ability to smell the gas even though it is still
present. At high concentrations, H2S gas can cause shock, convulsions, difficulty
breathing, coma, and death. The onset of symptoms can be extremely rapid (within a few
breaths). Before entering confined or poorly ventilated areas that may have been
exposed to floodwater, workers should test the air for the presence and concentration
IJDRBE of H2S. If gas is present, the space should be ventilated. If the gas cannot be removed,
1,3 workers should use appropriate respiratory protection and any other necessary personal
protective equipment (PPE), rescue and communication equipment. Atmospheres
containing high concentrations (. 100 ppm) are considered immediately dangerous and
a self-contained breathing apparatus is required.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, toxic gas which interferes with the
326 oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. CO is non-irritating and can overcome persons without
warning. Many workers have died from CO poisoning while using gasoline-powered tools
and equipment in buildings or semi-enclosed spaces without adequate ventilation. Severe
CO poisoning causes neurological damage, illness, coma and death. Symptoms of CO
exposure include headaches, dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, and tightness
across the chest. Common sources of CO exposure include gas-powered portable
generators in buildings, concrete cutting saws, compressors, power trowels, floor buffers,
space heaters, welding equipment, and pumps. To avoid CO exposure, workers should
never use gasoline-powered equipment indoors or in enclosed or partially enclosed spaces
such as garages, crawl spaces, and basements. Such equipment should not be used near
doors, windows, or vents which could allow CO to enter and build up in occupied spaces.
Workers should consider using tools powered by electricity or compressed air wherever
possible.
Repair, renovation, and demolition operations of hurricane or flood-damaged
buildings, especially older structures, can often generate airborne asbestos, a mineral
fibre that causes chronic lung disease and cancer. Before it was known that inhalation
of asbestos fibres causes several deadly diseases, including asbestosis, a progressive
and often fatal lung disease, and other cancers, asbestos was used in a large number of
building materials and other products because of its strength, flame resistance, and
insulating properties. Asbestos was used in asbestos-cement pipe and sheeting, floor
and roofing felts, drywall, floor tiles, spray on ceiling coatings, and packing materials.
When buildings containing these materials are renovated or demolished, or when the
asbestos-containing materials themselves are disturbed, minute fibres may be released
into the air. The fibres are so small that they often cannot be seen. A permissible
exposure limit is 0.1 fibre/cm3 of air averaged over an eight hour period. Access to
locations where asbestos concentrations may be dangerously high should be restricted.
Workers should not smoke, eat, or drink in asbestos-regulated areas. Workers should
use warning signs and caution labels to identify and communicate the presence of
hazards and hazardous materials.
Lead is a common hazardous element found at many construction sites. Lead exposure
comes from inhaling fumes and dust, and ingestion when hands are contaminated. Lead
can be taken off-site on workers’ clothes, skin, hair, tools, and vehicles. Lead exposure may
take place in demolition, salvage, removal, encapsulation, renovation, and clean-up
activities. Workers should use proper PPE (e.g. gloves, clothing, and approved
respirators). Workers should be instructed to wash hands and face after work and before
eating. Workers should never enter eating areas wearing protective equipment or wear
clothes and shoes that were worn during lead exposure away from work. Symptoms of
lead exposure include severe abdominal pain, headaches, and loss of motor coordination.
Workers should wear appropriate respirators and conduct a user seal check each time a
respirator is donned. Work areas should be provided adequate ventilation and dust
collecting equipment when possible.
 Pools of standing or stagnant water become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and Post-disaster
other parasites, increasing the risk of encephalitis, West Nile, malaria, and dengue. recovery
Workers can reduce the risk of mosquito and other insect bites by being provided
immunizations in advance of entering a disaster area, wearing proper clothing, and
by using insect repellents containing N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide or picaridin.
The presence of displaced wild or stray domesticated animals in post-disaster areas
increases the risk of diseases transmitted by animal bites as well as diseases carried by 327
parasites (e.g. fleas and ticks). Workers should avoid contact with wild or stray animals
and wear protective gloves and footwear when removing debris.

Equipment hazard training

Falls, electrocutions, rigging failures, and tip-over involving aerial equipment are the
leading causes of reconstruction fatalities in the USA. To avoid aerial lift and crane
accidents and injuries, workers must be properly trained in the safe use of the equipment.
Workers should maintain and operate elevated work platforms in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions and never override hydraulic, mechanical, or electrical safety
devices. Workers should never move the equipment with workers in an elevated platform
unless this is permitted by the manufacturer. Workers should not position themselves
between overhead hazards, such as joists and beams and the equipment. Aerial equipment
and load lines should maintain a minimum clearance of at least 3 m away from the nearest
overhead power source to avoid electrocuting workers in contact with the equipment or
ground nearby. Workers should barricade accessible areas within the equipment swing
radius and be trained to properly assemble/disassemble the equipment. Workers should
use a body harness or restraining belt with a lanyard attached to the boom or work
platform to avoid being ejected. Workers should operate aerial equipment on a stable
surface, set the brakes and use wheel chocks when on an incline. Workers must always
level the equipment with outriggers fully extended and never exceed the load limits of the
equipment, allowing for the combined weight of the worker, tools, and materials.
Operators should be trained to raise the load 0.3 m, hold, verify balance, and test the brake
system before delivering load. Operators should never deliver loads over workers.
Portable generators are internal combustion engines used to generate electricity. Major
causes of injuries and fatalities from portable generators include electrocution to users
from improper use, electrocution to utility workers from improper connection to buildings,
fires from improperly refuelling or storing fuel, and CO from engine exhaust. In order to
ensure safe operation of portable generators, workers should inspect equipment for
damage or loose fuel lines that may have occurred during transportation or handling.
Before refuelling, workers should shut down the generator and never operate the generator
or store fuel indoors. Workers should never attach a portable generator directly to the
electrical system of a building unless the generator has a properly installed open-transition
transfer switch. Workers should always plug electrical tools and equipment directly into
the generator using extension cords that contain a grounding conductor and GFCIs.
Workers should ensure generators are either bonded (,5 kW) or connected to a grounding
electrode system, such as a driven ground rod (.5 kW).

Survey results
Half-day (four hour) multi-lingual (English and Spanish) training was provided to more
than 400 contractors in 13 hurricane and flood-prone cities in the US states of Florida,
IJDRBE Texas, Alabama, Louisiana, and Georgia from May-September 2008. Prior to training,
1,3 participants were given a pre-test of 20 questions to survey their understanding of
general health and safety hazards, physical hazards, chemical and biological hazards,
and equipment hazards found to be the leading cause of injury and death during
post-disaster recovery and reconstruction operations. After four hours of training,
participants were given a comparable post-test of 20 questions to evaluate the
328 effectiveness of the training. Pre-test scores averaged 66 percent or approximately 13 of
20 questions correct. Post-test scores averaged 80 percent, or approximately 16 of 20
questions. 18 of 20 questions achieved a 70 percent or better post-test pass rate.
Training participants were also given a course evaluation form. On a scale of 1 poor
to 5 best, participants rated the training 4.45 (Figure 1). About-88 percent of participants
indicated that the training met or exceeded their expectations. About 42 percent of
participants had previous post-disaster reconstruction experience.
An anonymous survey was administered to training participants to evaluate
participant safety attitudes and workplace safety practices relative to worker
demographics. Results found that more than half (58 percent) of training participants
had greater than ten years experience in the construction industry, although only
22 percent had been employed by their current employer more than ten years.
The majority of participants (86 percent) had some level of post-secondary (e.g. college
or professional) education (Figure 2). Nearly, all participants, 93 percent, were
employed in a professional or supervisory position in safety, project management or
site supervision. Only 4 percent indicated that they were field level workers (Figure 3).
About 93 percent of participants were aged 20-60. Participants in age groups 20-29,
30-39, 40-49, and 50-59 were near equally distributed (Figure 4). Training participants
represented companies ranging from a few employees to more than 500. Nearly, half
(45 percent) of all participants represented “small” companies having 100 or fewer field
workers (Figure 5).
Although 90 percent of participants indicated that English was their first or native
language, more than eight out of ten companies represented had workers who
primarily spoke a language other than English. Greater than half of the workforce for
40 percent of all companies spoke a language other than English. More than half
(58 percent) of all companies represented did not provide safety training prior to

4.6
Knowledge 4.6
Style 4.3 4.5
Information 4.4 4.4
Understanding 4.5
Clarity 4.5 4.3
Usefulness 4.4
Materials 4.4 4.2
Presentation 4.5 4.1
Interest 4.4
4.0
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in

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ia

e
ar

er
St

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at

nd

at
er
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Figure 1.
U

Course evaluation results

Note: Scale 1 “poor”, 5 “best”
 Elem Post-disaster
3%
recovery
Prof High
12% school
Highest level of education… 11%

Elem 3%
329
High school 11%
Some college 33%
Some college
College graduate 42%
33%
Prof 12% College graduate
100% 42%
Figure 2.
Participant
level of education

Other, 3%

Position…
Mgmt
Safety 45% 27% Safety
Field worker 4% 45%
Site supervisor 21%
Management 27%
Other 3% Site supervisor
100% 21%

Figure 3.
Field workers Participant job description
4%

sending new hires into the field, although 48 percent indicated that they did provide
some form of weekly safety training thereafter (Figure 6). For two-thirds of all
companies represented, the duration of training is two hours or less (Figure 7).
Of the companies represented, 85 percent of field workers were subject to drug
testing, although only 35 percent are given physicals and 12 percent given
immunizations against diseases likely to be encountered in post-disaster
reconstruction areas. Nearly, all training participants indicated that their companies
provide basic safety training on topics such as protective equipment (96 percent), fall
hazards (92 percent), and electrical safety (87 percent). However, less training emphasis
was placed on topics related to post-disaster reconstruction, including downed power
IJDRBE Over 60
7%
1,3

20-30
18%
330
Age… 51-60
20-30 18% 27%
31-40 23%
41-50 25%
51-60 27% 31-40
23%
Over 60 7%
100%

41-50
Figure 4. 25%
Participant age

None, 4%

401-500, More than

4% 500, 15%
Number of field workers…
None 4%
1-100 45% 301-400,
101-200 15% 7%
201-300 12% 1-100,
301-400 7% 45%
201-300,
401-500 4% 12%
More than 500 15%
100%
101-200,
Figure 5. 15%
Company size

lines (69 percent) and confined spaces (66 percent). Even less training was provided
on hazards likely to be encountered in buildings (particularly older buildings) damaged
by windstorm or floodwater such as asbestos (58 percent), lead (48 percent), mold
(46 percent), and toxic or hazardous atmospheres (40 percent) and drinking water and
equipment disinfection (26 percent). A one-third or less of participants indicated that
their companies provided training on equipment used to remove or clear debris.
Only two-thirds of companies represented provided training on the safe use of portable
 None 2% Post-disaster
recovery
Annually
Semi-annually 11%
5%

Continuing safety training... Bi-monthly 331

6%
Weekly 48% Weekly
Monthly 28% 48%
Bi-monthly 6%
Semi-annually 5%
Annually 11% Monthly
None 2% 28%
100%
Figure 6.
Frequency of safety
training

> 1day,
4%

Duration of safety training…

< 1 hour 36%
1 day,
1-2 hours 31%
11%
2-3 hours 6%
1/2 day 11%
1 day 11% < 1 hour,
> 1 day 4% 1/2 day, 36%
100% 11%

86
74 2-3 hours,
15 6%
27
26 1-2 hours,
9 31%
237 Figure 7.
Duration of safety training

generators and the potential for carbon monoxide poisoning from using gas-powered
equipment in poorly ventilated spaces.
Correlating training participant demographics to safety attitudes and work
practices, the following statistically significant relationships were found using both x2
and Fisher’s exact test statistical tools (r-values # 0.05 are considered significant):
.
The greater the years of construction experience (# 10 and . 10 years), the
greater the frequency of safety training (weekly safety training; r ¼ 0.0126),
particularly training related to fall hazards (r ¼ 0.0215), the use of aerial
IJDRBE equipment (r ¼ 0.0006), the use of debris removal equipment (r # 0.0354), and
1,3 the use of ladders (r ¼ 0.0006).
.
The greater length of employment (# 5 and . 5 years) with a company, the
greater the frequency of safety training (weekly safety training; r ¼ 0.0397),
particularly training related to the use of debris removal equipment such as
chain saws and wood chippers (r # 0.0468), portable generators (r ¼ 0.0316),
332 and ladders (r ¼ 0.0044).
.
The greater the size of the company (# 100 field workers and . 100 field workers),
the greater the likelihood that workers will receive safety training on the day of
hire before being placed into the field (r ¼ 0.0160), particularly falls and electrical
hazard training (r # 0.0242) and training related to confined spaces (r ¼ 0.0359)
and carbon monoxide poisoning (r ¼ 0.0126). Larger companies (. 100
employees) were more likely to conduct pre-employment drug screening
(r ¼ 0.0010), and provide training related to the use of aerial equipment
(r ¼ 0.0533).
.
The higher the level of education (no college and college), the greater the duration
and specificity of training. College graduates and professionals were more likely to
invest at least two hours per training session when compared to workers without
college preparation (r ¼ 0.0286) and train in more advanced safety topics such as
dealing with unknown or toxic substances (r ¼ 0.0438).
.
The greater the percentage of field workers who primarily speak a language other
than English (# 50 and . 50 percent), the less frequently safety training was
provided (bi-monthly safety training; r ¼ 0.0326). However, the duration of safety
training (eight hours per session; r ¼ 0.0163), and occurrence of pre-employment
medical screenings (r ¼ 0.0313) was greater.
. The greater the age (# 40 years and . 40 years), the greater the duration (one-two
hours) and specificity of training (r ¼ 0.0522), particularly training related to the
use of aerial equipment (r ¼ 0.0315) and ladders (r ¼ 0.0055).

Reference
Grosskopf, K.R. (2008), “Worker safety training for OSHA ‘focus four’ disaster reconstruction
hazards”, Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference: Evolution and Directions
in Construction Safety and Health, International Council for Research and Innovation
in Building and Construction (CIB), Gainesville, FL.

Further reading
CDC (2009), “Worker safety after a flood”, Emergency Preparedness and Response, US Centres
for Disease Control, Washington, DC.
EPA (2009), “Flood cleanup – avoiding indoor air quality problems”, Office of Radiation and
Indoor Air, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
FEMA (2005), “Initial restoration for flooded buildings”, Hurricane Katrina Advisory, US Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC.
IICRC (2006), S500 Standard and Reference Guide for Professional Water Damage Restoration,
Institute of Inspection, Cleaning and Restoration Certification, Vancouver, WA.
NIOSH (2008), “Interim recommendations for the cleaning and remediation of flood- Post-disaster
contaminated HVAC systems”, Guide for Building Owners and Managers, US National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Washington, DC. recovery

About the author

K.R. Grosskopf is a Faculty Member of the Charles W. Durham School of Architectural
Engineering and Construction at the University of Nebraska. Grosskopf is also a licensed State of 333
Florida Building Contractor with more than 19 years of construction experience and has served
in various construction-related capacities in private industry, municipal utilities, and the
US Government. Grosskopf has written (or contributed to) four books and more than 50
publications related to safety and sustainability in the built environment. Grosskopf has also
given more than 50 invited presentations in several countries on every continent except
Antarctica. Grosskopf has received over $3.8 million in grants and endowments. In 2007,
Grosskopf received the Associated Schools of Construction National Teaching Excellence Award
and most recently, was chosen as the Associated General Contractors of America 2008
Outstanding Educator. K.R. Grosskopf can be contacted at: kgrosskopf3@unlnotes.unl.edu

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