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Network Protection and Automation Guide Alstom Schneider Electric PDF
Network Protection and Automation Guide Alstom Schneider Electric PDF
Network
Protection & Automation
Network P rotection
& Automation Guide
First edition July 2002
ISBN : 2-9518589-0-6
Acknowledgements
AREVA T&D Instrument Transformers
AREVA T&D Distribution Switchgear
AREVA T&D Network Planning
ALSTOM Electrical Machines
ALSTOM Transport/Virgin Trains
Peter Rush
1 Introduction .................... p2
2 Fundamentals of Protection Practice .................... p4
3 Fundamental Theory ................ p16
4 Fault Calculations ................. p30
5 Equivalent Circuits and Parameters
of Power System Plant ................. p46
6 Current and Voltage Transformers ................. p78
7 Relay Technology ................. p98
8 Protection: Signalling and Intertripping ............... p112
9 Overcurrent Protection for Phase
and Earth Faults .............. p122
10 Unit Protection of Feeders .............. p152
11 Distance Protection .............. p170
12 Distance Protection Schemes .............. p192
13 Protection of Complex Transmission Circuits .............. p202
14 Auto-Reclosing .............. p218
15 Busbar Protection .............. p232
16 Transformer and Transformer-Feeder Protection .............. p254
17 Generator and
Generator-Transformer Protection .............. p280
18 Industrial and Commercial
Power System Protection .............. p316
19 A.C. Motor Protection .............. p336
20 Protection of A.C. Electrified Railways .............. p352
21 Relay Testing and Commissioning .............. p370
22 Power System Measurements .............. p398
23 Power Quality .............. p410
24 Substation Control and Automation .............. p422
25 Distribution System Automation .............. p442
Appendix 1 Terminology .............. p454
Appendix 2 ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols .............. p466
Appendix 3 Application Tables .............. p468
Index ............................................................................................................................................. p476
• 1 • Introduction
• 1 • Introduction
Introduction 2.1
Reliability 2.4
Selectivity 2.5
Stability 2.6
Speed 2.7
Sensitivity 2.8
T1 T2
380kV A
L2 L1A
L1B
380kV C 380kV B
Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice
L3 L4
T5 T6 T3 T4
T10 T11 T7 T8 T9
L7A
220kV D 380kV E
T14
L6
• 2•
Grid 380kV G
L7B substation L5
F
T15
T16 T17
T12 T13
L8
e 2.
Figure 2.2: Example power system
Figure 2.1: Example power system
Figur
2 . 2 P R OT E C T I O N E Q U I P M E N T
The definitions that follow are generally used in relation
2 . 3 Z O N E S O F P R OT E C T I O N Feed
Feeder
protection
To limit the extent of the power system that is (b) CT's on circuit side of circuit breaker
Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice
• 2• Zone 4
~
Zone 5 Zone 7
If the probability of each equipment failing is x/unit, the known by specific names, e.g. restricted earth fault and
resultant probability of both equipments failing differential protection. Unit protection can be applied
simultaneously, allowing for redundancy, is x2. Where x throughout a power system and, since it does not involve
is small the resultant risk (x2) may be negligible. time grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of
response is substantially independent of fault severity.
Where multiple protection systems are used, the tripping
signal can be provided in a number of different ways. Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities
The two most common methods are: at the boundaries of the protected zone as defined by the
locations of the current transformers. This comparison
a. all protection systems must operate for a tripping
may be achieved by direct hard-wired connections or
operation to occur (e.g. ‘two-out-of-two’
may be achieved via a communications link. However
arrangement)
certain protection systems derive their 'restricted'
b. only one protection system need operate to cause property from the configuration of the power system and
a trip (e.g. ‘one-out-of two’ arrangement) may be classed as unit protection, e.g. earth fault
protection applied to the high voltage delta winding of a
The former method guards against maloperation while
power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must
the latter guards against failure to operate due to an
be kept in mind that selectivity is not merely a matter of
unrevealed fault in a protection system. Rarely, three
relay design. It also depends on the correct co-
main protection systems are provided, configured in a
ordination of current transformers and relays with a
‘two-out-of three’ tripping arrangement, to provide both
suitable choice of relay settings, taking into account the
reliability of tripping, and security against unwanted
possible range of such variables as fault currents,
tripping.
maximum load current, system impedances and other
• 2• It has long been the practice to apply duplicate related factors, where appropriate.
protection systems to busbars, both being required to
operate to complete a tripping operation. Loss of a
busbar may cause widespread loss of supply, which is 2 . 6 S TA B I L I T Y
clearly undesirable. In other cases, important circuits are The term ‘stability’ is usually associated with unit
provided with duplicate main protection systems, either protection schemes and refers to the ability of the
being able to trip independently. On critical circuits, use protection system to remain unaffected by conditions
may also be made of a digital fault simulator to model external to the protected zone, for example through load
the relevant section of the power system and check the current and external fault conditions.
performance of the relays used.
2.7 SPEED
2.5 SELECTIVITY The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on
When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required the power system as rapidly as possible. The main
to trip only those circuit breakers whose operation is objective is to safeguard continuity of supply by
required to isolate the fault. This property of selective removing each disturbance before it leads to widespread
tripping is also called 'discrimination' and is achieved by loss of synchronism and consequent collapse of the
two general methods. power system.
c. trip supplies to the two protections should be A 'make' contact is one that closes when the relay picks
separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication of up, whereas a 'break' contact is one that is closed when
tripping batteries and of circuit breaker tripping coils the relay is de-energised and opens when the relay picks
may be provided. Trip circuits should be continuously up. Examples of these conventions and variations are
supervised shown in Figure 2.9.
Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice
d. it is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or Self reset
duplicate main protections) should operate on different
principles, so that unusual events that may cause
failure of the one will be less likely to affect the other Hand reset
Digital and numerical relays may incorporate suitable `make' contacts `break' contacts
(normally open) (normally open)
back-up protection functions (e.g. a distance relay may
also incorporate time-delayed overcurrent protection
elements as well). A reduction in the hardware required to
provide back-up protection is obtained, but at the risk that Time delay on Time delay on
a common relay element failure (e.g. the power supply) pick up drop-off
will result in simultaneous loss of both main and back-up
Figure 2.9: Contact types
protection. The acceptability of this situation must be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Figure 2.9: Contact types
A protection relay is usually required to trip a circuit
2 . 10 R E L AY O U T P U T D E V I C E S breaker, the tripping mechanism of which may be a
solenoid with a plunger acting directly on the
In order to perform their intended function, relays must be mechanism latch or an electrically operated valve. The
fitted with some means of providing the various output power required by the trip coil of the circuit breaker may
signals required. Contacts of various types usually fulfil range from up to 50 watts for a small 'distribution'
this function. circuit breaker, to 3000 watts for a large, extra-high-
• 2• voltage circuit breaker.
2.10.1 Contact Systems The relay may therefore energise the tripping coil
directly, or, according to the coil rating and the number
Relays may be fitted with a variety of contact systems of circuits to be energised, may do so through the
for providing electrical outputs for tripping and remote agency of another multi-contact auxiliary relay.
indication purposes. The most common types
encountered are as follows: The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a hand-
trip control switch and the contacts of the protection
a. Self-reset relays in parallel to energise the trip coil from a battery,
The contacts remain in the operated condition only through a normally open auxiliary switch operated by
while the controlling quantity is applied, returning the circuit breaker. This auxiliary switch is needed to
to their original condition when it is removed open the trip circuit when the circuit breaker opens
b. Hand or electrical reset since the protection relay contacts will usually be quite
These contacts remain in the operated condition incapable of performing the interrupting duty. The
after the controlling quantity is removed. They can auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as
be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary possible in the closing stroke, to make the protection
electromagnetic element effective in case the breaker is being closed on to a fault.
which usually interrupt their own coil current, the arrangement contains a healthy trip lamp, as shown in
auxiliary elements must be fast enough to operate and Figure 2.11(a).
release the flag before their coil current is cut off. This The resistance in series with the lamp prevents the
may pose a problem in design if a variable number of breaker being tripped by an internal short circuit caused
auxiliary elements (for different phases and so on) may by failure of the lamp. This provides supervision while
be required to operate in parallel to energise a common the circuit breaker is closed; a simple extension gives
tripping relay. pre-closing supervision.
Figure 2.11(b) shows how, the addition of a normally
2.11.2 Shunt reinforcing closed auxiliary switch and a resistance unit can provide
supervision while the breaker is both open and closed.
Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the
circuit breaker and simultaneously to energise the
auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact that is PR 52a TC
energising the trip coil.
Two contacts are required on the protection relay, since (a) Supervision while circuit breaker is closed (scheme H4)
it is not permissible to energise the trip coil and the
reinforcing contactor in parallel. If this were done, and PR 52a TC
more than one protection relay were connected to trip 52b
the same circuit breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be (b) Supervision while circuit breaker is open or closed (scheme H5)
energised in parallel for each relay operation and the
TC
• 2• indication would be confused. PR 52a
• 2•
Introduction 3.1
References 3.7
• 3 • Fundamental Theor y
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Protection Engineer is concerned with limiting the
effects of disturbances in a power system. These
disturbances, if allowed to persist, may damage plant
and interrupt the supply of electric energy. They are
described as faults (short and open circuits) or power
swings, and result from natural hazards (for instance
lightning), plant failure or human error.
To facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power
system, the system is divided into 'protection zones'.
Relays monitor the system quantities (current, voltage)
appearing in these zones; if a fault occurs inside a zone,
the relays operate to isolate the zone from the remainder
of the power system.
The operating characteristic of a relay depends on the
energizing quantities fed to it such as current or voltage,
or various combinations of these two quantities, and on
the manner in which the relay is designed to respond to
this information. For example, a directional relay
characteristic would be obtained by designing the relay
to compare the phase angle between voltage and current
at the relaying point. An impedance-measuring
characteristic, on the other hand, would be obtained by
designing the relay to divide voltage by current. Many
other more complex relay characteristics may be
obtained by supplying various combinations of current
and voltage to the relay. Relays may also be designed to
respond to other system quantities such as frequency,
power, etc.
In order to apply protection relays, it is usually necessary
to know the limiting values of current and voltage, and
their relative phase displacement at the relay location,
for various types of short circuit and their position in the
system. This normally requires some system analysis for
faults occurring at various points in the system.
The main components that make up a power system are
generating sources, transmission and distribution
networks, and loads. Many transmission and distribution
circuits radiate from key points in the system and these
circuits are controlled by circuit breakers. For the
purpose of analysis, the power system is treated as a
network of circuit elements contained in branches
radiating from nodes to form closed loops or meshes.
The system variables are current and voltage, and in
Figure
Y 3.1 From Equations 3.1 and 3.2:
—
Z = |Z| (cos θ + jsin θ) …Equation 3.3
P
and since cos θ and sin θ may be expressed in
exponential form by the identities:
|Z|
y e jθ − e − jθ
sin θ =
q 2j
X
0 x e jθ − e − jθ
cosθ =
2
Figure3.1:
Figure 3.1: Vector
VectorOP
OP —
it follows that Z may also be written as:
Fundamental Theor y
—
It may be resolved into two components at right angles Z = |Z|e jθ …Equation 3.4
to each other, in this case x and y. The magnitude or Therefore, a vector quantity may also be represented
scalar value of vector Z is known as the modulus |Z|, and trigonometrically and exponentially.
—
the angle θ is the argument, and is written as arg. Z.
—
The conventional method of expressing a vector Z is to
write simply |Z|∠θ. 3 . 3 M A N I P U L AT I O N
This form completely specifies a vector for graphical OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
representation or conversion into other forms. Complex quantities may be represented in any of the
For vectors to be useful, they must be expressed four co-ordinate systems given below:
—
algebraically. In Figure 3.1, the vector Z is the resultant a. Polar Z∠ θ
of vectorially adding its components x and y;
• 3• algebraically this vector may be written as: b. Rectangular x + jy
c. Trigonometric |Z| (cos θ + jsin θ)
—
Z = x + jy …Equation 3.1
d. Exponential |Z|e jθ
where the operator j indicates that the component y is The modulus |Z| and the argument θ are together known
perpendicular to component x. In electrical as 'polar co-ordinates', and x and y are described as
nomenclature, the axis OC is the 'real' or 'in-phase' axis, 'cartesian co-ordinates'. Conversion between co-
and the vertical axis OY is called the 'imaginary' or ordinate systems is easily achieved. As the operator j
'quadrature' axis. The operator j rotates a vector anti- obeys the ordinary laws of algebra, complex quantities in
clockwise through 90°. If a vector is made to rotate anti- rectangular form can be manipulated algebraically, as
clockwise through 180°, then the operator j has can be seen by the following:
performed its function twice, and since the vector has — —
Z1 + Z2 = (x1+x2) + j(y1+y2) …Equation 3.5
reversed its sense, then: — —
Z1 - Z2 = (x1-x2) + j(y1-y2) …Equation 3.6
j x j or j2 = -1
(see Figure 3.2)
whence j = √-1
Fundamental Theor y
in exponential form. operator is not a physical quantity; it is dimensionless.
When dealing with such functions it is important to The symbol j, which has been compounded with
appreciate that the quantity contains real and imaginary quadrature components of complex quantities, is an
components. If it is required to investigate only one operator that rotates a quantity anti-clockwise through
component of the complex variable, separation into 90°. Another useful operator is one which moves a
components must be carried out after the mathematical vector anti-clockwise through 120°, commonly
operation has taken place. represented by the symbol a.
Example: Determine the rate of change of the real Operators are distinguished by one further feature; they
component of a vector |Z|∠wt with time. are the roots of unity. Using De Moivre's theorem, the
|Z|∠wt = |Z| (coswt + jsinwt) nth root of unity is given by solving the expression:
the application of a driving voltage, but there is Figure 3.3: Representation of a sinusoidal function
Figure 3.3: Representation
complete duality between the variables and either may of a sinusoidal function
be regarded as the cause of the other.
When a circuit exists, there is an interchange of energy; The current resulting from applying a voltage to a circuit
a circuit may be described as being made up of 'sources' depends upon the circuit impedance. If the voltage is a
and 'sinks' for energy. The parts of a circuit are described sinusoidal function at a given frequency and the
as elements; a 'source' may be regarded as an 'active' impedance is constant the current will also vary
element and a 'sink' as a 'passive' element. Some circuit harmonically at the same frequency, so it can be shown
elements are dissipative, that is, they are continuous on the same vector diagram as the voltage vector, and is
sinks for energy, for example resistance. Other circuit given by the equation
elements may be alternately sources and sinks, for
Em
example capacitance and inductance. The elements of a i= sin (wt + δ − φ )
• 3• circuit are connected together to form a network having Z …Equation 3.9
Fundamental Theor y
Ebn are negative voltage rises. In the diagrammatic
3.4.2 Sign Conventions method their direction of action is simply indicated by an
— —
In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often arrow, whereas in the double suffix method, Ean and Ebn
necessary to refer to the 'potential difference' existing indicate that there is a potential rise in directions na and nb.
between two points in the circuit. Since wherever such Figure 3.4 Methods or representing a circuit
a potential difference exists, current will flow and energy
will either be transferred or absorbed, it is obviously
necessary to define a potential difference in more exact Z3
terms. For this reason, the terms voltage rise and voltage I
drop are used to define more accurately the nature of the Z1 Z2
potential difference.
E1 E2
Voltage rise is a rise in potential measured in the
direction of current flow between two points in a circuit. • 3•
Voltage drop is the converse. A circuit element with a
E1-E2=(Z1+Z2+Z3)I
voltage rise across it acts as a source of energy. A circuit
(a) Diagrammatic
element with a voltage drop across it acts as a sink of
energy. Voltage sources are usually active circuit a
Zab
b
elements, while sinks are usually passive circuit Iab
elements. The positive direction of energy flow is from Zan Zbn
sources to sinks.
Ean Ebn
Kirchhoff's first law states that the sum of the driving
voltages must equal the sum of the passive voltages in a
closed loop. This is illustrated by the fundamental n
equation of an electric circuit: Ean-Ebn=(Zan+Zab+Zbn)Iab
(b) Double suffix
Ldi 1
dt C ∫
iR + + idt = e …Equation 3.12
Figure 3.4 Methods of representing a circuit
Figure 3.4: Circuit representation methods
where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are
voltage drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in
c. transmission line and cable constants are given in 1. impedances are the same referred to either side of
ohms/km a transformer if the ratio of base voltages on the
two sides of a transformer is equal to the
Before any system calculations can take place, the transformer turns ratio
system parameters must be referred to 'base quantities'
and represented as a unified system of impedances in 2. confusion caused by the introduction of powers of
either ohmic, percentage, or per unit values. 100 in percentage calculations is avoided
Fundamental Theor y
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally, 3. by a suitable choice of bases, the magnitudes of
they are given in terms of the three-phase power in MVA the data and results are kept within a predictable
and the line voltage in kV. The base impedance resulting range, and hence errors in data and computations
from the above base quantities is: are easier to spot
Most power system studies are carried out using
Zb =
(kV )
2
Right selection
where MVAb = base MVA 11.8kV 141kV 141 x 11=11.7kV
132
kVb = base kV
Simple transposition of the above formulae will refer the Figure 3.6: Selection of base voltages
ohmic value of impedance to the per unit or percentage
values and base quantities. Figure 3.6: Selection of base voltages
Having chosen base quantities of suitable magnitude all
—
voltage, find the percentage impedances to new base proportional to the potential difference V appearing
— ——
quantities. across the branch, that is, V = I Z .
12.5 × × = 20.1% The algebraic sum of all the driving voltages in any
75 (132 )2 closed path (or mesh) in a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the passive voltages (products of the
• 3• NOTE: The base voltages of the generator and circuits
impedances and the currents) in the components
are 11kV and 145kV respectively, that is, the turns
ratio of the transformer. The corresponding per unit branches, that is:
values can be found by dividing by 100, and the ohmic
value can be found by using Equation 3.19. ∑ E = ∑Z I
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a
Figure 3.7 closed loop is zero.
T1
G1
132kV 3.6.2 Circuit Theorems
overhead
lines From the above network laws, many theorems have been
G2
derived for the rationalisation of networks, either to
T2 reach a quick, simple, solution to a problem or to
represent a complicated circuit by an equivalent. These
theorems are divided into two classes: those concerned
Figure 3.7: Section of a power system with the general properties of networks and those
Fundamental Theor y
Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or
star impedance equivalent without disturbing the N
external network. The formulae relating the replacement
of a delta network by the equivalent star network is as Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
follows (Figure 3.8):
— — — — — —
Zco = Z13 Z23 / (Z12 + Z13 + Z23)
Z AO Z NO
and so on. Z AN = Z AO + Z NO +
Z BO
Zao O Zbo Z12 0.75 ×18.85
a b 1 2 = 0.75 +18.85 +
0.45
Zco Z13 Z23 = 51 ohms
c
3
• 3•
Z BO Z NO
(a) Star network (b) Delta network Z BN = Z BO + Z NO +
Z AO
Figure 3.8:Star-Delta
Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network
network reduction
transformation
0.45 ×18.85
Figure 3.8: Star-Delta network transformation
= 0.45 +18.85 +
The impedance of a delta network corresponding to and 0.75
replacing any star network is: =30.6 ohms
— —
— — — Zao Zbo
Z12 = Zao + Zbo + ————————
—
Zco Z AO Z BO
Z AN = Z AO + Z BO +
and so on. Z NO
= 1.2 ohms (since ZNO>>> ZAOZBO)
Figure 3.10
0.4 x 30.6
Ω Correct circuit reduction must take account of this
0.4Ω 31
B B coupling.
I
N N P Zab Q
(b) Reduction of right active mesh Ib
Zbb
Figure
Figure 3.11:3.11: Reduction
Reduction of active
of active meshes: Thévenin's Theorem
meshes:
(a) Actual circuit
Thévenin's Theorem
0.97E' 0.99E''
Three cases are of interest. These are:
a. two branches connected together at their nodes
b. two branches connected together at one node only
N
c. two branches that remain unconnected
Figure 3.12:3.12:
Figure Reduction of typical
Reduction of typical power system network
power system network
Fundamental Theor y
I1=Y11V1+Y12V2
V Zaa Zbb − Zab2
Z= = I2=Y21V1+Y22V2
I Zaa + Zbb − 2 Zab …Equation 3.21
where Z12=Z21 and Y12=Y21 , if the network is
(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are
assumed to be reciprocal. Further, by solving the
equal, the usual case, then:
above equations it can be shown that:
1
Z=
2
(Zaa + Zab ) …Equation 3.22 Y11 = Z22 ∆
(Figure 3.13(c)). Y22 = Z11 ∆
Y12 = Z12 ∆
b. consider the circuit in Figure 3.14(a).
∆ = Z11Z22 − Z122 …Equation 3.24
Za=Zaa-Zab Z11
Z11
A 1 1' 1 1'
Z12’ = -1/Y12
Z12 = Z1’ 2’ = -Z21’ = -Z12’
Hence:
Z Z −Z 2
Z ' = 11 22 2 12
= Z11
Z11’ 11 Z22Z-Z 22 12
_______________
Z22 2
Z11Z22 − Z12
=' Z=11
Z22’Z22 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z
Z1111
=Z ZZ11 Z 22 −2Z
2
Z12Z12 = 11 22-Z 1212
_______________
ZZ1212
…Equation 3.25
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is
• 3• shown in Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows
from the fact that the self-impedance Z11
of any circuit
Z11
1 is independent
1' of all other circuits. Therefore,
1 1' it
need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it
Z12 Z12 Z12 Z21 Z12
is lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So
2 putting Z11 and
2' Z22 equal2 to zero in Equation 2'3.25,
Z22 Z22
(a) Actual circuit (b) Equivalent circuit
Z11
1 1 1'
Z12
Z11 Z12 Z12 -Z12 -Z12
Z12
C 2 2'
Z12
(c) Equivalent with all (d) Equivalent circuit
nodes commoned
except 1
Introduction 4.1
References 4.7
• 4 • Fault Calculations
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A power system is normally treated as a balanced
symmetrical three-phase network. When a fault occurs,
the symmetry is normally upset, resulting in unbalanced
currents and voltages appearing in the network. The only
exception is the three-phase fault, which, because it
involves all three phases equally at the same location, is
described as a symmetrical fault. By using symmetrical
component analysis and replacing the normal system
sources by a source at the fault location, it is possible to
analyse these fault conditions.
For the correct application of protection equipment, it is
essential to know the fault current distribution
throughout the system and the voltages in different
parts of the system due to the fault. Further, boundary
values of current at any relaying point must be known if
the fault is to be cleared with discrimination. The
information normally required for each kind of fault at
each relaying point is:
i. maximum fault current
ii. minimum fault current
iii. maximum through fault current
To obtain the above information, the limits of stable
generation and possible operating conditions, including
the method of system earthing, must be known. Faults
are always assumed to be through zero fault impedance.
4 . 2 T H R E E - P H A S E F A U LT C A L C U L AT I O N S
Three-phase faults are unique in that they are balanced,
that is, symmetrical in the three phases, and can be
calculated from the single-phase impedance diagram
and the operating conditions existing prior to the fault.
A fault condition is a sudden abnormal alteration to the
normal circuit arrangement. The circuit quantities,
current and voltage, will alter, and the circuit will pass
through a transient state to a steady state. In the
transient state, the initial magnitude of the fault current
will depend upon the point on the voltage wave at which
the fault occurs. The decay of the transient condition,
until it merges into steady state, is a function of the
parameters of the circuit elements. The transient current
may be regarded as a d.c. exponential current
E' E''
V
Figure 4.2: Reduction of typical
power system network
— — —
V = 0.97 E’ - 1.55 I
N
1.2 × 2.5
V = 0.99 E '' + + 0.39 I
2.5 + 1.2
Figure 4.1: Network with fault at F — —
For practical working conditions, E’ 〉〉〉1.55 I and
— — — — —
— E’’ 〉〉〉1.207 I . Hence E’≅ E’’≅ V.
The voltage V at F before fault inception is: — —
— — —— — —— Replacing the driving voltages E’ and E’’ by the load
• 4• V = E - I Z‘ = E’’ + I Z’’ —
voltage V between A and N modifies the circuit as shown
— in Figure 4.3(a).
After the fault the voltage V is zero. Hence, the change
—
in voltage is - V . Because of the fault, the change in the The node A is the junction of three branches. In practice,
current flowing into the network from F is: the node would be a busbar, and the branches are
∆I = −
V
= −V
Z1' + Z1'' ( ) feeders radiating from the bus via circuit breakers, as
shown in Figure 4.3(b). There are two possible locations
Z1 Z1' Z1'' for a fault at A; the busbar side of the breakers or the
and, since no current was flowing into the network from line side of the breakers. In this example, it is assumed
F prior to the fault, the fault current flowing from the that the fault is at X, and it is required to calculate the
network into the fault is: current flowing from the bus to X.
If = −∆I = V
( Z1' + Z1'' ) The network viewed from AN has a driving point
impedance |Z1| = 0.68 ohms.
Z1' Z1''
The current in the fault is V
By applying the principle of superposition, the load Z1 .
currents circulating in the system prior to the fault may
A
The circuit of Figure 4.4 (b) has been included because
X
the Protection Engineer is interested in these equivalent
parameters when applying certain types of protection
relay.
(b) Typical physical arrangement of node A with a fault shown at X
4 . 3 S Y M M E T R I C A L C O M P O N E N T A N A LY S I S
Figure 4.3: Network with fault at node A OF A THREE-PHASE NETWORK
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
The Protection Engineer is interested in a wider variety of
1.55Ω A 1.21Ω faults than just a three-phase fault. The most common
fault is a single-phase to earth fault, which, in LV
systems, can produce a higher fault current than a three-
V phase fault. Similarly, because protection is expected to
operate correctly for all types of fault, it may be
necessary to consider the fault currents due to many
N
(a) Impedance viewed from node A
different types of fault. Since the three-phase fault is
unique in being a balanced fault, a method of analysis
that is applicable to unbalanced faults is required. It can
1.1Ω X 1.79Ω be shown [4.2] that, by applying the 'Principle of
Superposition', any general three-phase system of
vectors may be replaced by three sets of balanced • 4•
V (symmetrical) vectors; two sets are three-phase but
having opposite phase rotation and one set is co-phasal.
These vector sets are described as the positive, negative
N
(b) Equivalent impedances viewed from node X
and zero sequence sets respectively.
The equations between phase and sequence voltages are
Figure 4.4: Impedances viewed from fault given below:
of unbalanced vectors voltages in the system due to the fault are greatest at the
source, as shown in the gradient diagram, Figure 4.6(b).
When a fault occurs in a power system, the phase
impedances are no longer identical (except in the case of X
three-phase faults) and the resulting currents and Figure 4.6 ZS1 ∆Z '1 F Z ''1
voltages are unbalanced, the point of greatest unbalance
I '1 I ''1
being at the fault point. It has been shown in Chapter 3
Z '1 I1
that the fault may be studied by short-circuiting all
normal driving voltages in the system and replacing the E' V1 E ''
fault connection by a source whose driving voltage is
equal to the pre-fault voltage at the fault point. Hence, N
(a) System diagram
the system impedances remain symmetrical, viewed from
• 4• the fault, and the fault point may now be regarded as the N
I '1
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
X
a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)
V2
V2 + I'2∆Z'1 Ib = 0
N Ic = 0
(b) Gradient diagram
V a = 0 …Equation 4.7
Figure 4.7: Fault at F:
Negative sequence diagram b. Phase-phase (B-C)
Ia = 0
4.3.3 Zero Sequence Network
The zero sequence current and voltage relationships Ib = −Ic
during a fault condition are the same as those in the V b = V c …Equation 4.8 • 4•
negative sequence network. Hence:
— —— c. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
V0 = - I0 Z0 …Equation 4.6
Ia = 0
Also, the zero sequence diagram is that of Figure 4.7,
— —
substituting I0 for I2 , and so on. Vb = 0
The currents and voltages in the zero sequence network V c = 0 …Equation 4.9
are co-phasal, that is, all the same phase. For zero
sequence currents to flow in a system there must be a d. Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)
return connection through either a neutral conductor or
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
the general mass of earth. Note must be taken of this
fact when determining zero sequence equivalent circuits. Va = Vb
— — —
Further, in general Z1 ≠ Z0 and the value of Z0 varies
Vb = Vc …Equation 4.10
according to the type of plant, the winding arrangement
and the method of earthing. It should be noted from the above that for any type of
fault there are three equations that define the fault
conditions.
Consider a fault defined by Equations 4.7 and by Figure Again, from Equation 4.9 and Equations 4.1 and 4.2:
4.8(a). Converting Equations 4.7 into sequence — — —
I1 = -( I2 + Io ) …Equation 4.18
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
V0 = V a
I1
P1
I2
P2
I0
P0
V1 = V 2 = 0 …Equation 4.23 N1 +ve
Sequence ν1
N2 -ve
Sequence ν2
N0 Zero
Sequence ν0
and Network Q1 Network Q2 Network Q0
—
I0 = 0 …Equation 4.24
— (b) Equivalent circuit
Substituting V2 = 0 in Equation 4.5 gives:
—
I2 = 0 …Equation 4.25 Figure 4.12: Open circuit on phase A
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
—
and substituting V1 = 0 in Equation 4.4:
— —— 4.4.6 Cross-country Faults
0 = V1 - I1 Z1
A cross-country fault is one where there are two faults
or
— —— affecting the same circuit, but in different locations and
V = I1 Z1 …Equation 4.26
— possibly involving different phases. Figure 4.13(a)
Further, since from Equation 4.24 Io = 0 , it follows from illustrates this.
— —
Equation 4.6 that Vo is zero when Zo is finite. The
equivalent sequence connections for a three-phase fault The constraints expressed in terms of sequence
are shown in Figure 4.11. quantities are as follows:
a) At point F
A F Va
F1 F2 F0 I b + I c = 0
Vb 4•
B
Vc Z1 Z2 Z0 Va = 0 …Equation 4.29
•
C
N2 N0
Figure 4.11 I Ib Ia N1 V Therefore:
c
I a1 = I a 2 = I a 0
Ia+Ib+Ic=0
Va+Vb+Vc=0 V a1 + V a 2 + V a 0 = 0 …Equation 4.30
a-e b-e
Ia1 I'a1
F1 F'1
Va1 V'a1
N1 N'1
2
a I'a2
F2 Ia2 I'a2 F'2 1 2
a
2
a V'a2
Va2 V'a2
N2 N'2
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
aI'a0
F0 Ia0 I'a0 F'0 1
a
aV'a0
Va0 V'a0
N0 N'0
• 4• ’ = aI a2
a2 I a1 ’ = I ’a0 4.5 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
IN A SYSTEM DUE TO A FAULT
or
’ = a2I a2
I a1 ’ = aI ’a0 …Equation 4.33 Practical fault calculations involve the examination of
the effect of a fault in branches of network other than
and, for the voltages the faulted branch, so that protection can be applied
V ’b1 + V ’b2 +V ’b0 = 0 correctly to isolate the section of the system directly
involved in the fault. It is therefore not enough to
Converting:
calculate the fault current in the fault itself; the fault
’ + aV a2
a2V a1 ’ +V ’a0 = 0 current distribution must also be established. Further,
or abnormal voltage stresses may appear in a system
because of a fault, and these may affect the operation of
’ + a2V a2
V a1 ’ + aV ’a0 = 0 …Equation 4.34 the protection. Knowledge of current and voltage
The fault constraints involve phase shifted sequence distribution in a network due to a fault is essential for
quantities. To construct the appropriate sequence the application of protection.
networks, it is necessary to introduce phase-shifting The approach to network fault studies for assessing the
transformers to couple the sequence networks. This application of protection equipment may be summarised as
is shown in Figure 4.13(b). follows:
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
4.5.1 Current Distribution
I ' b = a 2 C1 I1
The phase current in any branch of a network is
determined from the sequence current distribution in the I ' c = aC1 I1
…Equation 4.38
equivalent circuit of the fault. The sequence currents are
As an example of current distribution technique, consider
expressed in per unit terms of the sequence current in
the system in Figure 4.14(a). The equivalent sequence
the fault branch.
networks are given in Figures 4.14(b) and (c), together
In power system calculations, the positive and negative with typical values of impedances. A fault is assumed at
sequence impedances are normally equal. Thus, the A and it is desired to find the currents in branch OB due
division of sequence currents in the two networks will to the fault. In each network, the distribution factors are
also be identical. given for each branch, with the current in the fault
The impedance values and configuration of the zero branch taken as 1.0p.u. From the diagram, the zero
sequence network are usually different from those of the sequence distribution factor Co in branch OB is 0.112 • 4•
positive and negative sequence networks, so the zero and the positive sequence factor C1 is 0.373. For an
sequence current distribution is calculated separately. earth fault at A the phase currents in branch OB from
Equation 4.35 are:
If Co and C1 are described as the zero and positive — —
Ia = (0.746 + 0.112) I0
sequence distribution factors then the actual current in —
a sequence branch is given by multiplying the actual = 0.858 I0
and
current in the sequence fault branch by the appropriate — — —
— — — I ’b = I ’c = -(0.373 + 0.112) I0
distribution factor. For this reason, if I1 , I2 and I0 are
—
sequence currents in an arbitrary branch of a network = -0.261 I0
due to a fault at some point in the network, then the By using network reduction methods and assuming that
phase currents in that branch may be expressed in terms all impedances are reactive, it can be shown that
of the distribution constants and the sequence currents — —
Z1 = Z0 = j0.68 ohms.
in the fault. These are given below for the various
common shunt faults, using Equation 4.1 and the Therefore, from Equation 4.14, the current in fault
appropriate fault equations: V
branch I a =
0.68
j7.5Ω 0.08 n
j0.9Ω j0.4Ω V1' = V − I1 Z1 − ∑ C1 n ∆Z1 n
A
j2.6Ω 0 j1.6Ω
B
1
1.0 0.165 0.112
0.755 0.192 n
V 2 ' = − I 2 Z1 − ∑ C1 n ∆Z1 n
j4.8Ω
0.053
1
(b) Zero sequence network
n
V0 ' = − I 0 Z 0 − ∑ C 0 n ∆Z 0 n
j2.5Ω 0.183 1 …Equation 4.39
j1.6Ω j0.4Ω
A B
j0.75Ω 0 j0.45Ω
1.0 0.395 0.373
Using the above equation, the fault voltages at bus B in
0.422 j18.85Ω 0.556 the previous example can be found.
0.022 From the positive sequence distribution diagram Figure
(c) Positive and negative sequence networks 4.8(c):
[ }]
—
—
I ’a = 26.8∠ -90° A {
V ' 0 = I 0 Z 0 − j (0.165 × 2.6 ) + (0.112 × 1.6 )
I ’b = I ’c =8.15∠ -90° A
The vector diagram for the above fault condition is [
= I 0 Z 0 − j 0.608 ]
shown in Figure 4.15. — — —
For earth faults, at the fault I1 = I2 = I0 = j31.2A, when
—
|V | = 63.5 volts and is taken as the reference vector.
— —
Further, Z1 = Z0 = j0.68 ohms.
Figure 4.15
• 4• V 'c =61.5-116.4° Hence:
—
V’1 = 63.5 - (0.216 x 31.2)
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
Under normal system operation there is a capacitance — —
4.6.2 System Z0 / Z1 Ratio
between the phases and between phase and earth; these — —
capacitances may be regarded as being symmetrical and The system Z0 / Z1 ratio is defined as the ratio of zero
distributed uniformly through the system. So even when sequence and positive sequence impedances viewed from
(a) above is satisfied, if the driving voltages are the fault; it is a variable ratio, dependent upon the
symmetrical the vector sum of the currents will equate method of earthing, fault position and system operating
to zero and no current will flow between any two earth arrangement.
points in the system. When a fault to earth occurs in a When assessing the distribution of residual quantities
system an unbalance results in condition (b) being through a system, it is convenient to use the fault point
satisfied. From the definitions given above it follows as the reference as it is the point of injection of
that residual currents and voltages are the vector sum of unbalanced quantities into the system. The residual
phase currents and phase voltages respectively. voltage is measured in relation to the normal phase-
Hence: neutral system voltage and the residual current is • 4•
compared with the three-phase fault current at the fault
I R = Ia + Ib + Ic point. It can be shown [4.4/4.5] that the character of
these quantities can be expressed in terms of the system
and — —
Z0 / Z1 ratio.
V R = V ae + V be + V ce …Equation 4.40
The positive sequence impedance of a system is mainly
Also, from Equations 4.2: reactive, whereas the zero sequence impedance being
affected by the method of earthing may contain both
I R = 3 I 0 resistive and reactive components of comparable
— —
V R = 3 V0 …Equation 4.41 magnitude. Thus the express of the Z0 / Z1 ratio
approximates to:
It should be further noted that:
Z0 X R
V ae = V an + V ne = 0 − j 0
Z1 X1 X1
V be = V bn + V ne …Equation 4.44
V
I3φ =
Z1 1.5
Thus:
1.0 Residual voltage for
Double-Phase-Earth fault
IR 3
=
(2 + K )
…Equation 4.45
I3φ 0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 •
3 Z1
I R = 3I0 = − I1 Z0
Z1 + Z 0 K =
Z1
I1 =
(
V Z1 + Z 0 ) Figure 4.17: Variation of residual quantities
at fault point
2 Z1 Z 0 + Z12
Hence: 4.6.3 Variation of Residual Quantities
The variation of residual quantities in a system due to
3 V Z1 3V
IR = − = − different earth arrangements can be most readily
2 Z1 Z 0 + Z12 (
2 K + 1 Z1 ) understood by using vector diagrams. Three examples
have been chosen, namely solid fault-isolated neutral,
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
n a(F)
The curves in Figure 4.17 illustrate the variation of the VbF VcF
— —
above residual quantities with the Z0 / Z1 ratio. The Iab
-VbF=Eab VR
residual current in any part of the system can be b
obtained by multiplying the current from the curve by (b) Vector diagram (c) Residual voltage diagram
the appropriate zero sequence distribution factor.
Similarly, the residual voltage is calculated by Figure 4.18: Solid fault-isolated neutral
subtracting from the voltage curve three times the zero
sequence voltage drop between the measuring point in
the system and the fault.
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
Ia X ZL F
A At relaying point X:
Iab — — — —
B VR = VXn + Vbn + Vcn
Iac
C
Ian
Iab Iab
Ia X
ZS IF ZL F
A
B
C
(a) Circuit diagram
IF
Iac IF
c
-Vcf
(a) Circuit diagram • 4•
c
VR VFn VR VXn
VcX VcF
Figure 4.19: Solid fault-resistance neutral Figure 4.20: Resistance fault-solid neutral
4.7 REFERENCES
4.1 Circuit Analysis of A.C. Power Systems, Volume I.
Edith Clarke. John Wiley & Sons.
4.2 Method of Symmetrical Co-ordinates Applied to
the Solution of Polyphase Networks. C.L.
Fortescue. Trans. A.I.E.E.,Vol. 37, Part II, 1918, pp
1027-40.
4.3 Power System Analysis. J.R. Mortlock and M.W.
Humphrey Davies. Chapman and Hall.
4.4 Neutral Groundings. R Willheim and M. Waters,
Elsevier.
4.5 Fault Calculations. F.H.W. Lackey, Oliver & Boyd.
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
• 4•
Introduction 5.1
Synchronous machines 5.2
Armature reaction 5.3
Steady state theory 5.4
Salient pole rotor 5.5
Transient analysis 5.6
Asymmetry 5.7
Machine reactances 5.8
Negative sequence reactance 5.9
Zero sequence reactance 5.10
Direct and quadrature axis values 5.11
Effect of saturation on machine reactances 5.12
Transformers 5.13
Transformer positive sequence equivalent circuits 5.14
Transformer zero sequence equivalent circuits 5.15
Auto-transformers 5.16
Transformer impedances 5.17
Overhead lines and cables 5.18
Calculation of series impedance 5.19
Calculation of shunt impedance 5.20
Overhead line circuits with or without earth wires 5.21
OHL equivalent circuits 5.22
Cable circuits 5.23
Overhead line and cable data 5.24
References 5.25
• 5 • Equivalent Circuits and Parameters
of Power System Plant
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of the behaviour of the principal electrical
system plant items under normal and fault conditions is
a prerequisite for the proper application of protection.
This chapter summarises basic synchronous machine,
transformer and transmission line theory and gives
equivalent circuits and parameters so that a fault study
can be successfully completed before the selection and
application of the protection systems described in later
chapters. Only what might be referred to as 'traditional'
synchronous machine theory is covered, as that is all that
calculations for fault level studies generally require.
Readers interested in more advanced models of
synchronous machines are referred to the numerous
papers on the subject, of which reference [5.1] is a good
starting point.
Power system plant may be divided into two broad
groups - static and rotating.
The modelling of static plant for fault level calculations
provides few difficulties, as plant parameters generally
do not change during the period of interest following
fault inception. The problem in modelling rotating plant
is that the parameters change depending on the
response to a change in power system conditions.
• 5•
IXad IX
Eo d
Similarly, for operation at zero leading power factor, the IXL
EL
stator m.m.f. would directly assist the rotor m.m.f. This V
m.m.f. arising from current flowing in the stator is known
as 'armature reaction'. I
(c)
5 . 5 S A L I E N T P O L E R OTO R IqXq
IdXd
The preceding theory is limited to the cylindrical rotor
EO
generator. The basic assumption that the air-gap is
IXd
uniform is very obviously not valid when a salient pole
rotor is being considered. The effect of this is that the flux E'O
• 5• V
Lag Lead
Armature
reaction M.M.F.
Flux
Flux I
Iq
Qu rature axis
rect axis poole
Id
Quadr
Dire
Pole axis
Figure 5.5: Variation of armature reaction m.m.f. Figure 5.6: Vector diagram
with pole position for salient pole machine
Eg
Id =
Xd
…Equation 5.2
Figure 5.7: Flux paths of salient pole machine
where Eg = voltage on air gap line • 5•
An important point to note now is that between the
If the stator winding is then short-circuited, the power initial and final conditions there has been a severe
factor in it will be zero. A heavy current will tend to reduction of flux. The rotor carries a highly inductive
flow, as the resulting armature reaction m.m.f. is winding which links the flux so that the rotor flux
demagnetising. This will reduce the flux and conditions linkages before the short circuit are produced by
will settle until the armature reaction nearly balances (Φ + ΦL). In practice the leakage flux is distributed over
the excitation m.m.f., the remainder maintaining a very the whole pole and all of it does not link all the winding.
much reduced flux across the air-gap which is just ΦL is an equivalent concentrated flux imagined to link all
sufficient to generate the voltage necessary to overcome the winding and of such a magnitude that the total
the stator leakage reactance (resistance neglected). This linkages are equal to those actually occurring. It is a
is the simple steady state case of a machine operating on fundamental principle that any attempt to change the
short circuit and is fully represented by the equivalent of flux linked with such a circuit will cause current to flow
Figure 5.8(a); see also Figure 5.4. in a direction that will oppose the change. In the present
case the flux is being reduced and so the induced
currents will tend to sustain it.
Eo or X’’d = XL + X’kd
Transient current I 'd =
X 'd
…Equation 5.3 and Xkd = leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
It is greater than XL, and the equivalent circuit is X’kd = effective leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
represented by Figure 5.8(b) where: It is greater than XL but less than X’d and the
corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
X ad X f
X 'd = +XL 5.8(c).
X ad + X f
Again, the duration of this phase depends upon the time
and X f is the leakage reactance of the field winding constant of the damper winding. In practice this is
approximately 0.05 seconds - very much less than the
The above equation may also be written as:
transient - hence the term 'sub-transient'.
X’d = XL + X’f
Figure 5.9 shows the envelope of the symmetrical
where X’f = effective leakage reactance of field winding component of an armature short circuit current
The flux will only be sustained at its relatively high value indicating the values described in the preceding analysis.
while the induced current flows in the field winding. As The analysis of the stator current waveform resulting
this current decays, so conditions will approach the from a sudden short circuit test is traditionally the
steady state. Consequently, the duration of this phase
will be determined by the time constant of the excitation
winding. This is usually of the order of a second or less
Current
5.7 ASYMMETRY
5 . 8 M A C H I N E R E A C TA N C E S
The exact instant at which the short circuit is applied to
the stator winding is of significance. If resistance is Table 5.1 gives values of machine reactances for salient
negligible compared with reactance, the current in a coil pole and cylindrical rotor machines typical of latest
will lag the voltage by 90°, that is, at the instant when design practice. Also included are parameters for
the voltage wave attains a maximum, any current synchronous compensators – such machines are now
flowing through would be passing through zero. If a rarely built, but significant numbers can still be found in
Generally, the leakage reactance XL is equal to the In practice an empirical method is used, based on the
effective field leakage reactance X’f, about 0.1-0.25p.u. fact that a given type of machine is capable of carrying,
The principal factor determining the value of X’f is the for short periods, an amount of heat determined by its
field leakage. This is largely beyond the control of the thermal capacity, and for a long period, a rate of heat
designer, in that other considerations are at present more input which it can dissipate continuously. Synchronous
significant than field leakage and hence take precedence machines are designed to be capable of operating
in determining the field design. continuously on an unbalanced system such that, with
XL can be varied as already outlined, and, in practice, none of the phase currents exceeding the rated current,
control of transient reactance is usually achieved by the ratio of the negative sequence current I2 to the rated
varying XL current IN does not exceed the values given in Table 5.2.
Under fault conditions, the machine shall also be capable
2
5.8.3 Sub-transient Reactance X’’d = XL + X’kd of operation with the product of I 2 and time in
IN
The sub-transient reactance determines the initial seconds (t) not exceeding the values given.
current peaks following a disturbance and in the case of
a sudden fault is of importance for selecting the breaking
capacity of associated circuit breakers. The mechanical
stresses on the machine reach maximum values that
depend on this constant. The effective damper winding
leakage reactance X’kd is largely determined by the Machine Maximum Maximum
leakage of the damper windings and control of this is Rotor Rotor Cooling Type (SN) I2/IN for (I2/IN)2t for
construction /Rating continuous operation during
only possible to a limited extent. X’kd normally has a (MVA) operation faults
value between 0.05 and 0.15 p.u. The major factor is XL motors 0.1 20
which, as indicated previously, is of the order of 0.1-0.25 generators 0.08 20
Salient indirect
• 5• p.u., and control of the sub-transient reactance is synchronous
0.1 20
normally achieved by varying XL. condensers
motors 0.08 15
It should be noted that good transient stability is direct generators 0.05 15
obtained by keeping the value of X’d low, which synchronous
0.08 15
therefore also implies a low value of X’’d. The fault rating condensers
of switchgear, etc. will therefore be relatively high. It is indirectly cooled (air) all 0.1 15
not normally possible to improve transient stability indirectly cooled (hydrogen) all 0.1 10
performance in a generator without adverse effects on Cylindrical <=350 0.08 8
351-900 Note 1 Note 2
fault levels, and vice versa. directly cooled
901-1250 Note 1 5
1251-1600 0.05 5
5 . 9 N E G AT I V E S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E I2 S -350
Note 1: Calculate as = 0.08- N
IN 3 x 104
Negative sequence currents can arise whenever there is
any unbalance present in the system. Their effect is to
set up a field rotating in the opposite direction to the
Note 2: Calculate as
()
I2 2
IN
t = 8-0.00545(SN-350)
main field generated by the rotor winding, so subjecting Table 5.2: Unbalanced operating conditions for synchronous machines
the rotor to double frequency flux pulsations. This gives (from IEC 60034-1)
c. the delta winding allows circulation of zero Impedance Z3 is the mutual impedance between the
sequence currents within the delta, thus windings, usually represented by XM, the magnetizing
preventing transmission of these from the reactance paralleled with the hysteresis and eddy current
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
secondary (star) winding into the primary circuit. loops as shown in Figure 5.10(d).
This simplifies protection considerations If the secondary of the transformers is short-circuited,
and Z3 is assumed to be large with respect to Z1 and Z2,
5.14 TRANSFORMER POSITIVE SEQUENCE then the short-circuit impedance viewed from the
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS terminals AA’ is ZT = Z1 + Z2 and the transformer can
be replaced by a two-terminal equivalent circuit as
The transformer is a relatively simple device. However, shown in Figure 5.10(e).
the equivalent circuits for fault calculations need not
necessarily be quite so simple, especially where earth The relative magnitudes of ZT and XM are of the order of
faults are concerned. The following two sections discuss 10% and 2000% respectively. ZT and XM rarely have to
the equivalent circuits of various types of transformers. be considered together, so that the transformer may be
represented either as a series impedance or as an
excitation impedance, according to the problem being
5.14.1 Two-winding Transformers studied.
The two-winding transformer has four terminals, but in A typical power transformer is illustrated in Figure 5.11.
most system problems, two-terminal or three-terminal
equivalent circuits as shown in Figure 5.10 can represent 5.14.2 Three-winding Transformers
it. In Figure 5.10(a), terminals A' and B' are assumed to
be at the same potential. Hence if the per unit self- If excitation impedance is neglected the equivalent
impedances of the windings are Z11 and Z22 respectively circuit of a three-winding transformer may be
and the mutual impedance between them Z12, the represented by a star of impedances, as shown in Figure
5.12, where P, T and S are the primary, tertiary and
secondary windings respectively. The impedance of any
A B C
A B of these branches can be determined by considering the
• 5• Z11 short-circuit impedance between pairs of windings with
E ~ Load
Z12
Z22
the third open.
A' B' C ' A' B'
Zero bus S
(a) Model of transformer (b) Equivalent circuit of model
Z1 =Z11-Z12 Z2=Z22-Z12 r1+jx1 r2+jx2
A B A B Zs
Secondary
Z3=Z12 R jXM
Zp
P Primary
A' B' A' B'
Zero bus Zero bus
(c) 'T' equivalent circuit (d) 'π' equivalent circuit Tertiary
ZT =Z1+Z2 Zt
A B
A' B' T
Zero bus
(e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c Zero bus
5.15 TRANSFORMER ZERO SEQUENCE The exceptions to the general rule of neglecting
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS magnetising impedance occur when the transformer is
star/star and either or both neutrals are earthed. In
The flow of zero sequence currents in a transformer is
these circumstances the transformer is connected to the
only possible when the transformer forms part of a
zero bus through the magnetising impedance. Where a
closed loop for uni-directional currents and ampere-turn
three-phase transformer bank is arranged without
balance is maintained between windings.
interlinking magnetic flux (that is a three-phase shell
The positive sequence equivalent circuit is still type, or three single-phase units) and provided there is a
maintained to represent the transformer, but now there path for zero sequence currents, the zero sequence
are certain conditions attached to its connection into the impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance. • 5•
external circuit. The order of excitation impedance is In the case of three-phase core type units, the zero
very much lower than for the positive sequence circuit; sequence fluxes produced by zero sequence currents can
it will be roughly between 1 and 4 per unit, but still high find a high reluctance path, the effect being to reduce
enough to be neglected in most fault studies. the zero sequence impedance to about 90% of the
The mode of connection of a transformer to the external positive sequence impedance.
circuit is determined by taking account of each winding However, in hand calculations, it is usual to ignore this
arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground. variation and consider the positive and zero sequence
If zero sequence currents can flow into and out of a impedances to be equal. It is common when using
winding, the winding terminal is connected to the software to perform fault calculations to enter a value of
external circuit (that is, link a is closed in Figure 5.13). If zero-sequence impedance in accordance with the above
zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding guidelines, if the manufacturer is unable to provide a
without flowing in the external circuit, the winding value.
terminal is connected directly to the zero bus (that is,
link b is closed in Figure 5.13). Table 5.3 gives the zero
sequence connections of some common two- and three-
winding transformer arrangements applying the above rules.
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
ZT
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a a
• 5• Zp
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
>200 by agreement
N
Z HT = Z s−t Table 5.4: Transformer impedances - IEC 60076
(1 + N ) …Equation 5.10
• 60 • Network Protection & Automation Guide
MVA Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R ratio MVA Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R ratio
MVA Primary Primary Secondary Tertiary Z% X/R MVA Primary Primary Secondary Z% X/R
kV Taps kV kV HV/LV ratio kV Taps kV HV/LV ratio
20 220 +12.5% -7.5% 6.9 - 9.9 18 95 132 ±10% 11 13.5 46
20 230 +12.5% -7.5% 6.9 - 10-14 13 140 157.5 ±10% 11.5 12.7 41
57 275 ±10% 11.8 7.2 18.2 34 141 400 ±5% 15 14.7 57
74 345 +14.4% -10% 96 12 8.9 25 151 236 ±5% 15 13.6 47
79.2 220 +10% -15% 11.6 11 18.9 35 167 145 +7.5% -16.5% 15 25.7 71
120 275 +10% -15% 34.5 - 22.5 63 180 289 ±5% 16 13.4 34
125 230 ±16.8% 66 - 13.1 52 180 132 ±10% 15 13.8 40
125 230 not known 150 - 10-14 22 247 432 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 15.2 61
180 275 ±15% 66 13 22.2 38 250 300 +11.2% -17.6% 15 28.6 70
255 230 +10% 16.5 - 14.8 43 290 420 ±10% 15 15.7 43
Table 5.6: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers 307 432 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 15.3 67
– Primary voltage >200kV 346 435 +5% -15% 17.5 16.4 81
420 432 +5.55% -14.45% 22 16 87
437.8 144.1 +10.8% -21.6% 21 14.6 50
450 132 ±10% 19 14 49
600 420 ±11.25% 21 16.2 74
MVA Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Tertiary Z% X/R
kV Taps kV Taps kV HV/LV ratio 716 525 ±10% 19 15.7 61
100 66 - 33 - - 10.7 28 721 362 +6.25% -13.75% 22 15.2 83 • 5•
180 275 - 132 ±15% 13 15.5 55 736 245 +7% -13% 22 15.5 73
240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.2 83 900 525 +7% -13% 23 15.7 67
240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 51 (a) Three-phase units
240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 61
MVA/ Primary Primary Secondary Z% X/R
250 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 10-13 50 phase kV Taps kV HV/LV ratio
500 400 - 132 +0% -15% 22 14.3 51 -
266.7 432/√3 +6.67% -13.33% 23.5 15.8 92
750 400 - 275 - 13 12.1 90 -
266.7 432/√3 +6.6% -13.4% 23.5 15.7 79
1000 400 - 275 - 13 15.8 89 -
277 515/√3 ±5% 22 16.9 105
1000 400 - 275 - 33 17.0 91 -
375 525/√3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 15 118
333.3 500√3− ±10% 230√3− - 22 18.2 101 375
-
420/√3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 15.1 112
(b) Single-phase units
Table 5.8: Autotransformer data
Table 5.7: Impedances of generator transformers
D
distributed over the whole length of the circuit and not
lumped, as in the equivalent circuits. where:
With short lines it is usually possible to ignore the shunt R = conductor a.c. resistance (ohms/km)
admittance, which greatly simplifies calculations, but on dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor
longer lines it must be included. Another simplification D = spacing between the parallel conductors
that can be made is that of assuming the conductor
f = system frequency
configuration to be symmetrical. The self-impedance of
each conductor becomes Zp , and the mutual impedance De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path
= 216√p/f where p is earth resistivity (ohms/cm3)
R X R X
The above formulae give the impedances in ohms/km. It
should be noted that the last terms in Equation 5.11 are
G B G B very similar to the classical inductance formulae for long
straight conductors.
Series impedance Z = R + jX per unit length
Shunt admittance Y = G + jB per unit length The geometric means radius (GMR) of a conductor is an
(a) Actual transmission circuit equivalent radius that allows the inductance formula to
be reduced to a single term. It arises because the
sinh ZY inductance of a solid conductor is a function of the
Z
ZY internal flux linkages in addition to those external to it.
If the original conductor can be replaced by an
Y tanh ZY 2 tanh ZY 2 equivalent that is a hollow cylinder with infinitesimally
Y
2 ZY 2 2 ZY 2 thin walls, the current is confined to the surface of the
conductor, and there can be no internal flux. The
(b) π Equivalent geometric mean radius is the radius of the equivalent
• 5• conductor. If the original conductor is a solid cylinder
Z tanh ZY 2 Z tanh ZY 2 having a radius r its equivalent has a radius of 0.779r.
2 ZY 2 2 ZY 2 It can be shown that the sequence impedances for a
symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
sinh ZY
Y
ZY Z1 = Z2 = Z p − Zm
(c) T Equivalent Zo = Z p + 2 Zm
…Equation 5.12
Note: Z and Y in (b) and (c) are the total series where Zp and Zm are given by Equation 5.11.
impedance and shunt admittance respectively. Substituting Equation 5.11 in Equation 5.12 gives:
Z=(R+jX)L and Y=(G+jB)L where L is the circuit length.
D
sinh ZY
=1+
ZY
+
Z2Y2
+
Z3Y3
+ ... Z1 = Z2 = R + j0.0029 f log10
ZY 6 120 5040 dc
tanh ZY ZY Z2Y2 17Z3Y3 De
= 1- + + + ... Zo = R +0.00296 f + j0.00869 f log10
ZY 12 120 20160 3
dcD 2
Figure 5.15: Transmission circuit equivalents …Equation 5.13
5 . 2 0 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S H U N T I M P E D A N C E
It can be shown that the potential of a conductor a
above ground due to its own charge qa and a charge -qa
on its image is: a'
where h is the height above ground of the conductor and to the conductor spacing, which is the case with overhead
r is the radius of the conductor, as shown in Figure 5.16. lines, 2h=D’. From Equation 5.12, the sequence
impedances of a symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
Similarly, it can be shown that the potential of a
conductor a due to a charge qb on a neighbouring D
Z1 = Z2 = − j0.132 log10
conductor b and the charge -qb on its image is: r
D' D'
Va' =2 qbloge Zo = − j0.396 log10
D …Equation 5.16
3
rD 2 …Equation 5.18
where D is the spacing between conductors a and b and It should be noted that the logarithmic terms above are
D’ is the spacing between conductor b and the image of similar to those in Equation 5.13 except that r is the
conductor a as shown in Figure 5.14. actual radius of the conductors and D’ is the spacing • 5•
between the conductors and their images.
Since the capacitance C=q/V and the capacitive
reactance Xc =1/ωC, it follows that the self and mutual Again, where the conductors are not symmetrically
capacitive reactance of the conductor system in Figure spaced but transposed, Equation 5.18 can be re-written
5.16 can be obtained directly from Equations 5.15 and making use of the geometric mean distance between
conductors, √ABC, and giving the distance of each
3
5.16. Further, as leakage can usually be neglected, the
self and mutual shunt impedances Z’p and Z’m in conductor above ground, that is, ha , h2 , hc , as follows:
megohm-km at a system frequency of 50Hz are:
ABC
3
Z1 = Z2 = − j0.132 log10
2h r
Z'p = − j0.132 log10
r 8 ha hbhb
Z0 = − j0.132 log10
Zm = − j0.132 log10
' D' r 3 A 2 B 2 C 2 …Equation 5.19
D …Equation 5.17
A B C 0.50
a a
A A
6.0
A=3.5m
U n (kV) a (m)
R2
3.3 0.55
6.6 0.67 R1
11 0.8
22
W
1
33 1.25 X
Y
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
1.75 - K
2.00 - N c
3.30 a 4.00
6.6 2
2.50 3.30 b
2
a d 3.50
2.50 a 2.8 2.8
2.70
a b c d a U n (kV) a (m)
3.5 3.5
3.50
63 kV(K) 3.0 3.7 3.0 1.4
Un(kV) a (m)
90 kV (N) 3.1 3.8 3.8 1.85 63 1.40
R1 R1 66 1.40
63 1.4
Y Y
• 5•
3.4 6.20
6.60 2 a
2.75 4.1 3.9 3.9
2
b
3.7 5.80
2.75
3.10 a
4.2 4.2
a=3.7m
b=4.6m 8.0 8.0
R1 R1
W W
Y Y
12.2 2.5
d
1.75 5.0
5.0 7.5 5.20
a
p
6.0
16.4 b
7.50
6.0
c
n1 n2
a b c d n n1 n2 p
n
R1 R2 A 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8
9.5 5.0 4.5 6.3
B 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8
W R1 9.8 5.0 4.8 6.3
C 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8
X W
9.74 25.1
8.5
7.0
2.40 9.2 6.7 6.7
11.3 8.5
X X
7.5 20.0
0 0
10.0 • 5•
12.0
8.0 0 0 0
5.0
9.5
9.5 8.0
9.5 12.0
16.0
37.0
23.0
where:
De
Zaa = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
dc
De
Zab = 0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
D
and so on.
The equation required for the calculation of shunt
voltage drops is identical to Equation 5.20 in form,
except that primes must be included, the impedances
being derived from Equation 5.17.
Figure 5.18: Typical overhead line tower
5 . 2 4 O V E R H E A D L I N E A N D C A B L E D ATA
The following tables contain typical data on overhead
Number of Layers Number of Al Strands GMR
lines and cables that can be used in conjunction with the
Is
304.3 37 3.23 22.63 0.060 Dove 26 3.72 7 2.89 282.0 45.9 327.9 23.55 0.103
329.3 61 2.62 23.60 0.056 Teal 30 3.61 19 2.16 306.6 69.6 376.2 25.24 0.095
354.7 61 2.72 24.49 0.052 Swift 36 3.38 1 3.38 322.3 9.0 331.2 23.62 0.089
380.0 61 2.82 25.35 0.048
Tern 45 3.38 7 2.25 402.8 27.8 430.7 27.03 0.072
405.3 61 2.91 26.19 0.045
456.0 61 3.09 27.79 0.040 Canary 54 3.28 7 3.28 456.1 59.1 515.2 29.52 0.064
506.7 61 3.25 29.26 0.036 Curlew 54 3.52 7 3.52 523.7 68.1 591.8 31.68 0.055
(a) ASTM Standards Finch 54 3.65 19 2.29 565.0 78.3 643.3 33.35 0.051
Bittern 45 4.27 7 2.85 644.5 44.7 689.2 34.17 0.045
Overall RDC Falcon 54 4.36 19 2.62 805.7 102.4 908.1 39.26 0.036
Stranding Wire Diameter Diameter (20°C)
area (mm2) (mm) (mm) (Ohm/km) Kiwi 72 4.41 7 2.94 1100.0 47.5 1147.5 44.07 0.027
11.0 1 3.73 3.25 1.617 (a) to ASTM B232
13.0 1 4.06 4.06 1.365
14.0 1 4.22 4.22 1.269
14.5 7 1.63 4.88 1.231 Stranding and wire Sectional area
Total Approx. RDC
16.1 1 4.52 4.52 1.103 Designation diameter (mm) (mm2) area overall at 20 °C
18.9 1 4.90 4.90 0.938 (mm ) diameter (Ohm/km)
2
Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel (mm) ASTM B-399 - 37 3.962 456.2 27.7 0.073
CANNA 59.7 12 2 7 2 37.7 22.0 59.7 10 0.765 ASTM B-399 - 37 4.176 506.8 29.2 0.066
CANNA 75.5 12 2.25 7 2.25 47.7 27.8 75.5 11.25 0.604 (a) ASTM
CANNA 93.3 12 2.5 7 2.5 58.9 34.4 93.3 12.5 0.489
No. Wire Sectional Overall RDC
CANNA 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306
Standard Designation of Al diameter area diameter at 20°C
CROCUS 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306 Strands (mm) (mm2) (mm) (Ohm/km)
CANNA 147.1 30 2.25 7 2.25 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.243
BS 3242 Box 7 1.85 18.8 5.6 1.750
CROCUS 181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.197
BS 3242 Acacia 7 2.08 23.8 6.2 1.384
CROCUS 228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.157
BS 3242 Almond 7 2.34 30.1 7.0 1.094
CROCUS 297 36 2.8 19 2.25 221.7 75.5 297.2 22.45 0.131
BS 3242 Cedar 7 2.54 35.5 7.6 0.928
CANNA 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124
BS 3242 Fir 7 2.95 47.8 8.9 0.688
CROCUS 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124
BS 3242 Hazel 7 3.3 59.9 9.9 0.550
CROCUS 412 32 3.6 19 2.4 325.7 86.0 411.7 26.4 0.089
BS 3242 Pine 7 3.61 71.6 10.8 0.460
CROCUS 612 66 3.13 19 2.65 507.8 104.8 612.6 32.03 0.057
BS 3242 Willow 7 4.04 89.7 12.1 0.367
CROCUS 865 66 3.72 19 3.15 717.3 148.1 865.4 38.01 0.040
BS 3242 - 7 4.19 96.5 12.6 0.341
(d) to NF C34-120 BS 3242 - 7 4.45 108.9 13.4 0.302
Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium BS 3242 Oak 7 4.65 118.9 14.0 0.277 • 5•
conductors steel reinforced (ACSR). BS 3242 Mullberry 19 3.18 150.9 15.9 0.219
BS 3242 Ash 19 3.48 180.7 17.4 0.183
BS 3242 Elm 19 3.76 211.0 18.8 0.157
BS 3242 Poplar 37 2.87 239.4 20.1 0.139
BS 3242 Sycamore 37 3.23 303.2 22.6 0.109
BS 3242 Upas 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092
BS 3242 Yew 37 4.06 479.0 28.4 0.069
BS 3242 Totara 37 4.14 498.1 29.0 0.067
BS 3242 Rubus 61 3.5 586.9 31.5 0.057
BS 3242 Araucaria 61 4.14 821.1 28.4 0.040
(b) BS
CSA C49.1-M87 10 7 1.45 11.5 4.3 2.863 NF C34-125 ASTER 22 7 2 22.0 6.0 1.497
CSA C49.1-M87 16 7 1.83 18.4 5.5 1.788 NF C34-125 ASTER 34-4 7 2.5 34.4 7.5 0.958
CSA C49.1-M87 25 7 2.29 28.8 6.9 1.142 NF C34-125 ASTER 54-6 7 3.15 54.6 9.5 0.604
CSA C49.1-M87 40 7 2.89 46.0 8.7 0.716 NF C34-125 ASTER 75-5 19 2.25 75.5 11.3 0.438
CSA C49.1-M87 63 7 3.63 72.5 10.9 0.454 NF C34-125 ASTER 93,3 19 2.5 93.3 12.5 0.355
CSA C49.1-M87 100 19 2.78 115.1 13.9 0.287 NF C34-125 ASTER 117 19 2.8 117.0 14.0 0.283
CSA C49.1-M87 125 19 3.1 143.9 15.5 0.230 NF C34-125 ASTER 148 19 3.15 148.1 15.8 0.223
CSA C49.1-M87 160 19 3.51 184.2 17.6 0.180 NF C34-125 ASTER 181-6 37 2.5 181.6 17.5 0.183
CSA C49.1-M87 200 19 3.93 230.2 19.6 0.144 NF C34-125 ASTER 228 37 2.8 227.8 19.6 0.146
CSA C49.1-M87 250 19 4.39 287.7 22.0 0.115 NF C34-125 ASTER 288 37 3.15 288.3 22.1 0.115
CSA C49.1-M87 315 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092 NF C34-125 ASTER 366 37 3.55 366.2 24.9 0.091
CSA C49.1-M87 400 37 3.98 460.4 27.9 0.072 NF C34-125 ASTER 570 61 3.45 570.2 31.1 0.058
CSA C49.1-M87 450 37 4.22 517.9 29.6 0.064 NF C34-125 ASTER 851 91 3.45 850.7 38.0 0.039
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
CSA C49.1-M87 500 37 4.45 575.5 31.2 0.058 NF C34-125 ASTER 1144 91 4 1143.5 44.0 0.029
CSA C49.1-M87 560 37 4.71 644.5 33.0 0.051 NF C34-125 ASTER 1600 127 4 1595.9 52.0 0.021
CSA C49.1-M87 630 61 3.89 725.0 35.0 0.046 (e) NF
CSA C49.1-M87 710 61 4.13 817.2 37.2 0.041
CSA C49.1-M87 800 61 4.38 920.8 39.5 0.036 Table 5.15 (cont): Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.
CSA C49.1-M87 900 61 4.65 1035.8 41.9 0.032
CSA C49.1-M87 1000 91 4.01 1150.9 44.1 0.029
CSA C49.1-M87 1120 91 4.25 1289.1 46.7 0.026
CSA C49.1-M87 1250 91 4.49 1438.7 49.4 0.023
CSA C49.1-M87 1400 91 4.75 1611.3 52.2 0.021
CSA C49.1-M87 1500 91 4.91 1726.4 54.1 0.019
(c) CSA
(a) ASTM
DIN 48206 70/12 26 1.85 7 1.44 69.9 11.4 81.3 11.7 0.479
DIN 48206 95/15 26 2.15 7 1.67 94.4 15.3 109.7 13.6 0.355
DIN 48206 125/30 30 2.33 7 2.33 127.9 29.8 157.8 16.3 0.262
DIN 48206 150/25 26 2.7 7 2.1 148.9 24.2 173.1 17.1 0.225
DIN 48206 170/40 30 2.7 7 2.7 171.8 40.1 211.8 18.9 0.195
DIN 48206 185/30 26 3 7 2.33 183.8 29.8 213.6 19 0.182
DIN 48206 210/50 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.158
DIN 48206 230/30 24 3.5 7 2.33 230.9 29.8 260.8 21 0.145
DIN 48206 265/35 24 3.74 7 2.49 263.7 34.1 297.7 22.4 0.127
DIN 48206 305/40 54 2.68 7 2.68 304.6 39.5 344.1 24.1 0.110
DIN 48206 380/50 54 3 7 3 381.7 49.5 431.2 27 0.088
DIN 48206 450/40 48 3.45 7 2.68 448.7 39.5 488.2 28.7 0.075
DIN 48206 560/50 48 3.86 7 3 561.7 49.5 611.2 32.2 0.060
DIN 48206 680/85 54 4 19 2.4 678.6 86.0 764.5 36 0.049
(b) DIN
(c) NF
13.3 2.1586 2.159 0.395 0.409 0.420 0.434 0.445 8.7 0.503 7.6 0.513 7.4 0.520 7.3 0.541 7.0 0.528 7.2 0.556 6.8
15.3 1.8771 1.877 0.391 0.405 0.415 0.429 0.441 8.8 0.499 7.7 0.508 7.5 0.515 7.4 0.537 7.1 0.523 7.3 0.552 6.9
21.2 1.3557 1.356 0.381 0.395 0.405 0.419 0.430 9.0 0.488 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.505 7.6 0.527 7.2 0.513 7.4 0.542 7.0
23.9 1.2013 1.201 0.376 0.390 0.401 0.415 0.426 9.1 0.484 7.9 0.494 7.8 0.501 7.6 0.522 7.3 0.509 7.5 0.537 7.1
26.2 1.0930 1.093 0.374 0.388 0.398 0.412 0.424 9.2 0.482 8.0 0.491 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.520 7.3 0.506 7.5 0.535 7.1
28.3 1.0246 1.025 0.352 0.366 0.377 0.391 0.402 9.4 0.460 8.2 0.470 8.0 0.477 7.8 0.498 7.5 0.485 7.7 0.513 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.854 0.366 0.380 0.390 0.404 0.416 9.4 0.474 8.1 0.484 7.9 0.491 7.8 0.512 7.5 0.499 7.7 0.527 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.765 0.327 0.341 0.351 0.365 0.376 9.7 0.435 8.4 0.444 8.2 0.451 8.1 0.473 7.7 0.459 7.9 0.488 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.677 0.359 0.373 0.383 0.397 0.409 9.6 0.467 8.3 0.476 8.1 0.483 7.9 0.505 7.6 0.491 7.8 0.520 7.3
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant
44.0 0.6516 0.652 0.320 0.334 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.0 0.481 7.5
47.7 0.6042 0.604 0.319 0.333 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.1 0.480 7.6
51.2 0.5634 0.564 0.317 0.331 0.341 0.355 0.367 10.0 0.425 8.6 0.434 8.4 0.441 8.2 0.463 7.9 0.449 8.1 0.478 7.6
58.9 0.4894 0.490 0.313 0.327 0.337 0.351 0.362 10.1 0.421 8.7 0.430 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.459 7.9 0.445 8.2 0.474 7.7
63.1 0.4545 0.455 0.346 0.360 0.371 0.385 0.396 9.9 0.454 8.5 0.464 8.3 0.471 8.2 0.492 7.8 0.479 8.0 0.507 7.5
67.4 0.4255 0.426 0.344 0.358 0.369 0.383 0.394 10.0 0.452 8.5 0.462 8.3 0.469 8.2 0.490 7.8 0.477 8.1 0.505 7.6
73.4 0.3930 0.393 0.306 0.320 0.330 0.344 0.356 10.3 0.414 8.8 0.423 8.6 0.430 8.5 0.452 8.1 0.438 8.3 0.467 7.8
79.2 0.3622 0.362 0.339 0.353 0.363 0.377 0.389 10.1 0.447 8.7 0.457 8.4 0.464 8.3 0.485 7.9 0.472 8.2 0.500 7.6
85.0 0.3374 0.338 0.337 0.351 0.361 0.375 0.387 10.2 0.445 8.7 0.454 8.5 0.461 8.4 0.483 7.9 0.469 8.2 0.498 7.7
94.4 0.3054 0.306 0.302 0.316 0.327 0.341 0.352 10.3 0.410 8.8 0.420 8.6 0.427 8.4 0.448 8.0 0.435 8.3 0.463 7.8
105.0 0.2733 0.274 0.330 0.344 0.355 0.369 0.380 10.4 0.438 8.8 0.448 8.6 0.455 8.5 0.476 8.1 0.463 8.3 0.491 7.8
121.6 0.2371 0.237 0.294 0.308 0.318 0.332 0.344 10.6 0.402 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.419 8.6 0.440 8.2 0.427 8.4 0.455 7.9
127.9 0.2254 0.226 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.7 0.398 9.0 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.436 8.2 0.422 8.5 0.451 8.0
131.2 0.2197 0.220 0.289 0.303 0.313 0.327 0.339 10.7 0.397 9.1 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.435 8.3 0.421 8.5 0.450 8.0
135.2 0.2133 0.214 0.297 0.311 0.322 0.336 0.347 10.5 0.405 9.0 0.415 8.8 0.422 8.6 0.443 8.2 0.430 8.4 0.458 7.9
148.9 0.1937 0.194 0.288 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.338 10.8 0.396 9.1 0.406 8.9 0.413 8.7 0.434 8.3 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.0
158.7 0.1814 0.182 0.292 0.306 0.316 0.330 0.342 10.7 0.400 9.1 0.410 8.9 0.417 8.7 0.438 8.3 0.425 8.5 0.453 8.0
170.5 0.1691 0.170 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.8 0.398 9.1 0.407 8.9 0.414 8.8 0.436 8.3 0.422 8.6 0.451 8.0
184.2 0.1565 0.157 0.287 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.337 10.9 0.395 9.2 0.405 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.433 8.4 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.1
201.4 0.1438 0.144 0.280 0.294 0.304 0.318 0.330 11.0 0.388 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.405 8.9 0.426 8.5 0.412 8.8 0.441 8.2
210.6 0.1366 0.137 0.283 0.297 0.308 0.322 0.333 11.0 0.391 9.3 0.401 9.1 0.408 8.9 0.429 8.4 0.416 8.7 0.444 8.1
221.7 0.1307 0.131 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.323 11.3 0.381 9.5 0.391 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.419 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
230.9 0.1249 0.126 0.276 0.290 0.300 0.314 0.326 11.2 0.384 9.4 0.393 9.2 0.400 9.0 0.422 8.6 0.408 8.9 0.437 8.3
241.7 0.1193 0.120 0.279 0.293 0.303 0.317 0.329 11.2 0.387 9.4 0.396 9.2 0.403 9.0 0.425 8.5 0.411 8.8 0.440 8.2
263.7 0.1093 0.110 0.272 0.286 0.296 0.310 0.321 11.3 0.380 9.5 0.389 9.3 0.396 9.1 0.418 8.6 0.404 8.9 0.433 8.3
282.0 0.1022 0.103 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.324 11.3 0.382 9.5 0.392 9.3 0.399 9.1 0.420 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
306.6 0.0945 0.095 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.317 11.5 0.375 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.1 0.428 8.4
• 5• 322.3 0.0895 0.090 0.270 0.284 0.294 0.308 0.320 11.5 0.378 9.6 0.387 9.4 0.394 9.2 0.416 8.7 0.402 9.0 0.431 8.4
339.3 0.085 0.086 0.265 0.279 0.289 0.303 0.315 11.6 0.373 9.7 0.383 9.5 0.390 9.3 0.411 8.8 0.398 9.1 0.426 8.5
362.6 0.0799 0.081 0.262 0.276 0.286 0.300 0.311 11.7 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.408 8.9 0.394 9.2 0.423 8.5
386.0 0.0747 0.076 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.311 11.8 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
402.8 0.0719 0.073 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.310 11.8 0.368 9.9 0.378 9.6 0.385 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
428.9 0.0671 0.068 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.316 11.5 0.374 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.0 0.428 8.4
448.7 0.0642 0.066 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.306 11.9 0.364 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.402 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
456.1 0.0635 0.065 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.307 12.0 0.365 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.403 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
483.4 0.0599 0.061 0.255 0.269 0.279 0.293 0.305 12.0 0.363 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.401 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.416 8.7
494.4 0.0583 0.060 0.254 0.268 0.279 0.293 0.304 12.1 0.362 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.400 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.415 8.7
510.5 0.0565 0.058 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
523.7 0.0553 0.057 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
13.3 2.1586 2.159 0.474 0.491 0.503 0.520 0.534 8.7 0.604 7.6 0.615 7.4 0.624 7.3 0.649 7.0 0.633 7.2 0.668 6.8
15.3 1.8771 1.877 0.469 0.486 0.498 0.515 0.529 8.8 0.598 7.7 0.610 7.5 0.619 7.4 0.644 7.1 0.628 7.3 0.662 6.9
21.2 1.3557 1.356 0.457 0.474 0.486 0.503 0.516 9.0 0.586 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.606 7.6 0.632 7.2 0.616 7.4 0.650 7.0
23.9 1.2013 1.201 0.452 0.469 0.481 0.498 0.511 9.1 0.581 7.9 0.593 7.8 0.601 7.6 0.627 7.3 0.611 7.5 0.645 7.1
26.2 1.0930 1.093 0.449 0.466 0.478 0.495 0.508 9.2 0.578 8.0 0.590 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.624 7.3 0.608 7.5 0.642 7.1
28.3 1.0246 1.025 0.423 0.440 0.452 0.469 0.483 9.4 0.552 8.2 0.564 8.0 0.572 7.8 0.598 7.5 0.582 7.7 0.616 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.854 0.439 0.456 0.468 0.485 0.499 9.4 0.569 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.589 7.8 0.614 7.5 0.598 7.7 0.633 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.765 0.392 0.409 0.421 0.438 0.452 9.7 0.521 8.4 0.533 8.2 0.541 8.1 0.567 7.7 0.551 7.9 0.585 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.677 0.431 0.447 0.460 0.477 0.490 9.6 0.560 8.3 0.572 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.606 7.6 0.589 7.8 0.624 7.3
Susceptance ωC (mS/km) 0.042 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.059 0.063 0.068 0.075 0.081 0.089 0.094 0.103
Series Resistance R (Ω/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
66kV* Series Reactance X (Ω/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.117 0.113 0.109 0.102
Susceptance ωC (mS/km) 0.079 0.082 0.088 0.11
Series Resistance R (Ω/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
145kV* Series Reactance X (Ω/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.13 0.125 0.12 0.115
Susceptance ωC (mS/km) 0.053 0.06 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (Ω/km) 0.0487 0.0387 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
245kV* Series Reactance X (Ω/km) 0.145 0.137 0.134 0.128 0.123 0.119 0.113
Susceptance ωC (mS/km) 0.044 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.057 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (Ω/km) 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
420kV* Series Reactance X (Ω/km) 0.172 0.162 0.156 0.151 0.144
Susceptance ωC (mS/km) 0.04 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.063
For aluminium conductors of the same cross-section, the resistance increases by 60-65 percent, the series reactance and shunt capacitance is virtually unaltered.* - single core cables in trefoil.
Different values apply if laid in spaced flat formation.
Series Resistance - a.c. resistance @ 90°C. Series reactance - equivalent star reactance.
Data for 245kV and 420kV cables may vary significantly from that given, dependent on manufacturer and construction.
Introduction 6.1
Electromagnetic voltage
transformers 6.2
Capacitor voltage
transformers 6.3
Novel instrument
transformers 6.5
• 6 • Current and Voltage
Transformers
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever the values of voltage or current in a power
circuit are too high to permit convenient direct
connection of measuring instruments or relays, coupling
is made through transformers. Such 'measuring'
transformers are required to produce a scaled down
replica of the input quantity to the accuracy expected
for the particular measurement; this is made possible by
the high efficiency of the transformer. The performance
of measuring transformers during and following large
instantaneous changes in the input quantity is
important, in that this quantity may depart from the
sinusoidal waveform. The deviation may consist of a
step change in magnitude, or a transient component
that persists for an appreciable period, or both. The
resulting effect on instrument performance is usually
negligible, although for precision metering a persistent
change in the accuracy of the transformer may be
significant.
However, many protection systems are required to
operate during the period of transient disturbance in the
output of the measuring transformers that follows a
system fault. The errors in transformer output may
abnormally delay the operation of the protection, or
cause unnecessary operations. The functioning of such
transformers must, therefore, be examined analytically.
It can be shown that the transformer can be represented
by the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.1, where all
quantities are referred to the secondary side.
1/1 Rp Lp Rs Ls
Ze Burden
6.2.5 Construction
6.2.2 Voltage Factors
The construction of a voltage transformer takes into
The quantity Vf in Table 6.2 is an upper limit of operating account the following factors:
voltage, expressed in per unit of rated voltage. This is
important for correct relay operation and operation a. output – seldom more than 200-300VA. Cooling is
under unbalanced fault conditions on unearthed or rarely a problem
impedance earthed systems, resulting in a rise in the b. insulation – designed for the system impulse
voltage on the healthy phases. voltage level. Insulation volume is often larger
Voltage factors, with the permissible duration of the than the winding volume
maximum voltage, are given in Table 6.3. c. mechanical design – not usually necessary to
withstand short-circuit currents. Must be small to
Voltage factor Time Primary winding connection/system fit the space available within switchgear
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Vf rating earthing conditions
Three-phase units are common up to 36kV but for higher
Between lines in any network.
1.2 continuous Between transformer star point and voltages single-phase units are usual. Voltage
earth in any network transformers for medium voltage circuits will have dry
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in an type insulation, but for high and extra high voltage
1.5 30 s effectively earthed network
systems, oil immersed units are general. Resin
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in
a non-effectively earthed neutral system encapsulated designs are in use on systems up to 33kV.
1.9 30 s Figure 6.3 shows a typical voltage transformer.
with automatic earth fault tripping
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in an isolated
neutral system without automatic earth fault
1.9 8 hours tripping, or in a resonant earthed system
without automatic earth fault tripping
Table 6.3: Voltage transformers: Permissible duration
of maximum voltage
n
6.2.7 Transient Performance S
a
Transient errors cause few difficulties in the use of N
conventional voltage transformers although some do
occur. Errors are generally limited to short time periods
following the sudden application or removal of voltage Figure 6.5: Schematic diagram of typical cascade
from the VT primary. voltage transformer
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Figure 6.6: Development of capacitor
winding, which is a fraction of the total according to the voltage transformer
number of stages. The individual transformers are
mounted on a structure built of insulating material, There are numerous variations of this basic circuit. The
which provides the interstage insulation, accumulating inductance L may be a separate unit or it may be
to a value able to withstand the full system voltage incorporated in the form of leakage reactance in the
across the complete height of the stack. The entire transformer T. Capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently
assembly is contained in a hollow cylindrical porcelain be made to close tolerances, so tappings are provided for
housing with external weather-sheds; the housing is ratio adjustment, either on the transformer T, or on a
filled with oil and sealed, an expansion bellows being separate auto-transformer in the secondary circuit.
included to maintain hermetic sealing and to permit Adjustment of the tuning inductance L is also needed;
expansion with temperature change. this can be done with tappings, a separate tapped
inductor in the secondary circuit, by adjustment of gaps
in the iron cores, or by shunting with variable
6.3 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS capacitance. A simplified equivalent circuit is shown in
The size of electromagnetic voltage transformers for the Figure 6.7.
higher voltages is largely proportional to the rated
voltage; the cost tends to increase at a disproportionate C L Rp Rs
rate. The capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is often
more economic. • 6•
This device is basically a capacitance potential divider. Zb
Vi Ze
As with resistance-type potential dividers, the output
voltage is seriously affected by load at the tapping point.
The capacitance divider differs in that its equivalent
source impedance is capacitive and can therefore be L - tuning inductance
compensated by a reactor connected in series with the Rp - primary winding resistance (plus losses)
Ze - exciting impedance of transformer T
tapping point. With an ideal reactor, such an Rs - secondary circuit resistance
arrangement would have no regulation and could supply Zb - burden impedance
C - C1 + C2 (in Figure 6.6)
any value of output.
Figure 6.7: Simplified equivalent circuit
A reactor possesses some resistance, which limits the of capacitor voltage transformer
output that can be obtained. For a secondary output
voltage of 110V, the capacitors would have to be very
large to provide a useful output while keeping errors It will be seen that the basic difference between Figure
within the usual limits. The solution is to use a high 6.7 and Figure 6.1 is the presence of C and L. At normal
secondary voltage and further transform the output to frequency when C and L are in resonance and therefore
voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is higher at full rated in output voltage, the r.m.s. value being perhaps 25%-
output than at no load, and the capacitor is rated for 50% above the normal value; the output waveform
continuous service at this raised value. The spark gap will would generally be of the form shown in Figure 6.8.
be set to flash over at about twice the full load voltage.
The effect of the spark gap is to limit the short-circuit
current which the VT will deliver and fuse protection of
the secondary circuit has to be carefully designed with this
point in mind. Facilities are usually provided to earth the
Amplitude
Z=21.2Ω
Is R s
E=6350V 300/5A Burden
10VA
Is X s Es
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
(a) Physical arrangement Iq
Ir
Z=21.2Ω 0.2Ω Ip
Vs
'Ideal'
CT
E=6350V r=300/5 j50Ω 150Ω 0.4Ω θ
Is
to the use of an inductive burden of rated value would Table 6.5: Protection CT error limits for classes 5P and 10P
be about 1.2%. If the nominal turns ratio is 2:120,
removal of one secondary turn would raise the output by
0.83% leaving the overall current error as -0.37%. Even though the burden of a protection CT is only a few
For lower value burden or a different burden power VA at rated current, the output required from the CT may
factor, the error would change in the positive direction to be considerable if the accuracy limit factor is high. For
a maximum of +0.7% at zero burden; the leakage example, with an accuracy limit factor of 30 and a
reactance of the secondary winding is assumed to be burden of 10VA, the CT may have to supply 9000VA to
negligible. No corresponding correction can be made for the secondary circuit.
phase error, but it should be noted that the phase error Alternatively, the same CT may be subjected to a high
is small for moderately reactive burdens. burden. For overcurrent and earth fault protection, with
elements of similar VA consumption at setting, the earth
fault element of an electromechanical relay set at 10%
6.4.2 Composite Error would have 100 times the impedance of the overcurrent
elements set at 100%. Although saturation of the relay
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Exciting voltage (IIe) in place of three phase CT's whose secondary windings
are residually connected. In this way the CT magnetising
Figure 6.11: Definition of knee-point
of excitation curve
current at relay operation is reduced by approximately
three-to-one, an important consideration in sensitive
earth fault relays where a low effective setting is
Design requirements for current transformers for general required. The number of secondary turns does not need
protection purposes are frequently laid out in terms of to be related to the cable rated current because no
knee-point e.m.f., exciting current at the knee-point (or secondary current would flow under normal balanced
some other specified point) and secondary winding conditions. This allows the number of secondary turns to
resistance. Such current transformers are designated be chosen such as to optimise the effective primary pick-
Class PX. up current.
Core-balance transformers are normally mounted over a
cable at a point close up to the cable gland of switchgear
6.4.5 CT Winding Arrangements
or other apparatus. Physically split cores ('slip-over'
A number of CT winding arrangements are used. These types) are normally available for applications in which
are described in the following sections. the cables are already made up, as on existing
6.4.5.1 Wound primary type switchgear.
This type of CT has conventional windings formed of 6.4.5.4 Summation current transformers • 6•
copper wire wound round a core. It is used for auxiliary The summation arrangement is a winding arrangement
current transformers and for many low or moderate ratio used in a measuring relay or on an auxiliary current
current transformers used in switchgear of up to 11kV transformer to give a single-phase output signal having
rating. a specific relationship to the three-phase current input.
6.4.5.2 Bushing or bar primary type 6.4.5.5 Air-gapped current transformers
Many current transformers have a ring-shaped core, These are auxiliary current transformers in which a small
sometimes built up from annular stampings, but often air gap is included in the core to produce a secondary
consisting of a single length of strip tightly wound to voltage output proportional in magnitude to current in
form a close-turned spiral. The distributed secondary the primary winding. Sometimes termed 'transactors'
winding forms a toroid which should occupy the whole and 'quadrature current transformers', this form of
perimeter of the core, a small gap being left between current transformer has been used as an auxiliary
start and finish leads for insulation. component of unit protection schemes in which the
Such current transformers normally have a single outputs into multiple secondary circuits must remain
concentrically placed primary conductor, sometimes linear for and proportioned to the widest practical range
permanently built into the CT and provided with the of input currents.
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
than 1VA for a numerical relay), making a total of 85VA.
β = initial phase angle governed by instant
Such a burden would require the CT to be very large and
of fault occurrence
expensive, particularly if a high accuracy limit factor
were also applicable. α = system power factor angle
With a 1A CT secondary rating, the lead burden is = tan-1 ωL/R
reduced to 3VA, so that with the same relay burden the The first term of Equation 6.1 represents the steady state
total becomes a maximum of 13VA. This can be provided alternating current, while the second is a transient
by a CT of normal dimensions, resulting in a saving in
quantity responsible for displacing the waveform
size, weight and cost. Hence modern CT’s tend to have
asymmetrically.
secondary windings of 1A rating. However, where the
primary rating is high, say above 2000A, a CT of higher Ep
secondary rating may be used, to limit the number of R + ω 2 L 2 is the steady state peak current I .
2
8
KR b I s
= T = 0.06s
ω ...Equation 6.4
4
The transient flux is given by:
α
KR b I s L
φ B = KR b I s ∫ e − ( R L) t
dt = 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0
R ...Equation 6.5 Time (seconds)
Hence, the ratio of the transient flux to the steady state T - time constant of primary circuit
value is:
Figure 6.13: Response of a CT of
wL X
= = infinite shunt impedance to transient asymmetric
B
R R primary current
A
resistance values.
Since a CT requires a finite exciting current to maintain
The CT core has to carry both fluxes, so that: a flux, it will not remain magnetised (neglecting
hysteresis), and for this reason a complete representation
Ê Xˆ
C = A + B = A Á1 + ˜ of the effects can only be obtained by including the
Ë R¯
...Equation 6.6 finite inductance of the CT in the calculation. The
The term (1+X/R) has been called the 'transient factor' response of a current transformer to a transient
(TF), the core flux being increased by this factor during asymmetric current is shown in Figure 6.14.
the transient asymmetric current period. From this it can
be seen that the ratio of reactance to resistance of the
1.0
power system is an important feature in the study of the
behaviour of protection relays. 0.9
- 1
T1
0.8 e
Alternatively, L/R is the primary system time constant T,
so that the transient factor can be written: 0.7 -1
e T
ωL 0.6
=1 + = 1 + ωT Ie
R 0.5
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
would be expected from linear theory.
T1 = CT secondary circuit time constant Le/Rb When the exponential component drives the CT into
I1 = prospective peak secondary current saturation, the magnetising inductance decreases,
causing a large increase in the alternating component ie.
6.4.10.2 Practical conditions
The total exciting current during the transient period is
Practical conditions differ from theory for the following of the form shown in Figure 6.15 and the corresponding
reasons: resultant distortion in the secondary current output, due
a. no account has been taken of secondary leakage or to saturation, is shown in Figure 6.16.
burden inductance. This is usually small compared
with Le so that it has little effect on the maximum
transient flux
b. iron loss has not been considered. This has the
Exciting current
secondary
then be made for the extent of each chord
The above theory is sufficient, however, to give a good
insight into the problem and to allow most practical Time
0
issues to be decided.
Secondary current
d. the effect of hysteresis, apart from loss as Residual flux = 0
discussed under (b) above, is not included. Resistive burden
Power system T.C. = 0.05s
Hysteresis makes the inductance different for flux
build up and decay, so that the secondary time Figure 6.16: Distortion in secondary current
constant is variable. Moreover, the ability of the due to saturation
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
The hybrid family of non-conventional instrument
other, only half the light will come through. The
transducers can be divided in two types: those with
reference light input intensity is maintained constant
active sensors and those with passive sensors. The idea
over time. Now if these two polarising filters remain
behind a transducer with an active sensor is to change
fixed and a third polarising filter is placed in between
the existing output of the conventional instrument
them, a random rotation of this middle polariser either
transformer into an optically isolated output by adding
clockwise or counter-clockwise will be monitored as a
an optical conversion system (Figure 6.18). This
varying or modulated light output intensity at the light
conversion system may require a power supply of its
detector.
own: this is the active sensor type. The use of an optical
When a block of optical sensing material (glass or isolating system serves to de-couple the instrument
crystal) is immersed in a varying magnetic or electric transformer output secondary voltages and currents
'Odd' polariser
input output
polariser polariser
optical optical
fibre fibre sensing
light • 6•
detector
in out
light source
45° 90°
optical
zero field level
1.0 sensing 1.0
medium
+
0.5 0.5
0 0
t t
reference modulated
light input light input
intensity intensity
Figure. 6.18: Schematic representation of the concepts behind the optical sensing of varying electric and magnetic fields
electrode
element is either located free in the magnetic field (Figure
6.19(a)) or it can be immersed in a field-shaping magnetic
‘gap’ (Figure 6.19(b)). In the case of a voltage-sensing
device (Figure 6.20) the same alternatives exist, this time Light
for elements that are sensitive to electric fields. The AC line path
voltage Electro-optic
possibility exists of combining both sensors within a sensor
single housing, thus providing both a CT and VT within a
single compact housing that gives rise to space savings
within a substation.
Reference
(b) 'Field shaping' type electrode Optical fibres
I AC line current
In all cases there is an optical fibre that channels the AC/DC source
probing reference light from a source into the medium Figure 6.21: Novel instrument transducer concept
and another fibre that channels the light back to requiring an electronic interface in the control room
Insulator
column
AC line current
Fibre junction box I
Light in
Sensor #1 Fibre
optic
Sensor #2 cables Optical fibres
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Light out
Fibre
sensing element
Similar to conventional instrument transformers there are Although ‘all-optical’ instrument transformers were first
‘live tank’ and ‘dead tank’ optical transducers. Typically, introduced 10-15 years ago, there are still only a few in
current transducers take the shape of a closed loop of light- service nowadays. Figure 6.24 shows a field installation
transparent material, fitted around a straight conductor of a combined optical CT/VT.
carrying the line current (Figure 6.22). In this case a bulk-
glass sensor unit is depicted (Figure 6.22(a)), along with an
‘all-optical’ sensor example, as shown in Figure 6.22(b).
Light detectors are basically very sensitive devices and the
sensing material can thus be selected in such a way as to
scale-up readily for larger currents. ‘All-optical’ voltage
transducers however do not lend themselves easily for
extremely high line voltages. Two concepts using a 'full-
voltage' sensor are shown in Figure 6.23.
• 6•
Conductor
Figure 6.23: Optical voltage transducer concepts, Figure 6.24: Field installation of a combined
using a ‘full-voltage’ sensor optical CT/VT
Air core
toroidal coil
i
Electrical to optical
converter
V
i
Optical
fibres
Sensing current
Sensing element
Introduction 7.1
References 7.8
• 7 • R elay Te ch n o l o g y
7. 1 I N T R OD U C T I O N
The last thirty years have seen enormous changes in relay
technology. The electromechanical relay in all of its
different forms has been replaced successively by static,
digital and numerical relays, each change bringing with
it reductions and size and improvements in functionality.
At the same time, reliability levels have been maintained
or even improved and availability significantly increased
due to techniques not available with older relay types.
This represents a tremendous achievement for all those
involved in relay design and manufacture.
This chapter charts the course of relay technology
through the years. As the purpose of the book is to
describe modern protection relay practice, it is natural
therefore to concentrate on digital and numerical relay
technology. The vast number of electromechanical and
static relays are still giving dependable service, but
descriptions on the technology used must necessarily be
somewhat brief. For those interested in the technology
of electromechanical and static technology, more
detailed descriptions can be found in reference [7.1].
7. 2 E L E C T R OM EC H A NI C AL RE L AY S
These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the
protection of power systems, and they date back nearly
100 years. They work on the principle of a mechanical
force causing operation of a relay contact in response to
a stimulus. The mechanical force is generated through
current flow in one or more windings on a magnetic core
or cores, hence the term electromechanical relay. The
principle advantage of such relays is that they provide
galvanic isolation between the inputs and outputs in a
simple, cheap and reliable form – therefore for simple
on/off switching functions where the output contacts
have to carry substantial currents, they are still used.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several
different types as follows:
a. attracted armature
b. moving coil
c. induction
d. thermal
e. motor operated
f. mechanical
However, only attracted armature types have significant
• 102 •
• 7•
All subsequent signal processing is carried out digitally in b. HMI interface software – the high level software
software, final digital outputs use relays to provide for communicating with a user, via the front panel
isolation or are sent via an external communications bus controls or through a data link to another
to other devices. computer running suitable software, storage of
setting data, etc.
7.5.2 Relay Software
c. application software – this is the software that
The software provided is commonly organised into a
defines the protection function of the relay
series of tasks, operating in real time. An essential
component is the Real Time Operating System (RTOS), d. auxiliary functions – software to implement other
whose function is to ensure that the other tasks are features offered in the relay – often structured as
executed as and when required, on a priority basis. a series of modules to reflect the options offered to
a user by the manufacturer
Other task software provided will naturally vary
according to the function of the specific relay, but can be 7.5.3 Application Software
generalised as follows:
The relevant software algorithm is then applied. Firstly,
a. system services software – this is akin to the BIOS the values of the quantities of interest have to be
of an ordinary PC, and controls the low-level I/O determined from the available information contained in
for the relay (i.e. drivers for the relay hardware, the data samples. This is conveniently done by the
boot-up sequence, etc.) application of the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), and
• 7•
7. 6 A D D I T IO N A L F E AT U R E S
OF N U M E RI C A L RE L AY S
The DSP chip in a numerical relay is normally of
sufficient processing capacity that calculation of the
relay protection function only occupies part of the
processing capacity. The excess capacity is therefore
available to perform other functions. Of course, care
must be taken never to load the processor beyond
capacity, for if this happens, the protection algorithm
will not complete its calculation in the required time and
Figure 7.13: Digital filters the protection function will be compromised.
Typical functions that may be found in a numerical relay
besides protection functions are described in this section.
Note that not all functions may be found in a particular
the result is magnitude and phase information for the
relay. In common with earlier generations of relays,
selected quantity. This calculation is repeated for all of
manufacturers, in accordance with their perceived
the quantities of interest. The quantities can then be
market segmentation, will offer different versions
compared with the relay characteristic, and a decision
offering a different set of functions. Function
made in terms of the following:
parameters will generally be available for display on the
a. value above setting – start timers, etc. front panel of the relay and also via an external
• 7•
c. energy (kWh, kvarh) Finally, as well as tripping the CB as required under fault
conditions, it can also be arranged for a digital output to
d. max. demand in a period (kW, kvar; average and be used for CB closure, so that separate CB close control
peak values) circuits can be eliminated.
e. harmonic quantities
f. frequency 7.6.4 Disturbance Recorder
g. temperatures/RTD status The relay memory requires a certain minimum number of
cycles of measured data to be stored for correct signal
h. motor start information (start time, total no. of
processing and detection of events. The memory can
starts/reaccelerations, total running time
easily be expanded to allow storage of a greater time
i. distance to fault period of input data, both analogue and digital, plus the
The accuracy of the measured values can only be as good state of the relay outputs. It then has the capability to act
as the accuracy of the transducers used (VT’s CT’s, A/D as a disturbance recorder for the circuit being monitored,
converter, etc.). As CT’s and VT’s for protection functions so that by freezing the memory at the instant of fault
may have a different accuracy specification to those for detection or trip, a record of the disturbance is available
metering functions, such data may not be sufficiently for later download and analysis. It may be inconvenient to
accurate for tariff purposes. However, it will be download the record immediately, so facilities may be
sufficiently accurate for an operator to assess system provided to capture and store a number of disturbances.
conditions and make appropriate decisions. In industrial and small distribution networks, this may be
all that is required. In transmission networks, it may be
necessary to provide a single recorder to monitor a number
7.6.2 VT/CT Supervision
• 7• of circuits simultaneously, and in this case, a separate
If suitable VT’s are used, supervision of the VT/CT supplies disturbance recorder will still be required.
can be made available. VT supervision is made more
7.6.5 Time Synchronisation
complicated by the different conditions under which
there may be no VT signal – some of which indicate VT Disturbance records and data relating to energy
failure and some occur because of a power system fault consumption requires time tagging to serve any useful
having occurred. purpose. Although an internal clock will normally be
present, this is of limited accuracy and use of this clock
CT supervision is carried out more easily, the general
to provide time information may cause problems if the
principle being the calculation of a level of negative
disturbance record has to be correlated with similar
sequence current that is inconsistent with the calculated
records from other sources to obtain a complete picture
value of negative sequence voltage.
of an event. Many numerical relays have the facility for
time synchronisation from an external clock. The
7.6.3 CB Control/State Indication /Condition Monitoring standard normally used is an IRIG-B signal, which may be
derived from a number of sources, the latest being from
System operators will normally require knowledge of the a GPS satellite system.
state of all circuit breakers under their control. The CB
Introduction 8.1
Intertripping 8.4
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Unit protection schemes, formed by a number of relays
located remotely from each other, and some distance
protection schemes, require some form of communication
between each location in order to achieve a unit protection
function. This form of communication is known as
protection signalling. Additionally communications
facilities are also required when remote operation of a
circuit breaker is required as a result of a local event. This
form of communications is known as intertripping.
The communication messages involved may be quite
simple, involving instructions for the receiving device to
take some defined action (trip, block, etc.), or it may be
the passing of measured data in some form from one
device to another (as in a unit protection scheme).
Various types of communication links are available for
protection signalling, for example:
i. private pilot wires installed by the power
authority
ii. pilot wires or channels rented from a
communications company
iii. carrier channels at high frequencies over the
power lines
iv. radio channels at very high or ultra high
frequencies
v. optical fibres
Whether or not a particular link is used depends on
factors such as the availability of an appropriate
communication network, the distance between
protection relaying points, the terrain over which the
power network is constructed, as well as cost.
Protection signalling is used to implement Unit
Protection schemes, provide teleprotection commands,
or implement intertripping between circuit breakers.
8 . 2 U N I T P R OT E C T I O N S C H E M E S
Phase comparison and current differential schemes use
signalling to convey information concerning the relaying
quantity - phase angle of current and phase and
Trip Trip
I V V I
Intertrip Intertrip
Permissive Permissive
trip trip
Telemetry Telemetry
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping
Telecontrol Telecontrol
Telephone Telephone
Data Data
Communication Communication
systems systems
Figure 8.1: Application of protection signalling and its relationship to other systems using communication
(shown as a unidirectional system for simplicity)
magnitude of current respectively - between local and piece of apparatus in sympathy with the tripping of other
remote relaying points. Comparison of local and remote circuit breakers. The main use of such schemes is to
signals provides the basis for both fault detection and ensure that protection at both ends of a faulted circuit
discrimination of the schemes. will operate to isolate the equipment concerned. Possible
circumstances when it may be used are:
Details of Unit
Figure 8.1: Protection
Application schemes
of protection areand
signalling given in Chapter
its relationship 10. systems using communication
to other
(Shown as a unidirectional
Communications methods are covered later in this Chapter. system for simplicity) a. a feeder with a weak infeed at one end, insufficient
to operate the protection for all faults
• 8• 8 . 3 T E L E P R OT E C T I O N C O M M A N D S b. feeder protection applied to transformer –feeder
Some Distance Protection schemes described in Chapter circuits. Faults on the transformer windings may
12 use signalling to convey a command between local operate the transformer protection but not the
and remote relaying points. Receipt of the information feeder protection. Similarly, some earth faults may
is used to aid or speed up clearance of faults within a not be detected due to transformer connections
protected zone or to prevent tripping from faults outside c. faults between the CB and feeder protection CT’s,
a protected zone. when these are located on the feeder side of the CB.
Teleprotection systems are often referred to by their Bus-zone protection does not result in fault
mode of operation, or the role of the teleprotection clearance – the fault is still fed from the remote end
command in the system. of the feeder, while feeder unit protection may not
operate as the fault is outside the protected zone
d. some distance protection schemes use
8.4 INTERTRIPPING intertripping to improve fault clearance times for
Intertripping is the controlled tripping of a circuit some kinds of fault – see Chapters 12/13
breaker so as to complete the isolation of a circuit or Intertripping schemes use signalling to convey a trip
8.5.3 Performance Requirements – Blocking Schemes 8.6.1 Private Pilot Wires and Channels
Low security is usually adequate since an unwanted Pilot wires are continuous copper connections between
command can never cause an incorrect trip. High signalling stations, while pilot channels are
dependability is required since absence of the command discontinuous pilot wires with isolation transformers or
could cause incorrect tripping if the protection relay repeaters along the route between signalling stations.
operates for an out-of-zone fault. They may be laid in a trench with high voltage cables,
Typical performance requirements are shown in Figure 8.2. laid by a separate route or strung as an open wire on a
separate wood pole route.
C Distances over which signalling is required vary
considerably. At one end of the scale, the distance may be
10-2
Sec only a few tens of metres, where the devices concerned are
10-3
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping
TOP - 0.015sec T
The capacity of a link can be increased if frequency
P -1.00E-01 P T - Maximum
imum operating time division multiplexing techniques are used to run parallel
PMC -1.00E-01 P -1.00E-01
signalling systems, but some Utilities prefer the link to be
ª - UC )%
T - 0.015sec T - 0.015sec PMC used only for protection signalling.
-2.00E-02
-1.00E-01 P Dependability ª 100(1-P
PMC )%
Private pilot wires or channels can be attractive to an
Figure 8.2: Typical performance requirements Utility running a very dense power system with short
for protection signalling when the
communication link is subjected to noise distances between stations.
Line trap
To station
To line
• 8•
Series
tuning
unit
Capacitor VT
To E/M VT To E/M VT
Optical fibre communications are well established in the Plain high frequency signals can be used successfully for
electrical supply industry. They are the preferred means the signalling of blocking information over a power line.
for the communications link between a substation and a A normally quiescent power line carrier equipment can
telephone exchange when rented circuits are used, as be dedicated entirely to the transfer to teleprotection
P rotection: Signalling and Intertripping
trials have shown that this link is particularly susceptible blocking commands. Phase comparison power line
to interference from power system faults if copper carrier unit protection schemes often use such
conductors are used. Whilst such fibres can be laid in equipment and take advantage of the very high speed
cable trenches, there is a strong trend to associate them and dependability of the signalling system. The special
with the conductors themselves by producing composite characteristics of dedicated 'on/off' keyed carrier systems
cables comprising optical fibres embedded within the are discussed later. A relatively insensitive receiver is
conductors, either earth or phase. For overhead lines use used to discriminate against noise on an amplitude basis,
of OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) earth conductors is very and for some applications the security may be
common, while an alternative is to wrap the optical satisfactory for permissive tripping, particularly if the
cable helically around a phase or earth conductor. This normal high-speed operation of about 6ms is sacrificed
latter technique can be used without restringing of the by the addition of delays. The need for regular reflex
line. testing of a normally quiescent channel usually precludes
any use for intertripping.
Plain tone power line carrier signalling systems are
8.7 SIGNALLING METHODS particularly suited to providing the blocking commands
Various methods are used in protection signalling; not all often associated with the protection of multi-ended
need be suited to every transmission medium. The feeders, as described in Chapter 13. A blocking
methods to be considered briefly are: command sent from one end can be received
simultaneously at all the other ends using a single power
a. D.C. voltage step or d.c. voltage reversals
line carrier channel. Other signalling systems usually
b. plain tone keyed signals at high and voice require discrete communication channels between each
• 8• frequencies of the ends or involve repeaters, leading to decreased
dependability of the blocking command.
c. frequency shift keyed signals involving two or more
tones at high and voice frequencies Plain voice frequency signals can be used for blocking,
permissive intertrip and direct intertrip applications for
General purpose telecommunications equipment
all transmission media but operation is at such a low
operating over power line carrier, radio or optical fibre
signal level that security from maloperation is not very
media incorporate frequency translating or multiplexing
good. Operation in the 'tone on' to 'tone off' mode gives
techniques to provide the user with standardised
the best channel monitoring, but offers little security; to
communication channels. They have a nominal
obtain a satisfactory performance the output must be
bandwidth/channel of 4kHz and are often referred to as
delayed. This results in relatively slow operation: 70
voice frequency (vf) channels. Protection signalling
milliseconds for permissive intertripping, and 180
equipments operating at voice frequencies exploit the
milliseconds for direct intertripping.
standardisation of the communication interface. Where
voice frequency channels are not available or suitable,
protection signalling may make use of a medium or
specialised equipment dedicated entirely to the
signalling requirements.
Pilot channel
Voice
frequency
Power line
Protection carrier
relay communication
scheme channel Power line carrier
Carrier
frequency
shift
On/off
keyed
carrier
Frequency
division
multiplex
PCM
primary
multiplex Optical fibre
Digital
general purpose
Optical
transmitter
Optical fibre
dedicated
Optical
Protection Communication
signalling Transmission media
equipment
equipment
8.7.3 Frequency Shift Keyed Signals give the required degree of security in direct intertrip
schemes: the short operating times needed may result in
Frequency shift keyed high frequency signals can be
uneconomical use of the available voice frequency
used over a power line carrier link to give short
spectrum, particularly if the channel is not exclusively
operating times (15 milliseconds for blocking and
employed for protection signalling. As noise power is
permissive
Figureintertripping,
8.5: Communication20 milliseconds
arrangements commonlyfor direct in protection signalling
encountered directly proportional to bandwidth, a large bandwidth
intertripping) for all applications of protection
causes an increase in the noise level admitted to the
signalling. The required amount of security can be • 8•
detector, making operation in the presence of noise more
achieved by using a broadband noise detector to
difficult. So, again, it is difficult to obtain both high
monitor the actual operational signalling equipment.
dependability and high security.
Frequency shift keyed voice frequency signals can be
The signal frequency shift technique has advantages
used for all protection signalling applications over all
where fast signalling is needed for blocked distance and
transmission media. Frequency modulation techniques
permissive intertrip applications. It has little inherent
make possible an improvement in performance, because
security, but additional circuits responsive to every type
amplitude limiting rejects the amplitude modulation
of interference can give acceptable security. This system
component of noise, leaving only the phase modulation
does not require a channel capable of high transmission
components to be detected.
rates, as the frequency changes once only; the
The operational protection signal may consist of tone bandwidth can therefore be narrower than in coded
sequence codes with, say, three tones, or a multi-bit systems, giving better noise rejection as well as being
code using two discrete tones for successive bits, or of a advantageous if the channel is shared with telemetry
single frequency shift. and control signalling, which will inevitably be the case
Modern high-speed systems use multi-bit code or single if a power line carrier bearer is employed.
frequency shift techniques. Complex codes are used to
Introduction 9.1
Co-ordination procedure 9.2
Principles of time/current grading 9.3
Standard I.D.M.T. overcurrent relays 9.4
Combined I.D.M.T. and high set
instantaneous overcurrent relays 9.5
Very Inverse overcurrent relays 9.6
Extremely Inverse overcurrent relays 9.7
Other relay characteristics 9.8
Independent (definite) time overcurrent relays 9.9
Relay current setting 9.10
Relay time grading margin 9.11
Recommended grading margins 9.12
Calculation of phase fault overcurrent relay settings 9.13
Directional phase fault overcurrent relays 9.14
Ring mains 9.15
Earth fault protection 9.16
Directional earth fault overcurrent protection 9.17
Earth fault protection on insulated networks 9.18
Earth fault protection on Petersen Coil
earthed networks 9.19
Examples of time and current grading 9.20
References 9.21
• 9 • Overcurrent P rotection
for Phase and Earth Faults
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Protection against excess current was naturally the
earliest protection system to evolve. From this basic
principle, the graded overcurrent system, a discriminative
fault protection, has been developed. This should not be
confused with ‘overload’ protection, which normally
makes use of relays that operate in a time related in
some degree to the thermal capability of the plant to be
protected. Overcurrent protection, on the other hand, is
directed entirely to the clearance of faults, although with
the settings usually adopted some measure of overload
protection may be obtained.
has current settings equal to or less than the relays and E have time to operate. The time interval t1 between
behind it, that is, that the primary current required each relay time setting must be long enough to ensure
to operate the relay in front is always equal to or that the upstream relays do not operate before the
less than the primary current required to operate circuit breaker at the fault location has tripped and
the relay behind it. cleared the fault.
The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination
is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults
9.3 PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING in the section closest to the power source, where the
Among the various possible methods used to achieve fault level (MVA) is highest.
correct relay co-ordination are those using either time or
overcurrent, or a combination of both. The common aim
of all three methods is to give correct discrimination. 9.3.2 Discrimination by Current
That is to say, each one must isolate only the faulty Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault
section of the power system network, leaving the rest of current varies with the position of the fault because of
the system undisturbed. the difference in impedance values between the source
and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the
various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably
9.3.1 Discrimination by Time tapered values of current such that only the relay nearest
In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to to the fault trips its breaker. Figure 9.2 illustrates the
each of the relays controlling the circuit breakers in a method.
power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the For a fault at F1, the system short-circuit current is given
fault opens first. A simple radial distribution system is by:
shown in Figure 9.1, to illustrate the principle.
6350
• 9• I = A
Z S + Z L1
E D C B A
where Zs = source impedance
112
t1 t1 t1 = = 0.485Ω
F
250
ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B
Figure 9.1: Radial system with time discrimination
= 0.24Ω
Overcurrent protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that 11
is, at the infeed end of each section of the power system. Hence I= = 8800 A
3 ×0.725
Each protection unit comprises a definite-time delay
overcurrent relay in which the operation of the current So, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to
sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. operate at a fault current of 8800A would in theory
Provided the setting of the current element is below the protect the whole of the cable section between C and B.
fault current value, this element plays no part in the However, there are two important practical points that
achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the relay affect this method of co-ordination:
TD ⎧
⎪ ⎛ 0.02394 ⎞ ⎫
⎪
US CO2 Short Time Inverse t = ⎨ ⎜ 0.02 ⎟ + 0.01694 ⎬
7 ⎪⎝ I r −1 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
time
Table 9.1: Definitions of standard relay characteristics
Relay A operating
time
1.00
1000.00
0.10
100 1000 10,000 100.00
Current (A)
Relay A: Current Setting = 100A, TMS = 1.0
Relay B: Current Setting = 125A, TMS = 1.3
3
TMS
100.00 1.0
2 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Time (seconds)
1
0.4
Operating Time (seconds)
0.8
0.3
0.6
10.00 0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.00 0.1
Moderately Inverse 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30
Current (multiples of plug settings)
Figure 9.4 (b): IDMT relay characteristics 9.5 COMBINED I.D.M.T. AND HIGH SET
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS
The mathematical descriptions of the curves are given in A high-set instantaneous element can be used where the
Table 9.1(a), and the curves based on a common setting source impedance is small in comparison with the
current and time multiplier setting of 1 second are protected circuit impedance. This makes a reduction in
the tripping time at high fault levels possible. It also
shown in Figure 9.4(a). The tripping characteristics for
improves the overall system grading by allowing the
• 9•
different TMS settings using the SI curve are illustrated
in Figure 9.5. 'discriminating curves' behind the high set instantaneous
elements to be lowered.
Although the curves are only shown for discrete values of
TMS, continuous adjustment may be possible in an As shown in Figure 9.6, one of the advantages of the high
electromechanical relay. For other relay types, the setting set instantaneous elements is to reduce the operating
steps may be so small as to effectively provide continuous time of the circuit protection by the shaded area below
adjustment. In addition, almost all overcurrent relays are the 'discriminating curves'. If the source impedance
also fitted with a high-set instantaneous element. remains constant, it is then possible to achieve high-
speed protection over a large section of the protected
In most cases, use of the standard SI curve proves circuit. The rapid fault clearance time achieved helps to
satisfactory, but if satisfactory grading cannot be
minimise damage at the fault location. Figure 9.6 also
achieved, use of the VI or EI curves may help to resolve
illustrates a further important advantage gained by the
the problem. When digital or numeric relays are used,
use of high set instantaneous elements. Grading with
other characteristics may be provided, including the
the relay immediately behind the relay that has the
possibility of user-definable curves. More details are
instantaneous elements enabled is carried out at the
provided in the following sections.
current setting of the instantaneous elements and not at
a lower TMS for the same setting current, and hence the
tripping time at source can be minimised.
0.1
100 1000
0 10,000
0 100.00
Source R1 R2 Ratio R3
250 MVA
11kV
400/1A 100/1A 50/1A
Fault level 13.000A Fault level 2300A Fault level 1100A
inverse
v s (EI)
E 9.10 RELAY CURRENT SETTING
An overcurrent relay has a minimum operating current,
known as the current setting of the relay. The current
setting must be chosen so that the relay does not
200A
A Fuse
us operate for the maximum load current in the circuit • 9•
0.1 being protected, but does operate for a current equal or
100 1000 10,000 greater to the minimum expected fault current.
Current (amps)
Although by using a current setting that is only just
Figure 9.8: Comparison of relay above the maximum load current in the circuit a certain
and fuse characteristics
degree of protection against overloads as well as faults
may be provided, the main function of overcurrent
9.8 OTHER RELAY CHARACTERISTICS protection is to isolate primary system faults and not to
User definable curves may be provided on some types of provide overload protection. In general, the current
digital or numerical relays. The general principle is that the setting will be selected to be above the maximum short
user enters a series of current/time co-ordinates that are time rated current of the circuit involved. Since all relays
stored in the memory of the relay. Interpolation between have hysteresis in their current settings, the setting must
points is used to provide a smooth trip characteristic. Such be sufficiently high to allow the relay to reset when the
a feature, if available, may be used in special cases if none rated current of the circuit is being carried. The amount
of the standard tripping characteristics is suitable. of hysteresis in the current setting is denoted by the
However, grading of upstream protection may become pick-up/drop-off ratio of a relay – the value for a modern
more difficult, and it is necessary to ensure that the curve relay is typically 0.95. Thus, a relay minimum current
R1A
R
2A
R
3A
R4A
Time (seconds)
T4
1 T3
T
2
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
T
1
0.1
10 100 1
1000 10.000
Fault current (amps)
R1 R2 R3 R4
R1A R2A R3A R4A
Settings of independent (definite) time relay Settings of I.D.M.T. relay with standard inverse characteristic
R 300A 1.8s R 300A 0.2TMS
1A 1A
R 175A 1.4s R 175A 0.3TMS
R 100A 1.0s R 100A 0.37TMS
R set at 57.5A 0.6s R set at 57.5A 0.42TMS
4A 4A
• 9•
setting of at least 1.05 times the short-time rated ii. relay timing errors
current of the circuit is likely to be required.
iii. the overshoot time of the relay
iv. CT errors
9.11 RELAY TIME GRADING MARGIN
v. final margin on completion of operation
The time interval that must be allowed between the
operation of two adjacent relays in order to achieve Factors (ii) and (iii) above depend to a certain extent on
correct discrimination between them is called the grading the relay technology used – an electromechanical relay,
margin. If a grading margin is not provided, or is for instance, will have a larger overshoot time than a
insufficient, more than one relay will operate for a fault, numerical relay.
leading to difficulties in determining the location of the
Grading is initially carried out for the maximum fault
fault and unnecessary loss of supply to some consumers.
level at the relaying point under consideration, but a
The grading margin depends on a number of factors: check is also made that the required grading margin
i. the fault current interrupting time of the circuit exists for all current levels between relay pick-up current
breaker and maximum fault level.
Time (seconds)
the calculation of grading margin. 8
6
9.11.2 Relay Timing Error
4
All relays have errors in their timing compared to the
ideal characteristic as defined in IEC 60255. For a relay 3
specified to IEC 60255, a relay error index is quoted that
The A phase relay element is supplied with current Ia and at the relay are such that, in practice, the magnitude of
voltage Vbc displaced by 45° in an anti-clockwise the current input to the relay would be insufficient to
direction. The relay maximum sensitivity is produced cause the overcurrent element to operate. It can be
when the current lags the system phase to neutral shown analytically that the possibility of maloperation
voltage by 45°. This connection gives a correct with the 90°-45° connection is, for all practical purposes,
directional tripping zone over the current range of 45° non-existent.
leading to 135° lagging. The relay sensitivity at unity
power factor is 70.7% of the maximum torque and the
same at zero power factor lagging; see Figure 9.12. 9.14.3 Application of Directional Relays
This connection is recommended for the protection of If non-unit, non-directional relays are applied to parallel
transformer feeders or feeders that have a zero sequence feeders having a single generating source, any faults that
source in front of the relay. It is essential in the case of might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay
parallel transformers or transformer feeders, in order to settings used, isolate both lines and completely
ensure correct relay operation for faults beyond the disconnect the power supply. With this type of system
star/delta transformer. This connection should also be configuration, it is necessary to apply directional relays
used whenever single-phase directional relays are at the receiving end and to grade them with the non-
applied to a circuit where a current distribution of the directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct
form 2-1-1 may arise. discriminative operation of the relays during line faults.
This is done by setting the directional relays R1’ and R2’
Ia in Figure 9.13 with their directional elements looking
into the protected line, and giving them lower time and
TA
Va
V'bc is to set relays R1’ and R2’ to 50% of the normal full load
Zero torque line
of the protected circuit and 0.1TMS, but care must be
• 9• 45° taken to ensure that the continuous thermal rating of
45° the relays of twice rated current is not exceeded. An
example calculation is given in Section 9.20.3
135°
R1 R'1
Vbc
Source I>
Vc Vb I> Load
Fault
R'2 R2
A phase element connected Ia Vbc
B phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab I>
I>
Figure 9.12: Vector diagram for the 90°-45° connection
(phase A element) Figure 9.13: Directional relays applied to parallel feeders
A
9.16 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
In the foregoing description, attention has been B
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
Secondary voltage
setting of 20% will have an impedance of 25 times that
20
of a similar element with a setting of 100%. Very
frequently, this burden will exceed the rated burden of
the current transformers. It might be thought that 10
correspondingly larger current transformers should be Current transformer
Vc Vb Vc Vb
9.18 EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION ON INSULATED
NETWORKS
(b) Balanced system (c) Unbalanced system
(zero residual volts) Occasionally, a power system is run completely insulated
fault (3Vo residual volts) from earth. The advantage of this is that a single phase-
earth fault on the system does not cause any earth fault
Figure 9.18: Voltage polarised directional earth fault relay
Vapf
9.18.1 Residual Voltage Restrain
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
IR1
When a single phase-earth fault occurs, the healthy Ib1
IL
-IH1
-IIC IR1=IH1
Ib1
IL -I
A IR3 =-I +I
IR3 =- -IH2
-
-IIB Ia1
Vac Vab
N
Vres=-3V
VO Vres=-3V
VO
C B
Current vectors for A phase fault b) Unfaulted line c) Faulted line
Figure 9.21: Earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed system Figure 9.23: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed
network: theoretical case –no resistance present in XL or XC
feeder
IROH Having established that a directional relay can be used,
Healthy two possibilities exist for the type of protection element
IROH feeders that can be applied – sensitive earth fault and zero
IL
sequence wattmetric.
IH3 IH2 IH1
3XL -VO
Xco 9.19.1 Sensitive Earth Fault Protection
To apply this form of protection, the relay must meet two
Key:
IROF=residual current on faulted feeder requirements:
IROH=residual current on healthy feeder
It can therefore be seen that: a. current measurement setting capable of being set
-IOF=IL-IH1-IH2-IH3 to very low values
IROF=IH3+IOF
So: b. an RCA of 0°, and capable of fine adjustment
-IROF=IL=IH1-IH2 around this value
Figure 9.24: Zero sequence network showing
The sensitive current element is required because of the
residual currents
very low current that may flow – so settings of less than
0.5% of rated current may be required. However, as
compensation by the Petersen Coil may not be perfect,
Resistive component Resistive component in feeder
(I 1+IH2+IH3)'
low levels of steady-state earth-fault current will flow
in grounding coil
I'L A 3VO and increase the residual current seen by the relay. An
often used setting value is the per phase charging
current of the circuit being protected.
N
Fine tuning of the RCA is also required about the 0°
• 9• setting, to compensate for coil and feeder resistances
C B and the performance of the CT used. In practice, these
a) Capacitive and inductive currents adjustments are best carried out on site through
with resistive components
deliberate application of faults and recording of the
Restrain resulting currents.
Operate IL
IR1=IH1 Zero torque line
for O° RCA
9.19.2 Sensitive Wattmetric Protection
-IH1-IH2
It can be seen in Figure 9.25 that a small angular
IR3
=I +I
IR3 F H3 difference exists between the spill current on the healthy
=IL-IH1-IH2 and faulted feeders. Figure 9.26 illustrates how this
Vres=-3VO Restrain
angular difference gives rise to active components of
Zero torque line for 0° RCA Vres=-3VO
Operate current which are in antiphase to each other.
b) Unfaulted line c) Faulted line Consequently, the active components of zero sequence
Figure 9.25: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed power will also lie in similar planes and a relay capable
network: practical case with resistance present in XL or XC of detecting active power can make a discriminatory
IR1
Zero torque line Restrain
of residual current: for O° RCA
healthy feeder
Bus C
11kV
The current and RCA settings are as for a sensitive earth FS2 FS1
160A 125A
fault relay. F1
F2
150/5 I> 200/5 I>
IS = 120% IS = 110%
9.20 EXAMPLES OF TIME AND CURRENT GRADING TMS = 0.25 TMS = 0.1
Max load 130A Max load 190A Max load 90A
This section provides details of the time/current grading
of some example networks, to illustrate the process of Figure 9.28: IDMT relay grading example
relay setting calculations and relay grading. They are
based on the use of a modern numerical overcurrent The problem is to calculate appropriate relay settings for
relay illustrated in Figure 9.27, with setting data taken relays 1-5 inclusive. Because the example is concerned
from this relay. with grading, considerations such as bus-zone
By re-arrangement of the formula for the EI 2. for a fault at Bus C where the fault current seen by
10.00
Relay F1
Relay F2
Fuse FS1
Time (sec)
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
100.00
10.00
Relay F1
Time (sec)
Relay F2
Fuse FS1
Fuse FS2
1.00
Relays 1/2
Relay 3 • 9•
Relay 4
0.10
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
100.00
Relay F1
Relay F2
10.00 Fuse FS1
• 9• Fuse FS2
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
Time (sec)
1.00 Relay 4
Relay 5
0.10
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
Current (A)
Figure 9.30: Final relay grading curves for overcurrent relay example
Time (sec)
10000MVA > F3 Relays 2/3
If Bus P
220k Relays 4/5
Bus Q 1 1.00
50MVA 110kV II>
Z=12.5% Relay 6
Ie b 0.10
5 3 100 1000 10000 100000
II> II>
Current (A)
4 2 (b) Relay grading curves - non-directional relays
I >
I Z=0.25puI
Bus Q I
I> The settings shown in Figure 9.32(a) can be arrived at,
Ie Ib with the relay operation times shown in Figure 9.32(b).
3 It is clear that for a fault at F3 with both transformer
II> I
I>
All impedances
p to feeders in service, relay 3 operates at the same time as
100MVA, 110kV base relay 2 and results in total disconnection of Bus Q and
(b) Impedance diagram
all consumers supplied solely from it. This is undesirable
– the advantages of duplicated 100% rated transformers
Figure 9.31: System diagram: Parallel feeder example have been lost.
By making relays 2 and 3 directional as shown in Figure
The example shows that unless relays 2 and 3 are made 9.33(a), lower settings for these relays can be adopted –
directional, they will maloperate for a fault at F3. Also they can be set as low as reasonably practical but
shown is how to calculate appropriate relay settings for normally a current setting of about 50% of feeder full • 9•
all six relays to ensure satisfactory protection for faults load current is used, with a TMS of 0.1. Grading rules
at locations F1-F4. can be established as follows:
Figure 9.31(b) shows the impedance diagram, to a. relay 4 is graded with relay 1 for faults at location
100MVA, 110kV base. The fault currents for faults with F1 with one transformer feeder in service
various system configurations are shown in Table 9.6. b. relay 4 is graded with relay 3 for faults at location
F3 with two transformer feeders in service
Fault System Currents (A)
Position Config. Fault Ia Ib Ic Id Ie If
c. relay 6 grades with relay 4 for faults at F4
F1 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944 d. relay 6 also has to grade with relay 4 for faults at
F1/F2 1 fdr 2019 2019 0 0 1009 0 1009 F1 with both transformer feeders in service – relay 6
F2 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944 sees the total fault current but relay 4 only 50% of
F3 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 1944 972 972 1944 this current.
F4 1 fdr 26243 0 0 0 26243 0 26243
Table 9.6: Fault currents for parallel feeder example Normal rules about calculating current setting values
of relays in series apply. The settings and resulting
T1
4 50MVA 2
I> 5MVA 5MVA
Id Z=12,5% I Ic
a Z=7.15% Z=7.15%
6 IF4 IF3
F4 F3 1000/1 1000/1
I> Bus P
If T2
220kV
220/110kV 1
Source I
I> 50MVA Bus Q A
I> F1 F1
10000MVA 3.3kV
Z Ib 110kV
e CB8 CB1
5 3 IF2 I> I>
I> R8 1000/1 1000/1 R1
I>
diagram F2
C1 C4
=1km =1.5km
Relay CT Primary Current setting TMS Characteristic CB7 1000/1 1000/1 CB2
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
1 300 1 0.2 SI
2 300 0.42 0.1 SI
3 300 0.42 0.1 SI R7 I>
D I> R2 B
4 300 0.6 0.275 SI
5 300 0.6 0.275 SI
6 300 0.7 0.475 SI CB6 1000/1 1000/1 CB3
(b) Relay settings
100.00 Relay 1 3.3kV 3.3kV
Relays 2/3 R6 C2 C3 R3
Relays 4/5 I> =1.3km =2km I>
Time (sec)
10.00
Relay 6
(i) Fault current 3888A - R5 R4
1.00 I> 1000/1 1000/1 I>
0.10 faults F1, F2 - 1 feeder
100 1000 10000
(ii) (i) (iii) (iii) Fault current 26243A - CB5 CB4
Current (A) - referred to 110kV fault F4 - 1 feeder C
3.3kV
(c) Relay characteristics
All cables are 3 x 1c x 1200mm2, AI conductor, Z = 0.09 Ω/km
Figure 9.33: Relay grading for parallel feeder example – VT's omitted for clarity
directional relays
Figure 9.34: Ring main grading example – circuit diagram
Table 9.7 shows the fault currents at each bus for open
10.00
points at CB1 and CB8.
For grading of the relays, consider relays looking in a
Time (sec)
clockwise direction round the ring, i.e. relays R1/R3/R5/R7.
9.20.4.1 Relay R7
1.00
Introduction 10.1
Convention of direction 10.2
Conditions for direction comparison 10.3
Circulating current system 10.4
Balanced voltage system 10.5
Summation arrangements 10.6
Examples of electromechanical
and static unit protection systems 10.7
Digital/Numerical current differential
protection systems 10.8
Carrier unit protection schemes 10.9
Current differential scheme
– analogue techniques 10.10
Phase comparison protection
scheme considerations 10.11
Examples 10.12
References 10.13
• 10 • Unit P rotection of Feeders
10 . 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
The graded overcurrent systems described in Chapter 9,
though attractively simple in principle, do not meet all
the protection requirements of a power system.
Application difficulties are encountered for two reasons:
firstly, satisfactory grading cannot always be arranged
for a complex network, and secondly, the settings may
lead to maximum tripping times at points in the system
that are too long to prevent excessive disturbances
occurring.
These problems led to the concept of 'Unit Protection',
whereby sections of the power system are protected
individually as a complete unit without reference to
other sections. One form of ‘Unit Protection’ is also
known as ‘Differential Protection’, as the principle is to
sense the difference in currents between the incoming
and outgoing terminals of the unit being protected.
Other forms can be based on directional comparison, or
distance teleprotection schemes, which are covered in
Chapter 12, or phase comparison protection, which is
discussed later in this chapter. The configuration of the
power system may lend itself to unit protection; for
instance, a simple earth fault relay applied at the source
end of a transformer-feeder can be regarded as unit
protection provided that the transformer winding
associated with the feeder is not earthed. In this case
the protection coverage is restricted to the feeder and
transformer winding because the transformer cannot
transmit zero sequence current to an out-of-zone fault.
In most cases, however, a unit protection system
involves the measurement of fault currents (and possibly
voltages) at each end of the zone, and the transmission
of information between the equipment at zone
boundaries. It should be noted that a stand-alone
distance relay, although nominally responding only to
faults within their setting zone, does not satisfy the
conditions for a unit system because the zone is not
clearly defined; it is defined only within the accuracy
limits of the measurement. Also, to cater for some
conditions, the setting of a stand-alone distance relay
may also extend outside of the protected zone to cater
for some conditions.
Merz and Price [10.1] first established the principle of
current differential unit systems; their fundamental
differential systems have formed the basis of many
10 . 3 C O N D I T I O N S
F O R D I R E C T I O N C O M PA R I S O N
The circulating current and balanced voltage systems of
Figures 10.1 and 10.2 perform full vectorial comparison
Id> Id> of the zone boundary currents. Such systems can be
Relay G Relay H treated as analogues of the protected zone of the power
system, in which CT secondary quantities represent
Figure 10.2: Balanced voltage system
primary currents and the relay operating current
corresponds to an in-zone fault current.
• 10 • These systems are simple in concept; they are
Most systems of unit protection function through the nevertheless applicable to zones having any number of
determination of the relative direction of the fault boundary connections and for any pattern of terminal
current. This direction can only be expressed on a currents.
comparative basis, and such a comparative measurement To define a current requires that both magnitude and
is the common factor of many systems, including phase be stated. Comparison in terms of both of these
directional comparison protection and distance quantities is performed in the Merz-Price systems, but it
teleprotection schemes with directional impedance is not always easy to transmit all this information
measurement. over some pilot channels. Chapter 8 provides a detailed
A major factor in consideration of unit protection is the description of modern methods that may be used.
method of communication between the relays. This is
covered in detail in Chapter 8 in respect of the latest
fibre-optic based digital techniques. For older ‘pilot wire’ 10 . 4 C I R C U L AT I N G C U R R E N T S Y S T E M
systems, only brief mention is made. For more detailed The principle of this system is shown in outline in
descriptions of ‘pilot wire’ techniques, see reference Figure 10.1. If the current transformers are ideal, the
[10.2] in Section 10.13. functioning of the system is straightforward. The
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
RR
level fault sensitivity is greatly improved. Figure 10.5
illustrates a typical bias characteristic for a modern relay
(a)
Subscripts:
scripts that overcomes the problem. At low currents, the bias is
G' S - CT Secondary small, thus enabling the relay to be made sensitive. At
F' L higher currents, such as would be obtained from inrush or
G''
G
h - end H through fault conditions, the bias used is higher, and thus
J H
G F the spill current required to cause operation is higher. The
relay is therefore more tolerant of spill current at higher
H' fault currents and therefore less likely to maloperate,
H
H'' while still being sensitive at lower current levels.
GG' '
GG'' '' Electro-motive forces with low impedance relay
(b)
I1 I2
Figure 10.4: Equivalent circuit
of circulating current scheme
I3
• 10 •
10.4.1 Transient Instability Idiff
under transient conditions, which is clearly Figure 10.5: Typical bias characteristic of relay
be regarded as a voltage source. The shunt reactance of not a major constraint. For older relays, use of this
the transformer is relatively low, so the device acts as a technique over pilot wires may be possible for relatively
transformer loaded with a reactive shunt; hence the short distances, such as would be found with industrial
American name of transactor. The equivalent circuit of and urban power distribution systems. Clearly, each
the system is as shown in Figure 10.6. phase would require a separate set of pilot wires if the
protection was applied on a per phase basis. The cost of
The series connected relays are of relatively high
providing separate pilot-pairs and also separate relay
impedance; because of this the CT secondary winding
elements per phase is generally prohibitive. Summation
resistances are not of great significance and the pilot
techniques can be used to combine the separate phase
resistance can be moderately large without significantly
currents into a single relaying quantity for comparison
affecting the operation of the system. This is why the
over a single pair of pilot wires. For details of such
scheme was developed for feeder protection.
techniques, see reference [10.2].
End G End H
10 . 7 E X A M P L E S O F E L E C T R O M E C H A N I C A L
• 10 • RSg RLg RLh RSh A N D S TAT I C U N I T P R OT E C T I O N S Y S T E M S
As mentioned above, the basic balanced voltage principle
of protection evolved to biased protection systems.
Zeg Zeh
Pilot Several of these have been designed, some of which
Parameters
appear to be quite different from others. These
dissimilarities are, however, superficial. A number of
Id> Id> these systems that are still in common use are described
Relay G Relay H below.
Figure 10.6: Equivalent circuit
for balanced voltage system
10.7.1 ‘Translay’ Balanced Voltage
Electromechanical System
A typical biased, electromechanical balanced voltage
10.5.1 Stability Limit of the Voltage Balance System
system, trade name ‘Translay’, still giving useful service
Unlike normal current transformers, transactors are not on distribution systems is shown in Figure 10.7.
subject to errors caused by the progressive build-up of
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Through current in the power circuit produces a state of This is made possible by a special adjustment (Kt) by
balance in the pilot circuit and zero current in the lower which the operating time of the differential protection
electromagnet coils. In this condition, no operating can be selectively increased if necessary, thereby
torque is produced. enabling the use of current transformers having a
correspondingly decreased knee-point voltage, whilst
An in-zone fault causing an inflow of current from each
ensuring that through-fault stability is maintained to
end of the line produces circulating current in the pilot
greater than 50 times the rated current.
circuit and the energisation of the lower electromagnets.
These co-operate with the flux of the upper Internal faults give simultaneous tripping of relays at
electromagnets to produce an operating torque in the both ends of the line, providing rapid fault clearance
discs of both relays. An infeed from one end only will irrespective of whether the fault current is fed from both
result in relay operation at the feeding end, but no line ends or from only one line end.
operation at the other, because of the absence of upper
magnet flux.
• 10 •
A
T1 - Summation transformer
B
T2 - Auxiliary transformer
C
RVO - Non linear resistor
Figure 10.8: Typical static circulating current feeder unit protection circuit diagram
ends of the line may not need to implement intertripping transmission delay between the relays. Four techniques
facilities. However, it is usual to provide intertripping in are possible for this:
any case to ensure the protection operates in the event
a. assume a value
of any of the relays detecting a fault.
b. measurement during commissioning only
A facility for vector/ratio compensation of the measured c. continuous online measurement
currents, so that transformer feeders can be included in d. GPS time signal
the unit protection scheme without the use of
Method (a) is not used, as the error between the assumed
interposing CT’s or defining the transformer as a separate
and actual value will be too great.
zone increases versatility. Any interposing CT’s required
are implemented in software. Maloperation on Method (b) provides reliable data if direct
transformer inrush is prevented by second harmonic communication between relays is used. As signal
detection. Care must be taken if the transformer has a propagation delays may change over a period of years,
wide-ratio on-load tap changer, as this results in the repeat measurements may be required at intervals and
current ratio departing from nominal and may cause relays re-programmed accordingly. There is some risk of
• 10 • maloperation, depending on the sensitivity of the relays. maloperation due to changes in signal propagation time
The initial bias slope should be set taking this into causing incorrect time synchronisation between
consideration. measurement intervals. The technique is less suitable if
rented fibre-optic pilots are used, since the owner may
Tuned measurement of power frequency currents
perform circuit re-routing for operational reasons
provides a high level of stability with capacitance inrush
without warning, resulting in the propagation delay
currents during line energisation. The normal steady-
being outside of limits and leading to scheme
state capacitive charging current can be allowed for if a
maloperation. Where re-routing is limited to a few
voltage signal can be made available and the
routes, it may be possible to measure the delay on all
susceptance of the protected zone is known.
routes and pre-program the relays accordingly, with the
Where an earthed transformer winding or earthing relay digital inputs and ladder logic being used to detect
transformer is included within the zone of protection, changes in route and select the appropriate delay
some form of zero sequence current filtering is required. accordingly.
This is because there will be an in-zone source of zero
Method (c), continuous sensing of the signal propagation
sequence current for an external earth fault. The
delay, is a robust technique. One method of achieving
differential protection will see zero sequence differential
this is shown in Figure 10.9.
current for an external fault and it could incorrectly
Measured sampling time Propagation delay time TA1'TA2' - sampling instants of relay A
TB3*=(TA*-Tp2) Tp1=Tp2=1/2(TA*-TA1-Td) TB1'TB2' - sampling instants of relay B
Tp1 - propagation delay time
Current from relay A to B
TA1 vectors
TB1 Tp2 - propagation delay time
Tp1 TA1 from relay B to A
TA2
TB2 Td - time between the arrival
TB* of message TA1 at relay B
TA3 Td and despatch of message TB3
TB3* TB3 TA1* - arrival time of message TB3
TA4 and relay A
Tp2 TB4
vectors TB* - arrival time of message TA1
Current
TA5 Td and relay B
TA*
TB3 TA1 TB5 TB3* - the measured sampling
time of TB3 by relay A
Relays A and B sample signals at time TA1,TA2 …and communication channels under well-defined conditions.
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
TB1,TB2 …respectively. The times will not be coincident,
The technique can also be used with all types of pilots,
even if they start coincidentally, due to slight differences
subject to provision of appropriate interfacing devices.
in sampling frequencies. At time TA1 relay A transmits
its data to relay B, containing a time tag and other data. Method (d) is also a robust technique. It involves both
Relay B receives it at time TA1 +Tp1 where Tp1 is the relays being capable of receiving a time signal from
propagation time from relay A to relay B. Relay B a GPS satellite. The propagation delay on each
records this time as time TB*. Relay B also sends communication channel is no longer required to be
messages of identical format to relay A. It transmits such known or calculated as both relays are synchronised to a
a message at time TB3, received by relay A at time common time signal. For the protection scheme to meet
TB3 +Tp2 (say time TA*), where Tp2 is the propagation the required performance in respect of availability and
time from relay B to relay A. The message from relay B maloperation, the GPS signal must be capable of reliable
to relay A includes the time TB3, the last received time receipt under all atmospheric conditions. There is extra
tag from relay A (TA1) and the delay time between the satellite signal receiving equipment required at both
arrival time of the message from A (TB*) and TB3 – call ends of the line, which implies extra cost.
this the delay time Td. The total elapsed time is The minimum setting that can be achieved with such
therefore: • 10 •
techniques while ensuring good stability is 20% of CT
(TA* - TA1) = (Td + Tp1 + Tp2) primary current.
If it is assumed that Tp1 = Tp2, then the value of Tp1 and
Tp2 can be calculated, and hence also TB3. The relay B 10.8.2 Application to Mesh Corner
measured data as received at relay A can then be and 1 1/2 Breaker Switched Substations
adjusted to enable data comparison to be performed.
Relay B performs similar computations in respect of the These substation arrangements are quite common, and
data received from relay A (which also contains similar the arrangement for the latter is shown in Figure 10.10.
time information). Therefore, continuous measurement Problems exist in protecting the feeders due to the
of the propagation delay is made, thus reducing the location of the line CT’s, as either Bus 1 or Bus 2 or both
possibility of maloperation due to this cause to a can supply the feeder. Two alternatives are used to
minimum. Comparison is carried out on a per-phase basis, overcome the problem, and they are illustrated in the
so signal transmission and the calculations are required Figure. The first is to common the line CT inputs (as
for each phase. A variation of this technique is available shown for Feeder A) and the alternative is to use a second
that can cope with unequal propagation delays in the two set of CT inputs to the relay (as shown for Feeder B).
Sensing of the state of the line isolator through auxiliary range of the scheme. As the fault current may be up to
contacts enables the current values transmitted to and 30 times the rated current, a scheme with linear
received from remote relays to be set to zero when the characteristics requires a wide dynamic range, which
isolator is open. Hence, stub-bus protection for the implies a wide signal transmission bandwidth. In
energised part of the bus is then possible, with any fault practice, bandwidth is limited, so either a non-linear
resulting in tripping of the relevant CB. modulation characteristic must be used or detection of
fault currents close to the setpoint will be difficult.
10 . 9 C A R R I E R U N I T P R OT E C T I O N S C H E M E S
10.10.1 Phase Comparison Scheme
In earlier sections, the pilot links between relays have
been treated as an auxiliary wire circuit that The carrier channel is used to convey the phase angle of the
interconnects relays at the boundaries of the protected current at one relaying point to another for comparison
zone. In many circumstances, such as the protection of with the phase angle of the current at that point.
longer line sections or where the route involves The principles of phase comparison are illustrated in
• 10 • installation difficulties, it is too expensive to provide an Figure 10.11. The carrier channel transfers a logic or
auxiliary cable circuit for this purpose, and other means 'on/off' signal that switches at the zero crossing points
are sought. of the power frequency waveform. Comparison of a local
In all cases (apart from private pilots and some short logic signal with the corresponding signal from the
rented pilots) power system frequencies cannot be remote end provides the basis for the measurement of
transmitted directly on the communication medium. phase shift between power system currents at the two
Instead a relaying quantity may be used to vary the ends and hence discrimination between internal and
higher frequency associated with each medium (or the through faults.
light intensity for fibre-optic systems), and this process Current flowing above the set threshold results in turn-
is normally referred to as modulation of a carrier wave. off of the carrier signal. The protection operates if gaps
Demodulation or detection of the variation at a remote in the carrier signal are greater than a set duration – the
receiver permits the relaying quantity to be reconstituted phase angle setting of the protection.
for use in conjunction with the relaying quantities
derived locally, and forms the basis for all carrier systems Load or through fault currents at the two ends of a
of unit protection. protected feeder are in antiphase (using the normal relay
convention for direction), whilst during an internal fault
Carrier systems are generally insensitive to induced the (conventional) currents tend towards the in-phase
End G End H
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Phase
E comparator
Pulse length
discrimination
Load or through fault Internal fault
F G IG IH H G IG IH H
1 1
B. Squarer output at end G
0 0
• 10 •
C. Summation voltage at end H
1 1
D. Squarer output at end H 0 0
(Received at end G via
ideal carrier system as D'
1 1
E. Comparator output at end G
0 0
E=B+D'
1 1
F. Discriminator output at end G
0 0
Stability setting
frequency channels using frequency shift keying (FSK) or attenuation due to the fault.
PLC techniques. The noise immunity is also very good, making the scheme
Voice frequency channels involving FSK use two discrete very reliable. Signal propagation delay is easily allowed
frequencies either side of the middle of the voice band. for in the stability angle setting, making the scheme very
This arrangement is less sensitive to variations in delay or sensitive as well.
frequency response than if the full bandwidth was used.
Blocking or permissive trip modes of operation may be
implemented. In addition to the two frequencies used 10 . 11 P H A S E C O M PA R I S I O N P R OT E C T I O N
for conveying the squarer information, a third tone is S C H E M E C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
often used, either for channel monitoring or transfer One type of unit protection that uses carrier techniques
tripping dependent on the scheme. for communication between relays is phase comparison
For a sensitive phase comparison scheme, accurate protection. Communication between relays commonly
compensation for channel delay is required. However, uses PLCC or frequency modulated carrier modem
since both the local and remote signals are logic pulses, techniques. There are a number of considerations that
• 10 • simple time delay circuits can be used, in contrast to the apply only to phase comparison protection systems,
analogue delay circuitry usually required for current which are discussed in this section.
differential schemes.
The principles of the Power Line Carrier channel 10.11.1 Lines with Shunt Capacitance
technique are illustrated in Figure 10.13. The scheme
operates in the blocking mode. The 'squarer' logic is used A problem can occur with the shunt capacitance current
directly to turn a transmitter 'on' or 'off' at one end, and that flows from an energising source. Since this current is
the resultant burst (or block) of carrier is coupled to and in addition to the load current that flows out of the line,
propagates along the power line which is being protected and typically leads it by more than 90°, significant
to a receiver at the other end. Carrier signals above a differential phase shifts between the currents at the ends
threshold are detected by the receiver, and hence produce of the line can occur, particularly when load current is low.
a logic signal corresponding to the block of carrier. In The system differential phase shift may encroach into the
contrast to Figure 10.11, the signalling system is a 2-wire tripping region of the simple discriminator characteristic,
rather than 4-wire arrangement, in which the local regardless of how large the stability angle setting may
transmission is fed directly to the local receiver along be. Figure 10.14 illustrates the effect and indicates
with any received signal. The transmitter frequencies at techniques that are commonly used to ensure stability.
Coupling
Summation filter
network
A
Squarer Transmitter B
Identical
relay
C to end G
Receiver
Pulse length
discriminator
D Trip
Trip Load or through fault Internal fault
1 1
A. Squarer output at end G 0 0
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
B. Composite carrier signal at end G
1 1
D. Discriminator output 0 0
Stability setting
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
components. No simple cancellation can occur, but
For a high resistance phase-earth fault, the system instead a phase displacement is introduced. For tripping
remains well balanced so that load current IL is entirely to occur, Equation 10.2 must be satisfied, and to achieve
positive sequence. The fault contribution IF provides high dependability under these marginal conditions, a
equal parts of positive, negative and zero sequence small effective stability angle is essential. Figure 10.15
components IF /3. Assuming the fault is on 'A' phase and illustrates operation near to the limits of earth fault
the load is resistive, all sequence components are in sensitivity.
phase at the infeed end G: Very sensitive schemes may be implemented by using
MI FG NI FG high values of M _ but the scheme then becomes more
∴ I mG = NI L + + N
3 3 sensitive to differential errors in NPS currents such as
the unbalanced components of capacitive current or spill
and from partially saturated CT's.
θG ≈ 0 Techniques such as capacitive current compensation and
reduction of M _ at high fault levels may be required to
At the outfeed end load current is negative, N • 10 •
ensure stability of the scheme.
MI FH NI FH
∴ I mH = − NI L + +
3 3
10.11.5 Fault Detection and Starting
Now, for
For a scheme using a carrier system that continuously
ImH > 0,θH = 0, and |θG - θH| = 0°
transmits the modulating quantity, protecting an ideal
and for line (capacitive current=0) in an interconnected
ImH < 0,θH = 180°, and |θG - θH| = 180° transmission system, measurement of current magnitude
Hence for correct operation ImH ≥ 0 might be unnecessary. In practice, fault detector or
Let ImH = 0 starting elements are invariably provided and the scheme
then becomes a permissive tripping scheme in which
Then both the fault detector and the discriminator must
operate to provide a trip output, and the fault detector
3I L
I FH = = IE may limit the sensitivity of the scheme. Requirements
M
+1 for the fault detectors vary according to the type of
N …Equation 10.6 carrier channel used, mode of operation used in the
This section gives examples of setting calculations for To provide immunity from the effects of line charging
simple unit protection schemes. It cannot and is not current, the setting of IS1 must be at least 2.5 times the
intended to replace a proper setting calculation for a steady-state charging current, i.e. 4.1A or 0.01p.u., after
particular application. It is intended to illustrate the taking into consideration the CT ratio of 400/1. The nearest
principles of the calculations required. The examples use available setting above this is 0.20p.u. This gives the points
the AREVA MiCOM P541 Current Differential relay, which on the relay characteristic as shown in Figure 10.17.
has the setting ranges given in Table 10.1 for differential The minimum operating current Idmin is related to the
protection. The relay also has backup distance, high-set value of Is1 by the formula
instantaneous, and earth-fault protection included in the Idmin = (k1IL + Is1)/(1-0.5k1)
basic model to provide a complete ‘one-box’ solution of
main and backup protection. for Ibias <Is2
and
Idmin = (k2IL -(k2-k1)Is2 + Is1)/(1-0.5k2)
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10.12.1 Unit Protection of a Plain Feeder for Ibias >Is2
The circuit to be protected is shown in Figure 10.16. It where IL = load current
consists of a plain feeder circuit formed of an overhead and hence the minimum operating current at no load is
line 25km long. The relevant properties of the line are: 0.235p.u. or 94A.
Line voltage: 33kV
Z = 0.157 + j0.337Ω/km In cases where the capacitive charging current is very
Shunt charging current = 0.065A/km large and hence the minimum tripping current needs to
be set to an unacceptably high value, some relays offer
To arrive at the correct settings, the characteristics of the
the facility of subtracting the charging current from the
relays to be applied must be considered.
measured value. Use of this facility depends on having a
The recommended settings for three of the adjustable suitable VT input and knowledge of the shunt
values (taken from the relay manual) are: capacitance of the circuit.
Is2 = 2.0pu
• 10 •
LV side: Yy0
4
b. HV side: Yy0
LV side: Yd11
3
Only the second combination is satisfactory, since only
this one provides the necessary zero-sequence current
2 trap to avoid maloperation of the protection scheme for
earth faults on the LV side of the transformer outside of
the protected zone.
1
Ratio correction must also be applied, in order to ensure
that the relays see currents from the primary and
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 secondary sides of the transformer feeder that are well
Ibias balanced under full load conditions. This is not always
Figure 10.17: Relay characteristic; inherently the case, due to selection of the main CT
plain feeder example ratios. For the example of Figure 10.18,
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10.12.2 Unit Protection of a Transformer Feeder Transformer turns ratio at nominal tap
Figure 10.18 shows unit protection applied to a 11
= = 0.3333
transformer feeder. The feeder is assumed to be a 100m 33
length of cable, such as might be found in some
industrial plants or where a short distance separates the Required turns ratio according to the CT ratios used
33kV and 11kV substations. While 11kV cable 400
capacitance will exist, it can be regarded as negligible for = 1 = 0.32
1250
the purposes of this example. 1
20 MVA
33kV 33/11kV
11kV
400/1 Dyn1 Cable 1250/1
100m
350A 1050A
• 10 •
0° -30°
0.875A 0.84A
Digital communication
channel
Id > Id>
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
k2 = 150%
10 . 1 3 R E F E R E N C E S
10.1 Merz-Price Protective Gear. K. Faye-Hansen and
G. Harlow. IEE Proceedings, 1911.
10.2 Protective Relays Application Guide – 3rd
Edition. AREVA Transmission and Distribution
Protection and Control, 1987.
• 10 •
Introduction 11.1
References 11.13
• 11 • Distance P rotection
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of combining fast fault clearance with
selective tripping of plant is a key aim for the protection
of power systems. To meet these requirements, high-
speed protection systems for transmission and primary
distribution circuits that are suitable for use with the
automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under
continuous development and are very widely applied.
Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit
system of protection offering considerable economic and
technical advantages. Unlike phase and neutral
overcurrent protection, the key advantage of distance
protection is that its fault coverage of the protected
circuit is virtually independent of source impedance
variations.
Zs=10Ω
Z1=4Ω
Zs=10Ω
I >> F1
115kV
R1
x 3
IF1= =7380A
√
√3 +
Relay R1
(a)
Zs=10Ω
Z1=4Ω
I >>
> F2
115kV
115x103
IF2= =6640A
√
√3x10
(b)
Therefore, for relay operation for line faults,
Relay current setting <6640A and >7380A
This is impractical, overcurrent relay not suitable
Must use Distance or Unit Protection
105
ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle
between them, it may be plotted on an R/X diagram. The 100
loci of power system impedances as seen by the relay
95
during faults, power swings and load variations may be 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 65
plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the % relay rated voltage
performance of the relay in the presence of system faults (a) Phase-earth faults
and disturbances may be studied.
(% Zone 1 setting)
105
Impedance reach
• 11 • 100
11.3 RELAY PERFORMANCE
95
Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reach 0 20 40 60 80 100
accuracy and operating time. Reach accuracy is a % relay rated voltage
comparison of the actual ohmic reach of the relay under (b) Phase-phase faults
50
40 slower than some of the older relay designs when
30 operating under the best conditions, but their maximum
20 Max operating times are also less under adverse waveform
10
Min conditions or for boundary fault conditions.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fault position (% relay setting)
11.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELAY VOLTAGE
(a) With system impedance ratio of 1/1
AND ZS/ZL RATIO
A single, generic, equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure
Operation time (ms)
Distance P rotection
expressed as a percentage of the relay setting is plotted voltage VR applied to the relay is, therefore, IRZL. For a
against the source to line impedance ratio, as illustrated fault at the reach point, this may be alternatively
in Figure 11.4. expressed in terms of source to line impedance ratio
ZS/ZL by means of the following expressions:
VR=IRZL
Fault position (p.u. relay setting ZL)
Boundary
where:
1.0
13ms V
0.9
0.8 IR =
0.7
9ms ZS + Z L
0.6
0.5 Therefore :
0.4
0.3 ZL
0.2 VR = V • 11 •
0.1 ZS + Z L
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 1
100 1000
S/Z
ZL or
1
Fault position (p.u. relay setting ZL)
VR = V
1.0
Boundaryy (ZS ZL ) +1
...Equation 11.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 15ms
0.5
The above generic relationship between VR and ZS/ZL,
0.4 illustrated in Figure 11.5(b), is valid for all types of short
0.3
0.2 circuits provided a few simple rules are observed. These
0.1 are:
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
S/Z
ZL i. for phase faults, V is the phase-phase source
(b) Zone 1 phase-phase fault: maximum operation times voltage and ZS/ZL is the positive sequence source
to line impedance ratio. VR is the phase-phase
relay voltage and IR is the phase-phase relay
Figure 11.4: Typical operation-time contours
current, for the faulted phases
VS VL=VR
delayed zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3-
IR zone distance protection are shown in Figure 11.6. Digital
ZS ZL and numerical distance relays may have up to five zones,
V VR some set to measure in the reverse direction. Typical
settings for three forward-looking zones of basic distance
(a) Power system configuration protection are given in the following sub-sections. To
determine the settings for a particular relay design or for
10
a particular distance teleprotection scheme, involving
7.5 end-to-end signalling, the relay manufacturer’s
instructions should be referred to.
VR (%)
100 5.0
90 2.5
11 •
Voltage VR (% rated voltage)
•
80 0
VR (%) 10 20 30 40 50 11.6.1 Zone 1 Setting
ZS
70
ZL Electromechanical/static relays usually have a reach
60 setting of up to 80% of the protected line impedance for
50 instantaneous Zone 1 protection. For digital/numerical
40 distance relays, settings of up to 85% may be safe. The
30 resulting 15-20% safety margin ensures that there is no
risk of the Zone 1 protection over-reaching the protected
20
line due to errors in the current and voltage
10
transformers, inaccuracies in line impedance data
0 provided for setting purposes and errors of relay setting
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 2 13 4 5 10
ZS and measurement. Otherwise, there would be a loss of
System impedance ratio
ZL discrimination with fast operating protection on the
(b) Variation of relay voltage with system source following line section. Zone 2 of the distance protection
to line impedance ratio
must cover the remaining 15-20% of the line.
Figure 11.5: Relationship between source
to line ratio and relay voltage
Distance P rotection
Time Z2J
Y
line voltage transformers, to provide fast tripping in the
Z1J Z1L
Source Source
event of accidental line energisation with maintenance
H J K
0 earthing clamps left in position. Additional impedance
Z1H Z1K
H
X Z2K
zones may be deployed as part of a distance protection
Y
Z3KF Z3KR scheme used in conjunction with a teleprotection
Time
signalling channel.
Zone 1 = 80-85% of protected line impedance
Zone 2 (minimum) = 120% of protected line
Zone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second line
Zone 3F = 1.2 (protected line + longest second line)
Zone 3R = 20% of protected line 11.7 DISTANCE RELAY CHARACTERISTICS
X = Circuit breaker tripping time
Y = Discriminating time Some numerical relays measure the absolute fault
impedance and then determine whether operation is
Figure 11.6: Typical time/distance characteristics required according to impedance boundaries defined on • 11 •
for three zone distance protection the R/X diagram. Traditional distance relays and
numerical relays that emulate the impedance elements
of traditional relays do not measure absolute impedance.
11.6.3 Zone 3 Setting They compare the measured fault voltage with a replica
voltage derived from the fault current and the zone
Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacent
impedance setting to determine whether the fault is
lines can be provided by a third zone of protection that
within zone or out-of-zone. Distance relay impedance
is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 protection
comparators or algorithms which emulate traditional
plus circuit breaker trip time for the adjacent line. Zone
comparators are classified according to their polar
3 reach should be set to at least 1.2 times the impedance
characteristics, the number of signal inputs they have,
presented to the relay for a fault at the remote end of
and the method by which signal comparisons are made.
the second line section.
The common types compare either the relative amplitude
On interconnected power systems, the effect of fault or phase of two input quantities to obtain operating
current infeed at the remote busbars will cause the characteristics that are either straight lines or circles
impedance presented to the relay to be much greater when plotted on an R/X diagram. At each stage of
than the actual impedance to the fault and this needs to distance relay design evolution, the development of
B
Restrains
11.7.1 Amplitude and Phase Comparison L
Operates Line AB
Relay measuring elements whose functionality is based
on the comparison of two independent quantities are A R
essentially either amplitude or phase comparators. For
the impedance elements of a distance relay, the AC
quantities being compared are the voltage and current M
measured by the relay. There are numerous techniques
C
available for performing the comparison, depending on Impedance
p
the technology used. They vary from balanced-beam relay
(amplitude comparison) and induction cup (phase
comparison) electromagnetic relays, through diode and Figure 11.7: Plain impedance relay
characteristic
operational amplifier comparators in static-type distance
relays, to digital sequence comparators in digital relays X
and to algorithms used in numerical relays. Impedance
B element RZ<
Any type of impedance characteristic obtainable with L
one comparator is also obtainable with the other. The
addition and subtraction of the signals for one type of A
R
Restrains Q
comparator produces the required signals to obtain a
Distance P rotection
Distance P rotection
relay elements to attain reliable relay performance IX
during evolving fault conditions. In older relay designs, B
the type of problem to be addressed was commonly
referred to as one of ‘contact race’. P Q
Distance P rotection
use of a phase voltage memory system, that provides
There is a danger that the offset mho relay shown in several cycles of pre-fault voltage reference during a
Figure 11.10(a) may operate under maximum load fault, the cross-polarisation technique is also effective
transfer conditions if Zone 3 of the relay has a large for close-up three-phase faults. For this type of fault, no
reach setting. A large Zone 3 reach may be required to healthy phase voltage reference is available.
provide remote back-up protection for faults on the
adjacent feeder. Early memory systems were based on tuned, resonant,
analogue circuits, but problems occurred when applied
to networks where the power system operating
frequency could vary. More modern digital or numerical
X
systems can offer a synchronous phase reference for
variations in power system frequency before or even
Offset Lenticular
characteristic during a fault. • 11 •
b
Offset Mho As described in Section 11.7.3, a disadvantage of the
characteristic
self-polarised, plain mho impedance characteristic, when
a Z D3
Z D2 applied to overhead line circuits with high impedance
Z D1
angles, is that it has limited coverage of arc or fault
Load
0 area R resistance. The problem is aggravated in the case of
short lines, since the required Zone 1 ohmic setting is
low. The amount of the resistive coverage offered by the
mho circle is directly related to the forward reach
setting. Hence, the resulting resistive coverage may be
Impedance too small in relation to the expected values of fault
characteristic
resistance.
One additional benefit of applying cross-polarisation to
a mho impedance element is that its resistive coverage
Figure 11.11: Minimum load impedance will be enhanced. This effect is illustrated in Figure
permitted with lenticular, offset mho 11.12, for the case where a mho element has 100%
and impedance relays
Figure 11.12: Fully cross-polarised mho relay 11.7.6 Partially Cross-Polarised Mho Characteristic
characteristic with variations of ZS/ZL ratio
Where a reliable, independent method of faulted phase
selection is not provided, a modern non-switched
Distance P rotection
Positive current direction distance relay may only employ a relatively small
Source for relay
ZS ZL percentage of cross polarisation.
Relay location
IF
Va1 Shield-shaped
characteristic with
E1 ZS1 ZL1 16% square-wave Self-polarised Mho circle
N1 F1
cr
cross-polarisation X
Ia1 Fully cross-polarised
Mho circle
c
ZS2 Ia2 ZL2
N2 F2 Zn
Va2 -R
• 11 • R
Extra resistive
coverage of shield
Mho unit
characteristic Conventional 16%
(not cross-polarized) X -X partially cross-polarised
Mho circle
S'2=Z
ZL1+Zn1
Zn2
0 1 6 12 60
30° ZS1 24
S'1=Z
ZL1+Zn2 R
Distance P rotection
Zone 3 protected line impedance vector, as shown in Figure 11.16.
C
Zone 2
The ohm impedance elements divide the R/X impedance
B diagram into three zones, A, B and C. As the impedance
Zone 1
Zones
changes during a power swing, the point representing the
1&2 impedance moves along the swing locus, entering the three
R zones in turn and causing the ohm units to operate in
A
sequence. When the impedance enters the third zone the
Zone 3 trip sequence is completed and the circuit breaker trip coil
RZ1 can be energised at a favourable angle between system
RZ2
RZ3
sources for arc interruption with little risk of restriking.
Distance P rotection
Figure 11.17 (a): First generation of static distance relay Numerical phase selection is much faster than
traditional starter techniques used in electromechanical
or static distance relays. It does not impose a time
penalty as the phase selection and measuring zone
algorithms run in parallel. It is possible to build a full-
scheme relay with these numerical techniques. The
phase selection algorithm provides faulted phase
selection, together with a segregated measuring
algorithm for each phase-ground and phase to phase
fault loop (AN, BN, CN, AB, BC, CA), thus ensuring full-
scheme operation.
However, there may be occasions where a numerical • 11 •
relay that mimics earlier switched distance protection
techniques is desired. The reasons may be economic (less
software required – thus cheaper than a relay that
contains a full-scheme implementation) and/or
technical.
Figure 11.17 (b): MiCOM P440 series numerical distance relay
Some applications may require the numerical relay
characteristics to match those of earlier generations
already installed on a network, to aid selectivity. Such
relays are available, often with refinements such as
11.8.1 Starters for switched distance protection multi-sided polygonal impedance characteristics that
Electromechanical and static distance relays do not assist in avoiding tripping due to heavy load conditions.
normally use an individual impedance-measuring element With electromechanical or static switched distance
per phase. The cost and the resulting physical scheme size relays, a selection of available starters often had to be
made this arrangement impractical, except for the most made. The choice of starter was dependent on power
demanding EHV transmission applications. To achieve system parameters such as maximum load transfer in
section. Without this feature, indiscriminate tripping ( for double - phase faults )
may result for subsequent faults in the second or third
F
zone. For satisfactory operation of the overcurrent A
starters in a switched distance scheme, the following Va
B
conditions must be fulfilled: Vb
C
a. the current setting of the overcurrent starters must Ic Ib Ia
Vc
be not less than 1.2 times the maximum full load
current of the protected line
b. the power system minimum fault current for a Va=0
Ic=0
fault at the Zone 3 reach of the distance relay must Ib=0
not be less than 1.5 times the setting of the (a) Single-phase to earth (A-E)
overcurrent starters F
A
On multiple-earthed systems where the neutrals of all Va
B
the power transformers are solidly earthed, or in power
systems where the fault current is less than the full load C Vb
Ic Ib Ia
current of the protected line, it is not possible to use Vc
Distance P rotection
( )
Distance P rotection
( 3 - phase faults )
2 1 1
I ' b − I ' c = a − a I '1 B B
C 1 1 C
( 2
I ' b − I ' c = 2 a − a I '1 )
( double - phase faults ) Z= ZL1
(b) System earthed at one point only in front of the relaying point
and the relay will measure ZL1 in each case.
11.9.2 Earth Fault Impedance Measurement Relaying
point
Supply
When a phase-earth fault occurs, the phase-earth 1 F 2
A A
voltage at the fault location is zero. It would appear that B 1 1 B
the voltage drop to the fault is simply the product of the C 1 1 C
phase current and line impedance. However, the current • 11 •
in the fault loop depends on the number of earthing
points, the method of earthing and sequence impedances Z=KZL1
of the fault loop. Unless these factors are taken into
(c) As for (b) but with relaying point at receiving end
account, the impedance measurement will be incorrect.
The voltage drop to the fault is the sum of the sequence Figure 11.20: Effect of infeed and earthing
arrangements on earth fault distance
voltage drops between the relaying point and the fault. measurement
The voltage drop to the fault and current in the fault
loop are:
V ' a = I '1 Z L1 + I ' 2 Z L1 + I ' 0 Z L 0 The voltage appearing at the relaying point, as previously
mentioned, varies with the number of infeeds, the
I ' a = I '1 + I ' 2 + I ' 0 method of system earthing and the position of the relay
relative to the infeed and earthing points in the system.
and the residual current I’N at the relaying point is given
Figure 11.20 illustrates the three possible arrangements
by:
that can occur in practice with a single infeed. In Figure
I' n = I' a + I' b + I' c = 3 I'0 11.20(a), the healthy phase currents are zero, so that the
Z=KZL1
If there were infeeds at both ends of the line, the 11.10 DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATION PROBLEMS
impedance measured would be a superposition of any Distance relays may suffer from a number of difficulties
two of the above examples, with the relative magnitudes in their application. Many of them have been overcome
of the infeeds taken into account. in the latest numerical relays. Nevertheless, an
awareness of the problems is useful where a protection
This analysis shows that the relay can only measure an engineer has to deal with older relays that are already
impedance which is independent of infeed and earthing installed and not due for replacement.
( K − 1)
arrangements if a proportion K N = of the
3
residual current In=Ia+Ib+Ic is added to the phase 11.10.1 Minimum Voltage at Relay Terminals
current Ia. This technique is known as ‘residual To attain their claimed accuracy, distance relays that do
compensation’. not employ voltage memory techniques require a
Distance P rotection
Most distance relays compensate for the earth fault minimum voltage at the relay terminals under fault
conditions by using an additional replica impedance ZN conditions. This voltage should be declared in the data
within the measuring circuits. Whereas the phase replica sheet for the relay. With knowledge of the sequence
impedance Z1 is fed with the phase current at the impedances involved in the fault, or alternatively the
fault MVA, the system voltage and the earthing
relaying point, ZN is fed with the full residual current.
arrangements, it is possible to calculate the minimum
The value of ZN is adjusted so that for a fault at the
voltage at the relay terminals for a fault at the reach
reach point, the sum of the voltages developed across Z1
point of the relay. It is then only necessary to check that
and ZN equals the measured phase to neutral voltage in
the minimum voltage for accurate reach measurement
the faulted phase. can be attained for a given application. Care should be
The required setting for ZN can be determined by taken that both phase and earth faults are considered.
• 11 • considering an earth fault at the reach point of the relay.
This is illustrated with reference to the A-N fault with
single earthing point behind the relay as in Figure 11.10.2 Minimum Length of Line
11.20(a). To determine the minimum length of line that can be
protected by a distance relay, it is necessary to check first
Voltage supplied from the VT’s:
that any minimum voltage requirement of the relay for a
= I1(Z1+Z2+Z0) = I1(2Z1+Z0) fault at the Zone 1 reach is within the declared
sensitivity for the relay. Secondly, the ohmic impedance
Voltage across the replica impedances:
of the line (referred if necessary to VT/CT secondary side
= IaZ1+INZN quantities) must fall within the ohmic setting range for
= Ia(Z1+ZN) Zone 1 reach of the relay. For very short lines and
especially for cable circuits, it may be found that the
= 3I1(Z1+ZN) circuit impedance is less than the minimum setting
Hence, the required setting of ZN for balance at the range of the relay. In such cases, an alternative method
reach point is given by equating the above two of protection will be required.
expressions: A suitable alternative might be current differential
Distance P rotection
ZF = effective reach settings will not result in operation of healthy phase
relays for reverse earth faults, see Section 11.10.5.
The main cause of underreaching is the effect of fault
current infeed at remote busbars. This is best illustrated
by an example. 11.10.4 Over-Reach
A distance relay is said to over-reach when the apparent
IB impedance presented to it is less than the impedance to
the fault.
ZC
Percentage over-reach is defined by the equation:
IA+IB
Source ZF − ZR
×100%
A IA
xZC
ZR ...Equation 11.9
• 11 •
F
ZA
where:
Z< ZR = relay reach setting
Relaying point
Relay setting: ZA+ZC ZF = effective reach
Relay actual reach due to parallel line infeed: ZA+xZC An example of the over-reaching effect is when distance
relays are applied on parallel lines and one line is taken
Figure 11.21: Effect on distance relays out of service and earthed at each end. This is covered
of infeed at the remote busbar in Section 13.2.3.
In Figure 11.21, the relay at A will not measure the 11.10.5 Forward Reach Limitations
correct impedance for a fault on line section ZC due to
There are limitations on the maximum forward reach
current infeed IB. Consider a relay setting of ZA+ZC.
setting that can be applied to a distance relay. For
For a fault at point F, the relay is presented with an example, with reference to Figure 11.6, Zone 2 of one line
impedance: section should not reach beyond the Zone 1 coverage of
Power swings are variations in power flow that occur For these types of distance relay, supervision of the voltage
when the internal voltages of generators at different inputs is recommended. The supervision may be provided by
points of the power system slip relative to each other. The external means, e.g. separate voltage supervision circuits, or
changes in load flows that occur as a result of faults and it may be incorporated into the distance relay itself. On
their subsequent clearance are one cause of power swings. detection of VT failure, tripping of the distance relay can be
inhibited and/or an alarm is given. Modern distance
A power swing may cause the impedance presented to a protection relays employ voltage supervision that operates
distance relay to move away from the normal load area from sequence voltages and currents. Zero or negative
and into the relay characteristic. In the case of a stable sequence voltages and corresponding zero or negative
power swing it is especially important that the distance sequence currents are derived. Discrimination between
relay should not trip in order to allow the power system primary power system faults and wiring faults or loss of
to return to a stable conditions. For this reason, most supply due to individual fuses blowing or MCB’s being
distance protection schemes applied to transmission
opened is obtained by blocking the distance protection only
systems have a power swing blocking facility available.
Distance P rotection
11.12 DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATION EXAMPLE primary quantities and eliminates considerations of
VT/CT ratios.
The system diagram shown in Figure 11.22 shows a
Distance P rotection
simple 230kV network. The following example shows the For simplicity, it is assumed that only a conventional 3-
calculations necessary to apply three-zone distance zone distance protection is to be set and that there is no
protection to the line interconnecting substations ABC teleprotection scheme to be considered. In practice, a
and XYZ. All relevant data for this exercise are given in teleprotection scheme would normally be applied to a
the diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral line at this voltage level.
characteristics is considered in this example. Relay
parameters used in the example are listed in Table 11.2.
11.12.1 Line Impedance
Calculations are carried out in terms of primary system
impedances in ohms, rather than the traditional practice The line impedance is:
of using secondary impedances. With numerical relays, ZL = (0.089 + j0.476) x 100
where the CT and VT ratios may be entered as
parameters, the scaling between primary and secondary = 8.9 + j47.6Ω • 11 •
ohms can be performed by the relay. This simplifies the = 48.42 ∠79.41 Ω 0
= 0.426 + j1.576 Ω (1.632 ∠ 74.87 Ω ) o Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with
Z L0
those of other relays is required. Independent timers are
Hence, available for the three zones to ensure this.
Distance P rotection
R3ph = 78Ω
R2ph = 78Ω
R1ph = 78Ω
Introduction 12.1
Zone 1 extension scheme 12.2
Transfer trip schemes 12.3
Blocking scheme 12.4
Directional comparison unblocking scheme 12.5
Comparison of transfer trip
and blocking relaying schemes 12.6
• 12 • Distance P rotection
Schemes
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Conventional time-stepped distance protection is
illustrated in Figure 12.1. One of the main disadvantages
of this scheme is that the instantaneous Zone 1
protection at each end of the protected line cannot be
set to cover the whole of the feeder length and is usually
set to about 80%. This leaves two 'end zones', each
being about 20% of the protected feeder length. Faults
in these zones are cleared in Zone 1 time by the
protection at one end of the feeder and in Zone 2 time
(typically 0.25 to 0.4 seconds) by the protection at the
other end of the feeder.
Relay A
end zone
Z3G
Z2A
Z1A
A B C
Time
F
0
Z1B
B
Z3B
Relay B
end zone
(a) Stepped time/distance characteristics
Z1
Z2 Z2T 0 ≥1
Trip
Z3 Z3 0
Z3T 0 ≥1
12.3.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme
Z3 Trip • 12 •
The simplest way of reducing the fault clearance time at Signal receive 0 T &
the terminal that clears an end zone fault in Zone 2 time
is to adopt a direct transfer trip or intertrip technique, the
(a) Signal logic
logic of which is shown in Figure 12.4.
Distance relay
Distance relay
Z1A Z2A
A B A B C
F
Z1B
Distance P rotection Schemes
Z2B
Z3B
(a) Distance/time characteristics
Z1 & Z2
(a) Fault occurs-bus bar voltage low so ≥1
negligible fault current via end B Z3 Z3T O Trip
A B
F
Z2T O
≥1
Range change signal
Open
Signal receive
&
Signal send
Z3T O ≥1
Z3 Trip
& tp td
Signal receive &
&
Signal receive
Signal Signal
Distance relay
send circuit circuit send
(f1) (f2) Figure 12.9: Current reversal guard logic –
permissive over-reach scheme
Signal Receive Receive Signal
receive circuit circuit receive
(f2) f2 f1 (f1)
Signalling equipment Signalling equipment
The above scheme using Zone 2 relay elements is often
-End A -End B referred to as a POP Z2 scheme. An alternative exists
(b) Signalling arrangement that uses Zone 1 elements instead of Zone 2, and this is
referred to as the POP Z1 scheme.
Figure 12.8: Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme
Since the signalling channel is keyed by over-reaching Zone 12.3.5 Weak Infeed Conditions
2 elements, the scheme requires duplex communication
occurs when no signal is received and the over-reaching as a ‘directional comparison blocking scheme’ or a
Zone 2 distance measuring elements looking into the line ‘blocking over-reach distance protection scheme’.
operate. The signalling channel is keyed by reverse-
looking distance elements (Z3 in the diagram, though Signal send
Z1
which zone is used depends on the particular relay used).
An ideal blocking scheme is shown in Figure 12.11.
Z2 Z2T O
Z3A
Z3 Z3T O ≥1
Z2A Trip
Z1A
A B C
F1 F2 F3 STL O
&
Z1B
Z2B Signal receive O td
Z3B
(a) Distance/time characteristics
Channel in service
• 12 • Z1
Signal send
Distance relay
Introduction 13.1
Multi-ended feeders -
application of distance protection schemes 13.5
Examples 13.7
References 13.8
• 13 • P rotection of Complex
Transmission Circuits
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapters 10-12 have covered the basic principles of
protection for two terminal, single circuit lines whose
circuit impedance is due solely to the conductors used.
However parallel transmission circuits are often
installed, either as duplicate circuits on a common
structure, or as separate lines connecting the same two
terminal points via different routes. Also, circuits may
be multi-ended, a three-ended circuit being the most
common.
For economic reasons, transmission and distribution
lines can be much more complicated, maybe having
three or more terminals (multi-ended feeder), or with
more than one circuit carried on a common structure
(parallel feeders), as shown in Figure 13.1. Other
possibilities are the use of series capacitors or direct-
connected shunt reactors. The protection of such lines
is more complicated and requires the basic schemes
described in the above chapters to be modified.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the special
requirements of some of these situations in respect of
protection and identify which protection schemes are
particularly appropriate for use in these situations.
Bus C
Source Source
Bus A Bus B
Fault
13.2.1 Unit Protection Systems
P rotection of Complex Transmission Circuits
13.2.2 Distance Protection If a fault occurs on a line that lies beyond the remote
terminal end of a parallel line circuit, the distance relay
There are a number of problems applicable to distance will under-reach for those zones set to reach into the
relays, as described in the following sections. affected line.
13.2.2.1 Current reversal on double circuit lines Analysis shows that under these conditions, because the
When a fault is cleared sequentially on one circuit of a relay sees only 50% (for two parallel circuits) of the
double circuit line with generation sources at both ends total fault current for a fault in the adjacent line section,
of the circuit, the current in the healthy line can reverse the relay sees the impedance of the affected section as
for a short time. Unwanted tripping of CB’s on the twice the correct value. This may have to be allowed for
healthy line can then occur if a Permissive Over-reach or in the settings of Zones 2 and 3 of conventionally set
Blocking distance scheme (see Chapter 12) is used. distance relays.
Figure 13.2 shows how the situation can arise. The CB Since the requirement for the minimum reach of Zone 2
at D clears the fault at F faster than the CB at C. Before is to the end of the protected line section and the under-
• 13 • CB D opens, the Zone 2 elements at A may see the fault reach effect only occurs for faults in the following line
and operate, sending a trip signal to the relay for CB B. section(s), it is not usually necessary to adjust Zone 2
The reverse looking element of the relay at CB B also impedance settings to compensate.
sees the fault and inhibits tripping of CB’s A and B.
However, once CB D opens, the relay element at A starts However, Zone 3 elements are intended to provide
to reset, while the forward looking elements at B pick up backup protection to adjacent line sections and hence
(due to current reversal) and initiate tripping. If the the under-reaching effect must be allowed for in the
reset times of the forward-looking elements of the relay impedance calculations.
at A are longer than the operating time of the forward- 13.2.2.3 Behaviour of distance relays
looking elements at B, the relays will trip the healthy with earth faults on the protected feeder
line. The solution is to incorporate a blocking time delay
When an earth fault occurs in the system, the voltage
that prevents the tripping of the forward-looking
applied to the earth fault element of the relay in one
elements of the relays and is initiated by the reverse-
circuit includes an induced voltage proportional to the
looking element. The time delay must be longer than the
zero sequence current in the other circuit.
reset times of the relay elements at A.
I A1 =
2 (ZS′1 + ZS′′1 ) + Z L1
IB1 ZL1 1
Z'S1 Z''S1
I A0 =
IA1 F1
nZL1 (1-n)ZL1
(2 − n )ZSO′′ + (1 − n )(ZSO′ + Z L 0 + Z M 0 ) I
2 (ZSO ′′ ) + Z L 0 + Z M 0
0
R I1 ′ + ZSO
(b) Positive sequence network
and
y = SO
n'=
ZLO
( I B 0 I A 0 ) M 1
Z A = nZ L1 1 +
2 ( I A1 I A 0 ) + K
n'
Limit of
where:
when y 0
x •
M =ZM 0 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50
Z L1 Z
x=
ZLO
The true impedance to the fault is nZL1 where n is the
per unit fault position measured from R and ZL1 is the Figure 13.4: Typical reach curves illustrating
positive sequence impedance of a single circuit. The the effect of mutual coupling
'error' in measurement is determined from the fraction It can be seen from Figure 13.4 that relay R can under-
inside the bracket; this varies with the positive and zero reach or over-reach, according to the relative values of
sequence currents in circuit A and the zero sequence the zero sequence source to line impedance ratios; the
current in circuit B.
The voltage and current fed into the relay are given by: FO
IO
Z'SO nZLO Z''SO
V R =V A (1-n)ZLO
IGO
I R = I A + K R I A 0 + K M I B 0 Relay mZLO (1-n)ZMO
...Equation 13.3 location
IHO ZLO
where:
KR is the residual compensation factor
NO
KM is the mutual compensation factor
Figure 13.5: Zero sequence impedance network
during single circuit operation
C1
sent to the corresponding circuit breakers. In order to
1 A C
N N N prevent incorrect operation for external faults, two
A1 different detectors, set at different levels, are used. The
S1 S2 S1 S2
A C C1
low-set detector starts the transmission of carrier signal,
1
Figure 13.6: Balanced voltage Tee’d feeder scheme capacitive current of the protected feeder. This
condition is worse with multi-terminal feeders, since the
13.3.2.2 High - speed protection type DSB7 currents at the feeder terminals can be very dissimilar
This type is of higher speed and is shown in Figure 13.7. for an external fault. In the case of the three-terminal
Summation quadrature transformers are used to provide feeder in Figure 13.8, if incorrect operation is to be
the analogue quantity, which is balanced in a series loop avoided, it is necessary to make certain that the low-set
through a pilot circuit. Separate secondary windings on detector at end A or end B is energized when the
the quadrature current transformers are connected to current at end C is high enough to operate the high-set
full-wave rectifiers, the outputs of which are connected detector at that end. As only one low-set starter, at end
in series in a second pilot loop, so that the electromotive A or end B, needs to be energized for correct operation,
forces summate arithmetically. the most unfavourable condition will be when currents
The measuring relay is a double-wound moving coil type, IA and IB are equal. To maintain stability under this
one coil being energized from the vectorial summation condition, the high-set to low-set setting ratio of the
loop; the other receives bias from the scalar summation fault detectors needs to be twice as large as that
in the second loop proportional to the sum of the required when the scheme is applied to a plain feeder.
currents in the several line terminals, the value being This results in a loss of sensitivity, which may make the
adjusted by the inclusion of an appropriate value of equipment unsuitable if the minimum fault level of the
resistance. Since the operating and biasing quantities power system is low.
are both derived by summation, the relays at the
different terminals all behave alike, either to operate or A C
to restrain as appropriate. IA T IC
and
Optical fibre signalling channels
RA RB I diff > I S
where:
A B
IA IB
K = percentage bias setting
IS = minimum differential current setting
RC IC
If the magnitudes of the differential currents indicate
C that a fault has occurred, the relays trip their local circuit
breaker.
Figure 13.10: Current differential protection
for tee’d feeders using optical fibre signalling
13.4 MULTI-ENDED FEEDERS - DISTANCE RELAYS substations A and B (ZLA = ZLB) and the fault currents
IA and IC have been assumed to be identical in
Distance protection is widely used at present for tee'd magnitude and phase angle. With these conditions, the
feeder protection. However, its application is not fault appears to the relay to be located at B' instead of
straightforward, requiring careful consideration and at B - i.e. the relay appears to under-reach.
systematic checking of all the conditions described later
in this section.
A B
ZSA ZSB
Most of the problems found when applying distance IA T IB
protection to tee’d feeders are common to all schemes. ZLA ZLB
A preliminary discussion of these problems will assist in ZLC
the assessment of the performance of the different types Fault
of distance schemes. IC
C
13.4.1 Apparent Impedance seen by Distance Relays ZSC
or
T
I
Z A = Z LA + B Z LB
IA
...Equation 13.5
or
R
A
IC
Z A = Z LA + Z LB + Z LB
IA Figure 13.13: Apparent impedance
presented to the relay at substation A for
a fault at substation B busbars
The apparent impedance presented to the relay has been
modified by the term (IC /IA)ZLB. If the pre-fault load is The under-reaching effect in tee’d feeders can be found
zero, the currents IA and IC are in phase and their ratio for any kind of fault. For the sake of simplicity, the
is a real number. The apparent impedance presented to equations and examples mentioned so far have been for
ZT2 B
ZM2
A B
P rotection of Complex Transmission Circuits
IA T IB
Figure 13.17: Internal Fault at busbar B
with current flowing out at terminal C ZA ZB
ZC
Fault
A B IC
IA T IB
C
Fault
I'B
Figure 13.19: External fault behind
he relay at terminal A
IC I'C
As the currents IA and IC now have different signs, 3 Over-reaching effect for external faults, due
to current flowing outwards at one terminal 13.17
the factor IC /IA becomes negative. Consequently, the
distance relay at terminal A sees an impedance smaller 4 Failure to operate for an internal fault,
due to current flowing out at one terminal 13.18
• 13 • than that of the protected feeder, (ZA + ZB), and
therefore has a tendency to over-reach. In some cases 5 Incorrect operation for an external fault,
due to high current fed from nearest terminal 13.19
the apparent impedance presented to the relay may be
as low as 50% of the impedance of the protected feeder, Table 13.2: Main problems met in the application
and even lower if other lines exist between terminals B of distance protection to tee'd feeders.
and C.
13.5 MULTI-ENDED FEEDERS
If the fault is internal to the feeder and close to the – APPLICATION OF DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES
busbars B, as shown in Figure 13.18, the current at
terminal C may still flow outwards. As a result, the fault The schemes that have been described in Chapter 12 for
appears as an external fault to the distance relay at the protection of plain feeders may also be used for tee'd
terminal C, which fails to operate. feeder protection. However, the applications of some of
these schemes are much more limited in this case.
Distance schemes can be subdivided into two main
13.4.4 Maloperation with Reverse Faults groups; transfer trip schemes and blocking schemes. The
Earth fault distance relays with a directional usual considerations when comparing these schemes are
characteristic tend to lose their directional properties security, that is, no operation for external faults, and
The main requirement for transfer trip under-reach The setting of the directional unit should be such that no
schemes is that the Zone 1 of the protection, at one end maloperation can occur for faults in the reverse
at least, shall see a fault in the feeder. In order to meet direction; case 5 in Table 13.2.
this requirement, the Zone 1 characteristics of the relays
at different ends must overlap, either the three of them
13.5.4 Signalling Channel Considerations
or in pairs. Cases 1, 2 and 3 in Table 13.2 should be
checked when the settings for the Zone 1 characteristics The minimum number of signalling channels required
are selected. If the conditions mentioned in case 4 are depends on the type of scheme used. With under-reach
found, direct transfer trip may be used to clear the fault; and blocking schemes, only one channel is required,
the alternative is sequentially at end C when the fault whereas a permissive over-reach scheme req-uires as
current IC reverses after the circuit breaker at terminal B many channels as there are feeder ends. The signalling
has opened; see Figure 13.18. channel equipment at each terminal should include one
transmitter and (N-1) receivers, where N is the total
Transfer trip schemes may be applied to feeders that number of feeder ends. This may not be a problem if
have branches of similar length. If one or two of the fibre-optic cables are used, but could lead to problems
branches are very short, and this is often the case in otherwise.
tee'd feeders, it may be difficult or impossible to make
the Zone 1 characteristics overlap. Alternative schemes If frequency shift channels are used to improve the
are then required. reliability of the protection schemes, mainly with
transfer trip schemes, N additional frequencies are
Another case for which under-reach schemes may be required for the purpose. Problems of signal attenuation
advantageous is the protection of tapped feeders, mainly and impedance matching should also be carefully
when the tap is short and is not near one of the main
• 13 •
considered when power line carrier frequency channels
terminals. Overlap of the Zone 1 characteristics is then are used.
easily achieved, and the tap does not require protection
applied to the terminal.
13.5.5 Directional Comparison Blocking Schemes
The principle of operation of these schemes is the same
13.5.2 Transfer Trip Over-Reach Schemes
as that of the distance blocking schemes described in
For correct operation when internal faults occur, the the previous section. The main advantage of directional
relays at the three ends should see a fault at any point comparison schemes over distance schemes is their
in the feeder. This condition is often difficult to meet, greater capability to detect high-resistance earth faults.
since the impedance seen by the relays for faults at one The reliability of these schemes, in terms of stability for
of the remote ends of the feeder may be too large, as in through faults, is lower than that of distance blocking
case 1 in Table 13.2, increasing the possibility of schemes. However, with the increasing reliability of
maloperation for reverse faults, case 5 in Table 13.2. In modern signalling channels, directional comparison
addition, the relay characteristic might encroach on the blocking schemes seem to offer good solutions to the
load impedance. many and difficult problems encountered in the
lines introduce a series connected capacitor, which has demonstrated in Figure 13.22. In this case, the overall
the net result of reducing the overall inductive fault impedance is taken to be capacitive. The fault
impedance of the line, hence increasing the prospective, current therefore leads the system e.m.f. by 90° whilst
power flow. Typical levels of compensation are 35%, the measured fault voltage remains in phase with system
50% and 70%, where the percentage level dictates the
e.m.f.. Again this condition can give rise to directional
capacitor impedance compared to the transmission line
stability problems for a variety of protection devices.
it is associated with.
Practically, the case of current inversion is difficult to
obtain. In order to protect capacitors from high over
EA Bus A Bus B EB voltages during fault conditions some form of voltage
ZT limiting device (usually in the form of MOV’s) is installed
to bypass the capacitor at a set current level. In the case
of current inversion, the overall fault impedance has to
PT a
EA EB sin d be capacitive and will generally be small. This leads to
ZT high levels of fault current, which will trigger the MOV’s
and bypass the capacitors, hence leaving an inductive
Figure 13.20: Power transfer fault impedance and preventing the current inversion.
in a transmission line
Hence,
K ZO = 0.490
Figure 13.23: Example network for distance
relay setting calculation ∠K ZO =7.8 o
R3 ph = 84.8 Ω since the two parallel lines are identical, and hence, for
Lines 1 and 2,
R2 ph = 84.8 Ω
Under - reach = 8.78 ∠66.3 o × 0.5
R1 ph = 84.8 Ω
= 4.39 ∠66.3 o Ω
13.7.1.8 Earth Fault Reach Settings
Under-reach
Introduction 14.1
Application of auto-reclosing 14.2
Auto-reclosing on HV distribution networks 14.3
Factors influencing HV auto-reclose schemes 14.4
Auto-reclosing on EHV transmission lines 14.5
High speed auto-reclosing on EHV systems 14.6
Single-phase auto-reclosing 14.7
High speed auto-reclosing on lines
employing distance schemes 14.8
Delayed auto-reclosing on EHV systems 14.9
Operating features of auto-reclose schemes 14.10
Auto-close circuits 14.11
Examples of auto-reclose applications 14.12
• 14 • Auto-Reclosing
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Faults on overhead lines fall into one of three categories:
a. transient
b. semi-permanent
c. permanent
80-90% of faults on any overhead line network are
transient in nature. The remaining 10%-20% of faults
are either semi-permanent or permanent.
Transient faults are commonly caused by lightning and
temporary contact with foreign objects. The immediate
tripping of one or more circuit breakers clears the fault.
Subsequent re-energisation of the line is usually successful.
A small tree branch falling on the line could cause a
semi-permanent fault. The cause of the fault would not
be removed by the immediate tripping of the circuit, but
could be burnt away during a time-delayed trip. HV
overhead lines in forest areas are prone to this type of
fault. Permanent faults, such as broken conductors, and
faults on underground cable sections, must be located
and repaired before the supply can be restored.
Use of an auto-reclose scheme to re-energise the line
after a fault trip permits successful re-energisation of
the line. Sufficient time must be allowed after tripping
for the fault arc to de-energise prior to reclosing
otherwise the arc will re-strike. Such schemes have been
the cause of a substantial improvement in continuity of
supply. A further benefit, particularly to EHV systems, is
the maintenance of system stability and synchronism.
A typical single-shot auto-reclose scheme is shown in
Figures 14.1 and 14.2. Figure 14.1 shows a successful
reclosure in the event of a transient fault, and Figure
14.2 an unsuccessful reclosure followed by lockout of the
circuit breaker if the fault is permanent.
Protection
Operating
time
Transient Trip coil Contacts Arc Contacts Closing circuit Contacts Contacts
fault energised separate extinguished fully open energised make fully closed
Circuit
breaker
Opening Arcing Closing
time time time
Operating time Dead time
System disturbance time Relay ready to respond to further fault incidents
Reclose initiated by protection (after successful reclosure)
Auto-reclose relay
Reclose
Operates Resets on to fault Operates Resets
Protection
Operating
time
Trip coil Contacts Arc Contacts Closing circuit Contacts Contacts Contacts Arc Contacts fully
Permanent energised separate extinguished fully open energised make fully closed separate Extinguished open
fault
Circuit
breaker
Opening Arcing Closing Trip coil
time time time energised
Auto-Reclosing
Time
The weighting given to the above factors is different for mainly to radial feeders where problems of system
HV distribution networks and EHV transmission systems stability do not arise, and the main advantages to be
and therefore it is convenient to discuss them under derived from its use can be summarised as follows:
separate headings. Sections 14.3 and 14.4 cover the a. reduction to a minimum of the interruptions of
application of auto-reclosing to HV distribution networks supply to the consumer
while Sections 14.5-14.9 cover EHV schemes. b. instantaneous fault clearance can be introduced, with
The rapid expansion in the use of auto-reclosing has led the accompanying benefits of shorter fault duration,
to the existence of a variety of different control schemes. less fault damage, and fewer permanent faults
The various features in common use are discussed in
Section 14.10. The related subject of auto-closing, that As 80% of overhead line faults are transient, elimination
is, the automatic closing of normally open circuit of loss of supply from this cause by the introduction of
breakers, is dealt with in Section 14.11. auto-reclosing gives obvious benefits through:
14.3 AUTO-RECLOSING ON HV DISTRIBUTION a. improved supply continuity
NETWORKS b. reduction of substation visits
On HV distribution networks, auto-reclosing is applied Instantaneous tripping reduces the duration of the
Auto-Reclosing
proportion of faults are permanent, the advantages of allow motor circuits to trip out on loos of supply.
auto-reclosing are small, particularly since reclosing on Once the supply is restored, restarting of drives can
to a faulty cable is likely to aggravate the damage. then occur under direction of the process control
system in a safe and programmed manner, and can
often be fast enough to ensure no significant loss
14.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING HV AUTO-RECLOSE of production or product quality
SCHEMES b. domestic consumers
The factors that influence the choice of dead time, It is improbable that expensive processes or dangerous
reclaim time, and the number of shots are now discussed. conditions will be involved with domestic consumers
and the main consideration is that of inconvenience • 14 •
and compensation for supply interruption. A dead
14.4.1 Dead Time time of seconds or a few minutes is of little
Several factors affect the selection of system dead time importance compared with the loss of cooking
as follows: facilities, central heating, light and audio/visual
a. system stability and synchronism entertainment resulting from a longer supply failure
b. type of load that could occur without auto-reclosing
c. CB characteristics 14.4.1.3 Circuit breaker characteristics
d. fault path de-ionisation time
The time delays imposed by the circuit breaker during a
e. protection reset time
tripping and reclosing operation must be taken into
These factors are discussed in the following sections. consideration, especially when assessing the possibility
of applying high speed auto-reclosing.
14.4.1.1 System stability and synchronism
a. mechanism resetting time
In order to reclose without loss of synchronism after a fault
on the interconnecting feeder, the dead time must be kept Most circuit breakers are ‘trip free’, which means that
to the minimum permissible consistent with de-ionisation the breaker can be tripped during the closing stroke.
Auto-Reclosing
1
moderate percentage of semi-permanent faults that Fault condition
could be burned out during 2 or 3 time-delayed trips, a
multi-shot scheme may be justified. This is often the
0 θ0 θ1 θ2 B
case in forest areas. Another situation is where fused Phase displacement
‘tees’ are used and the fault level is low, since the fusing
Figure 14.4: Effect of high-speed three-phase
time may not discriminate with the main I.D.M.T. relay. auto-reclosing on system stability for a weak system
The use of several shots will heat the fuse to such an
extent that it would eventually blow before the main This example, for a weak system, shows that the
protection operated. successful application of auto-reclosing in such a case
needs high-speed protection and circuit breakers, and a
• 14 •
short dead time. On strong systems, synchronism is
14.5 AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV TRANSMISSION LINES unlikely to be lost by the tripping out of a single line. For
The most important consideration in the application of such systems, an alternative policy of delayed auto-
auto-reclosing to EHV transmission lines is the reclosing may be adopted. This enables the power
maintenance of system stability and synchronism. The swings on the system resulting from the fault to decay
problems involved are dependent on whether the before reclosure is attempted.
transmission system is weak or strong. With a weak The various factors to be considered when using EHV
system, loss of a transmission link may lead quickly to an auto-reclose schemes are now dealt with. High-speed
excessive phase angle across the CB used for re-closure, and delayed auto-reclose schemes are discussed
thus preventing a successful re-closure. In a relatively separately.
strong system, the rate of change of phase angle will be
slow, so that delayed auto-reclose can be successfully
applied. 14.6 HIGH SPEED AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV SYSTEMS
An illustration is the interconnector between two power The first requirement for the application of high-speed
systems as shown in Figure 14.4. Under healthy auto-reclosing is knowledge of the system disturbance
It is important to know the time that must be allowed for developed to meet this requirement.
complete de-ionisation of the arc, to prevent the arc
restriking when the voltage is re-applied. The three types of closing mechanism fitted to oil circuit
breakers are:
The de-ionisation time of an uncontrolled arc, in free air
depends on the circuit voltage, conductor spacing, fault i. solenoid
currents, fault duration, wind speed and capacitive ii. spring
coupling from adjacent conductors. Of these, the circuit iii. pneumatic
voltage is the most important, and as a general rule, the CB’s with solenoid closing are not suitable for high-
higher the voltage the longer the time required for de- speed auto-reclose due to the long time constant
• 14 • ionisation. Typical values are given in Table 14.1. involved. Spring, hydraulic or pneumatic closing
mechanisms are universal at the upper end of the EHV
Line voltage (kV) Minimum de-energisation time range and give the fastest closing time. Figure 14.3
(seconds)
shows the operation times for various types of EHV
66 0.2
110 0.28
circuit breakers, including the dead time that can be
132 0.3 attained.
220 0.35 14.6.3.2 Air blast circuit breakers
275 0.38
400 0.45 Air blast breakers have been developed for voltages up to
525 0.55 the highest at present in use on transmission lines. They
fall into two categories:
Table 14.1: Fault-arc de-ionisation times a. pressurised head circuit breakers
b. non-pressurised head circuit breakers
If single-phase tripping and auto-reclosing is used, In pressurised head circuit breakers, compressed air is
capacitive coupling between the healthy phases and the maintained in the chamber surrounding the main
faulty phase tends to maintain the arc and hence extend contacts. When a tripping signal is received, an auxiliary
Auto-Reclosing
series isolation during an auto-reclose cycle. corresponding pole of the circuit breaker. The auto-
reclose function in a relay therefore has three separate
elements, one for each phase. Operation of any element
14.6.4 Choice of Dead Time energises the corresponding dead timer, which in turn
At voltages of 220kV and above, the de-ionisation time initiates a closing pulse for the appropriate pole of the
will probably dictate the minimum dead time, rather circuit breaker. A successful reclosure results in the auto-
than any circuit breaker limitations. This can be deduced reclose logic resetting at the end of the reclaim time,
from Table 14.1. The dead time setting on a high-speed ready to respond to a further fault incident. If the fault
auto-reclose relay should be long enough to ensure is persistent and reclosure is unsuccessful, it is usual to
complete de-ionisation of the arc. On EHV systems, an trip and lock out all three poles of the circuit breaker. • 14 •
unsuccessful reclosure is more detrimental to the system The above describes only one of many variants. Other
than no reclosure at all. possibilities are:
a. three-phase trip and lockout for phase-phase or 3-
phase faults, or if either of the remaining phases
14.6.5 Choice of Reclaim Time
should develop a fault during the dead time
Where EHV oil circuit breakers are concerned, the
b. use of a selector switch to give a choice of single
reclaim time should take account of the time needed for
or three-phase reclosing
the closing mechanism to reset ready for the next
reclosing operation. c. combined single and three-phase auto-reclosing;
single phase to earth faults initiate single-phase
tripping and reclosure, and phase-phase faults
14.6.6 Number of Shots initiate three-phase tripping and reclosure
High-speed auto-reclosing on EHV systems is invariably Modern numerical relays often incorporate the logic for
single shot. Repeated reclosure attempts with high fault all of the above schemes, for the user to select as
levels would have serious effects on system stability, so required. Use can be made of any user-definable logic
setting of the distance relays, it is not possible to set Zone distance relay in Zones 2 and 3.
1 of a distance relay to cover 100% of the protected line
– see Chapter 11 for more details. Zone 1 is set to cover
14.8.2 Zone 1 Extension
80-85% of the line length, with the remainder of the line
covered by time-delayed Zone 2 protection. In this scheme, the reach of Zone 1 is normally extended
to 120% of the line length and is reset to 80% when a
Zone 3(J) command from the auto-reclose logic is received. This
Zone 3(G) auto-reclose logic signal should occur before a closing
Middle Zone 2 (G) Zone 2(J) pulse is applied to the circuit breaker and remain operated
Zone
• 14 • End End until the end of the reclaim time. The logic signal should
Zone Zone 1(G) Zone 1(J)
Zone also be present when auto-reclose is out of service.
G H J K
Zone 2(H)
Zone 1(H) Zone 1(K) 14.9 DELAYED AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV SYSTEMS
Zone 2(K) On highly interconnected transmission systems, where
Zone 3(K)
the loss of a single line is unlikely to cause two sections
Zone 3(H)
of the system to drift apart significantly and lose
synchronism, delayed auto-reclosing can be employed.
Figure 14.5: Typical three zone distance scheme Dead times of the order of 5s-60s are commonly used. No
problems are presented by fault arc de-ionisation times
Figure 14.5 illustrates this for a typical three-zone
and circuit breaker operating characteristics, and power
distance scheme covering two transmission lines.
swings on the system decay before reclosing. In addition,
For this reason, a fault occurring in an end zone would all tripping and reclose schemes can be three-phase only,
be cleared instantaneously, by the protection at one end simplifying control circuits in comparison with single-
of the feeder. However, the CB at the other end opens in phase schemes. In systems on which delayed auto-
0.3-0.4 seconds (Zone 2 time). High-speed auto- reclosing is permissible, the chances of a reclosure being
Auto-Reclosing
time
Reclaim timer phase angle setting over a period of 2 seconds. This
tR 0
limits the frequency difference (in the case of a phase
Dead time angle setting of 20o) to a maximum of 0.11% of 50Hz,
& td 0
CB open
Protn. reset & CB close corresponding to a phase swing from +20o to -20o over
CB healthy command
System healthy
the measured 2 seconds. While a significant frequency
S Q
Auto-Reclosing
the station is under the control of a circuit breaker, CB1
unacceptable value.
to CB6 inclusive, and each transmission line can be
connected either to the main or to the reserve busbars by
manually operated isolators.
The solution is to have a standby transformer T4 Figure 14.8: Double busbar substation
permanently energised from the primary side and
arranged to be switched into service if one of the others
Bus section isolators enable sections of busbar to be
trips on fault.
isolated in the event of fault, and bus coupler breaker BC
The starting circuits for breaker CB4 monitor the permits sections of main and reserve bars to be
operation of transformer protection on any of the interconnected.
transformers T1, T2 and T3 together with the tripping of
14.12.1.1 Basic scheme – banked transformers omitted
an associated circuit breaker CB1-CB3. In the event of
a fault, the auto-close circuit is initiated and circuit Each line circuit breaker is provided with an auto-reclose
breaker CB4 closes, after a short time delay, to switch in relay that recloses the appropriate circuit breakers in the
403
14.12.2 Single Switch Substation Line 1 MC1 420 MC4 Line 4
The arrangement shown in Figure 14.9 consists basically 120 mesh corner 320
of two transformer feeders interconnected by a single
MC3 303
circuit breaker 120. Each transformer therefore has an Line 2 220 Line 3
alternative source of supply in the event of loss of one or
other of the feeders. Figure 14.10: Four-switch mesh substation
Auto-Reclosing
reclose in sequence as above.
14.12.3.3 Transformer fault (local transformer 1A)
Automatic opening of isolator 113A to isolate the
faulted transformer follows tripping of circuit breakers
120, 420, G1A and G1B. Breakers 120, 420 and G1B
then reclose in sequence, and breaker G1A is locked out.
14.12.3.4 Transformer fault (remote transformer)
For a remote transformer fault, an intertrip signal is
received at the local station to trip breakers 120, 420, • 14 •
G1A and G1B and inhibit auto-reclosing until the
faulted transformer has been isolated at the remote
station. If the intertrip persists for 60 seconds it is
assumed that the fault cannot be isolated at the remote
station. Isolator 103 is then automatically opened and
circuit breakers 120, 420, G1A and G1B are reclosed in
sequence.
14.12.3.5 Transient mesh corner fault
Any fault covered by the mesh corner protection zone,
shown in Figure 14.10, results in tripping of circuit
breakers 120, 420, G1A and G1B. These are then
reclosed in sequence.
There may be circumstances in which reclosure onto a
persistent fault is not permitted – clearly it is not known
Introduction 15.1
Busbar faults 15.2
Protection requirements 15.3
Types of protection system 15.4
System protection schemes 15.5
Frame-earth protection
(Howard protection) 15.6
Differential protection
principles 15.7
High impedance
differential protection 15.8
Low impedance biased
differential protection 15.9
Numerical busbar protection 15.10
References 15.11
• 15 • Busbar P rotection
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The protection scheme for a power system should cover
the whole system against all probable types of fault.
Unrestricted forms of line protection, such as overcurrent
and distance systems, meet this requirement, although
faults in the busbar zone are cleared only after some
time delay. But if unit protection is applied to feeders
and plant, the busbars are not inherently protected.
Busbars have often been left without specific protection,
for one or more of the following reasons:
a. the busbars and switchgear have a high degree of
reliability, to the point of being regarded as
intrinsically safe
b. it was feared that accidental operation of busbar
protection might cause widespread dislocation of
the power system, which, if not quickly cleared,
would cause more loss than would the very
infrequent actual bus faults
c. it was hoped that system protection or back-up
protection would provide sufficient bus protection
if needed
It is true that the risk of a fault occurring on modern
metal-clad gear is very small, but it cannot be entirely
ignored. However, the damage resulting from one
uncleared fault, because of the concentration of fault
MVA, may be very extensive indeed, up to the complete
loss of the station by fire. Serious damage to or
destruction of the installation would probably result in
widespread and prolonged supply interruption.
Finally, system protection will frequently not provide the
cover required. Such protection may be good enough for
small distribution substations, but not for important
stations. Even if distance protection is applied to all
feeders, the busbar will lie in the second zone of all the
distance protections, so a bus fault will be cleared
relatively slowly, and the resultant duration of the
voltage dip imposed on the rest of the system may not be
tolerable.
With outdoor switchgear the case is less clear since,
although the likelihood of a fault is higher, the risk of
widespread damage resulting is much less. In general
then, busbar protection is required when the system
protection does not cover the busbars, or when, in order
Busbar P rotection
section switch a time advantage; the section switch is and (c) occupies most of this chapter.
tripped first and the remaining breakers delayed by 0.5
seconds. Early forms of biased differential protection for busbars,
such as versions of 'Translay' protection and also a
Only the zone on the faulty side of the section switch scheme using harmonic restraint, were superseded by
will remain operated and trip, the other zone resetting unbiased high impedance differential protection.
and retaining that section in service. This gain,
applicable only to very infrequent section switch faults, The relative simplicity of the latter, and more importantly
is obtained at the expense of seriously delaying the bus the relative ease with which its performance can be
protection for all other faults. This practice is therefore calculated, have ensured its success up to the present
not generally favoured. Some variations are dealt with day.
• 15 •
later under the more detailed scheme descriptions. There But more recently the advances in semiconductor
are many combinations possible, but the essential technology, coupled with a more pressing need to be able
principle is that no single accidental incident of a to accommodate CT's of unequal ratio, have led to the
secondary nature shall be capable of causing an re-introduction of biased schemes, generally using static
unnecessary trip of a bus section.
relay designs, particularly for the most extensive and
Security against maloperation is only achieved by onerous applications.
increasing the amount of equipment that is required to
Frame-earth protection systems have been in use for
function to complete an operation; and this inevitably
many years, mainly associated with smaller busbar
increases the statistical risk that a tripping operation due
protection schemes at distribution voltages and for
to a fault may fail. Such a failure, leaving aside the
metalclad busbars (e.g. SF6 insulated busbars). However,
question of consequential damage, may result in
disruption of the power system to an extent as great, or it has often been quite common for a unit protection
greater, than would be caused by an unwanted trip. The scheme to be used in addition, to provide two separate
relative risk of failure of this kind may be slight, but it means of fault detection.
has been thought worthwhile in some instances to The different types of protection are described in the
provide a guard in this respect as well. following sections.
System I >
earning
Earth resistor
bar Zone G I >
I1 + I2 frame leakage
relay
I1 I1 I2 Zone H
frame leakage
relay
Frame Earthing
insulation electrode
resistance to earth resistance
Trip L1 L2
K M
relays
Under external fault conditions, the current I1 flows Figure 15.4: Three zone frame
through the frame-leakage current transformer. If the earth scheme
insulation resistance is too low, sufficient current may
flow to operate the frame-leakage relay, and, as the check If it is inconvenient to insulate the section switch frame
feature is unrestricted, this will also operate to complete on one side, this switch may be included in that zone. It
the trip circuit. The earth resistance between the earthing is then necessary to intertrip the other zone after
electrode and true earth is seldom greater than 1Ω, so approximately 0.5 seconds if a fault persists after the
Busbar P rotection
with 10Ω insulation resistance the current I1 is limited to zone including the section switch has been tripped. This
10% of the total earth fault current I1 and I2. For this is illustrated in Figure 15.5.
reason, the recommended minimum setting for the
scheme is about 30% of the minimum earth fault current.
Insulation
All cable glands must be insulated, to prevent the barrier
circulation of spurious current through the frame and
earthing system by any voltages induced in the cable Zone G Zone H
sheath. Preferably, the gland insulation should be
provided in two layers or stages, with an interposing K
Insulation
barriers M
Zone J L5
M 64CH-2 64A-2
Zone G H I >
Busbar P rotection
g j1 L h1 j2 64B-2
K 74-1
74-2
I > Zone H In Out L3
relay
L4
Zone G I >
relay CSS-G L3
+ _ L4
g1 CSS-H L6
K
j1
• 15 • M1
74 Alarm cancellation relay
CSS Control selector switch protection in/protection out
L3 Busbar protection in service lamp
M2 L4 Busbar protection out of service lamp
Tripping L5 Tripping supply healthy lamp
relays
L1 L6 Alarm and indication supply healthy lamp
Busbar P rotection
the fault current.
Zone A Zone B
BS
G H J K
Id>
B BC
Differen
f tial
relay
• 15 •
Zone C
G H
Typical feeder circuits
A
B For double bus installation, the two busbars will be
C
N treated as separate zones. The auxiliary busbar zone will
Differential relay Id I> Id> overlap the appropriate main busbar zone at the bus
coupler.
b) Phase and earth fault circulating current scheme using Since any circuit may be transferred from one busbar to
three-element relay
the other by isolator switches, these and the associated
Figure 15.8: Circulating current scheme tripping circuit must also be switched to the appropriate
Transformer
protection
Mesh corner
Circuit (Note 2)
protection
Line
protection
Mesh corner
a. Current transformers mounted on both sides of breaker protection
-no unprotected region
b. Current transformers mounted on circuit side only of breaker Note 2: Multiple circuits may be connected
-fault shown not cleared by circuit protection to the mesh corner
(b) CT arrangements for protection -
additional mesh corner protection required
Figure 15.10: Unprotected zone with
current transformers mounted
Figure 15.11: Mesh-corner protection
on one side of the circuit breaker only
R
R
15.8 HIGH IMPEDANCE
D I F F E R E N T I A L P R OT E C T I O N ZEH
ZEG Id>
This form of protection is still in common use. The
considerations that have to be taken into account are
detailed in the following sections.
The incidence of fault current with an initial unilateral The current transformers are replaced in the diagram by
transient component causes an abnormal build-up of ideal current transformers feeding an equivalent circuit
flux in a current transformer, as described in Section that represents the magnetising losses and secondary
6.4.10. When through-fault current traverses a zone winding resistance, and also the resistance of
protected by a differential system, the transient flux the connecting leads. These circuits can then be
produced in the current transformers is not detrimental
Busbar P rotection
interconnected as shown, with a relay connected to the
as long as it remains within the substantially linear range junction points to form the complete equivalent circuit.
of the magnetising characteristic. With fault current of
appreciable magnitude and long transient time constant, Saturation has the effect of lowering the exciting
the flux density will pass into the saturated region of the impedance, and is assumed to take place severely in
characteristic; this will not in itself produce a spill current transformer H until, at the limit, the shunt
output from a pair of balancing current transformers impedance becomes zero and the CT can produce no
provided that these are identical and equally burdened. output. This condition is represented by a short circuit,
A group of current transformers, though they may be of shown in broken line, across the exciting impedance. It
the same design, will not be completely identical, but a should be noted that this is not the equivalent of a
more important factor is inequality of burden. In the physical short circuit, since it is behind the winding
case of a differential system for a busbar, an external resistance . • 15 •
fault may be fed through a single circuit, the current Applying the Thévenin method of solution, the voltage
being supplied to the busbar through all other circuits. developed across the relay will be given by:
The faulted circuit is many times more heavily loaded
than the others and the corresponding current Vf
IR=
transformers are likely to be heavily saturated, while R R + R LH + R CTH
those of the other circuits are not. Severe unbalance is ...Equation 15.1
therefore probable, which, with a relay of normal burden, The current through the relay is given by:
could exceed any acceptable current setting. For this
reason such systems were at one time always provided I f ( R LH + R CTH )
with a time delay. This practice is, however, no longer =
R R + R LH + R CTH
acceptable. ...Equation 15.2
It is not feasible to calculate the spill current that may If RR is small, IR will approximate to IF, which is
occur, but, fortunately, this is not necessary; an alternative unacceptable. On the other hand, if RR is large IR is
approach provides both the necessary information and the reduced. Equation 15.2 can be written, with little error,
technique required to obtain a high performance. as follows:
with special features to block the d.c. component, then carrying primary current or not. This summation should
this factor can be ignored and only the symmetrical strictly speaking be vectorial, but is usually done
value of the fault current need be entered in Equation arithmetically. It can be expressed as:
15.4. If the relay setting voltage, Vs, is made equal to Vf,
that is, If (RL + RCT), an inherent safety factor of the
order of two will exist. IR = IS +nIeS ...Equation 15.6
Busbar P rotection
Zone R
c1 c2
D H
Zone M1 Zone M2
a1 b1
E F G
• 15 •
c1 c
Zone
M2
Zone R B
Bus wires C
Check zone A
B
Bus wires C
N
95 CHX-2
96
H1
96
H2
D.C. Buswires
80
T
87CH-2 87M1-2
30
87M2-2 M1
30
87R-2 M2
30
95M1-1 R
95
95M2-1 M1X
95
95R-1 M2X
95
95CH-1 RX
95
30M1-1 CHX
74
30M2-1 74-1
30R-1 74-2
95M1X-1
95M2X-1
95RX-1
Busbar P rotection
95CHX-1
In Out
L1
L2
CSS-M1
L1
L2
CSS-M2
L1
L2
• 15 • CSS-R
80
I
30 Zone indicating relay 95X Zone bus wires shorting relay
74 Alarm cancellation relay CSS Control selector switch
80 D.C. volts supervision relay L1 Indicating lamp protection in service
87 High impedance circulating current relay L2 Indicating lamp protection out of service
95 Bus wires supervision relay
Figure 15.14: D.C. circuits for high impedance circulating current scheme
This enables the trip circuits to be confined to the least subdivision being necessary. For phase fault schemes,
area and reduces the risk of accidental operation. the check will usually be a similar type of scheme applied
to the switchboard as a single overall zone.
15.8.3 Check Feature
A set of current transformers separate from those used in
Schemes for earth faults only can be checked by a frame- the discriminating zones should be provided. No CT
earth system, applied to the switchboard as a whole, no switching is required and no current transformers are
Busbar P rotection
less than this figure, it can be expected that the system
15.8.5 Arrangement of CT Connections will be developed up to the limit of rating.
It is shown in Equation 15.4 how the setting voltage for 15.8.6.2 Current transformers
a given stability level is directly related to the resistance
of the CT secondary leads. This should therefore be Current transformers must have identical turns ratios,
kept to a practical minimum. Taking into account the but a turns error of one in 400 is recognised as a
practical physical laying of auxiliary cables, the CT bus reasonable manufacturing tolerance. Also, they should
wires are best arranged in the form of a ring around the preferably be of similar design; where this is not possible
switchgear site. the magnetising characteristics should be reasonably
In a double bus installation, the CT leads should be taken matched. • 15 •
directly to the isolator selection switches. The usual Current transformers for use with high impedance
routing of cables on a double bus site is as follows:
protection schemes should meet the requirements of
a. current transformers to marshalling kiosk Class PX of IEC 60044-1.
b. marshalling kiosk to bus selection isolator auxiliary 15.8.6.3 Setting voltage
switches
The setting voltage is given by the equation
c. interconnections between marshalling kiosks to
form a closed ring Vs > If (RL + RCT)
The relay for each zone is connected to one point of the where:
ring bus wire. For convenience of cabling, the main zone
Vs = relay circuit voltage setting
relays will be connected through a multicore cable
between the relay panel and the bus section-switch If = steady-state through fault current
marshalling cubicle. The reserve bar zone and the check
RL = CT lead loop resistence
zone relays will be connected together by a cable
running to the bus coupler circuit breaker marshalling RCT = CT secondary winding resistance
Busbar P rotection
mum operation current in the differential circuit alone
effective current, IR = BIF approximately.
is somewhat less, as shown in Figure 15.15(b).
From Equation 15.4, the value of stabilising resistor is Using the definition presently applicable, the effective
given by: minimum primary operating current
I f (R LH + R CTH ) [
= N I S + B ∑ I eS ]
RR = where:
IR N = CT ratio
R LH + R CTH
= Iop Iop
B
It is interesting to note that the value of the stabilising • 15 •
resistance is independent of current level, and that there ) IS )
(B% B%
would appear to be no limit to the through faults Lin
e ine(
IS
Bia
s I'S
Bi as L
stability level. This has been identified [15.1] as ‘The
Principle of Infinite Stability’. IB IB
IB IS
The stabilising resistor still constitutes a significant
burden on the current transformers during internal
IS
faults.
An alternative technique, used by the MBCZ system
described in Section 15.9.6, is to block the differential
measurement during the portion of the cycle that a
IR = S + BIIB IR = I + I' I'S
current transformer is saturated. If this is achieved by
B⎞
momentarily short-circuiting the differential path, a very = I' ⎥
low burden is placed on the current transformers. In this (a) Superseded definition (b) Current definition
way the differential circuit of the relay is prevented from Figure 15.15: Definitions of relay
responding to the spill current. setting current for biased relays
Check Check
zone zone
15.9.4 Supervision of CT Secondary Circuits
In low impedance schemes the integrity of the CT
secondary circuits can also be monitored. A current
• 15 • operated auxiliary relay, or element of the main Figure 15.16: Alternative CT connections
protection equipment, may be applied to detect any
unbalanced secondary currents and give an alarm after a
time delay. For optimum discrimination, the current 15.9.6 Static Low Impedance Biased
setting of this supervision relay must be less than that of Differential Protection - Type MBCZ
the main differential protection.
The Type MBCZ scheme conforms in general to the
In modern busbar protection schemes, the supervision of principles outlined earlier and comprises a system of
the secondary circuits typically forms only a part of a standard modules that can be assembled to suit a
comprehensive supervision facility. particular busbar installation. Additional modules can be
added at any time as the busbar is extended.
A separate module is used for each circuit breaker and
15.9.5 Arrangement of CT connections
also one for each zone of protection. In addition to these
It is a common modern requirement of low impedance there is a common alarm module and a number of power
schemes that none of the main CT secondary circuits supply units. Ratio correction facilities are provided
should be switched, in the previously conventional manner, within each differential module to accommodate a wide
to match the switching of primary circuit isolators. range of CT mismatch.
Zone 3a Zone 3b
Check
Bus coupler 1 Feeder 1 Z1 Z3a Feeder 2 Bus section Feeder 3 Z2 Z3b Feeder 4 zone Bus coupler 2
Figure 15.17 shows the correlation between the circuit 15.9.6.2 Stability with saturated current transformers
breakers and the protection modules for a typical double The traditional method for stabilising a differential relay
busbar installation. In practice the modules are mounted is to add a resistor to the differential path. Whilst this
in a multi-tier rack or cubicle. improves stability it increases the burden on the current
The modules are interconnected via a multicore cable transformer for internal faults. The technique used in
Busbar P rotection
that is plugged into the back of the modules. There are the MBCZ scheme overcomes this problem.
five main groups of buswires, allocated for: The MBCZ design detects when a CT is saturated and
i. protection for main busbar short-circuits the differential path for the portion of the
cycle for which saturation occurs. The resultant spill
ii. protection for reserve busbar
current does not then flow through the measuring circuit
iii. protection for the transfer busbar. When the and stability is assured.
reserve busbar is also used as a transfer bar then
This principle allows a very low impedance differential
this group of buswires is used
circuit to be developed that will operate successfully
iv. auxiliary connections used by the protection to with relatively small CT's.
combine modules for some of the more complex • 15 •
15.9.6.3 Operation for internal faults
busbar configurations
If the CT's carrying fault current are not saturated there
v. protection for the check zone
will be ample current in the differential circuit to operate
One extra module, not shown in this diagram, is plugged the differential relay quickly for fault currents exceeding
into the multicore bus. This is the alarm module, which the minimum operating level, which is adjustable
contains the common alarm circuits and the bias resistors. between 20%-200% rated current.
The power supplies are also fed in through this module.
When the only CT(s) carrying internal fault current
15.9.6.1 Bias become saturated, it might be supposed that the CT
All zones of measurement are biased by the total current saturation detectors may completely inhibit operation by
flowing to or from the busbar system via the feeders. short-circuiting the differential circuit. However, the
This ensures that all zones of measurement will have resulting inhibit pulses remove only an insignificant
similar fault sensitivity under all load conditions. The portion of the differential current, so operation of the
bias is derived from the check zone and fixed at 20% relay is therefore virtually unaffected.
with a characteristic generally as shown in Figure
15.15(b). Thus some ratio mismatch is tolerable.
m Enable
1
r Protection
fault Trip
Buswire
Selection
t Biased Links Trip
Differential
c
Enable m
=1 1
Bias
r
Biased t
Differential Trip
Out of service
15.9.6.4 Discrepancy alarm feature to operate the two busbar sections as a single bar. The
fault current will then divide between the two measuring
As shown in Figure 15.18, each measuring module
elements in the ratio of their impedances. If both of the
contains duplicated biased differential elements and also
two measuring elements are of low and equal impedance
Busbar P rotection
CT CT CT CT
PU CB PU CB PU CB CB
Personal
PU
Computer
Central Unit
CU
Busbar P rotection
numerically-controlled oscillator is fitted in each of the
bus to link the various units involved, and fault tolerance
central and peripheral units, with time synchronisation
against loss of a particular link by providing multiple
between them. In the event of loss of the
communications paths. The development process has
synchronisation signal, the high stability of the oscillator
been very rigorous, because the requirements for busbar
in the affected feeder unit(s) enables processing of the
protection in respect of immunity to maloperation are
incoming data to continue without significant errors
very high.
until synchronisation can be restored.
The philosophy adopted is one of distributed processing of
The peripheral units have responsibility for collecting the
the measured values, as shown in Figure 15.20. Feeders
required data, such as voltages and currents, and
each have their own processing unit, which collects
processing it into digital form for onwards transmission
together information on the state of the feeder (currents,
to the central unit. Modelling of the CT response is
• 15 •
voltages, CB and isolator status, etc.) and communicates
included, to eliminate errors caused by effects such as CT
it over high-speed fibre-optic data links to a central unit.
saturation. Disturbance recording for the monitored
For large substations, more than one central unit may be
feeder is implemented, for later download as required.
used, while in the case of small installations, all of the
Because each peripheral unit is concerned only with an
units can be co-located, leading to the appearance of a
individual feeder, the protection algorithms must reside
traditional centralised architecture.
in the central unit.
For simple feeders, interface units at a bay may be used
The differential protection algorithm can be much more
with the data transmitted to a single centrally
sophisticated than with earlier technology, due to
located peripheral unit. The central unit performs the
improvements in processing power. In addition to
calculations required for the protection functions.
calculating the sum of the measured currents, the
Available protection functions are:
algorithm can also evaluate differences between
a. protection successive current samples, since a large change above a
threshold may indicate a fault – the threshold being
b. backup overcurrent protection
chosen such that normal load changes, apart from inrush
c. breaker failure conditions do not exceed the threshold. The same
bias techniques, and with a greater range of facilities to impedance schemes are comparable
set, setting calculations can also be more complex.
In addition, an important feature of numerical schemes
is the in-built monitoring system. This considerably
improves the potential availability of numerical schemes
compared to conventional schemes as faults within the
equipment and its operational state can be detected and
alarmed. With the conventional scheme, failure to re-
instate the scheme correctly after maintenance may not
be detected until the scheme is required to operate. In
this situation, its effective availability is zero until it is
• 15 • detected and repaired.
1 5 . 11 R E F E R E N C E S
15.1 The Behaviour of Current Transformers subjected
to Transient Asymmetric Currents and the
Effects on Associated Protective Relays. J.W.
Hodgkiss. CIGRE Paper Number 329, Session
15-25 June 1960.
Introduction 16.1
Winding faults 16.2
Magnetising inrush 16.3
Transformer overheating 16.4
Transformer protection – overview 16.5
Transformer overcurrent protection 16.6
Restricted earth fault protection 16.7
Differential protection 16.8
Stabilisation of differential protection
during magnetising inrush conditions 16.9
Combined differential and
restricted earth fault schemes 16.10
Earthing transformer protection 16.11
Auto-transformer protection 16.12
Overfluxing protection 16.13
Tank-earth protection 16.14
Oil and gas devices 16.15
Transformer-feeder protection 16.16
Intertripping 16.17
Condition monitoring of transformers 16.18
Examples of transformer protection 16.19
• 16 • Transformer and
Transformer-Feeder P rotection
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of modern power systems has been
reflected in the advances in transformer design. This has
resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes
ranging from a few kVA to several hundred MVA being
available for use in a wide variety of applications.
The considerations for a transformer protection package
vary with the application and importance of the
transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and
electrodynamic forces, it is advisable to ensure that the
protection package used minimises the time for
disconnection in the event of a fault occurring within the
transformer. Small distribution transformers can be
protected satisfactorily, from both technical and
economic considerations, by the use of fuses or
overcurrent relays. This results in time-delayed
protection due to downstream co-ordination
requirements. However, time-delayed fault clearance is
unacceptable on larger power transformers used in
distribution, transmission and generator applications,
due to system operation/stability and cost of
repair/length of outage considerations.
Transformer faults are generally classified into six
categories:
a. winding and terminal faults
b. core faults
c. tank and transformer accessory faults
d. on–load tap changer faults
e. abnormal operating conditions
f. sustained or uncleared external faults
For faults originating in the transformer itself, the
approximate proportion of faults due to each of the
causes listed above is shown in Figure 16.1.
Core
15
The winding earth fault current depends on the earthing
90
Fault current high throughout the winding, the primary fault current is
80 (IF) large for most points along the winding.
70
60
50 16.2.3 Delta-connected Winding
40
• 16 • 30
No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a
20
voltage to earth of less than 50% of the phase voltage.
10
The range of fault current magnitude is therefore less
p)
than for a star winding. The actual value of fault current
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 will still depend on the method of system earthing; it
(percentage of winding) should also be remembered that the impedance of a
delta winding is particularly high to fault currents
flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg. The
impedance can be expected to be between 25% and
50%, based on the transformer rating, regardless of the
normal balanced through-current impedance. As the
Ip
prefault voltage to earth at this point is half the normal
phase voltage, the earth fault current may be no more
IF than the rated current, or even less than this value if the
source or system earthing impedance is appreciable. The
current will flow to the fault from each side through the
Figure 16.2 Earth fault current two half windings, and will be divided between two
in resistance-earthed star winding
a. overload
Fault current in
80 short circuited turns 8
b. system faults
60 6
c. overvoltage
Primary input d. reduced system frequency
current
40 4 16.2.8.1 Overload
Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a consequent
20 2
temperature rise. Overloads can be carried for limited
periods and recommendations for oil-immersed
0 5 10 15 20 25
transformers are given in IEC 60354.
Turns short-circuited (percentage of winding)
The thermal time constant of naturally cooled
transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours. Shorter time
Figure 16.4 Interturn fault current/number
of turns short-circuited constants apply in the case of force-cooled transformers.
Flux
the first cycle of the fault. Avoidance of damage is a
matter of transformer design.
16.2.8.3 Overvoltages Magnetising current
are usually limited by shunting the high voltage Steady flux state
terminals to earth either with a plain rod gap or by surge Voltage
diverters, which comprise a stack of short gaps in series
with a non-linear resistor. The surge diverter, in contrast Time
the working flux. The latter effect causes an increase in Zero axis
the iron loss and a disproportionately large increase in (c) Typical inrush current
magnetising current. In addition, flux is diverted from
the laminated core into structural steel parts. The core
bolts, which normally carry little flux, may be subjected
to a large flux diverted from the highly saturated region Zero axis
of core alongside. This leads to a rapid temperature rise
in the bolts, destroying their insulation and damaging
(d) Inrush without offset, due to yoke saturation
coil insulation if the condition continues.
16.2.8.4 Reduced system frequency Figure 16.5: Transformer magnetising inrush
Id>
The gain in protection performance comes not only from In applying the principles of differential protection to
using an instantaneous relay with a low setting, but also transformers, a variety of considerations have to be
because the whole fault current is measured, not merely taken into account. These include:
the transformed component in the HV primary winding (if a. correction for possible phase shift across the
the star winding is a secondary winding). Hence, although transformer windings (phase correction)
the prospective current level decreases as fault positions
b. the effects of the variety of earthing and winding
progressively nearer the neutral end of the winding are
arrangements (filtering of zero sequence currents)
considered, the square law which controls the primary line
current is not applicable, and with a low effective setting, c. correction for possible unbalance of signals from
a large percentage of the winding can be covered. current transformers on either side of the windings
Restricted earth fault protection is often applied even (ratio correction)
when the neutral is solidly earthed. Since fault current d. the effect of magnetising inrush during initial
then remains at a high value even to the last turn of the energisation
winding (Figure 16.2), virtually complete cover for earth
faults is obtained. This is an improvement compared e. the possible occurrence of overfluxing
with the performance of systems that do not measure In traditional transformer differential schemes, the
the neutral conductor current. requirements for phase and ratio correction were met by
Earth fault protection applied to a delta-connected or
• 16 •
the application of external interposing current
unearthed star winding is inherently restricted, since no transformers (ICT’s), as a secondary replica of the main
zero sequence components can be transmitted through winding connections, or by a delta connection of the
the transformer to the other windings. main CT’s to provide phase correction only.
Both windings of a transformer can be protected separa- Digital/numerical relays implement ratio and phase
tely with restricted earth fault protection, thereby provi- correction in the relay software instead, thus enabling
ding high-speed protection against earth faults for the most combinations of transformer winding
whole transformer with relatively simple equipment. A arrangements to be catered for, irrespective of the
high impedance relay is used, giving fast operation and winding connections of the primary CT’s. This avoids the
phase fault stability. additional space and cost requirements of hardware
interposing CT’s.
16.8 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The restricted earth fault schemes described above in
16.8.2 Line Current Transformer Primary Ratings
Section 16.7 depend entirely on the Kirchhoff principle
that the sum of the currents flowing into a conducting Line current transformers have primary ratings selected
network is zero. A differential system can be arranged to to be approximately equal to the rated currents of the
• 16 •
Transformer connection Transformer phase shift Clock face vector Phase compensation required HV Zero sequence filtering LV Zero sequence filtering
16 •
Differential current ( Id)
3 •
Id>
2
Operate (c) Three winding transformer with unloaded delta tertiary
70%
slope Figure 16.10 Differential protection arrangements
1
for three-winding transformers (shown single
30% phase for simplicity)
Setting range Restrain slope
(0.1 - 0.5Id) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Effective bias (x In)
n
(percentage of rated current)
io
Where software ratio/phase correction is not available,
ct
e
Primary operating current
ot
60
pr
either a summation transformer or auxiliary CT’s can be
t
ul
fa
used. The connections are shown in Figures 16.13 and
rth
ea 16.14 respectively.
ed
40
ict
n
tio
str
l pro
ia only significant disadvantage of the Combined
20 nt
fere
Dif Differential/REF scheme is that the REF element is likely
to operate for heavy internal faults as well as the
0 differential elements, thus making subsequent fault
100 80 60 40 20 0
Percentage of winding protected analysis somewhat confusing. However, the saving in
CT’s outweighs this disadvantage.
Restricted
earth
fault I
relay
Figure 16.13 Combined differential and earth fault protection using summation current transformer
• 16 •
Restricted earth
I >
fault relay
Phase correcting
auxiliary current
transformers
Figure 16.14: Combined differential and restricted earth fault protection using auxiliary CT’s
A
B
C
1/0.333
Earthing
transformer
Figure 16.15: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer, with restricted earth fault relay
A
• 16 • B
C
Earthing
transformer
Figure 16.16: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer; no earth fault relay
I >
Earthing
transformer
relay
Geomagnetic disturbances may result in overfluxing
(a) Earth fault scheme
without the V/f threshold being exceeded. Some relays
provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be
A
used to detect such a condition, as levels of this
B
harmonic rise under overfluxing conditions.
C
0.8 + 0.18 x K
A Operating t= 2
time (s) (M-1)
B
1000
C
V/f
M=
Setting
It does not respond to interturn faults, a deficiency that is
serious in view of the high statistical risk quoted in Section Figure 16.20: Typical IDMT characteristic
for overfluxing protection
16.1. Such faults, unless otherwise cleared, will be left to
develop into earth faults, by which time considerably more
damage to the transformer will have occurred. 16.14 TANK-EARTH PROTECTION
• 16 • In addition, this scheme does not respond to any fault in This is also known as Howard protection. If the
a tertiary winding. Unloaded delta-connected tertiary transformer tank is nominally insulated from earth (an
windings are often not protected; alternatively, the delta insulation resistance of 10 ohms being sufficient) earth
winding can be earthed at one point through a current fault protection can be provided by connecting a relay to
transformer that energises an instantaneous relay. This the secondary of a current transformer the primary of
system should be separate from the main winding which is connected between the tank and earth. This
protection. If the tertiary winding earthing lead is scheme is similar to the frame-earth fault busbar
connected to the main winding neutral above the neutral protection described in Chapter 15.
current transformer in an attempt to make a combined
system, there may be ‘blind spots’ which the protection
cannot cover. 16.15 OIL AND GAS DEVICES
All faults below oil in an oil-immersed transformer result
in localised heating and breakdown of the oil; some degree
16.13 OVERFLUXING PROTECTION of arcing will always take place in a winding fault and the
The effects of excessive flux density are described in resulting decomposition of the oil will release gases.
Section 16.2.8. Overfluxing arises principally from the When the fault is of a very minor type, such as a hot joint,
following system conditions: gas is released slowly, but a major fault involving severe
IS − IF
Figure 16.22: Typical transformer-feeder circuits.
× 100%
IF
The saving in switchgear so achieved is offset by
where: IS = setting current
increased complication in the necessary protection. The
primary requirement is intertripping, since the feeder IF = steady - state r.m.s. value of fault current
protection remote from the transformer will not respond which when fully offset just operates the
to the low current fault conditions that can be detected relay
by restricted earth fault and Buchholz protections. The instantaneous overcurrent relays must be set
Either unrestricted or restricted protection can be without risk of them operating for faults on the remote
applied; moreover, the transformer-feeder can be side of the transformer.
~
I>>
IF1 IF2
IS
Setting ratio r =
IF2
Transient
over-reach (%) 5 25 50 100
Relay A I >
• 16 •
B
+
A B Trip
circuit
B
D D
Transformer and Transformer-Feeder P rotection
E E
• 16 •
Pilots
Relay electromagnets
(bias inherent)
Figure 16.25: Methods of protection for transformer-feeders using electromechanical static technology
MiCOM P630 series relay provides advanced software to star connected main CT’s and Yy0 connected ICT’s
simplify the calculations, so an earlier AREVA type KBCH provides a path for the zero sequence current to reach
relay is used to illustrate the complexity of the required the protection relay. On the primary side of the
calculations. transformer, the delta connected main primary winding
causes zero-sequence current to circulate round the
delta and hence will not be seen by the primary side
16.19.1 Provision of Zero-Sequence Filtering main CT’s. The protection relay will therefore not see any
zero-sequence current on the primary side, and hence
Figure 16.27 shows a delta-star transformer to be
detects the secondary side zero sequence current
protected using a unit protection scheme. With a main
incorrectly as an in-zone fault.
winding connection of Dyn11, suitable choices of primary
and secondary CT winding arrangements, and software The solution is to provide the ICT’s on the secondary side
phase compensation are to be made. With the KBCH of the transformer with a delta winding, so that the
relay, phase compensation is selected by the user in the zero-sequence current circulates round the delta and is
form of software-implemented ICT’s. not seen by the relay. Therefore, a rule can be developed
that a transformer winding with a connection to earth
must have a delta-connected main or ICT for unit
Primary CT's Dyn 11 Secondary CT's
protection to operate correctly.
Selection of Yy0 connection for the primary side ICT’s
and Yd1 (–30°o) for the secondary side ICT’s provides the
10MVA
33/11kV
Primary CT's Z=10% Secondary CT's
Yy0, 250/1 Dyn11 Yy0, 600/1
Id >
• 16 •
Primary ICT's Unit protection relay Secondary ICT's FLC = 175A FLC = 525A
With the Dyn11 connection, the secondary voltages and R=1000 A Rstab
currents are displaced by +30° from the primary.
Therefore, the combination of primary, secondary and
phase correction must provide a phase shift of –30° of
the secondary quantities relative to the primary. Id>
For simplicity, the CT’s on the primary and secondary Primary ICT's Unit Protection Secondary ICT's
windings of the transformer are connected in star. The Yy0 Relay Yd1
required phase shift can be achieved either by use of ICT Figure 16.28: Transformer unit
connections on the primary side having a phase shift of protection example
70 0.1
600
500 60
Overall operationtime - milliseconds
16 •
Differential current (A)
•
400 50
Operate 0.2
300 40
K Factor
0.3
200
Restrain 30 Overall op time
0.4
100 Unstable
20 0.5
0 Stable 0.6
K Factor
0 200 400 600 800 10 0.7
Effective bias (A) differential current 0.8
0.9
0 1
Figure 16.29: Transformer unit 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
protection characteristic VK VS
16.9.2.3 Restricted earth fault protection Figure 16.30: REF operating characteristic
for KBCH relay
The KBCH relay implements high-impedance Restricted
Earth Fault (REF) protection. Operation is required for a
where: = 0.875
VF = If (Rct + 2Rl + Rstab ) Ratio compensation = 1/0.875
and = 1.14
If = fault current in secondary of CT circuit Both of the above values can be set in the relay.
Hence, the secondary current with ratio correction: Iopt1 = 0.2 + (0.2 x 0.952)
166.6 × 1.36 = 0.3904A
=
250 At the –15% tap,
= 0.906A Iop = IS + 0.2 +(Ibias - 1) x 0.8
At the -15% tap, the HV full-load current on the primary (since the bias >1.0)
of the CT’s:
Iopt2 = 0.2 + 0.2 +(1.059 - 1) x 0.8
10
=
I bias =
( I RHV + I RLV )
2
• 16 •
where:
IRHV = relay HV current
IRLV = relay LV current
Hence,
I biast1 =
(0.998 + 0.906 )
2
= 0.952A
and
I biast 2 =
(0.998 + 1.12 )
2
= 1.059A
Introduction 17.1
Generator earthing 17.2
Stator winding faults 17.3
Stator winding protection 17.4
Differential protection of
direct-connected generators 17.5
Differential protection of generator
–transformer units 17.6
Overcurrent protection 17.7
Stator earth fault protection 17.8
Overvoltage protection 17.9
Undervoltage protection 17.10
Low forward power/reverse
power protection 17.11
Unbalanced loading 17.12
Protection against inadvertent energisation 17.13
Under/Overfrequency/Overfluxing protection 17.14
Rotor faults 17.15
Loss of excitation protection 17.16
Pole slipping protection 17.17
Overheating 17.18
Mechanical faults 17.19
Complete generator protection schemes 17.20
Embedded generation 17.21
Examples of generator protection settings 17.22
• 17 • Generator and
Generator-Transformer P rotection
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The core of an electric power system is the generation.
With the exception of emerging fuel cell and solar-cell
technology for power systems, the conversion of the
fundamental energy into its electrical equivalent
normally requires a 'prime mover' to develop mechanical
power as an intermediate stage.
The nature of this machine depends upon the source of
energy and in turn this has some bearing on the design
of the generator. Generators based on steam, gas, water
or wind turbines, and reciprocating combustion engines
are all in use. Electrical ratings extend from a few
hundred kVA (or even less) for reciprocating engine and
renewable energy sets, up to steam turbine sets
exceeding 1200MVA.
Small and medium sized sets may be directly connected
to a power distribution system. A larger set may be
associated with an individual transformer, through
which it is coupled to the EHV primary transmission
system.
Switchgear may or may not be provided between the
generator and transformer. In some cases, operational
and economic advantages can be attained by providing
a generator circuit breaker in addition to a high voltage
circuit breaker, but special demands will be placed on
the generator circuit breaker for interruption of
generator fault current waveforms that do not have an
early zero crossing.
A unit transformer may be tapped off the
interconnection between generator and transformer for
the supply of power to auxiliary plant, as shown in
Figure 17.1. The unit transformer could be of the order
of 10% of the unit rating for a large fossil-fuelled steam
set with additional flue-gas desulphurisation plant, but
it may only be of the order of 1% of unit rating for a
hydro set.
Industrial plant
The neutral point of a generator is usually earthed to
main busbar facilitate protection of the stator winding and associated
system. Earthing also prevents damaging transient
overvoltages in the event of an arcing earth fault or
ferroresonance.
• 17 • For HV generators, impedance is usually inserted in the
Plant feeders - total stator earthing connection to limit the magnitude of
demand: xMW earth fault current. There is a wide variation in the earth
PCC: Point of Common Coupling fault current chosen, common values being:
When plant generator is running:
If y>x, Plant may export to Utility across PCC 1. rated current
If x>y, Plant max demand from Utility is reduced
2. 200A-400A (low impedance earthing)
Figure 17.2: Embedded generation 3. 10A-20A (high impedance earthing)
The main methods of impedance-earthing a generator
A modern generating unit is a complex system are shown in Figure 17.3. Low values of earth fault
comprising the generator stator winding, associated current may limit the damage caused from a fault, but
transformer and unit transformer (if present), the rotor they simultaneously make detection of a fault towards
with its field winding and excitation system, and the the stator winding star point more difficult. Except for
prime mover with its associated auxiliaries. Faults of special applications, such as marine, LV generators are
many kinds can occur within this system for which normally solidly earthed to comply with safety
diverse forms of electrical and mechanical protection are requirements. Where a step-up transformer is applied,
normally applied to generators rated in excess of 1MVA. threshold setting Is1 can be set as low as 5% of rated
For large generating units, fast fault clearance will also generator current, to provide protection for as much of
maintain stability of the main power system. The zone the winding as possible. The bias slope break-point
of differential protection can be extended to include an threshold setting Is2 would typically be set to a value
associated step-up transformer. For smaller generators, above generator rated current, say 120%, to achieve
IDMT/instantaneous overcurrent protection is usually the external fault stability in the event of transient
only phase fault protection applied. Sections 17.5-17.8 asymmetric CT saturation. Bias slope K2 setting would
detail the various methods that are available for stator typically be set at 150%.
winding protection.
I1 I2
Stator
A (a): Relay connections for biased differential protection
B
C Idiff
= I1+II2 Operate
K2
IS1 K1 Restrain
• 17 • Id> Id> Id>
IS2 I1+
IBIAS = 2
Open
Re Re
I>
If
Is
R
aV Loading U>
If = resistor
R
IsR
amin =
V
%covered 1-a ) x 1100% (b) Protection using a voltage element
in
generator stator winding using a current element Figure 17.14: Generator winding earth-fault
protection - distribution transformer earthing
Figure 17.13: Earth fault protection of high-resistance
earthed generator stator winding using a current element
machines. Such machines may be employed for variable accordance with the open-circuit time constant of the
speed motoring in pumped-storage generation schemes field winding. This decay can last several seconds. The
or for starting a large gas turbine prime mover. relay element is arranged to trip both the main circuit
breaker (if not already open) and the excitation; tripping
the main circuit breaker alone is not sufficient.
17.9 OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Overvoltages on a generator may occur due to transient
surges on the network, or prolonged power frequency 17.10 UNDERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
overvoltages may arise from a variety of conditions. Undervoltage protection is rarely fitted to generators. It
Surge arrestors may be required to protect against is sometimes used as an interlock element for another
transient overvoltages, but relay protection may be used
protection function or scheme, such as field failure
to protect against power frequency overvoltages.
protection or inadvertent energisation protection, where
A sustained overvoltage condition should not occur for a the abnormality to be detected leads directly or
machine with a healthy voltage regulator, but it may be indirectly to an undervoltage condition.
caused by the following contingencies:
A transmission system undervoltage condition may arise
a. defective operation of the automatic voltage when there is insufficient reactive power generation to
regulator when the machine is in isolated operation maintain the system voltage profile and the condition
b. operation under manual control with the voltage must be addressed to avoid the possible phenomenon of
regulator out of service. A sudden variation of the system voltage collapse.
load, in particular the reactive power component, However, it should be addressed by the deployment of
will give rise to a substantial change in voltage ’system protection’ schemes. The generation should not
because of the large voltage regulation inherent in be tripped. The greatest case for undervoltage protection
a typical alternator
• 17 • being required would be for a generator supplying an
c. sudden loss of load (due to tripping of outgoing isolated power system or to meet Utility demands for
feeders, leaving the set isolated or feeding a very small connection of embedded generation (see Section 17.21).
load) may cause a sudden rise in terminal voltage due
In the case of generators feeding an isolated system,
to the trapped field flux and/or overspeed
undervoltage may occur for several reasons, typically
Sudden loss of load should only cause a transient overloading or failure of the AVR. In some cases, the
overvoltage while the voltage regulator and governor act performance of generator auxiliary plant fed via a unit
to correct the situation. A maladjusted voltage regulator transformer from the generator terminals could be
may trip to manual, maintaining excitation at the value adversely affected by prolonged undervoltage.
prior to load loss while the generator supplies little or no
load. The terminal voltage will increase substantially, Where undervoltage protection is required, it should
and in severe cases it would be limited only by the comprise an undervoltage element and an associated
saturation characteristic of the generator. A rise in speed time delay. Settings must be chosen to avoid
simply compounds the problem. If load that is sensitive maloperation during the inevitable voltage dips during
to overvoltages remains connected, the consequences in power system fault clearance or associated with motor
terms of equipment damage and lost revenue can be starting. Transient reductions in voltage down to 80% or
severe. Prolonged overvoltages may also occur on less may be encountered during motor starting.
capability
The advantage of this approach is that cooling effects are
where: modelled more accurately, but the disadvantage is that
I2R = negative phase sequence continuous rating in the tripping characteristic may not follow the withstand
per unit of MCR characteristic specified by the manufacturer accurately.
The heating characteristics of various designs of The typical relay element characteristic takes the form of
generator are shown in Figure 17.16.
I 2
K 2 set
t = − 2 log e 1 −
10000
I 2 set I 2
…Equation 17.1
where:
1000 t = time to trip
2
I flc
K = K g ×
Ip
100
Indirectly cooled (air)
I flc
Indirectly cooled (H2) I 2 set = I 2 cmr × ×I n
Ip
Time (sec)
p = CT primary current
IN = relay Irated current
Figure 17.16 alsoI n =shows the current
relay rated thermal replica time
0.01
characteristic described by Equation 17.1, from which it
0.01 0.1 1 10
Negative sequence current (p.u.) will be seen that a significant gain in capability is
achieved at low levels of negative sequence current.
Figure 17.16: Typical negative phase sequence Such a protection element will also respond to phase-
current withstand of cylindrical earth and phase-phase faults where sufficient negative
rotor generators
sequence current arises. Grading with downstream
17.12.2 Negative Phase Sequence Protection power system protection relays is therefore required. A
definite minimum time setting must be applied to the
This protection is applied to prevent overheating due to
negative sequence relay element to ensure correct
negative sequence currents. Small salient-pole
grading. A maximum trip time setting may also be used
generators have a proportionately larger negative
to ensure correct tripping when the negative sequence
turns. Serious damage to the conductors and possibly b. a.c. injection method
the rotor can occur very rapidly under these conditions.
17.15.1.1 Potentiometer method
More damage may be caused mechanically. If a large
portion of the winding is short-circuited, the flux may This is a scheme that was fitted to older generators, and
adopt a pattern such as that shown in Figure 17.17. The it is illustrated in Figure 17.18. An earth fault on the
attracting force at the surface of the rotor is given by: field winding would produce a voltage across the relay,
the maximum voltage occurring for faults at the ends of
B2A the winding.
F=
8π A ‘blind spot' would exist at the centre of the field
winding. To avoid a fault at this location remaining
where: undetected, the tapping point on the potentiometer
A = area could be varied by a pushbutton or switch. The relay
setting is typically about 5% of the exciter voltage.
B = flux density
Field
winding I > Exciter
• 17 •
Figure 17.18: Earth fault protection of field
circuit by potentiometer method
17.15.1.2 Injection methods
Two methods are in common use. The first is based on
low frequency signal injection, with series filtering, as
shown in Figure 17.19(a). It comprises an injection
source that is connected between earth and one side of
the field circuit, through capacitive coupling and the
measurement circuit. The field circuit is subjected to an
Figure 17.17: Flux distribution on rotor alternating potential at substantially the same level
with partial winding short circuit
throughout. An earth fault anywhere in the field system
It will be seen from Figure 17.17 that the flux is will give rise to a current that is detected as an
concentrated on one pole but widely dispersed over the equivalent voltage across the adjustable resistor by the
other and intervening surfaces. The attracting force is in relay. The capacitive coupling blocks the normal d.c. field
consequence large on one pole but very weak on the voltage, preventing the discharge of a large direct
opposite one, while flux on the quadrature axis will current through the protection scheme. The combination
2.0
A
Load point
2.5
+jX
D
5.0 Loss of field
ZS locus
XG+ T+ZS D
XG
0.5
0.6
C 0.7
-jX
ZS
Xb2 Xb1
-R XT +R
'd
2X'd
Xd
Figure 17.23: Loss of excitation protection
Limiting characteristics
generation
point
Pick-up and drop-off time delays td1 and tdo1 are
associated with this impedance element. Timer td1 is
used to prevent operation during stable power swings
Relay
that may cause the impedance locus of the generator to
Locus of constant load angle Diameter = d/ 2
• 17 • transiently enter the locus of operation set by Xb1.
However, the value must short enough to prevent
-jX
damage as a result of loss of excitation occurring. If
Figure 17.22: Locus of limiting operating pole-slipping protection is not required (see Section
conditions of synchronous machine 17.17.2), timer tdo1 can be set to give instantaneous
reset. The second field failure element, comprising
settings Xa2, Xb2, and associated timers td2 and tdo2 can
On the same diagram the full load impedance locus for be used to give instantaneous tripping following loss of
one per unit power can be drawn. Part of this circle excitation under full load conditions.
represents a condition that is not feasible, but the point
of intersection with the maximum rotor angle curve can
be taken as a limiting operating condition for setting 17.16.3 Protection Settings
impedance-based loss of excitation protection. The typical setting values for the two elements vary
according to the excitation system and operating regime
of the generator concerned, since these affect the
17.16.2 Impedance-Based Protection Characteristics
generator impedance seen by the relay under normal and
Figure 17.21 alludes to the possibility that a protection abnormal conditions. For a generator that is never
α θ
+jX
R
ZS
Relaying
ing point
Lens
T
ZB
XG Slip locus
EG=ES
The width of the lens is set by the angle α and the line
-jX PP’, perpendicular to the axis of the lens, is used to
• 17 • Ohm relay 2 determine if the centre of the impedance swing during a
Ohm relay 1 transient is located in the generator or power system.
Operation in the case of a generator is as follows. The
Figure 17.24: Pole slipping detection
by ohm relays characteristic is divided into 4 zones and 2 regions, as
shown in Figure 17.26.
Tripping only occurs if all zones are traversed Normal operation is with the measured impedance in
sequentially. Power system faults should result in the zone R1. If a pole slip develops, the impedance locus will
zones not being fully traversed so that tripping will not traverse though zones R2, R3, and R4. When entering
be initiated. The security of this type of protection zone R4, a trip signal is issued, provided the impedance
scheme is normally enhanced by the addition of a plain lies below reactance line PP’ and hence the locus of
under impedance control element (circle about the origin swing lies within or close to the generator – i.e. the
of the impedance diagram) that is set to prevent tripping generator is pole slipping with respect to the rest of the
for impedance trajectories for remote power system system.
faults. Setting of the ohm elements is such that they lie
parallel to the total system impedance vector, and
enclose it, as shown in Figure 17.24.
power is close to zero or when the power flow include all of the commonly required protection
starts to reverse, to drive the idle turbine functions in a single package, thus simplifying the
decisions to be made. The following sections provide
illustrations of typical protection schemes for generators
17.19.3 Loss of Vacuum connected to a grid network, but not all possibilities are
A failure of the condenser vacuum in a steam turbine illustrated, due to the wide variation in generator sizes
driven generator results in heating of the tubes. This and types.
then produces strain in the tubes, and a rise in
temperature of the low-pressure end of the turbine.
17.20.1 Direct-Connected Generator
Vacuum pressure devices initiate progressive unloading
of the set and, if eventually necessary, tripping of the A typical protection scheme for a direct-connected
turbine valves followed by the high voltage circuit generator is shown in Figure 17.27. It comprises the
breaker. The set must not be allowed to motor in the following protection functions:
Loss of excitation
Stator winding temperature Excitation
Unbalanced loading circuit
breaker
Under/overvoltage Low power
interlock Generator
Mechanical faults (non-urgent) circuit
breaker
N.B. Alarms and time delays omitted for simplicity
system, as opposed to being centrally dispatched response to earth faults. If the Utility power infeed fails,
generation connected to a transmission system, the term it is also important to disconnect the embedded
‘Embedded Generation’ is often applied. Figure 17.2 generation before there is any risk of the Utility power
illustrates such an arrangement. Depending on size, the supply returning on to unsynchronised machines. In
embedded generator(s) may be synchronous or practice this generally requires the following protection
asynchronous types, and they may be connected at any functions to be applied at the ‘Point of Common
voltage appropriate to the size of plant being considered. Coupling’ (PCC) to trip the coupling circuit breaker:
The impact of connecting generation to a Utility a. overvoltage
distribution system that was originally engineered only
b. undervoltage
for downward power distribution must be considered,
particularly in the area of protection requirements. In c. overfrequency
this respect, it is not important whether the embedded
d. underfrequency
generator is normally capable of export to the Utility
distribution system or not, since there may exist fault e. loss of Utility supply
conditions when this occurs irrespective of the design In addition, particular circumstances may require
intent. additional protection functions:
If plant operation when disconnected from the Utility f. neutral voltage displacement
supply is required, underfrequency protection (Section
17.4.2) will become an important feature of the in-plant g. reverse power
power system. During isolated operation, it may be h. directional overcurrent
relatively easy to overload the available generation, such
that some form of load management system may be In practice, it can be difficult to meet the protection
required. Similarly, when running in parallel with the settings or performance demanded by the Utility without
Utility, consideration needs to be given to the mode of a high risk of nuisance tripping caused by lack of co-
• 17 • ordination with normal power system faults and
generator operation if reactive power import is to be
controlled. The impact on the control scheme of a disturbances that do not necessitate tripping of the
sudden break in the Utility connection to the plant main embedded generation. This is especially true when
busbar also requires analysis. Where the in-plant applying protection specifically to detect loss of the
generation is run using constant power factor or Utility supply (also called ‘loss of mains’) to cater for
constant reactive power control, automatic reversion to operating conditions where there would be no
voltage control when the Utility connection is lost is immediate excursion in voltage or frequency to cause
essential to prevent plant loads being subjected to a operation of conventional protection functions.
voltage outside acceptable limits.
Limits may be placed by the Utility on the amount of 17.21.1 Protection Against Loss of Utility Supply
power/reactive power import/export. These may demand
If the normal power infeed to a distribution system, or to
the use of an in-plant Power Management System to
the part of it containing embedded generation is lost, the
control the embedded generation and plant loads
effects may be as follows:
accordingly. Some Utilities may insist on automatic
tripping of the interconnecting circuit breakers if there is a. embedded generation may be overloaded, leading
a significant departure outside permissible levels of to generator undervoltage/underfrequency
14.5Ω Xb = 227Ω. The time delay td1 should be set to Instantaneous operation is required. Generator
avoid relay element operation on power swings and a manufacturers are normally able to provide
typical setting of 3s is used. This value may need to be recommendations for the relay settings. For embedded
modified in the light of operating experience. To prevent generators, the requirements of the local Utility may also
cyclical pick-up of the relay element without tripping, have to be taken into account. For both elements, a
such as might occur during pole-slipping conditions, a variety of voltage measurement modes are available to
drop-off time delay tdo1 is provided and set to 0.5s. take account of possible VT connections (single or three-
phase, etc.), and conditions to be protected against. In
17.22.1.6 Negative phase sequence current protection this example, a three-phase VT connection is used, and
This protection is required to guard against excessive overvoltages on any phase are to be detected, so a
heating from negative phase sequence currents, whatever selection of ‘Any’ is used for this setting.
the cause. The generator is of salient pole design, so from 17.22.1.8 Underfrequency protection
IEC 60034-1, the continuous withstand is 8% of rating
and the I 22t value is 20s. Using Equation 17.1, the This is required to protect the generator from sustained
required relay settings can found as I2>> = 0.05 and K = overload conditions during periods of operation isolated
8.6s. The nearest available values are I2>> = 0.05 and from the Utility supply. The generating set manufacturer
K = 8.6s. The relay also has a cooling time constant will normally provide the details of machine short-time
Kreset that is normally set equal to the value of K. To co- capabilities. The example relay provides four stages of
ordinate with clearance of heavy asymmetric system underfrequency protection. In this case, the first stage is
faults, that might otherwise cause unnecessary operation used for alarm purposes and a second stage would be
of this protection, a minimum operation time tmin should applied to trip the set.
be applied. It is recommended to set this to a value of 1. The alarm stage might typically be set to 49Hz, with a
Similarly, a maximum time can be applied to ensure that time delay of 20s, to avoid an alarm being raised under
the thermal rating of the generator is not exceeded (as transient conditions, e.g. during plant motor starting.
this is uncertain, data not available) and to take account The trip stage might be set to 48Hz, with a time delay of
• 17 •
of the fact that the P343 characteristic is not identical 0.5s, to avoid tripping for transient, but recoverable, dips
with that specified in IEC 60034. The recommended in frequency below this value.
setting for tmax is 600s.
17.22.1.9 Reverse power protection
17.22.1.7 Overvoltage protection
The relay setting is 5% of rated power.
This is required to guard against various failure modes,
e.g. AVR failure, resulting in excessive stator voltage. A 0.05 ×5 ×10 6
setting =
two-stage protection is available, the first being a low- CT ratio ×VT ratio
set time-delayed stage that should be set to grade with
0.05 ×5 ×10 6
transient overvoltages that can be tolerated following =
load rejection. The second is a high-set stage used for 500 ×100
instantaneous tripping in the event of an intolerable =5 W
overvoltage condition arising.
This value can be set in the relay. A time delay is
Generators can normally withstand 105% of rated required to guard against power swings while generating
voltage continuously, so the low-set stage should be set at low power levels, so use a time delay of 5s. No reset
higher than this value. A setting of 117.7V in secondary time delay is required.
of 1565V. The nearest settable value is 3000V, minimum Use a value of 935.3V, nearest settable value that
allowable relay setting. The value of V1set is required to ensures 90% of the winding is covered. A 0.5s definite
be above the minimum voltage seen by the generator for time delay is used to prevent spurious trips. The third
a close-up phase-earth fault. A value of 80% of rated harmonic voltage under normal conditions is 2% of rated
voltage is used for V1set, 14400V. voltage, giving a value of:
17.22.2.3 Inadvertent energisation protection
18 kV ×0.02
This protection is a combination of overcurrent with
undervoltage, the voltage signal being obtained from a 3
VT on the generator side of the system. The current = 207.8 V
setting used is that of rated generator current of 6019A,
in accordance with IEEE C37.102 as the generator is for The setting of the third harmonic undervoltage
installation in the USA. Use 6000A nearest settable protection must be below this value, a factor of 80%
value. The voltage setting cannot be more than 85% of being acceptable. Use a value of 166.3V. A time delay
the generator rated voltage to ensure operation does not of 0.5s is used. Inhibition of the element at low
occur under normal operation. For this application, a generator output requires determination during
value of 50% of rated voltage is chosen. commissioning.
17.22.2.4 Negative phase sequence protection 17.22.2.7 Loss of excitation protection
The generator has a maximum steady-state capability of The client requires a two-stage loss of excitation
8% of rating, and a value of Kg of 10. Settings of I2cmr protection function. The first is alarm only, while the
= 0.06 (=480A) and Kg = 10 are therefore used. second provides tripping under high load conditions. To
Minimum and maximum time delays of 1s and 1300s are achieve this, the first impedance element of the P343
used to co-ordinate with external protection and ensure loss of excitation protection can be set in accordance
• 17 • tripping at low levels of negative sequence current are with the guidelines of Section 17.16.3 for a generator
used. operating at rotor angles up to 120o, as follows:
17.22.2.5 Overfluxing protection Xb1 = 0.5Xd = 1.666Ω
The generator-transformer manufacturer supplied the Xa1 = 0.75X’d = 0.245Ω
following characteristics:
Use nearest settable values of 1.669Ω and 0.253Ω. A
Alarm: V f >1.1 time delay of 5s is used to prevent alarms under
transient conditions. For the trip stage, settings for high
Trip: V >1.2 , inverse time characteristic load as given in Section 17.16.3 are used:
f
time characteristic kV 2 18 2
Hence the alarm setting is 18000 ×1.05 60 = 315 V Hz . X b2 = = =1.727 Ω
MVA 187.65
A time delay of 5s is used to avoid alarms due to X a 2 = −0.75 X d′ = −0.1406 Ω
transient conditions.
The nearest settable value for Xb2 is 1.725Ω. A time
The trip setting is 18000 ×1.2 60 = 360 V Hz .
delay of 0.5s is used.
1.54 − R l min
α min =180 o −2 tan −1
(Z A + Z B )
and, substituting values,
αmin = 62.5°
Use the minimum settable value of 90°. The blinder angle,
θ, is estimated to be 80°, and requires checking during
commissioning. Timers T1 and T2 are set to 15ms as
experience has shown that these settings are satisfactory
Generator and Generator-Transfor mer P rotection
17.23 REFERENCES
• 17 •
Introduction 18.1
Discrimination 18.3
Examples 18.12
References 18.13
• 18 • Industrial and Commercial
Power System P rotection
18.1 INTRODUCTION
As industrial and commercial operations processes and
plants have become more complex and extensive (Figure
18.1), the requirement for improved reliability of
electrical power supplies has also increased. The
potential costs of outage time following a failure of the
power supply to a plant have risen dramatically as well.
The introduction of automation techniques into industry
and commerce has naturally led to a demand for the
deployment of more power system automation, to
improve reliability and efficiency.
110kV
NO
HV supply HV supply *
2 A B NC C
1 0.4kV
NO
A NO B 6kV
*
Transformer Transformer
1 2
NO
* NC B
2 out of 3 A C 0.4kV
mechanical or electrical NO
interlock
NO
*
• 18 • NC
C
0.4kV
A NO B
Bus section C - Essential supplies
EDG - Emergency generator
* - Two out of three interlock
Figure 18.2: Typical switchboard
configuration for an industrial plant Figure 18.3: Typical industrial power system
major and minor fuses are HRC devices of proper design 80A
10
and manufacture, this need not endanger personnel or 50A
35A
cables associated with the plant. 25A
16A
1.0 6A
18.4.1 Fuse Characteristics
2A
The time required for melting the fusible element
depends on the magnitude of current. This time is known
as the ‘pre-arcing’ time of the fuse. Vaporisation of the 0.1
element occurs on melting and there is fusion between 0.1 1.0 10 100 500
the vapour and the filling powder leading to rapid arc Prospective current (kA r.m.s. symmetrical)
extinction.
Fuses have a valuable characteristic known as ‘cut-off’, Figure 18.5: Typical fuse cut-off current
characteristics
each other at all current levels. Discrimination is must be selected to withstand the starting current
obtained when the larger (‘major’) fuse remains (possibly up to 8 times full load current), and also carry
unaffected by fault currents that are cleared by the the normal full load current continuously without
smaller (‘minor’) fuse. deterioration. Tables of recommended fuse sizes for both
The fuse operating time can be considered in two parts: ‘direct on line’ and ‘assisted start’ motor applications are
usually given. Examples of protection using fuses are
i. the time taken for fault current to melt the given in Section 18.12.1.
element, known as the ‘pre-arcing time’
ii. the time taken by the arc produced inside the fuse
to extinguish and isolate the circuit, known as the 18.5 INDUSTRIAL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
‘arcing time’ Some parts of an industrial power system are most
The total energy dissipated in a fuse during its operation effectively protected by HRC fuses, but the replacement
consists of ‘pre-arcing energy’ and ‘arc energy’. The of blown fuse links can be particularly inconvenient in
values are usually expressed in terms of I2t, where I is the others. In these locations, circuit breakers are used
current passing through the fuse and t is the time in instead, the requirement being for the breaker to
seconds. Expressing the quantities in this manner interrupt the maximum possible fault current
provides an assessment of the heating effect that the successfully without damage to itself. In addition to
fuse imposes on associated equipment during its fault current interruption, the breaker must quickly
operation under fault conditions. disperse the resulting ionised gas away from the breaker
contacts, to prevent re-striking of the arc, and away from
To obtain positive discrimination between fuses, the total other live parts of equipment to prevent breakdown. The
I2t value of the minor fuse must not exceed the pre- breaker, its cable or busbar connections, and the breaker
arcing I2t value of the major fuse. In practice, this means housing, must all be constructed to withstand the
that the major fuse will have to have a rating mechanical forces resulting from the magnetic fields and
• 18 • significantly higher than that of the minor fuse, and this internal arc gas pressure produced by the highest levels
may give rise to problems of discrimination. Typically, of fault current to be encountered.
the major fuse must have a rating of at least 160% of
The types of circuit breaker most frequently encountered
the minor fuse for discrimination to be obtained.
in industrial system are described in the following
sections.
18.4.3 Protection of Cables by Fuses
PVC cable is allowed to be loaded to its full nominal 18.5.1 Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB’s)
rating only if it has ‘close excess current protection’. This
MCB’s are small circuit breakers, both in physical size but
degree of protection can be given by means of a fuse link
more importantly, in ratings. The basic single pole unit is
having a ‘fusing factor’ not exceeding 1.5, where:
a small, manually closed, electrically or manually opened
Minimum Fusing Current switch housed in a moulded plastic casing. They are
Fusing factor = suitable for use on 230V a.c. single-phase/400V a.c.
Current Rating
three-phase systems and for d.c. auxiliary supply
Cables constructed using other insulating materials (e.g. systems, with current ratings of up to 125A. Contained
paper, XLPE) have no special requirements in this respect. within each unit is a thermal element, in which a bimetal
• 18 • 1000
18.5.5 Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB’s)
100 In recent years, this type of circuit breaker, along with
CB’s using SF6, has replaced OCB’s for new installations
10 in industrial/commercial systems at voltages of 3.3kV
and above.
Time (s)
Figure 18.6: Typical tripping characteristics In some countries, circuit breakers using SF6 gas as the
of an ACB arc-quenching medium are preferred to VCB’s as the
A B C
A B C
(i) Ph. - Ph.
(b) 3Ph. 3w (ii) Ph. - E*
* Earth-fault protection
only if earth-fault
A B C
A B C
Earth-fault settings
(e) 3Ph. 3w (i) Ph. - Ph.
may be less than full
(ii) Ph. - E
load
Earth-fault settings
(i) Ph. - Ph. may be less than full
(f) 3Ph. 4w (ii) Ph. - E load, but must be
(iii) Ph. - N greater than largest
Ph. - N load
A B C N
A B C N
protection relays are time-delayed overcurrent and earth deployment of low impedance electronic relays rather
fault relays. Chapter 9 provides details of the application than electromechanical earth fault relays which
of overcurrent relays. presented significant relay circuit impedance. Energising
Traditionally, for three wire systems, overcurrent relays a relay from a core balance type CT generally enables
have often been applied to two phases only for relay more sensitive settings to be obtained without the risk of
element economy. Even with modern multi-element nuisance tripping with residually connected phase CT’s.
relay designs, economy is still a consideration in terms of When this method is applied to a four-wire system, it is
the number of analogue current inputs that have to be essential that both the phase and neutral conductors are
provided. Two overcurrent elements will detect any passed through the core balance CT aperture. For a 3-
interphase fault, so it is conventional to apply two wire system, care must be taken with the arrangement of
elements on the same phases at all relay locations. The the cable sheath, otherwise cable faults involving the
phase CT residual current connections for an earth fault sheath may not result in relay operation (Figure 18.8).
relay element are unaffected by this convention. Figure
Cable gland
18.7 illustrates the possible relay connections and
limitations on settings. Cable box
protection. Placing a CT in the neutral earthing Figure 18.8: CBCT connection for
four-wire system
I >
Supply 1 Supply 2
E
F1
IF/2 IF/2
RE1 RE2
IF IF/2
I >
F2
RF
Supply 1 Supply 2
IF/2 Neutral busbar
Capacitor kvar
dip. With a voltage dip caused by a source system fault,
a group of motors could decelerate to such a degree that
their aggregate re-acceleration currents might keep the
recovery voltage depressed to a level where the machines
might stall. Modern numerical motor protection relays kW V
typically incorporate voltage protection functions, thus ϕ2
removing the need for discrete undervoltage relays for ϕ1 kVA lo
2 a
this purpose (see Chapter 19). Older installations may with co d current
kV mpensa
A tion
still utilise discrete undervoltage relays, but the setting 1 lo
co ad c
criteria remain the same. mp ur
en ren
sa t w
Compensating kvar
Industrial and Commercial Power System Protection
Magnetising kvar
tio
Reverse phase sequence voltage protection should be n itho
ut
applied where it may be dangerous for a motor to be
started with rotation in the opposite direction to that
intended. Incorrect rotation due to reverse phase
sequence might be set up following some error after
power system maintenance or repairs, e.g. to a supply
cable. Older motor control boards might have been fitted
Figure 18.12: Power factor correction principle
with discrete relays to detect this condition. Modern
motor protection relays may incorporate this function. If
The following may be deduced from this vector diagram:
reverse phase sequence is detected, motor starting can be
blocked. If reverse phase sequence voltage protection is kW
Uncorrected power factor =
not provided, the high-set negative phase sequence kVA 1
current protection in the relay would quickly detect the
condition once the starting device is closed – but initial = cos∠ϕ1
reverse rotation of the motor could not be prevented.
kW
Corrected power factor =
kVA 2
18.11 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
= cos∠ϕ2
AND PROTECTION OF CAPACITORS
Reduction in kVA = kVA1 - kVA2
Loads such as induction motors draw significant reactive
power from the supply system, and a poor overall power If the kW load and uncorrected power factors are known,
factor may result. The flow of reactive power increases then the capacitor rating in kvar to achieve a given
the voltage-drops through series reactances such as degree of correction may be calculated from:
transformers and reactors, it uses up some of the current
Capacitor kvar
• 18 • carrying capacity of power system plant and it increases
the resistive losses in the power system. = kW x (tan cos∠ϕ1-tan cos∠ϕ2)
To offset the losses and restrictions in plant capacity A spreadsheet can easily be constructed to calculate the
they incur and to assist with voltage regulation, Utilities required amount of compensation to achieve a desired
usually apply tariff penalties to large industrial or power factor.
commercial customers for running their plant at
excessively low power factor. The customer is thereby
induced to improve the power factor of his system and it 18.11.1 Capacitor Control
may be cost-effective to install fixed or variable power Where the plant load or the plant power factor varies
factor correction equipment to raise or regulate the considerably, it is necessary to control the power factor
plant power factor to an acceptable level. correction, since over-correction will result in excessive
Shunt capacitors are often used to improve power factor. system voltage and unnecessary losses. In a few
The basis for compensation is illustrated in Figure 18.12, industrial systems, capacitors are switched in manually
where ∠ϕ1 represents the uncorrected power factor when required, but automatic controllers are standard
angle and ∠ϕ2 the angle relating to the desired power practice. A controller provides automatic power factor
factor, after correction. correction, by comparing the running power factor with
Metering
11kV
Trip
Lockout
P1
I >> I >>
I> I >
Metering
PFC/V
U> U< Controller
Id>
P2
Capacitor bank
• 18 •
* * *
I>
I> Rating
Rating E 30A
400A each
Rating
A
1000A
Alarm Trip
(a)
I>
Rating
30A
B
F
I> (b) Correct layout and discrimination
of 40kA the fuse will operate in less than 0.01s and the
Auxiliary circuits MCCB operates in approximately 0.014s. Using a fixed
grading margin of 0.4s, the required relay operating time
Figure 18.17: Example of back-up protection becomes 0.4 + 0.014 = 0.414s. With a CT ratio of
2000/1A, a relay current setting of 100%, and a relay
18.12.2 Grading of Fuses/MCCB’s/ Overcurrent Relays TMS setting of 1.0, the extremely inverse curve gives a
relay operating time of 0.2s at a fault current of 40kA.
An example of an application involving a moulded case This is too fast to give adequate discrimination and
circuit breaker, fuse and a protection relay is shown in indicates that the EI curve is too severe for this
Figure 18.18. A 1MVA 3.3kV/400V transformer feeds the application. Turning to the VI relay characteristic, the
LV board via a circuit breaker, which is equipped with a relay operation time is found to be 0.71s at a TMS of 1.0.
MiCOM P141 numerical relay having a setting range of To obtain the required relay operating time of 0.414s:
8-400% of rated current and fed from 2000/1A CT’s.
0.414
TMS setting =
0.71
Fuse
= 0.583
1MVA
2000/1A 10.0
LV board fault
level = 30kA
3300/415V
I>> MCCB
I>
400A
Characteristic for relay
kVA
FLC =
kV x 3
0.01
1000 10,000 100,000
1000
= = 1443 A Operating current (A) to 415V base
0.4 × 3 Original relay characteristic Revised relay characteristic
2500/1 NO
time constant: 20 mins
A2 0.4kV
50kA rms Instantaneous element:
I >>
>> Trip current setting: 2.32kA
I>
Relay B
These are the only settings relevant to the upstream
I >>
> relays.
300/1 Relay A
18.12.3.3 Relay B settings
Motor cable
Relay B settings are derived from consideration of the
M loading and fault levels with the bus-section breaker
160kW between busbars A1 and A2 closed. No information is • 18 •
given about the load split between the two busbars, but
Figure 18.20: Relay grading example it can be assumed in the absence of definitive
for dual-fed switchboard information that each busbar is capable of supplying the
total load of 1.6MVA. With fixed tap transformers, the
The transformer impedance is to IEC standards. The LV
bus voltage may fall to 95% of nominal under these
switchgear and bus bars are fault rated at 50kA rms. To
conditions, leading to a load current of 2430A. The IDMT
simplify the analysis, only the phase-fault LV protection current setting must be greater than this, to avoid relay
is considered. operation on normal load currents and (ideally) with
aggregate starting/re-acceleration currents. If the entire
load on the busbar was motor load, an aggregate starting
18.12.3.1 General considerations
current in excess of 13kA would occur, but a current
Analysis of many substations configured as in Figure setting of this order would be excessively high and lead
18.20 shows that the maximum fault level and feeder to grading problems further upstream. It is unlikely that
load current is obtained with the bus-section circuit the entire load is motor load (though this does occur,
breaker closed and one of the infeeding CB’s open. This especially where a supply voltage of 690V is chosen for
applies so long as the switchboard has a significant motors – an increasingly common practice) or that all
longest operation time of Relay A, and the re- Relay C Relay B settingg
Relay C setting
acceleration conditions. A TMS value of 0.41 is found to
Value Parameter Value Value
provide satisfactory grading, being dictated by the motor Relay
lay A 300A Time const 1200s dinst 0
Relay
lay B I> TMS 0.175 dinst 0.32s
starting/re-acceleration transient. Adjustment of both Relay C I> 2750A TMS 0.25 I>> 15000 tdinst 0.62s
current and TMS settings may be required depending on (a) Relay settings
the exact re-acceleration conditions. Note that lower 1000
current and TMS settings could be used if motor 100
starting/re-acceleration did not need to be considered.
Time (s)
10
The high-set setting needs to be above the full load
1
current and motor starting/re-acceleration transient I> I>>
current, but less than the fault current by a suitable 0.1
margin. A setting of 12.5kA is initially selected. A time 0.01
I> I>>
delay of 0.3s has to used to ensure grading with relay A 100 1000 10000 100000
at high fault current levels; both relays A and B may see Current (A) referred to 0.4kV
(b) Grading curves
a current in excess of 25kA for faults on the cable side of
the CB feeding the 160kW motor. The relay curves are
illustrated in Figure 18.21. Figure 18.22: Final relay grading curves
10
there is probably a Utility infeed to consider, which will
1 involve a further set of relays and another stage of time
0.1 grading, and the fault clearance time at the utility infeed
will almost certainly be excessive. One solution is to
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000 accept a total loss of supply to the 0.4kV bus under
Current (A) referred to 0.4kV conditions of a single infeed and bus section CB closed.
This is achieved by setting relays C such that grading
Figure 18.21: Grading of relays A and B with relay B does not occur at all current levels, or
omitting relay B from the protection scheme. The
argument for this is that network operation policy is to
18.12.3.4 Relays C settings ensure loss of supply to both sections of the switchboard
The setting of the IDMT element of relays C1 and C2 has does not occur for single contingencies. As single infeed
to be suitable for protecting the busbar while grading operation is not normal, a contingency (whether fault or
with relay B. The limiting condition is grading with relay maintenance) has already occurred, so that a further
B, as this gives the longest operation time for relays C. fault causing total loss of supply to the switchboard
18.13 REFERENCES
• 18 •
Introduction 19.1
Modern relay design 19.2
Thermal (Overload) protection 19.3
Start/Stall protection 19.4
Short circuit protection 19.5
Earth fault protection 19.6
Negative phase sequence protection 19.7
Wound rotor induction
motor protection 19.8
RTD temperature detection 19.9
Bearing failures 19.10
Undervoltage protection 19.11
Loss-of-load protection 19.12
Additional protection
for synchronous motors 19.13
Motor protection examples 19.14
• 19 • A.C. Motor P rotection
19.1 INTRODUCTION
There are a wide range of a.c. motors and motor
characteristics in existence, because of the numerous
duties for which they are used. All motors need
protection, but fortunately, the more fundamental
problems affecting the choice of protection are
independent of the type of motor and the type of load to
which it is connected. There are some important
differences between the protection of induction motors
and synchronous motors, and these are fully dealt with
in the appropriate section.
Motor characteristics must be carefully considered when
applying protection; while this may be regarded as
stating the obvious, it is emphasised because it applies
more to motors than to other items of power system
plant. For example, the starting and stalling
currents/times must be known when applying overload
protection, and furthermore the thermal withstand of
the machine under balanced and unbalanced loading
must be clearly defined.
The conditions for which motor protection is required
can be divided into two broad categories: imposed
external conditions and internal faults. Table 19.1
provides details of all likely faults that require protection.
1 9 . 2 M O D E R N R E L AY D E S I G N
The design of a modern motor protection relay must be
adequate to cater for the protection needs of any one of
the vast range of motor designs in service, many of the
designs having no permissible allowance for overloads. A
relay offering comprehensive protection will have the
following set of features:
a. thermal protection
b. extended start protection
c. stalling protection
10 T =T
Te22=30min
available. Winding damage will occur very quickly –
Te1=T
Te2=24min
Te1
either to the stator or rotor windings depending on the
=12min thermal limitations of the particular design (motors are
Te1 e2=6min
min said to be stator or rotor limited in this respect). The
1
Te1 e2
=1min method of protection varies depending on whether the
starting time is less than or greater than the safe stall
time. In both cases, initiation of the start may be sensed
0
1 10 by detection of the closure of the switch in the motor
Ieq in terms of the current feeder (contactor or CB) and optionally current rising
thermal threshold Iθ>
above a starting current threshold value – typically
Figure 19.1: Thermal overload characteristic curves
Cold curves. Initial thermal state 0%
start. Command 0
(a) Successful start
1
CB Closed
Figure10019.2. Relay setting for successful start: start 0
Time
time<stall time 1
A.C. Motor Protection
Current
0
0
Time
No. of starts
0
Time
Supervising time
Supervising time
Start lockout
draw a current similar to the starting current for a period 19.4.3 Number of Starts Limitation
that may be several seconds. It is thus above the motor
Any motor has a restriction on the number of starts that
stall relay element current threshold. The stall
are allowed in a defined period without the permitted
protection would be expected to operate and defeat the
winding, etc. temperatures being exceeded. Starting • 19 •
object of the re-acceleration scheme.
should be blocked if the permitted number of starts is
A motor protection relay will therefore recognise the exceeded. The situation is complicated by the fact the
presence of a voltage dip and recovery, and inhibit stall number of permitted ‘hot’ starts in a given period is less
protection for a defined period. The undervoltage than the number of ‘cold’ starts, due to the differing
protection element (Section 19.11) can be used to detect initial temperatures of the motor. The relay must
the presence of the voltage dip and inhibit stall maintain a separate count of ‘cold’ and ‘hot’ starts. By
protection for a set period after voltage recovery. making use of the data held in the motor thermal replica,
Protection against stalled motors in case of an ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ starts can be distinguished.
unsuccessful re-acceleration is therefore maintained.
To allow the motor to cool down between starts, a time
The time delay setting is dependent on the re- delay may be specified between consecutive starts (again
acceleration scheme adopted and the characteristics of distinguishing between ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ starts). The start
individual motors. It should be established after inhibit is released after a time determined by the motor
performing a transient stability study for the re- specification. The overall protection function is illustrated
acceleration scheme proposed. in Figure 19.4.
No operation
SEF
Time
Fuse Contactor
breaking
capacity
E/F relay • 19 •
Current
(a) Incorrect
Operation
SEF
Ia1
Ib1
IR1
-jXc1
A.C. Motor Protection
IH1
Ia2
Ib2
IR2
-jXc2
IH2
• 19 •
Ia3
Ib3
IH1+IH2+IH3
IR3
-jXc3
IH3
IH1+IH2
resistance from the fault path leading to very large fault (=-3V
V o)
currents.
S R F
E
Z Z
S L
N
Z
E
A-G
A.C. Motor Protection
S
S V S V
A-G A-G
R R
G,F
G,F G,F
V V V V V
C-G B-G C-G V C-G
B-G
B-G
• 19 •
V V V
RES RES RES
V V V
B-G B-G B-G
V V V
A-G A-G A-G
V V V
C-G C-G C-G
Z +3Z
SO E
V = x3E
RES
2Z +Z +2Z +Z +3Z
S1 SO L1 LO E
Figure 19.10: Residual voltage earth fault protection for resistance-earthed system.
Hence, at standstill (s=1.0), impedance Negative sequence current is at twice supply frequency.
Skin effect in the rotor means that the heating effect in
0.5 the rotor of a given negative sequence current is larger
(
= R1 p + R 2' p ) + (X )
2 2
1p + X 2' p than the same positive sequence current. Thus, negative
sequence current may result in rapid heating of the
The motor negative sequence impedance at slip s motor. Larger motors are more susceptible in this
0.5
respect, as the rotor resistance of such machines tends to
(
= R1n + R 2' n s ) + (X )
2 2
+ X 2' n be higher. Protection against negative sequence currents
1n is therefore essential.
and, at normal running speed, the impedance Modern motor protection relays have a negative
sequence current measurement capability, in order to
0.5
(
= R1n + R 2' n 2 ) + (X )
2 2 provide such protection. The level of negative sequence
1n + X 2' n
unbalance depends largely upon the type of fault. For
loss of a single phase at start, the negative sequence
where: current will be 50% of the normal starting current. It is
suffix p indicates positive sequence quantities more difficult to provide an estimate of the negative
sequence current if loss of a phase occurs while running.
and This is because the impact on the motor may vary widely,
suffix n indicates negative sequence quantities from increased heating to stalling due to the reduced
torque available.
This is necessary in order to prevent the supply being Table 19.2: Motor data for example
restored out of phase with the motor generated voltage.
Two methods are generally used to detect this condition,
in order to cover different operating modes of the motor. 19.14.1.1 Thermal protection
19.13.2.1 Underfrequency protection The current setting ITH is set equal to the motor full load
The underfrequency relay element will operate in the current, as it is a CMR rated motor. Motor full load
case of the supply failing when the motor is on load, current can be calculated as 211A, therefore (in
secondary quantities):
which causes the motor to decelerate quickly. Typically, • 19 •
two elements are provided, for alarm and trip 211
indications. I TH = = 0.844
250
The underfrequency setting value needs to consider the
power system characteristics. In some power systems, Use a value of 0.85, nearest available setting.
lengthy periods of operation at frequencies substantially
below normal occur, and should not result in a motor The relay has a parameter, K, to allow for the increased
trip. The minimum safe operating frequency of the heating effect of negative sequence currents. In the
motor under load conditions must therefore be absence of any specific information, use K=3.
determined, along with minimum system frequency. Two thermal heating time constants are provided, τ1 and
19.13.2.2 Low-forward-power protection τ2. τ2 is used for starting methods other than DOL,
otherwise it is set equal to τ1. τ1 is set to the heating
This can be applied in conjunction with a time delay to time constant, hence τ1=τ2=25mins. Cooling time
detect a loss-of-supply condition when the motor may constant τr is set as a multiple of τ1. With a cooling time
share a busbar with other loads. The motor may attempt constant of 75mins,
to supply the other loads with power from the stored
kinetic energy of rotation. τr = 3 x τ1
Time (sec)
stabilising resistor is required, calculated in accordance
with Equation 19.2 to prevent maloperation due to CT 1
spill current during starting as the CT’s may saturate.
With the stabilising resistor present, instantaneous 0.1
tripping is permitted.
The alternative is to omit the stabilising resistor and use 0.01
0.01 1 10
a definite time delay in association with the earth fault Ith/I (pu)
element. However, the time delay must be found by trial
and error during commissioning. Figure 19.12: Protection characteristics
A.C. Motor Protection
The same current setting as for locked rotor protection Figure 19.13: Motor protection example-
can be used – 500A. The time delay has to be less than negative sequence protection characteristic
• 19 • the hot stall time of 7s but greater than the start time by
a sufficient margin to avoid a spurious trip if the start 19.14.1.7 Other protection considerations
time happens to be a little longer than anticipated. Use
a value of 6.5s. If the relay can be supplied with a suitable voltage signal,
stall protection can be inhibited during re-acceleration
The protection characteristics for Sections 19.14.1.1-5 after a voltage dip using the undervoltage element (set to
are shown in Figure 19.12. 80-85% of rated voltage). Undervoltage protection (set
19.14.1.6 Negative phase sequence protection to approximately 80% voltage with a time delay of up to
several seconds, dependent on system characteristics)
Two protection elements are provided, the first is definite
and reverse phase protection can also be implemented to
time-delayed to provide an alarm. The second is an IDMT
provide extra protection. Unless the drive is critical to the
element used to trip the motor on high levels of negative
process, it is not justifiable to provide a VT specially to
sequence current, such as would occur on a loss of phase
enable these features to be implemented.
condition at starting.
19.14.2 Protection of an LV Motor
In accordance with Section 19.7, use a setting of 20%
with a time delay of 30s for the definite time element LV motors are commonly fed via fused contactors and
and 50% with a TMS of 1.0 for the IDMT element. The therefore the tripping times of a protection relay for
19.14.2.1 CT ratio 10
Introduction 20.1
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Many regional, urban and high-speed inter-urban rail
networks worldwide are electrified, to provide the
motive power for trains (Figure 20.1).
probability that sustained electrical faults of any type BT: Booster transformer
(high resistance, remote breaker/protection failure etc.)
Figure 20.2: Classical 25kV feeding with
may be associated with overhead wire damage or a booster transformers
faulty traction unit. Fallen live wires caused by
mechanical damage or accident represent a greater
safety hazard with railways, due to the higher probability
of people being close by (railway personnel working on
the track, or passengers). Traction unit faults are a fire
hazard and a safety risk to passengers, especially in
tunnels. For these reasons, there will be a bias towards
dependability of back-up protection at the expense of
security. The consequences of an occasional unwanted
trip are far more acceptable (the control centre simply
recloses the tripped CB, some trains are delayed while
+• 20 • the control centre ensures it is safe to reclose) than the
consequences of a failure to trip for a fallen wire or a
traction unit fault.
Figure 20.3: Classical overhead line construction
B
Relay A
Hairpin
FS Z< SS1 SS2
C feeding
A E
70% D
B F
70% H
D H
F
CB failed CB open
closed A = Protected section impedance
D = Shortest 'Hairpin Fed' section
A = Protected section impedance F Figure 20.8: Fault scenario for maximum
H = Shortest following section Zone 2 reach (Hairpin Feeding)
Hairpin
Relay A C Feeding
FS SS1 SS2
Z<
A 100% D
B CB open D CB failed
closed
P rotection of A.C. Electrified Railways
C
A = Protected section F D = Longest Hairpin Fed section
100% E impedance
D
CB failed CB open Figure 20.10: Fault scenario for Zone 3
closed minimum reach (Hairpin Feeding)
F
A = Protected section impedance 20.3.3.4 Reverse Reaching Zones
E = Longest following section
An impedance measurement zone with reverse reach is
Figure 20.9: Fault scenario for Zone 3 typically applied to provide back-up protection for the
minimum reach (Normal Feeding) local busbar at a paralleling/sectionalising substation. A
typical reverse reach is 25% of the Zone 1 reach of the
The equation for the minimum Zone 3 reach (normal relay. Typically Zone 3 is set with a reverse offset to
feeding) for Relay A becomes: provide this protection and also so that the Zone 3
element will satisfy the requirement for Switch-on-to
⎛ ( A + R) ⎞ Fault (SOTF) protection.
Z 3 = 1.15 × ( Z + E ) × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ 20.3.3.5 Distance zone time delay settings
…Equation 20.3
where: The Zone 1 time delay (tZ1) is generally set to zero,
giving instantaneous operation.
E = impedance of lonest following section
A = protected section impedance The Zone 2 time delay (tZ2) should be set to co-ordinate
R = impedance of sections B, C, D in parallel with Zone 1 fault clearance time for downstream
+• 20 • Z = impedance of sections A, B, C, D catenaries. The total fault clearance time will consist of
in parallel the downstream Zone 1 operating time plus the
It can be appreciated that hairpin feeding scenarios too associated breaker operating time. Allowance must also
must be considered, and this is depicted in Figure 20.10: be made for the Zone 2 elements to reset following
The equation for the minimum Zone 3 reach (hairpin clearance of an adjacent line fault and also for a safety
feeding) becomes: margin. A typical minimum Zone 2 time delay is of the
order of 150-200ms. This time may have to be adjusted
⎛ ( A + R) ⎞ where the relay is required to grade with other Zone 2
Z 3 = 1.15 × ( Z + D ) × ⎜ ⎟ protection or slower forms of back-up protection for
⎝ R ⎠ downstream circuits.
…Equation 20.4
where: The Zone 3 time delay (tZ3) is typically set with the same
D = impedance of longest hairpin fed section considerations made for the Zone 2 time delay, except
To avoid under-reaching for both normal feeding and that the delay needs to co-ordinate with the
hairpin fed faults, the higher of the two calculated downstream Zone 2 fault clearance. A typical minimum
impedances is used as the Zone 3 reach setting. Zone 3 operating time would be in the region of 400ms.
Occasionally the Zone 3 reach requirement may be raised Again, this may need to be modified to co-ordinate with
slower forms of back-up protection for adjacent circuits.
and hence obtain better discrimination between load and either set as an assumed ‘default’ ambient temperature,
fault impedances. The technique is still in its infancy, but or measured, typically using a temperature probe
shows significant potential for the future. mounted externally to the substation building. However,
the tension length of a contact wire may be over 1km,
and traverse cuttings and tunnels - with resulting
20.4 CATENARY THERMAL PROTECTION significant changes in the local ambient temperature.
It is essential that railway catenaries remain in the correct Therefore, the probe should ideally be mounted in a
position relative to the track, thus ensuring good current location that most accurately models the coolant air
collection by train pantographs. The catenary is designed around the catenary for the majority of the protected
to operate continuously at a temperature corresponding to section:
its full load rating, where heat generated is balanced with a. if exposed to direct sunlight, then the probe should
heat dissipated by radiation etc. Overtemperature be mounted to face the sun
conditions therefore occur when currents in excess of
rating are allowed to flow for a period of time. Economic b. if shaded from sunlight, such as running in a
catenary design demands that the catenary rating be that tunnel, then the probe should be mounted on an
of the maximum average continuous load expected. Peaks exterior wall facing away from the sun
in loading due to peak-hour timetables, or trains starting c. if running in a cutting, shielded from wind, the
or accelerating simultaneously are accommodated using probe should be mounted in the lee of the
the thermal capacity of the catenary - in much the same substation
way as use is made of transformer overload capacity to
d. if exposed to the wind, the probe should also be
cater for peak loading.
+• 20 • mounted on an exposed wall
It can be shown that the temperatures during heating
It is virtually impossible to site the probe such as to
follow exponential time constants and a similar
exactly model the ambient conditions along the
exponential decrease of temperature occurs during
protected section, and thus a typical error in the
cooling. It is important that the catenary is not allowed
allowable temperature rise of between 1°C and 3°C will
to overheat, as this will lead to contact wire supporting
result (for well-sited and poorly-sited probes,
arms moving beyond acceptable limits, and loss of the
respectively). RTD and CT errors, along with relay
correct alignment with respect to the track. The period
tolerances may also introduce further errors of up to 1°C
of time for which the catenary can be overloaded is
in the thermal model. Overall, the error in the
therefore a function of thermal history of the catenary,
temperature reading above the 20°C rated ambient could
degree of overload, and ambient temperature.
be 4°C. Therefore, relays may have a setting to
The tension in the catenary is often maintained by compensate for such measurement tolerances, to ensure
balance weights, suspended at each end of tension that the trip will not occur too late to prevent
lengths of contact wire. Overtemperature will cause the mechanical damage. Some relays may have an option to
catenary to stretch, with the balance weights eventually express the above tolerance as a percentage of the
touching the ground. Further heating will then result in temperature at which a trip is required, rather than in
a loss of contact wire tension, and excessive sagging of absolute terms.
I> I>
* I>
as as Z< Section switch as
Z< * * I> protection Z< * *
Z<
To NO NO
To Track
via B NO
P rotection of A.C. Electrified Railways
C C
Up F
1.20
Catenary wire
Contact wire
AEC Feeder wire
Aerial earth
conductor
20 • (AEC)
7.25
+•
6.30
5.50
5.08
1.34
3.57
3.25 4.50
Rail
level
750
CL CL 0.3
Down Up Buried earth
conductor
(B.E.C)
CT ratio
′ t = Z sec t ×
Z sec ⎛ ( A + R) ⎞
VT ratio ⎜ ( Z + 0.7 E ) ×
R ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where: Z2 =
1.15
Zsect = system impedance referred
to primary where:
Z’sect = system impedance referred Z = impedance of sections 1 and 2 in parallel
to secondary
A = the track section of interest, section 1
Hence,
P rotection of A.C. Electrified Railways
20.8.2.2 Sections 3 and 4 Notice how for two track feeding, (A + R)/R above
becomes 2, due to a fault current split between two
The impedances for sections 3 and 4 are:
identical parallel paths.
Zsect = 13.7 x 0.8 = 10.96Ω
20.8.4.2 ‘Hairpin’ feeding configuration
Z’sect = 10.96 x 2.5 = 27.4Ω
Referring to Figure 20.8, it is apparent that with only two
tracks, inner tracks B and C are not present. Once circuit
+• 20 • 20.8.3 Zone 1 Reach Calculation for TF-1 breaker TF-2 at substation S1 is open, the impedance to
The Zone 1 forward reach is set to be 85% of the section the fault is merely 170% times the impedance of track
1 impedance, referred to the secondary of the relay. section 1 or 2. Thus, from Equation 20.2:
Hence, the forward reach is calculated as
⎛ (0.7 × 24.4 ) ⎞
Z1fw = 24.4 x 0.85 = 20.75Ω Z2 = ⎜ 24.4 + ⎟
⎝ 1.15 ⎠
Zone 1 is not required to operate in the reverse direction,
so the setting Z1bw is set to Blocked. = 36.1 Ω
20.8.7.3 Overcurrent setting for BUOC 20.1. The calculation of the thermal protection settings
instantaneous stage is given in the following sections.
To prevent overreach, set at least 20% above the higher 20.8.8.1 Thermal reference current/ temperature
of the two fault scenarios:
The P438 requires a thermal rated current or reference
Iinst = 1840 x 1.2 = 2200A current, Iref, to be set that corresponds to full load
The secondary current setting on the relay is found by current. The ambient temperature at which this applies
dividing by the CT ratio: qualifies this rated current. The reference current
referred to the CT primary is given in Table 20.1 as:
I ' inst = 2200 =3.68 A Irefp = 540A
600
The relay setting is in terms of the secondary current.
20.8.7.4 Overcurrent setting for BUOC definite-time Hence, the secondary current setting on the relay is
delayed stage found by dividing by the CT ratio:
To ensure complete cover for short circuits in the
540
protected section, the setting should be no greater than I refs = =0.9 A
600
80% of the lower of the two fault scenarios:
I oc ≤1400 x 0.8 = 1100A The ambient temperature tamb at which Irefp occurs is set
at 20°C.
In terms of secondary quantities,
20.8.8.2 Mechanical damage protection
+• 20 • I ' oc =1100 =1.86 A The catenary temperature at which mechanical damage
600
may begin to occur is 56°C. This must correspond to the
A time setting no less than the Zone 2 distance time P438 thermal trip command, and so:
delay would be used, so tI’ oc = 250ms is suitable.
tcatmax = 56°C
All overcurrent protection must have a pickup in excess
Account must be taken of the measurement errors
of the maximum expected load current. Assuming that
described in Section 20.4.1. The P438 relay setting, θtrip,
the maximum overloading would never exceed 150% of
must allow for these errors, which are taken to be 4°C.
CT rating, the I’inst and I’ oc settings are acceptable.
Hence,
20.8.7.5 Definite Time Overcurrent (DTOC)
θtrip = (56 - 4)°C
It is not general practice to set instantaneous protection = 52°C
elements that are running in parallel to the distance To avoid chattering of contacts when the load current is
zones. Thus often just one definite time delayed stage is close to the trip threshold, a hysteresis setting is
used. This setting can be applied at all locations, and provided on reset. Typically the hysteresis is set to 2%,
must be in excess of the maximum load and overload such that following a trip, the thermal model must cool
current expected. by 2% before the trip contacts will reset.
Introduction 21.1
Electrical type tests 21.2
Electromagnetic compatibility tests 21.3
Product safety type tests 21.4
Environmental type tests 21.5
Software type tests 21.6
Dynamic validation type testing 21.7
Production testing 21.8
Commissioning tests 21.9
Secondary injection test equipment 21.10
Secondary injection testing 21.11
Primary injection testing 21.12
Testing of protection scheme logic 21.13
Tripping and alarm annunciation tests 21.14
Periodic maintenance tests 21.15
Protection scheme design for maintenance 21.16
References 21.17
• 21 • Relay Testing
and Commissioning
21.1 INTRODUCTION
The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a
number of problems. This is because the main function
of protection equipment is solely concerned with
operation under system fault conditions, and cannot
readily be tested under normal system operating
conditions. This situation is aggravated by the
increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of
relays containing software.
The testing of protection equipment may be divided into
four stages:
i. type tests
ii. routine factory production tests
iii. commissioning tests
iv. periodic maintenance tests
They are usually carried out under controlled Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy
Test 4 over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction,
environmental conditions. The testing may be extensive, voltage angle sweep
even where only a simple relay function is being tested., Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy
Test 5 over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction,
as can be realised by considering the simple overcurrent voltage angle sweep
relay element of Table 21.1. Test 6 Three phase polarising voltage threshold test
To determine compliance with the specification, the tests Test 7 Accuracy of DT timer over complete setting range
listed in Table 21.2 are required to be carried out. This is Test 8 Accuracy of IDMT curves over claimed accuracy range
a time consuming task, involving many engineers and Test 9 Accuracy of IDMT TMS/TD
technicians. Hence it is expensive. Test 10 Effect of changing fault current on IDMT operating times
Test 11 Minimum Pick-Up of Starts and Trips for IDMT curves
When a modern numerical relay with many functions is
Test 12 Accuracy of reset timers
considered, each of which has to be type-tested, the
Test 13 Effect of any blocking signals, opto inputs, VTS, Autoreclose
functional type-testing involved is a major issue. In the
Test 14 Voltage polarisation memory
case of a recent relay development project, it was
Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests
calculated that if one person had to do all the work, it
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
for CT’s and 10s for VT’s. Tests are carried out for both a.c. and d.c. auxiliary
supplies and include mains variation both above and
below the nominal rating, supply interruptions derived by
21.2.4 Relay Burden open circuit and short circuit, supply dips as a
The burdens of the auxiliary supply, optically isolated percentage of the nominal supply, repetitive starts. The
inputs, VT’s and CT’s are measured to check that the duration of the interruptions and supply dips range from
product complies with its specification. The burden of 2ms to 60s intervals. A short supply interruption or dip
products with a high number of input/output circuits is up to 20ms, possibly longer, should not cause any
application specific i.e. it increases according to the malfunction of the relay. Malfunctions include the
number of optically isolated input and output contact operation of output relays and watchdog contacts, the
ports which are energised under normal power system reset of microprocessors, alarm or trip indication,
load conditions. It is usually envisaged that not more acceptance of corrupted data over the communication
than 50% of such ports will be energised in any link and the corruption of stored data or settings. For a
application. longer supply interruption, or dip in excess of 20ms, the
relay self recovers without the loss of any function, data,
settings or corruption of data. No operator intervention
21.2.5 Relay Inputs is required to restore operation after an interruption or
dip in the supply. Many relays have a specification that
Relay inputs are tested over the specified ranges. Inputs
include those for auxiliary voltage, VT, CT, frequency,
exceeds this requirement, tolerating dips of up to 50ms • 21 •
without operation being affected.
optically isolated digital inputs and communication
circuits. In addition to the above, the relay is subjected to a number
of repetitive starts or a sequence of supply interruptions.
Again the relay is tested to ensure that no damage or data
21.2.6 Relay Output Contacts corruption has occurred during the repetitive tests.
Protection relay output contacts are type tested to Specific tests carried out on d.c. auxiliary supplies
ensure that they comply with the product specification. include reverse polarity, a.c. waveform superimposed on
Particular withstand and endurance type tests have to be the d.c. supply and the effect of a rising and decaying
carried out using d.c., since the normal supply is via a auxiliary voltage. All tests are carried out at various
station battery. levels of loading of the relay auxiliary supply.
1219
175
262
349
436
523
697
784
958
1132
88
610
871
1
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
independent circuit and earth (common mode) via an clamp.
external coupling and switching network. The product is
energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes
21.3.6 Surge Immunity Test
for this test, and must not maloperate when the
interference is applied for a 2 second duration. The Surge Immunity Test simulates interference caused
by major power system disturbances such as capacitor
bank switching and lightning strikes on overhead lines
within 5km of the substation. The test waveform has an
open circuit voltage of 4kV for common mode surges and
2kV for differential mode surges. The test waveshape
consists on open circuit of a 1.2/50ms rise/fall time and
a short circuit current of 8/20ms rise/fall time. The
Voltage
stepping out of a car or after walking on a synthetic fibre equipment’s power supply ports and are to ensure that when
carpet. connected to a mains network, the equipment does not inject
interference back into the network which could adversely
In this case the discharge is only ever applied to the front
affect the other equipment connected to the network.
panel of the relay, with the cover both on and off. Two
types of discharges are applied, air discharge and contact Radiated emissions measurements are to ensure that the
discharge. Air discharges are used on surfaces that are interference radiated from the equipment is not at a
normally insulators, and contact discharges are used on level that could cause interference to other equipment.
surfaces that are normally conducting. IEC 60255-22-2 This test is normally carried out on an Open Area Test
is the relevant standard this test, for which the test Site (OATS) where there are no reflecting structures or
parameters are: sources of radiation, and therefore the measurements
a. cover on: Class 4, 8kV contact discharge, 15kV air obtained are a true indication of the emission spectrum
discharge of the relay. An example of a plot obtained during
b. cover off: Class 3, 6kV contact discharge, 8kV air conducted emissions tests is shown in Figure 21.5.
discharge
The test arrangements for the conducted and radiated
In both cases above, all the lower test levels are also emissions tests are shown in Figure 21.6.
tested.
When performing these two tests, the relay is in a
The discharge current waveform is shown in Figure 21.4.
quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents
• 21 • 100 and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This
Current, % of Peak
90
80 Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in
70 Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns
60
the quiescent state and the emission of electromagnetic
50 interference when the relay is tripped is considered to be
40 of no significance. Tests are conducted in accordance
30
20 with IEC 60255-25 and EN 50081-2, and are detailed in
10 Table 21.3.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time, ns Frequency Range Specified Limits Test Limits
30dB(µV/m) 40dB(µV/m)
30 - 230MHz
Figure 21.4: ESD Current Waveform at 30m at 10m
Radiated
37dB(µV/m) 47dB(µV/m)
230 - 1000MHz at 30m at 10m
79dB(µV) 79dB(µV)
The test is performed with single discharges repeated on 0.15 - 0.5MHz quasi-peak quasi-peak
66dB(µV) average 66dB(µV) average
each test point 10 times with positive polarity and 10 Conducted
73dB(µV) 73dB(µV)
times with negative polarity at each test level. The time 0.5 - 30MHz quasi-peak quasi-peak
60dB(µV) average 60dB(µV) average
interval between successive discharges is greater than 1
Table 21.3: Test criteria for Conducted and
second. Tests are carried out at each level, with the relay Radiated Emissions tests
in the following modes of operation:
• 376 • Network Protection & Automation Guide
100
90 Quasi-peak limits
80
Average limits
70
Emissions Level, dBuV
Typical trace
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100
Screened room
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Ante-chamber
10m
• 21 •
Antenna
E.U.T.
Turntable
Earth Plane
field, arise from the fact that for different site conditions
of 80MHz, a conductor length of approximately 1.0m is the level and waveshape is altered.
required. At this frequency, radiated immunity tests can
be performed with the confidence that the relay will 23.3.11.1 Steady state magnetic field tests
conduct this interference, through a combination of the These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be
attached cabling and the PCB tracks. experienced by a device located within close proximity of
Although the test standards state that all 6 faces of the the power system. Testing is carried out by subjecting
equipment should be subjected to the interference, in the relay to a magnetic field generated by two induction
practice this is not carried out. Applying interference to coils. The relay is rotated such that in each axis it is
the sides and top and bottom of the relay would have subjected to the full magnetic field strength. IEC 61000-
little effect as the circuitry inside is effectively screened 4-6 is the relevant standard, using a signal level of:
by the earthed metal case. However, the front and rear Level 5: 300A/m continuous and 1000A/m short duration
of the relay are not completely enclosed by metal and are
The test arrangement is shown in Figure 21.7.
therefore not at all well screened, and can be regarded as
an EMC hole. Electromagnetic interference when
directed at the front and back of the relay can enter
freely onto the PCB’s inside.
When performing these two tests, the relay is in a Induction coil
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
the power system during a transient fault condition. IEC independent circuits (but not across normally open
61000-4-10 specifies that the generator for the coil shall contacts). As before, different requirements apply in the
produce an oscillatory waveshape with a frequency of case of circuits using D-type connectors.
0.1MHz and 1MHz, to give a signal level in accordance The test generator characteristics are as specified in IEC
with Level 5 of 100A/m, and the equipment shall be 60255-5 and are shown in Figure 21.8. No disruptive
configured as in Figure 21.7. discharge (i.e. flashover or puncture) is allowed.
If it is necessary to repeat either the Dielectric Voltage or
21.4 PRODUCT SAFETY TYPE TESTS High Voltage Impulse Withstand tests these should be
carried out at 75% of the specified level, in accordance
A number of tests are carried out to demonstrate that
with IEC 60255-5, to avoid overstressing insulation and
the product is safe when used for its intended
components.
application. The essential requirements are that the
relay is safe and will not cause an electric shock or fire
hazard under normal conditions and in the presence of a
single fault. A number of specific tests to prove this may
be carried out, as follows.
Voltage
conditions of:
compliance is claimed against relevant European
+25°C ±3°C and 95% relative humidity/+55°C ±2°C and
Community directives e.g. Low Voltage Directive
95% relative humidity
73/23/EEC and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Directive 89/336/EEC. are used, over the 24 hour cycle shown in Figure 21.9.
Relative humidity %
100 96%
90 95% 95%
80 90%
21.5 ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE TESTS 70 15min
80%
Various tests have to be conducted to prove that a relay End of temperature temperature
can withstand the effects of the environment in which it rise
Time
is expected to work. They consist of: the following tests: +55°C
1. temperature
Ambient Temperature °C
2. humidity
3. enclosure protection
4. mechanical
±0.5h
These tests are described in the following sections. +28°C
• 21 • +25°C
3h 3h +22°C Time
12h±0.5h 6h
21.5.1 Temperature Test 24h
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
0
-0.2A
0.4D D D
21.5.5 Mechanical Tests
2.5D 2.5D
Mechanical tests simulate a number of different 2.4D = T1
mechanical conditions that the product may have to 6D = T2
endure during its lifetime. These fall into two categories
D - duration of nominal pulse
A - peak acceleration of nominal pulse
a. response to disturbances while energised T1- minimum time for monitoring of pulse when conventional
shock/bump machine is used
b. response to disturbances during transportation T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used
(de-energised state)
Tests in the first category are concerned with the Figure 21.11: Shock/Bump Impulse waveform
response to vibration, shock and seismic disturbance.
The test levels for shock and bump tests are:
The tests are designed to simulate normal in-service
conditions for the product, for example earthquakes. Shock response (energised):
These tests are performed in all three axes, with the 3 pulses, each 10g, 11ms duration
product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. During
the test, all output contacts are continually monitored Shock withstand (de-energised):
for change using contact follower circuits. Vibration 3 pulses, 15g, 11ms duration • 21 •
levels of 1gn, over a 10Hz-150Hz frequency sweep are
Bump (de-energised):
used. Seismic tests use excitation in a single axis, using
a test frequency of 35Hz and peak displacements of 1000 pulses, 10g, 16ms duration
7.5mm and 3.5mm in the x and y axes respectively below
the crossover frequency and peak accelerations of 2.0gn
and 1.0gn in these axes above the crossover frequency. 21.6 SOFTWARE TYPE TESTS
The second category consists of vibration endurance, Digital and numerical relays contain software to
shock withstand and bump tests. They are designed to implement the protection and measurement functions of
simulate the longer-term affects of shock and vibration a relay. This software must be thoroughly tested, to
that could occur during transportation. These tests are ensure that the relay complies with all specifications and
performed with the product de-energised. After these that disturbances of various kinds do not result in
tests, the product must still operate within its unexpected results. Software is tested in various stages:
specification and show no signs of permanent a. unit testing
mechanical damage. Equipment undergoing a seismic
b. integration testing
type test is shown in Figure 21.10, while the waveform
for the shock/bump test is shown in Figure 21.11 c. functional qualification testing
test cases.
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
what risk there might be of unintentional changes to the 21.7.2 Use of Microprocessor Based Simulation
functionality being introduced. Those areas of highest Equipment
risk will need to be regression tested. The ultimate The complexity of numerical relays, reliant on software
regression test is to perform the complete Validation for implementation of the functions included, dictates
Testing programme again, updated to take account of some kind of automated test equipment. The functions
the changes made. of even a simple numerical overcurrent relay (including
Regression Testing is extremely important. If it is not all auxiliary functions) can take several months of
performed, there is a high risk of errors being found in automated, 24 hours/day testing to test completely. If
the field. Performing it will not reduce to zero the such test equipment was able to apply realistic current
chance of an error or defect remaining in the software, and voltage waveforms that closely match those found
but it will reduce it. Determining the Regression Testing on power systems during fault conditions, the equipment
that is required is made much easier if there is can be used either for type testing of individual relay
traceability from properly documented software designs or of a complete protection scheme designed for
requirements through design (again properly a specific application. In recognition of this, a new
documented and up to date), coding and testing. generation of power system simulators has been
developed, which is capable of providing a far more
accurate simulation of power system conditions than has
21.7 DYNAMIC VALIDATION TYPE TESTING been possible in the past. The simulator enables relays
to be tested under a wide range of system conditions, • 21 •
There are two possible methods of dynamically proving
representing the equivalent of many years of site
the satisfactory performance of protection relays or
experience.
schemes; the first method is by actually applying faults
on the power system and the second is to carry out 21.7.2.1 Simulation hardware
comprehensive testing on a power system simulator.
Equipment is now available to provide high-speed, highly
The former method is extremely unlikely to be used – accurate modelling of a section of a power system. The
lead times are lengthy and the risk of damage occurring equipment is based on distributed microprocessor-based
makes the tests very expensive. It is therefore only used hardware containing software models of the various
on a very limited basis and the faults applied are elements of a power system, and is shown in Figure 21.12.
restricted in number and type. Because of this, a proving The modules have outputs linked to current and voltage
period for new protection equipment under service sources that have a similar transient capability and have
conditions has usually been required. As faults may suitable output levels for direct connection to the inputs
occur on the power system at infrequent intervals, it can of relays –i.e. 110V for voltage and 1A/5A for current.
take a number of years before any possible shortcomings Inputs are also provided to monitor the response of relays
are discovered, during which time further installations under test (contact closures for tripping, etc.) and these
may have occurred. inputs can be used as part of the model of the power
system. The software is also capable of modelling the test results being available on completion
dynamic response of CT’s and VT’s accurately. A block schematic of the equipment is shown in Figure
Where it is desired to check the response of a relay or 21.13, is based around a computer which calculates and
protection scheme to an actual power system transient, stores the digital data representing the system voltages
the transient can be simulated using sophisticated power and currents. The computer controls conversion of the
systems analysis software and the results transferred digital data into analogue signals, and it monitors and
digitally to the simulator, or the event recorder recording controls the relays being tested.
of the transient can be used, in either digital or analogue
21.7.2.2 Simulation software
form as inputs to the simulator model. Output signal
conversion involves circuits to eliminate the quantisation Unlike most traditional software used for power systems
steps normally found in conventional D/A conversion. analysis, the software used is suitable for the modelling
Analogue models of the system transducer the fast transients that occur in the first few
characteristics can be interposed between the signal milliseconds after fault inception. Two very accurate
processors and the output amplifiers when required. simulation programs are used, one based on time domain
This equipment shows many advantages over traditional and the other on frequency domain techniques. In both
• 21 • test equipment: programs, single and double circuit transmission lines are
represented by fully distributed parameter models. The
a. the power system model is capable of reproducing line parameters are calculated from the physical
high frequency transients such as travelling waves construction of the line (symmetrical, asymmetrical,
b. tests involving very long time constants can be transposed or non-transposed), taking into account the
carried out effect of conductor geometry, conductor internal
c. it is not affected by the harmonic content, noise impedance and the earth return path. It also includes,
and frequency variations in the a.c. supply where appropriate, the frequency dependence of the line
parameters in the frequency domain program. The
d. it is capable of representing the variation in the frequency dependent variable effects are calculated
current associated with generator faults and power using Fast Fourier Transforms and the results are
swings converted to the time domain. Conventional current
e. saturation effects in CT’s and VT’s can be modelled transformers and capacitor voltage transformers can be
simulated.
f. a set of test routines can be specified in software and
then left to run unattended (or with only occasional The fault can be applied at any one point in the system and
monitoring) to completion, with a detailed record of can be any combination of phase to phase or phase
IB Linear
D/A CT Current
interpolation
conversion model amplifier
circuits
IC
VDU VA
Equipment
under
I/O test
Computer VB Linear
Keyboard Sub- D/A CVT Voltage
interpolation
system conversion model amplifier
circuits
VDU VC
Contact
status
monitor
Keyboard Storage Key :
CT - Current transformer
CVT - Capacitor voltage transformer Signalling
VDU - Visual display unit Channel
Simulation
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Figure 21.13: Block diagram of microprocessor-based automated relay test system
In addition to these two programs, a simulation program k. transducer models can be included
based on lumped resistance and inductance parameters l. automatic testing removes the likelihood of
is used. This simulation is used to represent systems with measurement and setting errors
long time constants and slow system changes due, for
m. two such equipments can be linked together to
example, to power swings.
simulate a system model with two relaying points
21.7.2.3 Simulator applications
The simulator is also used for the production testing of
The simulator is used for checking the accuracy of relays, in which most of the advantages listed above • 21 •
calibration and performing type tests on a wide range of apply. As the tests and measurements are made
protection relays during their development. It has the automatically, the quality of testing is also greatly
following advantages over existing test methods: enhanced. Further, in cases of suspected malfunction of
a. 'state of the art' power system modelling data can a relay in the field under known fault conditions, the
be used to test relays simulator can be used to replicate the power system and
fault conditions, and conduct a detailed investigation
b. freedom from frequency variations and noise or into the performance of the relay. Finally, complex
harmonic content of the a.c. supply protection schemes can be modelled, using both the
c. the relay under test does not burden the power relays intended for use and software models of them as
system simulation appropriate, to check the suitability of the proposed
scheme under a wide variety of conditions. To illustrate
d. all tests are accurately repeatable this, Figure 21.14(a) shows a section of a particular power
e. wide bandwidth signals can be produced system modelled. The waveforms of Figure 21.14(b) show
the three phase voltages and currents at the primaries of
f. a wide range of frequencies can be reproduced
VT1 and CT1 for the fault condition indicated in Figure
g. selected harmonics may be superimposed on the 21.14(a).
3G L
Infinite bus
4G CB3 CT3 F3 F4 CT4 CB4
Line 2
8G
9G
LR3 LR4
11G
CB1 CT1 F1 F2 CT2 CB2
load 1 Line 1
load 3
LR1 LR2
Relay 1 Relay 2
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Va
Vb
Vc
Ia
Ib
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance stability for external faults and to determine the
(tripping occurs repeatedly on energisation, requiring effective current setting for internal faults (essential
investigation to locate and correct the error(s)) through for some types of electromechanical relays)
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major
equipment damage, disruption to supplies and potential k. testing of protection scheme logic
hazards to personnel. The strategies available to remove This section details the tests required to cover items
these risks are many, but all involve some kind of testing (a)–(g) above. Secondary injection test equipment is
at site. covered in Section 21.10 and Section 21.11 details the
Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably secondary injection that may be carried out. Section
performed before protection equipment is set to work. 21.12 covers primary injection testing, and Section 21.13
The aims of commissioning tests are: details the checks required on any logic involved in the
protection scheme. Finally, Section 21.14 details the tests
1. to ensure that the equipment has not been required on alarm/tripping circuits tripping/alarm
damaged during transit or installation circuits.
2. to ensure that the installation work has been
carried out correctly
21.9.1 Insulation Tests
3. to prove the correct functioning of the protection
scheme as a whole All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be
tested should first be removed, for example earthing • 21 •
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
protection scheme involved, the relay technology used, d.c. supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses
and the policy of the client. In many cases, the tests with peak voltages exceeding 5kV. In these instances
actually conducted are determined at the time of any electronic equipment should be disconnected while
commissioning by mutual agreement between the the external wiring insulation is checked.
client’s representative and the commissioning team.
The insulation resistance should be measured to earth
Hence, it is not possible to provide a definitive list of
and between electrically separate circuits. The readings
tests that are required during commissioning. This
are recorded and compared with subsequent routine
section therefore describes the tests commonly carried
tests to check for any deterioration of the insulation.
out during commissioning.
The insulation resistance measured depends on the
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the
amount of wiring involved, its grade, and the site
protection scheme will not function correctly if faults exist.
humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one
a. wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams cubicle, a reading of several hundred megohms should be
showing all the reference numbers of the obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are involved, the
interconnecting wiring reading could be only a few megohms.
A
P2 P1
250V
_ S2 S1 + To relay a.c. supply
V
• 21 • P1 S
1
coils
P2 S2 Step-up transformer
if required
Main circuit
breaker open
_ +
A
Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer
magnetising curve
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
between, say, both ‘A’ phase secondary outputs. There entered and/or checked. Where the complete scheme is
should be nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the
correct. However, this test does not detect if the phase settings may already have been entered prior to despatch
sequence is correct, but the phases are displaced by 120° from the factory, and hence this need not be repeated.
from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the The method of entering settings varies according to the
position of phase C or phase B in Figure 21.18. This can relay technology used. For electromechanical and static
be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay
(say) and measuring the phase-earth voltages on the element is required. This method can also be used for
secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only phase digital/numerical relays. However, the amount of data to
A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to
small residual voltage. use appropriate software, normally supplied by the
manufacturer, for this purpose. The software also makes
A the essential task of making a record of the data entered
B much easier.
C
Once the data has been entered, it should be checked for
A
compliance with the recommended settings as
calculated from the protection setting study. Where
V1
appropriate software is used for data entry, the checks
C B
can be considered complete if the data is checked prior • 21 •
V2 to download of the settings to the relay. Otherwise, a
check may required subsequent to data entry by
inspection and recording of the relay settings, or it may
VN
be considered adequate to do this at the time of data
V entry. The recorded settings form an essential part of the
VL commissioning documentation provided to the client.
V2
can be completely isolated from the switchgear wiring be distorted if the injection supply voltage is fed directly
when the test plug is inserted. To avoid open-circuiting to the coil. The presence of harmonics in the current
CT secondary terminals, it is therefore essential that CT waveform may affect the torque of electromechanical
shorting jumper links are fitted across all appropriate relays and give unreliable test results, so some injection
‘live side’ terminals of the test plug BEFORE it is inserted. test sets use an adjustable series reactance to control the
With the test plug inserted in position, all the test current. This keeps the power dissipation small and the
circuitry can now be connected to the isolated ‘relay equipment light and compact.
side’ test plug terminals. Some modern test blocks Many test sets are portable and include precision
incorporate the live-side jumper links within the block ammeters and voltmeters and timing equipment. Test
and these can be set to the ‘closed’ or ‘open’ position as sets may have both voltage and current outputs. The
appropriate, either manually prior to removing the cover former are high-voltage, low current outputs for use
and inserting the test plug, or automatically upon with relay elements that require signal inputs from a VT
removal of the cover. Removal of the cover also exposes as well as a CT. The current outputs are high-current,
the colour-coded face-plate of the block, clearly low voltage to connect to relay CT inputs. It is
indicating that the protection scheme is not in service, important, however, to ensure that the test set current
and may also disconnect any d.c. auxiliary supplies used outputs are true current sources, and hence are not
for powering relay tripping outputs. affected by the load impedance of a relay element
current coil. Use of a test set with a current output that
Withdrawing the test plug immediately restores the
• 21 • connections to the main current transformers and
is essentially a voltage source can give rise to serious
problems when testing electromechanical relays. Any
voltage transformers and removes the test connections.
significant impedance mismatch between the output of
Replacement of the test block cover then removes the
the test set and the relay current coil during relay
short circuits that had been applied to the main CT
operation will give rise to a variation in current from that
secondary circuits. Where several relays are used in a
desired and possible error in the test results. The relay
protection scheme, one or more test blocks may be fitted
operation time may be greater than expected (never less
on the relay panel enabling the whole scheme to be than expected) or relay ‘chatter’ may occur. It is quite
tested, rather than just one relay at a time. common for such errors to only be found much later,
Test blocks usually offer facilities for the monitoring and after a fault has caused major damage to equipment
secondary injection testing of any power system through failure of the primary protection to operate.
protection scheme. The test block may be used either Failure investigation then shows that the reason for the
with a multi-fingered test plug to allow isolation and primary protection to operate is an incorrectly set relay,
monitoring of all the selected conductor paths, or with a due in turn to use of a test set with a current output
single finger test plug that allows the currents on consisting of a voltage-source when the relay was last
individual conductors to be monitored. A modern test tested. Figure 21.20 shows typical waveforms resulting
block and test plugs are illustrated in Figure 21.19. from use of test set current output that is a voltage
Saturation level of
magnetic circuit (current)
limited only by D.C.
resistance of
Time relay coil
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Sinusoidal CURRENT when
changing impedance of relay
is swamped out by high
source impedance
Time
• 21 •
b) Undistorted relay current coil current distorted due to use of current source
source – the distorted relay coil current waveform gives 3-phase output set. Much greater precision in the
rise to an extended operation time compared to the setting of the magnitudes and phase angles is possible,
expected value. compared to traditional test sets. Digital signals to
exercise the internal logic elements of the relays may
Modern test sets are computer based. They comprise a also be provided. The alarm and trip outputs of the relay
PC (usually a standard laptop PC with suitable software) are connected to digital inputs on the PC so that correct
and a power amplifier that takes the low-level outputs operation of the relay, including accuracy of the relay
from the PC and amplifies them into voltage and current tripping characteristic can be monitored and displayed
signals suitable for application to the VT and CT inputs of on-screen, saved for inclusion in reports generated later,
the relay. The phase angle between voltage and current or printed for an immediate record to present to the
outputs will be adjustable, as also will the phase angles client. Optional features may include GPS time
between the individual voltages or currents making up a synchronising equipment and remote-located amplifiers
• 21 •
A
Coarse Range
control adjusting CT
reactor
K2 K1 I
Figure 21.22: Circuit diagram of traditional test set for overcurrent relays
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
appropriate digital inputs may need to be applied and
outputs monitored (see Section 21.13). It is clear that a Zn
modern test set can facilitate such tests, leading to a
reduced time required for testing.
*
21.11.1 Schemes using Digital or Numerical R
Relay Technology
PSB-Zone
The policy for secondary injection testing varies widely.
In some cases, manufacturers recommend, and clients
accept, that if a digital or numerical relay passes its’ self-
Figure 21.25: Testing of power swing
test, it can be relied upon to operate at the settings used blocking element – discrete points
and that testing can therefore be confined to those parts
of the scheme external to the relay. In such cases,
secondary injection testing is not required at all. More
often, it is required that one element of each relay
(usually the simplest) is exercised, using a secondary
injection test set, to check that relay operation occurs at
the conditions expected, based on the setting of the • 21 •
relay element concerned. Another alternative is for the
complete functionality of each relay to be exercised. This
is rarely required with a digital or numerical relay,
probably only being carried out in the event of a
suspected relay malfunction.
To illustrate the results that can be obtained, Figure Figure 21.26: Simulated power swing waveform
21.24 shows the results obtained by a modern test set
when determining the reach settings of a distance relay 21.11.2 Schemes using
using a search technique. Another example is the testing Electromechanical/Static Relay Technology
of the Power Swing blocking element of a distance relay. Schemes using single function electromechanical or
Figure 21.25 illustrates such a test, based on using static relays will usually require each relay to be
discrete impedance points. This kind of test may not be exercised. Thus a scheme with distance and back-up
adequate in all cases, and test equipment may have the overcurrent elements will require a test on each of these
ability to generate the waveforms simulating a power functions, thereby taking up more time than if a digital
swing and apply them to the relay (Figure 21.26). or numerical relay is used. Similarly, it may be important
simple and obvious, the relay commissioning manual will 21.12.1 Test Facilities
give details of the circuits to be used. Commonly used
An alternator is the most useful source of power for
test circuits can also be found in Chapter 23 of reference
providing the heavy current necessary for primary
[21.1]. When using the circuits in this reference, suitable
injection. Unfortunately, it is rarely available, since it
simplifications can easily be made if digital or numerical
requires not only a spare alternator, but also spare
relays are being tested, to allow for their built-in
busbars capable of being connected to the alternator and
measurement capabilities – external ammeters and
circuit under test. Therefore, primary injection is usually
voltmeters may not be required.
carried out by means of a portable injection transformer
All results should be carefully noted and filed for record (Figure 21.27), arranged to operate from the local mains
purposes. Departures from the expected results must be supply and having several low voltage, heavy current
thoroughly investigated and the cause determined. After windings. These can be connected in series or parallel
rectification of errors, all tests whose results may have according to the current required and the resistance of
been affected (even those that may have given correct the primary circuit. Outputs of 10V and 1000A can be
results) should be repeated to ensure that the protection obtained. Alternatively, modern PC-controlled test sets
scheme has been implemented according to have power amplifiers capable of injecting currents up to
specification. about 200A for a single unit, with higher current ratings
being possible by using multiple units in parallel.
• 21 • 21.12 PRIMARY INJECTION TESTS
This type of test involves the entire circuit; current
transformer primary and secondary windings, relay coils,
trip and alarm circuits, and all intervening wiring are
checked. There is no need to disturb wiring, which
A
obviates the hazard of open-circuiting current
transformers, and there is generally no need for any 250V a.c.
switching in the current transformer or relay circuits. supply
The drawback of such tests is that they are time
consuming and expensive to organise. Increasingly,
reliance is placed on all wiring and installation diagrams
being correct and the installation being carried out as Variable transformer Injection transformer
per drawings, and secondary injection testing being 40A 250/10 + 10 + 10 + 10V
10kVA
completed satisfactorily. Under these circumstances, the
primary injection tests may be omitted. However, wiring Figure 21.27: Traditional primary
injection test set
errors between VT’s/CT’s and relays, or incorrect polarity
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Temporary A
short circuit
Figure 21.29: Polarity check on main current
transformers
P1 Relay
S1 21.12.4 Primary Injection Testing of Relay Elements
As with secondary injection testing, the tests to be
carried out will be those specified by the client, and/or
S2 those detailed in the relay commissioning manual.
P2 Digital and numerical relays usually require far fewer
Relay or test block tests to prove correct operation, and these may be
contact fingers
restricted to observations of current and voltage on the
A1
relay display under normal load conditions.
Primary injection
test set 21.13 TESTING OF PROTECTION SCHEME LOGIC
• 21 •
250V Protection schemes often involve the use of logic to
a.c. supply
determine the conditions under which designated circuit
Figure 21.28: Current transformer ratio check breakers should be tripped. Simple examples of such
logic can be found in Chapters 9-14. Traditionally, this
logic was implemented by means of discrete relays,
21.12.3 CT Polarity Check separate from the relays used for protection. Such
implementations would occur where electromechanical
If the equipment includes directional, differential or or static relay technology is used. However, digital and
earth fault relays, the polarity of the main current numerical relays normally include programmable logic as
transformers must be checked. It is not necessary to part of the software within the relay, together with
conduct the test if only overcurrent relays are used. associated digital I/O. This facility (commonly referred to
The circuit for checking the polarity with a single-phase as Programmable Scheme Logic, or PSL) offers important
test set is shown in Figure 21.29. A short circuit is placed advantages to the user, by saving space and permitting
across the phases of the primary circuit on one side of modifications to the protection scheme logic through
the current transformers while single-phase injection is software if the protection scheme requirements change
carried out on the other side. The ammeter connected in with time. Changes to the logic are carried out using
a. checking of the scheme logic specification and The clearance of a fault on the system is correct only if
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
diagrams to ensure that the objectives of the logic the number of circuit breakers opened is the minimum
are achieved necessary to remove the fault. A small proportion of
faults are incorrectly cleared, the main reasons being:
b. testing of the logic to ensure that the functionality
of the scheme is proven a. limitations in protection scheme design
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
fuses. Withdrawal of these should completely
protection provided for the duration of the tests. Such
isolate the circuit concerned
back-up protection may not be fully discriminative, but
should be sufficient to clear any fault on the apparatus v. power supplies to protection schemes should be
whose main protection is temporarily out of service. segregated from those supplying other equipment and
provided with fully discriminative circuit protection
Maintenance is assisted by the displays of measured
quantities provided on digital and numerical relays. Incorrect vi. a single auxiliary switch should not be used for
display of a quantity is a clear indication that something is interrupting or closing more than one circuit
wrong, either in the relay itself or the input circuits. vii. terminations in relay panels require good access,
as these may have to be altered if extensions are
made. Modern panels are provided with special
21.15.2 Maintenance Tests
test facilities, so that no connections need be
Primary injection tests are normally only conducted out disturbed during routine testing
during initial commissioning. If scheme maloperation
viii. junction boxes should be of adequate size and, if
has occurred and the protection relays involved are
outdoors, must be made waterproof
suspect, or alterations have been made involving the
wiring to the relays from the VT’s/CT’s, the primary ix. all wiring should be ferruled for identification and
injection tests may have to be repeated. phase-coloured
Secondary injection tests may be carried out at suitable x. electromechanical relays should have high • 21 •
intervals to check relay performance, and, if possible, the operating and restraint torques and high contact
relay should be allowed to trip the circuit breakers pressures; jewel bearings should be shrouded to
involved. The interval between tests will depend upon exclude dust and the use of very thin wire for coils
the criticality of the circuit involved, the availability of and connections should be avoided. Dust-tight
the circuit for testing and the technology of the relays cases with an efficient breather are essential on
used. Secondary injection testing is only necessary on these types of electromechanical element
the selected relay setting and the results should be
xi. static, digital and numerical relays should have test
checked against those obtained during the initial
facilities accessible from the front to assist in fault
commissioning of the equipment.
finding. The relay manual should clearly detail the
It is better not to interfere with relay contacts at all expected results at each test point when healthy
unless they are obviously corroded. The performance of
the contacts is fully checked when the relay is actuated.
21.17 REFERENCES
Insulation tests should also be carried out on the relay
wiring to earth and between circuits, using a 1000V 21.1 Protective Relays Application Guide, 3rd edition.
tester. These tests are necessary to detect any AREVA Transmission and Distribution, Protection
deterioration in the insulation resistance. and Control, 1987.
Introduction 22.1
Synchronisers 22.8
22.1 INTRODUCTION
The accurate measurement of the voltage, current or
other parameter of a power system is a prerequisite to
any form of control, ranging from automatic closed-loop
control to the recording of data for statistical purposes.
Measurement of these parameters can be accomplished
in a variety of ways, including the use of direct-reading
instruments as well as electrical measuring transducers.
Transducers produce an accurate d.c. analogue output,
usually a current, which corresponds to the parameter
being measured (the measurand). They provide electrical
isolation by transformers, sometimes referred to as
‘Galvanic Isolation’, between the input and the output.
This is primarily a safety feature, but also means that the
cabling from the output terminals to any receiving
equipment can be lightweight and have a lower
insulation specification. The advantages over discrete
measuring instruments are as follows:
a. mounted close to the source of the measurement,
reducing instrument transformer burdens and
increasing safety through elimination of long
wiring runs
b. ability to mount display equipment remote from
transducer
c. ability to use multiple display elements per transducer
d. the burden on CT’s/VT’s is considerably less
Outputs from transducers may be used in many ways –
from simple presentation of measured values for an
operator, to being utilised by a network automation
scheme to determine the control strategy.
a. 300% of full-load current continuously Interaction between measuring elements Ambient temperature
Auxiliary supply voltage Auxiliary supply frequency
b. 2500% for three seconds External magnetic fields Self heating
Series mode interference Common mode interference
c. 5000% for one second External heat
The input impedance of any current input circuit will be Table 22.1: Transducer influence quantities
kept as low as possible, and that for voltage inputs will
be kept as high as possible. This reduces errors due to The error determined under reference conditions is
impedance mismatch. referred to as the intrinsic error. All transducers having
the same intrinsic error are grouped into a particular
accuracy class, denoted by the class index. The class
22.2.2 Transducer Outputs index is the same as the intrinsic error expressed as a
The output of a transducer is usually a current source. percentage (e.g. a transducer with an intrinsic accuracy
This means that, within the output voltage range of 0.1% of full scale has a class index of 0.1). The class
index system used in IEC 60688 requires that the
(compliance voltage) of the transducer, additional
variation for each of the influence quantities be strictly
• 22 • display devices can be added without limit and without
related to the intrinsic error. This means that the higher
any need for adjustment of the transducer. The value of
the accuracy claimed by the manufacturer, the lower
the compliance voltage determines the maximum loop must be all of the variations.
impedance of the output circuit, so a high value of
compliance voltage facilitates remote location of an Because there are many influence quantities, the
indicating instrument. variations are assessed individually, whilst maintaining
all the other influence quantities at reference conditions.
Where the output loop is used for control purposes,
The nominal range of use of a transducer is the normal
appropriately rated Zener diodes are sometimes fitted
operating range of the transducer as specified by the
across the terminals of each of the devices in the series
manufacturer. The nominal range of use will naturally be
loop to guard against the possibility of their internal wider than the reference value or range. Within the
circuitry becoming open circuit. This ensures that a nominal range of use of a transducer, additional errors
faulty device in the loop does not cause complete failure accumulate resulting in an additional error. This
of the output loop. The constant-current nature of the additional error is limited for any individual influence
transducer output simply raises the voltage and quantity to, at most, the value of the class index. Table
continues to force the correct output signal round the 22.2 gives performance details of a typical range of
loop. transducers according to the standard.
Confusion also arises in specifying the performance adjusted to respond to the r.m.s. value of a pure sine
under real operating conditions. The output signal is wave. If the input waveform becomes distorted, errors
often a d.c. analogue of the measurand, but is obtained will result. For example, the error due to third harmonic
field. The scaling can be changed to reflect changes in 8kV, and 2-10mA for the second part, 8-15kV.
the network, or to be re-used elsewhere. Changes can be
downloaded via the communications link, thus removing
the need for a site visit. It also minimises the risk of the 22.5 TRANSDUCER SELECTION
user specifying an incorrect scaling factor and having to The selection of the correct transducer to perform a
return the transducer to the manufacturer for measurement function depends on many factors. These
adjustment. Suppliers can keep a wider range of are detailed below.
transducers suitable for a wide range of applications and
inputs in stock, thus reducing delivery times.
Transducers are available with a much wider range of 22.5.1 Current Transducers
functions in one package, thus reducing space Current transducers are usually connected to the
requirements in a switchboard. Functions available secondary of an instrument current transformer with a
include harmonics up to the 31st, energy, and maximum rated output of 1 or 5 amps. Mean-sensing and true
demand information. The latter are useful for tariff r.m.s. types are available. If the waveform contains
negotiations. significant amounts of harmonics, a true r.m.s sensing
• 22 • type must be used for accurate measurement of the
input. They can be self-powered, except for the true
22.4 ANALOGUE TRANSDUCER TECHNOLOGY
r.m.s. types, or when a live zero output (for example 4-
All analogue transducers have the following essential 20mA) is required. They are not directional and,
features: therefore, are unable to distinguish between ‘export’ and
‘import’ current. To obtain a directional signal, a voltage
a. an input circuit having impedance Zin
input is also required.
b. isolation (no electrical connection) between input
and output
22.5.2 Voltage Transducers
c. an ideal current source generating an output
current, I1, which is an accurate and linear Connection is usually to the secondary of an instrument
function of Qin, the input quantity voltage transformer but may be direct if the measured
quantity is of sufficiently low voltage. The suppressed
d. a parallel output impedance, Zo. This represents
zero type is commonly used to provide an output for a
the actual output impedance of the current source
specific range of input voltage where measurement of
and shunts a small fraction, I2, of the ideal output
zero on the input quantity is not required. The linear
e. an output current, Io, equal to (I1 - I2) inverse type is often used as an aid to synchronising.
Transducer Transducer
Van Vab
Vca
Ia Ia
S1 S2 S1 S2
A A
P1 P2 P1 P2
B B
C C
N • 22 •
To load To load
3 phase, 4 wire balanced load 3 phase, 3 wire balanced load
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
A A A
P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2
B B B
P1 P2 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
C C C
P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2
N N
To load To load To load
3 phase, 3 wire unbalanced load 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced (21/ 2 el.) load
conforms to the relevant standard). In this example, it separate supply. However, some manufacturers have
would be more straightforward to establish the full-scale standardised their designs such that they appear to be of
indication as 15kV and to make this equivalent to 10mA, the self-powered type, but the auxiliary supply
thus making the specification of the display instrument connection is actually internal. For a.c. measuring
much easier. The transducer will have to be specified transducers, the use of a d.c. auxiliary supply enables the
such that an input of 0-150V gives an output of 0-10mA. transducer to be operated over a wider range of input.
In the case of transducers with a 4-20mA output, great
care is required in the output scaling, as there is no over- The range of auxiliary supply voltage over which a
range capability. The 20mA output limit is a fixed one transducer can be operated is specified by the
from a measurement point of view. Such outputs are manufacturer. If the auxiliary voltage is derived from an
typically used as inputs to SCADA systems, and the input quantity, the range of measurement will be
SCADA system is normally programmed to assume that a restricted to about ±20% of the nominal auxiliary supply
current magnitude in excess of 20mA represents a voltage. This can give rise to problems when attempting
transducer failure. Thus, using the above example, the to measure low values of the input quantity.
output might be scaled so that 20mA represents 132V
• 22 • and hence the nominal 110V input results in an output of
16.67mA. A more convenient scaling might be to use 22.6 MEASUREMENT CENTRES
16mA as representing110V, with 20mA output being
A Measurement Centre is effectively a collection of
equal to 137.5V (i.e. 25% over-range instead of the 20%
required). It would be incorrect to scale the transducer discrete transducers mounted in a common case. This is
so that 110V input was represented by 20mA output, as largely impractical if analogue technology for signal
the over-range capability required would not be processing is used, but no such limitation exists if digital
available. or numerical technology is adopted. Therefore,
Measurement Centres are generally only found
Similar considerations apply to current transducers and,
implemented using these technologies. As has been
with added complexity, to watt transducers, where the
ratios of both the voltage and the current transformers already noted in Chapter 7, a numerical relay can provide
must be taken into account. In this instance, the output many measurements of power system quantities.
will be related to the primary power of the system. It Therefore, an alternative way of looking at a
should be noted that the input current corresponding to Measurement Centre that uses numerical technology is
full-scale output may not be exactly equal to the that it is a numerical relay, stripped of its protection
secondary rating of the current transformer but this does functions and incorporating a wide range of power
not matter - the manufacturer will take this into account. system parameter measurements.
22.8 SYNCHRONISERS
Network
Power System Measurements
Network
Synchronisers are required at points on a power system #2 Line A CB 1 #1
where two supplies (either generator and grid, or two
grid supplies) may need to be paralleled. They are more Busbar B
than just a measuring device, as they will provide (b) Application to two networks
contact closures to permit circuit breaker closing when
conditions for paralleling (synchronising) are within Figure 22.4: Check synchroniser applications
Introduction 23.1
Examples 23.6
• 23 • Power Quality
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last thirty years or so, the amount of equipment
containing electronics has increased dramatically. Such
equipment can both cause and be affected by
electromagnetic disturbances. A disturbance that
affects a process control computer in a large industrial
complex could easily result in shutdown of the process.
The lost production and product loss/recycling during
start-up represents a large cost to the business.
Similarly, a protection relay affected by a disturbance
through conduction or radiation from nearby conductors
could trip a feeder or substation, causing loss of supply
to a large number of consumers. At the other end of the
scale, a domestic user of a PC has to re-boot the PC due
to a transient voltage dip, causing annoyance to that
and other similarly affected users. Therefore,
transporters and users of electrical energy have become
much more interested in the nature and frequency of
disturbances in the power supply. The topic has become
known by the title of Power Quality.
450
Unbalanced loads Overheating in
Voltage Unbalanced motors/generators 400
imbalance impedances Interruption of 3-phase 350
operation 300
Affected by disturbance
Power system faults Loss of supply 250
Short and long Equipment failures to customer equipment 200 Withstand
voltage Control malfunctions Computer shutdowns disturbance
interruptions 150
CB tripping Motor tripping
100
Heavy network loading All equipment 50
Affected by disturbance
Loss of generation without backup 0
Undervoltage Poor power factor supply facilities 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Lack of var support Duration of disturbance (ms)
Lightning Control system resetting Figure 23.1: ITI curve for equipment
Transients Capacitive switching Damage to sensitive susceptibility
Non –linear switching loads electronic components
System voltage regulation Damage to insulation
Retained Voltage
Interruption Typical data for undervoltage disturbances on power
Time systems during evolving faults are shown in Figure 23.5.
Figure 23.2: Voltage dip profile
Disturbances that lie in the front right-hand portion of
the histogram are the ones that cause most problems,
Voltage dips due to the latter are usually due to poor design but fortunately these are quite rare.
of the network feeding the consumer. A voltage dip is the
Retained voltage
most common supply disturbance causing interruption of
Power Quality
0-10% 61-70%
production in an industrial plant. Faults on a supply 41-50% 81-90%
network will always occur, and in industrial systems, it is 51-60% 91-100%
often practice to specify equipment to ride-through Number of undervoltage disturbances recorded
voltage dips of up to 0.2s. The most common exception is
contactors, which may well drop out if the voltage dips 16
below 80% of rated voltage for more than 50-100ms. 15
14
Motor protection relays that have an undervoltage element 13
setting that is too sensitive is another cause. Since 12
11
Number of incidents/yr
11-20%
10-50ms
50-100ms
100-500ms
0.5-1s
Retained voltage
>10s
Retained Voltage
Interruption Duration of disturbance
Time
Figure 23.5: Undervoltage disturbance histogram
Figure 23.3: Multiple voltage dip
23.3.2 Voltage Surges/Spikes
Other network-related fault causes are weather–related
(such as snow, ice, wind, salt spray, dust) causing Voltage surges/spikes are the opposite of dips – a rise
50
Vrms
User defined setpoints 0
Nom. High
Time
-50
Nom. Low
PQ Standards -100
-150
Power Quality
irrespective of duration. Other causes are failures in
equipment, and control and protection malfunctions.
23.4 POWER QUALITY MONITORING
Electrical equipment ceases to function under such
If an installation or network is thought to be suffering
conditions, with undervoltage protection devices leading
from problems related to Power Quality, suitable
to tripping of some loads.
measurements should to be taken to confirm the initial
Short interruptions may be no more than an diagnosis. These measurements will also help quantify
inconvenience to some consumers (e.g. domestic the extent of the problem(s) and provide assistance in
consumers), but for commercial and industrial determining the most suitable solutions. Finally, follow-
consumers (e.g. semiconductor manufacture) may lead up measurements after installation will confirm the • 23 •
to lengthy serious production losses with large financial effectiveness of the remedial measures taken.
impact. Longer interruptions will cause production loss
in most industries, as induction and synchronous motors
cannot tolerate more than 1-2 seconds interruption 23.4.1 Type of Installation
without having to be tripped, if only to prevent excessive
Monitoring equipment for Power Quality may be suitable
current surges and resulting large voltage dips on supply
for either temporary or permanent installation on a
restoration.
supply network. Permanent installation is most likely to
On the other hand, vital computer systems are often fed be used by Utilities for routine monitoring of parts of
via a UPS supply that may be capable of supplying power their networks to ensure that regulatory limits are being
from batteries for several hours in the event of a mains complied with and to monitor general trends in respect
supply failure. More modern devices such as Dynamic of power quality issues. Consumers with sensitive loads
Voltage Restorers can also be used to provide continuity may also install permanent monitoring devices in order
of supply due to a supply interruption. For interruptions to monitor Power Quality and provide supporting
lasting some time, a standby generator can be provide a evidence in the event of a claim for compensation being
limited supply to essential loads, but cannot be started in made against the supplier if loss occurs due to a power
time to prevent an interruption occurring. quality problem whose source is in the Utility network.
Equipment Application
Voltage variations
UPS Supply interruptions
Frequency variations
Earthing practices Harmonics
Filters (Active/Passive) Harmonics
Figure 23.9: Transient voltage Voltage variations
Energy Storage Devices
disturbance capture Supply interruptions
Table 23.3: Power system disturbance
classification to EN 50160
Power Quality
23.5.1 UPS Systems
A UPS system consists of the following:
a. an energy storage device – normally a battery
b. a rectifier and inverter
c. transfer switches
The UPS may be on-line (continuously in operation) or
offline (switched in when a disturbance occurs). The
Figure 23.10: Data capture for analysis
of data to EN50160 former eliminates all problems due to voltage • 23 •
surges/spikes/dips and interruptions (within the capacity
of the storage device) while the latter passes some of the
disturbance through, until the supply is transferred from
the normal source to the UPS. Harmonics originating in
the source may be reduced, but not eliminated in the
load, because the UPS itself is a source of harmonics, as
it contains Power Electronic Devices. Thus it may
increase harmonic distortion on the source side.The main
disadvantages of UPS systems are cost and efficiency. An
on-line UPS incurs continuous losses, while both types
require energy storage devices that can be expensive. Fast-
acting switches to transfer load to the energy storage
device are required for offline devices, while transfer
switches to bypass the rectifier/inverter when these are
undergoing maintenance may also be required. Figure
Figure 23.11: THD analysis to EN50160 23.12 illustrates conceptually both types of UPS.
Network Load
Coupling
inductance
D.C.-D.C.
Power Quality
Figure 23.15: Voltage dip recording
Figure 23.18: Detailed view of
voltage dip waveform
(a)
23.6.2 Investigation of Harmonic Pollution
Problems on an Industrial Plant
An industrial plant was suffering Power Quality
problems, and harmonic pollution was suspected as the
cause. A Power Quality meter was installed at various
parts of the network to determine the extent of the
problem and the equipment causing the problem.
Confirmation of the pollution as being due to harmonics
was readily obtained. This can be seen in Figure 23.19,
(b)
for the equipment identified as the source of the
disturbance. The graphics enable rapid and clear
Figure 23.16: Graphical view of voltage dip data identification of the frequency and amount by which the
• 23 •
Introduction 24.1
24.1 INTRODUCTION
The sometimes complex interlocking and sequence
control requirements that are to be found in a
substation of any significant size lend themselves
naturally to the application of automation. These
requirements can be readily expressed in mathematical
logic (truth tables, boolean algebra, etc.) and this branch
of mathematics is well-suited to the application of
computers and associated software. Hence, computers
have been applied to the control of electrical networks
for many years, and examples of them being applied to
substation control/automation were in use in the early
1970’s. The first applications were naturally in the bulk
power transmission field, as a natural extension of a
trend to centralised control rooms for such systems. The
large capital investment in such systems and the
consequences of major system disruption made the cost
of such schemes justifiable. In the last ten years or so,
continuing cost pressures on Utilities and advances in
computing power and software have led to the
application of computers to substation control/
automation on a much wider basis.
This Chapter outlines the current technology and
provides examples of modern practice in the field.
the most elementary application. However, the selection Legacy bus IED's
of the complete set of functions required for a particular
application is essentially the responsibility of the end-
Bay Bay
interface unit is provided (often called an RTU or Modules Modules
Gateway), while it is possible to have more than one HMI
(b) Ring connection of Bay Modules
computer, the primary one being dedicated to operations
and others for engineering use. Optionally, a remote HMI Figure 24.5: Methods of hardware
computer may be made available via a separate link. It interconnection
is always desirable in such schemes to separate the real-
time operations function from engineering tasks, which
do not have the same time-critical importance. Of course, it is possible to overcome the first problem by
duplicating links and running the links in physically
SCADA Master clock
separate routes. However, this makes the I/O port
interface Remote HMI
(GPS, radio) problem worse, while additional design effort is required
HMI in ensuring cable route diversity.
Internet
or PSTN An alternative is to connect the Bay Modules, HMI
Telecontrol or Computer
bus interface Station bus computer and SCADA gateway in a ring, as shown in
Bus interface Bay Module Computer Figure 24.5(b). By using a communication architecture
such as found in a LAN network, each device is able to
The Bay Module and bus IED's
talk to any other device on the ring without any message
Legacy
interface could be: conflicts. A single break in the ring does not result in
• separate equipments
loss of any facilities. The detection of ring breakage and
• 24 • bus • integrated into
the Bay Module re-configuration required can be made automatically.
Thus, the availability and fault tolerance of the network
I/O, devices is improved. Multiple rings emanating from the HMI
CT, VT computer can be used if the number of devices exceeds
Figure 24.4: Decentralised topology the limit for a single ring. It can be easier to install on a
step-by-step basis for retrofit applications, but of course,
The connection between the various Bay Modules and all these advantages have a downside. The cost of such
the HMI computer is of some interest. Simplest is the a topology is higher than that of the other solutions, so
star arrangement of Figure 24.5(a). This is the least-cost this topology is reserved for situations where the highest
solution but suffers from two disadvantages. Firstly, a reliability and availability is required - i.e. HV and EHV
break in the link will result in loss of remote control of transmission substations.
the bay affected; only local control via a local HMI Redundancy can also be provided at the individual device
computer connected to the bay is then possible. level. Relays and other IED’s may be duplicated, though
Secondly, the number of communication ports available this would not be usual unless required for other reasons
on the HMI computer will limit the number of Bay (e.g. EHV transmission lines may be required to have
Modules. duplicate main protections – this is not strictly speaking
manufacturers because there is no need for the format of Message transmission, error control and conferencing facilities.
Words not clearly received are requested to be re-transmitted,
such messages to be made public. This is arguably the Data Link
using agreed procedures. For conferencing, defines how control
greatest drawback of the standard, since extensive use of passes from one person to the next.
‘private’ messages by manufacturers of devices essentially Call routing, by specifying the method of allocating telephone
numbers and provision of dialling facilities. Includes operator
turns the standard into several proprietary ones. Network facilities for routing to extensions. If the message is from several
sheets of paper, ensures that all sheets have been received and are
in the correct order.
Monitors transmission quality and implements procedures if quality
24.4.2 Network Protocols is unaceptable - e.g. requests both parties to hang up and one
Transport to re-dial. Also provides a mechanism to ensure that the correct
So far, the protocols described are useful for persons are communicating, and searches for them
implementing communications over a relatively (e.g. uses telephone directory) if not.
restricted geographical area. A substation automation Provides facilities for automatically making calls at pre-defined times,
and ensures that the correct persons are present when the call
scheme may extend over a very wide area, and hence is made. A session may be interrupted and re-established later,
Session
suitable protocols are needed for this situation. The using the same or a different network/transport connection.
most common protocols in use conform to the ISO 7- As calls are half-duplex, provides flow control procedures -
e.g one person says 'over' to invite the other to speak.
layer model of a network. This model is internationally Removes language difficulties by ensuring that the same language
recognised as the standard for the requirements for
standards permit the use of the XML language for organised into tables, usually on a ‘per device’ basis that
exchange of data between databases. As the reflects the important characteristics of the device and
information stored in an automation system or control its interrelationship with other devices on the network.
centre comprises a series of databases, information Electrical system configuration changes require
exchange is therefore facilitated. modification of the database using an appropriate
software tool supplied by the automation system vendor.
The tool is normally a high level, user-friendly interface,
24.4.3 Languages so that modifications to the one-line can be drawn
directly on-screen, with ‘pick-and–place’ facilities for
A communications language is the interpretation of the
relays, IED’s, etc. This work would normally be done
data contained in a message. The communications
offline on the Engineers’ workstation, if available, or as a
language normally forms part of the overall
background task on the control computer if not. Careful
communications protocol. Obviously, it is necessary for
and extensive checking of the data is required, both
both transmitter and recipient of the message to use the
before and after entry into the database, to ensure that
same language. While a number of communications
no errors have been made. Full testing on the new
standards attempt to specify the language used, there is
configuration using a simulator is recommended prior to
often flexibility provided, leading to manufacturer-
use of the new database on the main control computer
specific implementations. A popular work-around is for
to ensure that there is minimal possibility of errors.
a number of organisations to agree common standards
and set up a certifying body to check for compliance The software is written as a set of well-proven, standard
• 24 • against these standards. Thus, equipment that complies modules, so there is little or no need for new modules to
becomes to large degree, interoperable. However, the be written and tested for a particular substation. The
latest trend, as exemplified by the UCA v2.0/IEC 61850 required data for the calculations performed by the
Administrator Password
24.5.1 Future Developments
3 cubicles/bay
24.6.4 Management of System Tests (a): Current situation
Auxiliary Auxiliary
relaying relaying
3 cubicles/bay
(c): Step 2: SOE Renovation and wall mimic change
33kV
Substation control
New RTU New SOE HMI
Control
room
Marshalling cabinets
Substation Control and Automation
.......... ..........
11kV
Bay computer Protection 1
Auxiliary
Protection 2
relaying 11kV
2 cubicles/bay
(d): Step 3: Progressive decentralisation and protection integration
.......... ..........
The system has two features that make it unusual from
Bay computer Bay computer a control point of view. Firstly, the generation within the
system is distributed, and this results in the possibility of
Cubicles
Protection 1 Protection 1 several island networks being created in the event of a
• 24 • major electrical incident, each of which are to be run
Protection 2 Protection 2
independently until such time as paralleling of the
2 cubicles/bay islands becomes possible. Secondly, the grid system is
(e): Step 4: Full decentralisation weak, so that import has to be limited to a maximum of
40MW, even under transient disturbances such as the
Figure 24.10 (cont): Upgrade path for an existing simultaneous loss of two generators, each of over 30MW
substation
capacity.
As a result of these requirements, the standard software
Examples of automation systems on order or installed are was enhanced to allow simultaneous control of up to 3
given in the following sections. autonomous islands within the overall network, each
island having the full range of control facilities including
circuit/device switching, active/reactive power control of
24.7.1 Industrial Network Automation Project
generators, voltage and frequency control of each island
A large industrial network was significantly expanded and load shedding. Due to the restrictions on grid
due to the addition of extra processing facilities. As part import, a fast load shedding algorithm was developed, as
of the expansion, a new substation automation system studies indicated that conventional under-frequency
HUB
Network
control
GPS Data acquisition centre
MiCOM
IEC 60870-5-103 M301 K-series relays
K-bus
Relay PQ741 345kV: Bus section 1
MiCOM
1 X BM9100
M301
345/138kV Transformers: Lado de Baixa
345kV: Bus section 1 EFI.P Dual redundant 2 X BM9100
1 X BM9100 Fibre optic ring
K-bus
K-bus MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
345kV: Bus section 2 MiCOM 345kV: Bus coupler
1 X BM9100 M301 K-series relays 2 X BM9100
138kV Lines: Wilson 1 & 2
2 X BM9100
Section 2D Section 2C
Section D 345KV Section C
Section 1D Section 1C
Earthing transformers
Reactor 1
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
1B 1A 2B 2A
Figure 24.15: Single line diagram: Utility substation 345kV busbar (part)
Transformer 2
Transformer 3 138kV Busbar
345/88/138kV
345/88/138kV (future)
• 24 •
Section 3A Section 3B
Section 4A Section A Section B 138kV Section 4B
138kV Line: 138kV Line: 138kV Line: 138kV Line 138kV Line: Ipiranga 1
Mariana 2 Brigadeiro 2 Ipiranga 2 Wilson 2 (future)
(future) (future) (future)
Earthing transformer 2
Figure 24.16: Single line diagram: Utility substation 138kV busbar (part)
24 •
Traction Substations
8 off Maintenance Control Centre
x3
P139
Dual redundant OPC server
ming line Printer
xxx
SCADA
Maintenance Workstation:
BM9200 Auxiliary transformer
n Parameter settings and
xxx
disturbance analysis
BM9200 Printer
BM9200
EFI.P
BM9200 Buss P921
ring
BM9200
• 438 •
Ethernet Network
Intermediate Autotransformer
Final Autotransformer
Substations
Substation
34 off
7 off
44-55 per traction substation
GPS OPC server
Intermediate Autotransformer GPS PC
Substation Traction
x
xxx
OPC server GPS GPS otransformer
Traction autotransformer PC OPC server OPC server P632
PC PC Auxiliary
xxx Traction
P632 transformer
xxx P632 transformer Auxiliary
action transformer
Traction autotransformer BM9200
Auxiliary
P632 ransformer
BM9200 BM9200
transformer
BM9200 BM9200 Traction
BM9200 Auxiliary
P632 EFI.P P P632
ring
ring BM9200 Bus section
mer
Track catenary/feeder BM9200 BM9200
• 24 •
• 24 •
Introduction 25.1
Communications 25.6
25.1 INTRODUCTION
Distribution systems are generally considered to be
supply networks operating at 132kV and below, and to
which consumers are normally connected. Within a
distribution system, a division into primary and secondary
distribution systems is often made, with primary
distribution systems having voltages above 22kV and
secondary distribution systems voltage below this value.
Automation of distribution systems has existed for many
years. The extent to which automation has been applied
has been determined by a combination of technology
and cost. For many years the available technology
limited the application of automation to those parts of
the distribution system where loss of supply had an
impact on large numbers of consumers. Technology was
not available to handle the large amount of
geographically dispersed data required for automation of
distribution systems in rural areas. Even when
developments in technology began to overcome these
problems, the cost of applying the technology was large
in relation to the benefits gained. Often, there was no
financial incentive to apply automation in rural
distribution systems, and consumers were not entitled to
compensation for loss of supply. As relatively few
consumers would be affected by a fault on a rural
distribution system, compared to a similar fault in an
urban distribution system, the number of customer
complaints received was not a sufficiently important
factor to justify investment in network reliability.
Interruptions to consumers in rural areas were treated as
being inevitable.
Recent developments such as privatisation started to
focus attention on the cost to the consumer of a loss in
supply. Interruptions in supply began to be reflected in
cost penalties (directly or indirectly) to the Utility, thus
providing a financial incentive to improve matters. Rural
consumers gradually became more aware of the disparity
in the number of supply interruptions between rural and
urban distribution networks. This led, in conjunction
with an increasing emphasis on Power Quality issues (see
Transmission system
Distribution System Automation
110kV 110kV
110kV
Large consumers
33kV
33kV
Ring Ring
Primary distribution network
To Secondary
distribution 33/11kV 33/11kV
substation
Ring Ring
11kV
M M
Remote I>
• 25 •
interface
RMU RMU
11/0.4kV 11/0.4kV
M
RMU RMU
11/0.4kV 11/0.4kV Ring Main Unit
Spur
Final distribution
(b) Automated Ring Main Unit
RMU RMU
Figure 25.4: Ring Main Unit
11/0.4kV 11/0.4kV
• 25 •
25.7 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUTOMATION 25.7.3 Power Quality Management
SOFTWARE TOOLS
Power Quality has been covered in Chapter 23. Software
To assist the operator of a distribution network, there are can be used for calculating various performance indices
a number of software tools that can be used to assist in relating to Power Quality. The results, whether obtained
making decisions and implementing them. They are: off-line or in real-time, can be used to influence the
a. topology analysis operation of the network to minimise either one or
several of the performance indicators. There may be
b. power system calculations economic benefits for the Utility through more efficient
c. power quality management use of the network and avoidance of financial penalties
where performance targets are not met. The tool will use
d. system configuration management
inputs from the Topology Analysis and Power System
The tools may be available as on-line interactive tools, to Calculation tools in order for the functions to be carried
assist in decision-making, or as off-line tools to study out. Typical user outputs are tap changer and capacitor
the impact of decisions (‘what-if’ scenarios). Some of switching schedules, energy losses for the whole or
the technology is available now, especially in off-line selected parts of the network for defined periods of time,
form, but all features described are under active harmonic levels, data relating to supply interruptions
• 25 •
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
and actuates an output after a desired count has been
The curve showing the operating value of the reached.
characteristic quantity corresponding to various values
or combinations of the energising quantities CSV
Character (or Comma) Separated Values format. A
Characteristic Impedance Ratio (C.I.R.) widely used format for the exchange of data between
The maximum value of the System Impedance Ratio up different software, in which the individual data items a
to which the relay performance remains within the separated by a known character – usually a comma
prescribed limits of accuracy
CT
Characteristic quantity Current Transformer
A quantity, the value of which characterises the
operation of the relay, for example, current for an Current transducer
overcurrent relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle A transducer used for the measurement of a.c. current
for a directional relay, time for an independent time CVT
delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay Capacitor Voltage Transformer. A voltage transformer
Check protection system that uses capacitors to obtain a voltage divider effect. • A1 •
An auxiliary protection system intended to prevent Used at EHV voltages instead of an electromagnetic VT
tripping due to inadvertent operation of the main for size/cost reasons
protection system DAC
CHP Digital to Analogue Converter
Combined Heat and Power DAR
Circuit insulation voltage Delayed auto-reclose
The highest circuit voltage to earth on which a circuit of D AT
a transducer may be used and which determines its Digital Audio Tape
voltage test
DBMS
Class index Data Base Management system
The number which designates the accuracy class
DCF77
Closing Impulse time LF transmitter located at Mainflingen, Germany,
The time during which a closing impulse is given to the broadcasting a time signal on a 77.5kHz frequency
CB
A microprocessor optimised in both hardware The range of values of the characteristic quantity or
architecture and software instruction set for the quantities, or of the energising quantities to which the
processing of analogue signals digitally, through use of relay will respond and satisfy the requirements
the DFT and similar techniques concerning it, in particular those concerning precision
Digital Signal Processing Effective setting
A technique for the processing of digital signals by The ‘setting’ of a protection system including the effects
various filter algorithms to obtain some desired of current transformers. The effective setting can be
characteristics in the output. The input signal to the expressed in terms of primary current or secondary
processing algorithm is usually the digital representation current from the current transformers and is so
of an analogue signal, obtained by A/D conversion designated as appropriate
Directional relay Electrical relay
A protection relay in which the tripping decision is A device designed to produce sudden predetermined
dependent in part upon the direction in which the changes in one or more electrical circuits after the
• A1 • measured quantity is flowing appearance of certain conditions in the electrical circuit
or circuits controlling it
Discrimination
The ability of a protection system to distinguish between NOTE: The term ‘relay’ includes all the ancillary
power system conditions for which it is intended to equipment calibrated with the device
operate and those for which it is not intended to operate
Electromechanical relay
Distortion factor An electrical relay in which the designed response is
The ratio of the r.m.s. value of the harmonic content to developed by the relative movement of mechanical
the r.m.s. value of the non-sinusoidal quantity elements under the action of a current in the input
circuit
DNP
Distributed Network Protocol. A proprietary EMC
communication protocol used on secondary networks Electro-Magnetic Compatibility
between HMI, substation computers or Bay Computers
Embedded generation
and protective devices
Generation that is connected to a distribution system
DOL (possibly at LV instead of HV) and hence poses particular
Direct-on-Line problems in respect of electrical protection
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
(PC) (desktop or portable) with keyboard, screen and
FBD
pointing device
Functional Block Diagram: One of the IEC 61131-3
programming languages HRC
High Rupturing Capacity (applicable to fuses)
Fiducial value
A clearly specified value to which reference is made in HSR
order to specify the accuracy of a transducer. (For High Speed Reclosing
transducers, the fiducial value is the span, except for
HV
transducers having a reversible and symmetrical output
High Voltage
when the fiducial value may be either the span or half
the span as specified by the manufacturer. It is still HVDC
common practice, however, for statements of accuracy High Voltage Direct Current
for frequency transducers to refer to ‘percent of centre- I
scale frequency’ and, for phase angle transducers, to an Current
error in electrical degrees.)
ICCP • A1 •
FPI Term used for IEC 60870-6-603 protocol
Fault Passage Indicator
ICT
Frequency transducer Interposing Current Transformer (software implemented)
A transducer used for the measurement of the frequency
of an a.c. electrical quantity I . D . M . T.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time
Full duplex communications
A communications system in which data can travel I G BT
simultaneously in both directions Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
Gateway I/O
The Gateway is a computer which provides interfaces Input/Output
between the local computer system and one or several IED
SCADA (or RCC) systems Intelligent Electronic Device. Equipment containing a
GIS microprocessor and software used to implement one or
Gas Insulated Switchgear (usually SF6) more functions in relation to an item of electrical
NOTE: All relays require some time to operate; it is When set for a given control point it means that the
possible, within the above definition, to discuss the commands can be issued from this point
operating time characteristics of an instantaneous relay Lock-out (auto-reclose)
I n s u l a t e d G a t e B i p o l a r Tr a n s i s t o r Prevention of a CB reclosing after tripping
A special design of transistor that is suitable for handling Long-term stability
high voltages and currents (relative to an ordinary The stability over a period of one year
transistor). Frequently used in static power control
equipment (inverters, controlled rectifiers, etc) due to the Low-speed auto-reclose
flexibility of control of the output See Delayed Auto-Reclose
Intrinsic error LV
An error determined when the transducer is under Low Voltage
reference conditions Main protection
Inverse time delay relay The protection system which is normally expected to
operate in response to a fault in the protected zone
• A1 • A dependent time delay relay having an operating time
which is an inverse function of the electrical Maximum permissible values of the input
characteristic quantity current and voltage
Inverse time relay with definite minimum Values of current and voltage assigned by the
t i m e ( I . D . M . T. ) manufacturer which the transducer will withstand
An inverse time relay having an operating time that indefinitely without damage
tends towards a minimum value with increasing values MCB
of the electrical characteristic quantity Miniature Circuit Breaker
IRIG-B MCCB
An international standard for time synchronisation Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
ISO Mean-sensing transducer
International Standards Organisation A transducer which actually measures the mean
K-bus (K-bus Courier) (average) value of the input waveform but which is
Term used for the Courier protocol on K-Bus interface for adjusted to give an output corresponding to the r.m.s.
K-Relay range manufactured by AREVA value of the input when that input is sinusoidal
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
A substation located at the electrical interface of two
sections of electrified railway. It contains provision for Overhead line
the coupling of the sections electrically in the event of O LTC
loss of supply to one section On Load Tap Changer.
ModBus O n L o a d Ta p C h a n g e r
Proprietary communication protocol used on secondary A tap changer that can be operated while the
networks between HMI, substation computers or Bay transformer is supplying load.
Computers and protective devices
Opening time
MPSS The time between energisation of a CB trip coil and the
Mid Point Sectioning Substation (electrified railways) instant of contact parting
Multi-element transducer Operating current (of a relay)
A transducer having two or more measuring elements. The current at which a relay will pick up
The signals from the individual elements are combined to Operating time (CB)
produce an output signal corresponding to the The time between energisation of a CB trip coil and arc • A1 •
measurand extinction
Multi-section transducer Operating time (relay)
A transducer having two or more independent measuring With a relay de-energised and in its initial condition, the
circuits for one or more functions time which elapses between the application of a
Multi-shot reclosing characteristic quantity and the instant when the relay
A reclosing scheme that permits more than one reclosing operates
operation of a CB after a fault occurs before lock-out Operating time characteristic
occurs The curve depicting the relationship between different
MV values of the characteristic quantity applied to a relay
Medium Voltage and the corresponding values of operating time
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
Platinum resistance temperature probe The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which
the relay returns to its initial position
R
Resistance Residual current
The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the
R.M.S.-sensing transducer
line currents
A transducer specifically designed to respond to the true
r.m.s. value of the input and which is characterised by Residual voltage
the manufacturer for use on a specified range of The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the
waveforms line-to-earth voltages
Ratio correction Response time
A feature of digital/numerical relays that enables The time from the instant of application of a specified
compensation to be carried out for a CT or VT ratio that change of the measurand until the output signal reaches
is not ideal and remains at its final steady value or within a specified
band centred on this value
Rating
The nominal value of an energising quantity that appears Reversible output current • A1 •
in the designation of a relay. The nominal value usually An output current which reverses polarity in response to
corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings a change of sign or direction of the measurand
RCD Ripple content of the output
Residual Current Device. A protection device which is With steady-state input conditions, the peak-to-peak
actuated by the residual current value of the fluctuating component of the output
RCP r. m . s .
Remote Control Point. The Remote Control Point is a Root Mean Square
SCADA interface. Several RCP’s may be managed with
RMU
different communication protocols. Physical
Ring Main Unit
connections are done at a Gateway or at substation
computers or at a substation HMI ROCOF
Rate Of Change Of Frequency (protection relay)
Reactive power (var) transducer
A transducer used for the measurement of reactive RSVC
electrical power Relocatable Static Var Compensator
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
Ve c t o r g r o u p c o m p e n s a t i o n
TF
A feature of digital and numerical relays that
a) Transfer Function of a device (usually an element of a
compensates for the phase angle shift that occurs in
control system
transformers (including VT’s) due to use of dissimilar
b) Transient Factor (of a CT) winding connections – e.g. transformers connected
delta/star
Through fault current
The current flowing through a protected zone to a fault Vo l t a g e t r a n s d u c e r
beyond that zone A transducer used for the measurement of a.c. voltage
Time delay VT
A delay intentionally introduced into the operation of a Voltage Transformer
relay system
X
Time delay relay Reactance
A relay having an intentional delaying device
Z
TPI Impedance • A1 •
Tap Position Indicator (for transformers)
Transducer (electrical measuring
transducer)
A device that provides a d.c. output quantity having a
definite relationship to the a.c. measurand
Tr a n s d u c e r w i t h o f f s e t z e r o ( l i v e z e r o )
A transducer which gives a predetermined output other
than zero when the measurand is zero
Tr a n s d u c e r w i t h s u p p r e s s e d z e r o
A transducer whose output is zero when the measurand
is less than a certain value
Unit electrical relay
A single relay that can be used alone or in combinations
with others
>
Undercurrent relay 37 I< Directional overcurrent relay 67 I>
>
Negative sequence relay 46 I2 > Directional earth fault relay 67N I >
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Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
X N N N N X 2
P111
Thermal protection by PTC. DIN rail or flush mounted
N N N N X X 1
P120
Single-phase sensing
P121 N N N N X X 1
P122 X X X X X N N N N X X X X X X 2
X X X X X N N N N X 3P X X X X X 2
P123
Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X 2
P122C
Compact case version, also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
X N N N N X X 1
P124S
Self powered version
X X X X X N N N N X 3P X X X X 2
P124D
Dual powered version
D D D D X X X X 2
P125
Plain Feeder Single-phase sensing
Overcurrent X X X X X N D N D X X 3P X X X X X 2
P126
Protection Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
X X X X X X D D D D X X X X 3P X X X X X X 2
P127
Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
P130C
Compact case
P132 X X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
X X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
P139
One-box’ solution, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 200 pre-programmed bay types, Switch-on-to-Fault protection, Transient Ground Fault Directional, PT100 RTD input
P141 X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4
P142 X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
X X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
P143
Additional features: live line working, sequence co-ordination with downstream reclosing equipment
X X X X X X X X D D D D X X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X 4
P145
As P143 with additional 10 functions keys + multicolor LEDs, user configurable
t
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Pha
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I
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Ti
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Res
Res
Wa
Pow ric ne
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Cur
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CT
CT
VT
Tr
C
M
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Dis
Pro
Set
Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
P521 X X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X 2
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X 4
P541
Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
X X X X N N N N 3P X X X X X X X X X 4
P542
Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
• 471 •
P592 Fibre-optic to V35 interface for MiCOM P54x series relays
P593 Fibre-optic to X21 interface for MiCOM P54x series relays
P594 GPS time synchronising module for up to 4 MiCOM P545/6 differential relays
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X 4
P547
Phase comparison differential protection, using Power Line Carrier communications
X
MHOA/B/C
Pilot wire differential protection for 2 or 3 terminal lines. Recommended only where compatibility with existing TRANSLAY electromechanical relays is required
X
MBCI
Pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5Ω , isolation up to 15kV
N: non-directional D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
•
Appendix 3
A3 •
•
Appendix 3
A3 •
n
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ion
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atio
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ent
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CB
I
Ins
Ti
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Ove
Res
Res
Wa
Pow ric ne
Au
Ove
Un
Cur
VT
CT
CT
VT
Tr
C
M
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Dis
Pro
Set
Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X 4
P630C
Compact case
X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X 4
P631
Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4
Transformer P632
Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
Protection
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4
and Control P633
Suitable for 3 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4
P634
Suitable for 4 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
X X X 2
KVGC 202
Voltage regulating control relay for automatic tap change control
• 472 •
P521 X X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X 2
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X 4
P541
Transformer Feeder Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
Overcurrent X X X X N N N N 3P X X X X X X X X X 4
P542
/Differential Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
X
MBCI
Translay 'S' pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5kΩ, isolation up to 15kV
X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4
P634
Suitable for mesh busbars, and fixed configuration zones with up to four biased inputs
Busbar Protection P740 X X N N N N X X X X C X X X X 4
MCAG34 High-impedance differential protection relay (current calibrated)
MFAC34 High-impedance differential protection relay (voltage calibrated)
N: non-directional D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
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I
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CT
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Set
Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
X X X X X X D D D D X X X 3P X X X X C X X X X 4
P430C
Compact design case for MV/HV applications where 3ph tripping/reclosing is required. Includes protective signaling, SOTF and BU protection
X X X X X X D D D D X X X 1/3P X X X X X X X X X 4
P432
EHV ‘One-box’ solution, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 200 pre-programmed bay types, SOTF detection
X X X X X X D D D D X X X 3P X X X X X X X X 4
P433
• 473 •
X X X X D X X X D D D D X X X 3P X X X X X X X X 4
P441
Suitable for MV/HV applications where 3ph tripping/reclosing is required. Includes TOR, SOTF, DEF, Emergency Overcurrent on VT failure, and non conventional CT and VT inputs (option)
X X X X D X X X D D D D X X X 1/3P X X X X X X X X 4
P442
Same as P441 - universal distance relay for single or three pole tripping
X X X X D X X X D D D D X X X 1/3P X X X X X X X X 4
P443
MiCOMho subcycle distance and directional comparison protection. Full scheme protection with TOR, SOTF, DEF, and 1/3P reclosing. Mho and quadrilateral characteristics
X X X X D X X X D D D D X X X 1/3P X X X X X X X X 4
P444
Same as P442 with increased number of digital I/O
Mains/Grid X X X X X D D D D X X D X X X X X X X X X X X 4
P341
Interface Includes ROCOF and Voltage Vector Shift protection functions. 64 functions is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF
X X X X X X X N N N N X X X D X X X X X X M X X X X 4
P342
Also includes loss of excitation, overfluxing, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTD’s, 64 functions is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF
Generator X X X X X X X N N N N X X X D X X X X X X X M X X X X 4
P343
Protection Also includes 100% Stator winding earth fault, loss of excitation, overfluxing, inadvertent energisation at standstill, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTD’s, and enhanced pole-slipping protection
MX3IPG2A Rotor earth faultdetectionand DC over/undervoltage
P941/3 X X X X X X X X 4
Includes generator abnormal frequency protection, ROCOF and frequency supervision characteristics
N: non-directional D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
•
Appendix 3
A3 •
•
Appendix 3
A3 •
n
t
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B
Dis
Che
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Rev
Pha
Ne
Bro
Ne
The
CB
I
Ins
Ti
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V
Ove
Res
Res
Wa
Pow ric ne
Au
Ove
Un
Cur
VT
CT
CT
VT
Tr
C
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Dis
Pro
Set
Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
X X X X D D X X X M X X X X 4
P438
Catenary Protection for 25, 50, 60Hz systems. Includes switch-on-to fault and defrost protection, train start-up restraint, wrong phase coupling
A.C. Electrified P436 As P438, for 16 2/3Hz systems
Railway Protection X X N N N N X M X X 4
P138
Busbar/feeder protection. Applicable for all system frequencies
X X X N N N N X X M X X 4
P638
Transformer protection. Includes Buchholz, tank-earth and overfluxing protection. Applicable for all system frequencies
X X X X X X X X 4
P130C
Compact case; no CTs optional version of P130C
Under/Over Voltage/ P921 X X X X X X 1
Frequency P922 X X X X X X X X X X X X 2
X X X X X X X X X X X X 2
P923
• 474 •
Includes ROCOF protection
X X X X X X X X 4
P941
Frequency protection includes ROCOF and frequency supervision characteristics. Load restoration function also available
Load Shedding
P942 As P941 plus 7 outputs
P943 As P941 plus 7 outputs and 8 inputs
X 1/3P X X 2
KAVR 130
High speed 1-Pole/3-Pole auto-reclose/3 Pole delayed auto-reclose relay with check synchronism
Auto-reclose
X 3P X X X X X 4
P842
Delayed auto-reclose of 2/3 CB's in mesh-connected substation, including auto-isolation of circuit disconnectors
N: non-directional D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
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tur
tan
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d
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gat
gat
t
l
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m
B
Dis
Che
Un
Rev
Pha
Ne
Bro
Ne
The
CB
I
Ins
Ti
T
V
Ove
Res
Res
Wa
Pow ric ne
Au
Ove
Un
Cur
VT
CT
CT
VT
Tr
C
M
Eve
Dis
Pro
Set
Application Product 21 25 27 32P 37P 46 46BC 47 49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V 59 59N 64 67W 78 79 81O 81U 87 VTS CTS
• 475 •
P242 X X X X X X X N N N N X X D X X X X X X X X 2
P243 X X X X X X X N N N N X X D X X X X X X X X X 2
Tap Change Control KVGC202 Tap change controller, including line drop compensation, circulating current control, reverse current blocking, runaway protection, tap changer maintenance monitor and failure detection, tap position indicator
Times Delay Relays MVTT Digital time delay relay - either delay on pick-up or drop-off
Control/Tripping relays MVAJ Heavy duty electromechanical control/CB tripping/intertripping relays, available in a variety of configurations
Intertripping GCMO5 High speed intertripping via pilot wires. Inbuilt pilot isolation
Interposing Relays MVAW Electromechanical interposing relays for remote control of CB’s, etc. Insensitive to a.c. voltages. Hand reset flag available
PRIMA Compact electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag
Auxiliary Relays MVAA Electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag. Greater current carrying/breaking capacity than Prima relays
MVUA Time delayed version of the MVAA relay
MMLB Test plug for use with MMLG test blocks. Single or multi/finger design
MMLG Test block for use with all varieties of protection relays, particularly MiDOS series relays
Test Blocks/Plugs P991 Test block for use with all varieties of protection relays
P992 Multi-finger test plug for use with P991. Visible automatic shorting of CT circuits on insertion into test blocks
P993 Single finger test plug for use with P991. For CT circuit monitoring - isolated voltage output
Control module P891 It can be combined with 4U protection modules, and provides independent tripping and closing functionality as well as CB position indication
N: non-directional D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
•
Appendix 3
A3 •
Index
Index
- use with blocking schemes . . . . 14.8.1 . . . . . . . . 226 - using zone 1 element . . . . . . . 12.4.1.2 . . . . . . . . 199
B
Back-up protection . . . . . . . . . 2.9, 20.5 . . . . . 11-361
C
Balanced voltage system, Cable circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.18 . . . . . . . . 62
Index
- distance protection
Characteristic time/current zone reaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.3 . . . . . . . . 356
curves of IDMT relays . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
- feeding diagram . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.1 . . . . . . . . 354
Index
- for sectionalised and other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.9 . . . . . . . . 182
duplicate busbars . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.1 . . . . . . . . 239 partially cross-polarised mho . . 11.7.6 . . . . . . . . 180
- numerical systems . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158 plain impedance . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 . . . . . . . . 176
- of busbars . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7-15.10 . . . . 239-251 quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.7 . . . . . . . . 181
- of direct connected self polarised mho . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 . . . . . . . . 284 - current reversal on double •
- of generator-transformers . . . . . . 17.6 . . . . . . . . 285 circuit lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
- of multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . 13.3 . . . . . . . . 207 - earth fault impedance
- of parallel feeders . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204 measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.2 . . . . . . . . 185
- of transformer feeders . . . . . . . 10.12.2 . . . . . . . . 168 - effect of source impedance . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- static systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156 - effect of earthing method . . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- using high impedance relays . . . . . 10.5 . . . . . . . . 156 - example setting calculation . . . . 11.12 . . . . . . . . 189
- using low impedance relays . . . . . 10.4 . . . . . . . . 154 - features of . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7, 11.11 . . . . 175-188
- using optical fibre signalling . . . 10.8.1 . . . . . . . . 158 - forward reach limitations . . . . . 11.10.5 . . . . . . . . 187
- implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 . . . . . . . . 182
Digital relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 . . . . . . . . 102
- minimum length of line . . . . . . 11.10.2 . . . . . . . . 186
Digital current differential - minimum voltage at
protection systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158 relay terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.1 . . . . . . . . 186
- multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 . . . . . . . . 210
Digital transducer technology . . . . . 22.3 . . . . . . . . 401
- over-reach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.4 . . . . . . . . 187
Direct and quadrature axis values - parallel feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
of machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8, 5.11 . . . . . . 53-55 - percentage over-reach . . . . . . . 11.10.4 . . . . . . . . 187
Index
- protection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 . . . . . . . . . 81
Examples of static
- residual connection of . . . . . . . . 6.2.6 . . . . . . . . . 81
unit protection systems . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
- transient performance . . . . . . . . 6.2.7 . . . . . . . . 82
- voltage factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 . . . . . . . . . 81 Extremely inverse overcurrent
relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128 •
Electromechanical relays . . . . . . . . . 7.2 . . . . . . . . 99
Electromechanical unit
protection systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156 F
Embedded generation . . . . . . . . . . 17.21 . . . . . . . . 306 Factors influencing HV
End zones of a protected feeder auto-reclose schemes . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 . . . . . . . . 221
Fuses for use with distribution pole slipping protection . . . . . . 17.17 . . . . . . . . 301
transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6.1 . . . . . . . . 260 reverse power . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11.2 . . . . . . . . 293
rotor earth faults . . . . . . . . . 17.15.1 . . . . . . . . 296
Fusing factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 . . . . . . . . 320
rotor faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15 . . . . . . . . 296
rotor shorted turn
• protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15.3 . . . . . . . . 297
G
stator earth fault . . . . . . . . . . . 17.8 . . . . . . . . 288
Gas and oil surge relay unbalanced loading . . . . . . . . 17.12 . . . . . . . . 293
(Buchholz relay) underfrequency . . . . . . . . . . 17.14.2 . . . . . . . . 295
for transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15.3 . . . . . . . . 269 undervoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.10 . . . . . . . . 292
Gas devices for protection voltage controlled
of transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15 . . . . . . . . 268
overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 287
voltage restrained
Generator: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1-17.22 . . . . 281-308 overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.2.2 . . . . . . . . 287
- Complete schemes: winding protection . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 . . . . . . . . 284
for direct-connected
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.20.1 . . . . . . . . 304 Generator-transformer protection . . . 17.6 . . . . . . . . 285
Index
- bearing failures . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.10 . . . . . . . . 348
High speed auto-reclosing: - earth fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 . . . . . . . . 342
- on EHV systems . . . . . . . . . 14.6-14.8 . . . . 223-226 - examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.14 . . . . . . . . 349
- on lines using distance relays . . . . 14.8 . . . . . . . . 226 - fault current contribution from . . . 18.8 . . . . . . . . 326
High voltage capacitor - faults in rotor windings . . . . . . . . 19.8 . . . . . . . . 347
•
- locked rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 . . . . . . . . 339
of line coupling equipment . . . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
- loss of load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.12 . . . . . . . . 348
Howard protection - modern relay design . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 . . . . . . . . 337
(Frame-earth protection) . . . . . . . . 15.6 . . . . . . . . 236 - negative phase sequence . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
HRC fuse applications . . . . . . 16.6.1, 18.4 . . . . 260-319
- overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 . . . . . . . . 342
- stalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.2 . . . . . . . . 340
HRC fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 . . . . . . . . 319
- starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 . . . . . . . . 339
Hysteresis effect . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.10.2 . . . . . . . . . 91 - thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 . . . . . . . . 338
- undervoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.11 . . . . . . . . 348
Industrial and commercial
I power system protection: . . . 18.1-18.13 . . . . 317-335
Industrial circuit breakers . . . . . . . . 18.5 . . . . . . . . 320 Issues with numerical relays . . . . . . . 7.7 . . . . . . . . 109
Industrial consumers,
auto-reclosing requirements . . . . 14.4.1.2 . . . . . . . . 221
J
Initial commissioning tests . . . . . . . 21.9 . . . . . . . . 387
Junction law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1.2 . . . . . . . . 24
Injection test equipment,
secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.10 . . . . . . . . 389
Index
effect of saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 . . . . . . . . 55 - offset mho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.4 . . . . . . . . 178
- partially cross-polarised . . . . . . . 11.7.6 . . . . . . . . 180
Magnetically polarised
- self-polarised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
armature relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 100
Microprocessor-based portable
Magnetisation curve of
test sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.10.2 . . . . . . . . 390
•
a current transformer . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 . . . . . . . . 86
Microprocessor-based
Magnetising inrush
simulation equipment . . . . . . . . . 21.7.2 . . . . . . . . 383
in power transformers . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 . . . . . . . . 258
Microwave communications
Maintenance of
for rural distribution systems . . . . . 25.6.5 . . . . . . . . 451
protection equipment . . . . . . . . . . 21.15 . . . . . . . . 396
Miniature circuit breakers
Maloperation with reverse faults,
(MCB’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.1 . . . . . . . . 320
distance relays,
multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.4 . . . . . . . . 212 Minimum length of line for
distance protection . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.2 . . . . . . . . 186
Manipulation of complex
quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 . . . . . . . . 18 Minimum voltage
at relay terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.1 . . . . . . . . 186
Manual closing of circuit breakers,
auto-reclosing schemes . . . . . . . 14.10.8 . . . . . . . . 228 Mobile radio communications
for rural distribution systems . . . . . 25.6.3 . . . . . . . . 451
Margins, grading for overcurrent
relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11-9.12 . . . . 130-131 Monitoring of Power Quality . . . . . . 23.4 . . . . . . . . 415
Motor currents during stall conditions . . .19.4 . . . . . . . . 339 Numerical busbar protection . . . . . 15.10 . . . . . . . . 251
Index
P
Pole slipping of generators . . . . . . . 17.17 . . . . . . . . 301
Parallel feeders,
Polyphase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 . . . . . . . . 22
distance protection of . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
Positive sequence equivalent circuits:
Parallel feeders,
- auto-transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16 . . . . . . . . 59 •
unit protection of . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204 - cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.23 . . . . . . . . 68
Protection against:
- asynchronous operation
Q
for generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.16 . . . . . . . . 298
- loss of Utility supply . . . . . . . . 17.21.1 . . . . . . . . 306 Quadrature axis machine
- pole slipping for generators . . . . 17.17 . . . . . . . . 301 impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5, 5.11 . . . . . . 50-55
- power swings –distance relays . . 11.7.8 . . . . . . . . 181
Quadrature connected relays . . . . . 9.14.2 . . . . . . . . 133
- sudden restoration of supply . . 19.13.2 . . . . . . . . 349
Quadrilateral relay . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.7 . . . . . . . . 181
Protection equipment,
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 . . . . . . . . .7
Index
- high-speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6-14.8 . . . . 223-226 for distance relays . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 . . . . . . . . 172
- of EHV networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 . . . . . . . . 223 - production testing . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 . . . . . . . . 386
- of HV networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 . . . . . . . . 220 - relay characteristic angle . . . . . . 9.14.2 . . . . . . . . 133
- of live lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9.1 . . . . . . . . 227 - routine maintenance of . . . . . . . 21.15 . . . . . . . . 396
Recommended grading margins . . . . 9.12 . . . . . . . . 131 - selectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 . . . . . . . . . 10 •
- self testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 . . . . . . . . 102
Recorders, event and disturbance . . . 22.9 . . . . . . . . 407
- setting study,
Relay: basic requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 . . . . . . . . 123
- application of directional - speed of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 . . . . . . . . . 10
overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14.3 . . . . . . . . 134 - stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 . . . . . . . . . 10
- application tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475 - targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2 . . . . . . . . 13
- bias (of differential relays) . . . . 10.4.2 . . . . . . . . 155 - testing and
- characteristic angle commissioning . . . . . 7.7.2, 21.9-21.12 . 110-387-394
(RCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14.2, 11.7.3 . . . . 133-177 - time grading margin . . . . . . . . . . 9.11 . . . . . . . . 130
- Characteristics: - timing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11.1 . . . . . . . . 131
ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126 - transient over-reach . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 . . . . . . . . 128
custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 . . . . . . . . 129 - trip circuit supervision . . . . . . . . . 2.12 . . . . . . . . 14
definite time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 . . . . . . . . 129 - tripping circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 . . . . . . . . 13
distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 . . . . . . . . 175 - type testing of . . . . . . . . . . 21.2-21.7 . . . . 372-383
IDMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126 - voltage setting
extremely inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128 in busbar protection . . . . . . . . 15.8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 245
Index
Synchronisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8 . . . . . . . . 406
Standard IDMT overcurrent relays . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
Synchronism check relay . . . . 14.9.2, 22.8 . . . . 227-406
Standby transformer,
auto-close schemes . . . . . . . . . . 14.11.1 . . . . . . . . 229
Synchronising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8 . . . . . . . . 406
Tee'd feeder unit protection Three terminal lines, protection of . . 13.3 . . . . . . . . 207
Telephone type pilots . . . . . . . 8.6.1, 8.6.2 . . . . 116-116 of overcurrent relays . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
- faults, nature and effect . . . . . . . 16.2 . . . . . . . . 256 Transients (Power Quality) . . . . . 23.3.10 . . . . . . . . 415
- impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.17 . . . . . . . . 60
- Instrument: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1-6.5 . . . . . . 79-92 Translay balanced voltage
capacitor voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 . . . . . . . . 83 electromechanical
current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 . . . . . . . . 85 unit protection system . . . . . . . . . 10.7.1 . . . . . . . . 156
Index
overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 . . . . . . . . 260 - radio channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.4 . . . . . . . . 119
overfluxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.13 . . . . . . . . 268 - rented pilot wires
overload protection . . . . . . . 16.2.8.1 . . . . . . . . 257 and channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.2 . . . . . . . . 116
restricted earth fault . . . . . . . . 16.7 . . . . . . . . 260
Trip circuit supervision . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 . . . . . . . . 14
tank-earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14 . . . . . . . . 268 •
thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4, 16.18 . . . . 259-273 Tripping circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 . . . . . . . . 13
- zero sequence equivalent circuit . . 5.15 . . . . . . . . 57
Tripping and alarm
- Reactances:
annunciation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.14 . . . . . . . . 396
positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14, 5.17 . . . . . . 56-60
zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15, 5.17 . . . . . . 57-60 Turns compensation of
a current transformer . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1.2 . . . . . . . . 85
Transformer-feeder
protection of . . . . . . . . . . 10.12.2, 16.16 . . . . 168-260 Turns compensation of
Transient analysis of a voltage transformer . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 . . . . . . . . 80
Types of busbar protection systems . . 15.4 . . . . . . . . 235 Variation of residual quantities . . . . 4.6.3 . . . . . . . . 42
Unit protection: . . . . . . . . . . 10.1-10.13 . . . . 153-169 Voltage fluctuations (Power Quality) . 23.3.6 . . . . . . . . 415
- balanced voltage system . . . . . . . 10.5 . . . . . . . . 156
Voltage limit for accurate reach
- circulating current system . . . . . . 10.4 . . . . . . . . 154
point measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 . . . . . . . . 174
- digital protection systems . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158
- electromechanical protection Voltage restrained overcurrent
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156 protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.2.2 . . . . . . . . 287
- numerical protection systems . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158 Voltage spikes (Power Quality) . . . 23.3.2 . . . . . . . . 413
- static protection systems . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
- summation arrangements . . . . . . 10.6 . . . . . . . . 156 Voltage surges (Power Quality) . . 23.3.2 . . . . . . . . 413
V
Vacuum circuit breakers (VCB’s) . . 18.5.5 . . . . . . . . 322 W
Van Warrington formula Warrington, van, formula
for arc resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177 for arc resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
Z
Zero sequence equivalent circuits:
- auto-transformer . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16.2 . . . . . . . . 60
- synchronous generator . . . . . . . . 5.10 . . . . . . . . 55
- transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15 . . . . . . . . 57
Zones of protection,
distance relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 . . . . . . . . 174
Index
•