Department of EEE BEEE LAB

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

CHARACTERISTICS- FORWARD AND
REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

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FIGURE: FORWARD BIAS FIGURE: REVERSE BIAS

BEEE LAB

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EXPERIMENT-7
P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of the given semiconductor diode.

OBJECTIVES:
 To study the V-I characteristics of the given semiconductor diode.
 To determine the cut-in voltage.
OUTCOMES:
 Ability to understand the operation of diode.
 Ability to find out the cut-in voltage.
 Ability to calculate the dynamic and static resistance of the diode.
 Ability to select suitable diode for required application.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Item Type Range Qty.
1 Power supply RPS 0-30V 1No.
MC 0-1V 1No.
2 Voltmeters
MC 0-30V 1No.
MC 0-10mA 1No.
3 Ammeters
MC 0-500A 1No.

COMPONENTS:

S.No. Item Type Rating Qty

1 Semiconductor diode 1N4007 1No.
2 Resistor Carbon 470 1No.
film
THEORY:

P -N Junction Diode:

If donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptors into the other side of a single
crystal of a semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed.

The region uncovered by +ve and –ve ions is called the depletion region, the space charge region
or the transition region. The thickness of the region is the order of the wavelength of the visible light
(0.05 micron). When p-n junction is formed, the concentration of the holes in p side is much greater than
that in the n-side, a very large hole-diffusion current tends to flow across the junction from the p to n
material. Hence an electric field must buildup across the junction in such a direction that the hole drift
current will tend to flow across the junction from n to p side in order to counter balance the diffusion
current. This equilibrium condition of zero resultant hole current results at potential barrier V o. The
numerical value for Vo is of the order of magnitude of a few tenths of a Volt.

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FIGURE : PN JUNCTION DIODE

FIGURE : PN JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS

FIGURE : PN JUNCTION DIODE UNDER REVERSE BIAS

Ge Si

Cut-in-Voltage V

VZ

FIGURE : VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS

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The p-n junction can be operated in two regions
1) forward bias 2) reverse bias

Forward bias:
A forward bias or ‘on’ condition is established by applying the +ve potential to the p-type
material and –ve potential to the n-type material as shown in the figure.
When the voltage difference between the p and n points is greater the VZ then the diode is
forward bias otherwise reverse biased.In forward bias the height of the potential barrier at the junction
will be lowered by the applied forward voltage V. The holes cross the junction from p in to the n type
region and become a minority current in the P side. Similarly the electrons cross the junction in reverse
direction and become the minority carriers in p side. Holes traveling from left to right constitute a
current in the same direction as the electrons moving from right to left. Hence the resultant current
crossing the junction is the sum of the hole and electron minority current.

Reverse bias:
A reverse bias or ‘off’ condition is established by applying the –ve potential to p-type material
and +ve potential to n-type material as shown in the figure.
In the reverse bias both the holes p-type and the electrons in n-type will move away from the
junction. The height of the potential barrier increases. This increase in the barrier serves to reduce the
flow of majority carriers. Hence zero current results. However the minority carriers are uninfluenced by
the increase in height of the barrier. So a small current will flow due to these minority carriers and is
called the reverse saturation current

P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Volt-ampere characteristics:

The characteristics of the semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation for
forward and reverse bias regions.
ID = IS (e VD / ηVT – 1 )
Where VD = diode voltage,
ID = diode current
IS = reverse saturation current or a scale current which is a function of donor and acceptor
impurity concentration, diode temperature and area of the junction etc.,
Η = emission co-efficient (empirical constant). This empirical constant accounts for any
recombination of hole and electrons, which may occur when the carriers diffuse across the depletion
region of the forward biased p-n junction.
The value of η lies in the range of ‘1’ to ‘2’ and depending upon the
a) Size of the diode
b) The semiconductor used to make it.
c) The magnitude of the forward current.
d) The value of Is.
In general the η value for silicon is ‘2’ and for germanium is ‘1’
VT = Volt equivalent temperature KT/Q
K = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 – 23 j / 0 K
T = Temperature in 0K
Q = charge = 1.603 × 10 – 19 coulombs.

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V
A A A

Diode Rf Forward resistance Rr Forward resistance

B (in the order of 100Ω) (in the order of MΩ)

B B
Forward bias Reverse bias

FIGURE : DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

OBSERVATIONS:

Forward bias Reverse bias

S.No V(volts) I (mA) S.No V(volts) I (μA)

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If V is positive, I is flowing from p to n side and the diode is in the forward bias. When the diode
is reverse-biased and V is several times VT, ID  - Io. The reverse current is therefore constant
independent of applied reverse bias.
At a reverse biasing voltage VZ, a large reverse current flows and the diode is said to be in break down
region.
Cut-in voltage (offset, break point or threshold voltage) (V):
The cut-in voltage is defined as the voltage across the diode below which the current is very
small ( say less than 1% max rated value), and beyond V the current raises very rapidly.
The temperature dependence of the V-I characteristics
The reverse saturation current Io doubles for every 100 raise in temperature. If IO = IO1 at T = T1
then at temperature T, Io is given by Io(T) = IO1 × 2(T-T1)/10. The diode voltage decreases with the
temperature and is given as dv / dt = -2.5mv / 0C. Dynamic resistance  η VT / I

PROCEDURE:
Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the supply voltage gradually, starting from zero. Increase the applied voltage and note
down the voltmeter reading(V)
3. For each 0.1 V step increase in voltage, note down the corresponding forward current (I) till V
becomes say 0.7 V and current should not exceed 10mA.
4. Tabulate the result and draw the V-I characteristics under forward bias conditions.
Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the current (reverse current) and voltage by increasing the voltage upto 20V in 1V
steps.
3. Tabulate the results and plot the reverse bias characteristics.
4. Here the reverse current will be in micro amperes.
5. The reciprocal of the slope of these curves for both the conditions gives the resistance for
forward and reverse bias conditions.
RESULTS:
1. Cut-in voltage =
2. Dynamic forward resistance = Vf / If
3. Static forward resistance = V/I
4. Dynamic reverse resistance = Vr / Ir

RESULT ANAYSIS:

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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER

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FIGURE : HALFWAVE RECTIFIER FIGURE: HALFWAVE

WITHOUT FILTER RECTIFIER WITH FILTER
BEEE LAB

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EXPERIMENT-8
1-∅ HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTERS

AIM: To study the operation of 1-∅ half wave rectifier circuit with & without filters.
OBJECTIVE:
To study the operation of 1-∅ half wave diode rectifier on R load with and without filter and
determination of different parameters.
OUTCOMES:
 Able to know how AC power is converted to DC (HALF WAVE) power using this rectifier.
 Able to learn how to get pure DC using a filter.
 Able to know how ripple factor varies with load.
 Able to select suitable diode for required application.

APPARATUS:
S.No. Item Type Range Qty
1 Voltmeter DMM 1No.
2 Ammeter MC 0-500mA 1No.

COMPONENTS:
S.No. Item Type Rating Qty
1 Semiconductor diode (1N4007) 1N4007 1No.
2 Centre- Tapped Transformer Centre- 230V / 16- 1No.
Tapped 0-16 V,
0.5A
3 Decade resistance box 1No.
4 capacitor 1000μF/63V

THEORY:
Rectifier:
A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of converting a sinusoidal input
waveform (whose average value is zero) into a unidirectional (though not constant) waveform with a
non zero average component is called a rectifier.
All most all electronic circuits requires DC source of power. For portable low-power system
batteries may be used. More frequently, however electronic equipment is energized by power supply, a
circuit which converts the AC waveform of the power lines to direct voltage of constant amplitude.

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AC Input To load
Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

FIGURE: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DC SUPPLY

1N4007
0  2 t
+ -
V

V
RL
AC Input i

0  2 t

FIGURE : BASIC
CIRCUIT FOR FIGURE: WAVE
FORM FOR
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

FIGURE : BASIC CIRCUIT FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

WITH FILTER

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The functions of the various circuit components are as listed

1. Transformer: adjust the ac level such that the approximate dc amplitude is achieved
2. Rectifier: A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of converting a sinusoidal
input waveform (whose average value is zero) into a unidirectional (though not constant) waveform with
a non zero average component.
3. Filter: ‘Smoothes’ the waveform by eliminating the ac component from the rectifier output
4. Regulator: Maintains a constant voltage level independent of load conditions or variation in the
amplitude of the ac supply.

Let Vi = Vmsint
Vm is the peak value.
The load current is given by
i = Imsin t if 0<t < Π
i=0 if Π<t < 2Π
Im = Vm / (Rf +RL)

During the interval, t = 0 Π, the Vi is positive and the diode will be forward biased and the
equivalent circuit is shown below (the diode is replaced by forward resistance Rf )
V -
+
+
Rf
Vi i RL

i = Vi / (Rf +RL) = Vm sint / (Rf +RL)

= (Vm / (Rf +RL) ) sint
For the interval t = п 2 п, the vi is negative and the diode becomes reverse biased. The equivalent
circuit is shown below. (the diode is replaced by open circuit).
V -
+
+
i=0 , v=vi
Vi i RL

v=vi
Thus the output current is unidirectional and it will have non-zero average value. Its average value =
area of one cycle divided by the base

2 2
1
I dc 
2  id [ because  = ωt, base = 2Π, area of one cycle =
0
 id ]
0
 2
1  
Idc =   Im sin d   0d 
2  0  
Idc =
Im
 cos 0 = m
I
2 
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The dc output voltage is
I R
Vdc = Idc.RL= m L

 1 2
  1  2 
0    
2 2
Irms =  i d =  i sin d  = im / 2
 2  2 0
m
 

PIV: The peak –inverse –voltage (PIV) or PRV (peak reverse voltage) rating of the diode is primary
importance in the design of rectification system. It is the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the
reverse bias region of the diode.
In the half wave rectifier, when the diode is reverse biased, the voltage appears across the diode
is ‘vi’ and its maximum value is vm. This vm should not exceed the PIV of the diode. Otherwise the diode
will enter Zener avalanche region. For half wave rectifier PIV rating > Vm
Rectifiers with filters:
A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into one that has a
non-zero average. A filter circuit is necessary to provide a more steady DC voltage.
A most popular filter circuit is a capacitor filter circuit is shown below.

AC input Rectifier Capacitor DC load RL

circuit filter

The action of this system depends upon the fact that the capacitors stores energy during the conduction
period and delivers this energy to the load during the non-conducting period. In this way the time during
which the current passes through the load is prolonged, and the ripple is considerably decreased.

The diode is forward biased (short circuited) when the transformer voltage v i exceeds the
capacitor voltage, then the capacitor starts charging in stepping with applied voltage. The diode will be
reverse biased (open circuited) when the transformer voltage vi falls below the capacitor voltage. Then
the capacitor starts discharging through the load resistor. The following waveforms describe the effect of
the capacitor on the circuit response. Let the capacitor is initially charged during the first quarter cycle
the diode conducts and the capacitor charges with input voltage up to vo = vm . When vi is falls below vm
the diode is not conducting the capacitor discharges at slower rate than input voltage. If the time
constant RLC is large as compared period of input waveform the discharge is slow. Thus only a small
decrease in vo occurs between t1 and t2. At time t = t2, the vi equals the capacitor voltage. The diode again
conducts between t2 and t3 does not conduct between t3 and t4. The process is repeated.

Ripple factor:
The filtered output has a DC value and some ac variations (ripple). These smaller the ac variation
with respect to the DC level the better the filter circuit operation.
The filter voltage waveform with DC and ripple voltages is shown below.
Ripple factor(r) = rms value of ac component of a signal (Vrms)  100%
Average value of signal (Vdc)

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OBSERVATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER
VNL=

S.No. IDC VDC VAC RL =VDC / IDC  = VAC/VDC %regulation

VNL-VDC × 100
VDC

WITH FILTER
VNL=
%regulation
VNL-VDC × 100
S.No IDC VDC VAC RL =VDC / IDC  = VAC/VDC
VDC

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Voltage regulation:

The variation of dc output as a function of dc load current is called regulation. The percentage
regulation is given as
% regulation = V no load – V load  100%
V load

V no load  dc output voltage under zero load current (RL = )

V load  dc output voltage at normal load current at which regulation is determined.
For ideal power supply the output voltage is independent of the load current or the load resistance and
the percentage regulation is zer

PROCEDURE:(without filter)
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Give the input from AC mains and measure the secondary voltage Vs of the transformer.
3. Measure the no load DC voltage using DMM. Let this be VNL.
4. Now connect the DRB at its maximum resistance position . Vary the DRB and note down the values
of Idc, in steps of 10mA until the current reaches 100mA.
5. At each step measure the VDC and VAC.

Verify the following theoretical calculations:

1. Expected DC output voltage.
2. Ripple factor of half wave.
3. Observe the output waveforms on CRO.
PROCEDURE: (with filter)
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Give input from AC mains and measure the secondary voltage Vs of the transformer.
3. Measure the no load DC voltage using DMM. Let this be VNL.
4. Now connect the DRB at its maximum resistance position. Vary the DRB and nte the values of Idc, in
steps of 10mA until the current reaches 100mA.
5. At each step measure the VDC and VAC. Calculate ripple factor  as the ratio of VAC VDC.

Plot the graph of VDC Vs IDC .  Vs IDC and calculate the theoretical values of expected DC output
voltage and observe the output on CRO.

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Model wave forms:

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RESULT:

RESULT ANALYSIS:

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FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER.

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FIGURE : FULL WAVE RECTIFIER FIGURE : FULL

WAVE RECTIFIER
WITHOUT FILTER WITH FILTER
BEEE LAB

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EXPERIMENT-9
1-∅ FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTERS

AIM: To study the operation of 1-∅ full wave rectifier with R load.

OBJECTIVE:
To study the operation of 1-∅ full wave diode rectifier with R load with and without filter and
determination of different parameters.
OUTCOMES:
 Able to know how AC power is converted to DC(FULL WAVE) power using this rectifier.
 Able to learn how to get pure DC using a filter.
 Able to know how ripple factor varies with load.
 Able to select suitable diode for required application.

APPARATUS:
S.No. Item Range TYPE Qty
0-1V DMM 1No.
1 Voltmeters
0-30V DMM 1No.
0-100mA MC 1No.
2 Ammeters
0-500A MC 1No.

COMPONENTS:

S.No. Item Rating Qty

1 Semiconductor diode (1N4007) 2No.
2 Transformer 230V / 16- 1No.
0-16 V,
0.5A
3 Decade resistance box 1No.
4 Decade inductance box 1No.
5 Capacitors 1000µF / 1No.
63V

THEORY:
Full wave rectifier:
The circuit of the full wave rectifier is shown below. This circuit is seen to comprise two half-
wave circuits connected so that conduction takes place through one diode during one half cycle and
thorough other diode during the second half of the cycle.

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OBSERVATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER
VNL=

%regulation
=
S.No IDC VDC VAC RL =VDC / IDC VNL-VDC × 100
VAC/VDC
VDC

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During the positive cycle of the input signal D1 is forward biased and i1 current is flown through D1 and
RL. During negative half cycle of the input signal, D2 is reverse biased and i2 current is flowing through
D2 and RL. The current to the load, which is the sum of these currents, i = i1+i2. The dc and rms values of
the load current and load voltages are.
Idc = Average value = Area of one cycle divided by the base [because here base (time) = Π ]

 im
Idc =  I m sin .d  m  cos 0
1 I 
= (2) = 2Im / Π
 0
 
Vm 2I R
Where Im = , Vdc  I dc R L  m L
R f  RL 
Vm is the peak transformer secondary voltage from one end to the center tap. The dc output voltage of
the fullwave connection is twice that for the half wave circuit. Because the area above the axis for one
full AC input cycle is twice that obtained for a half-wave system.

I  1  cos 2 
2
1
I2rms =  I m sin 2  ..d = m   d
2

 0  0 2

sin 2 
2
I  Im
    = Im / 2
2
= m Irms =
2 0 2

PIV:
When any one of the two diodes is reverse biased, (let that is replaced by open circuit) the
maximum voltage appears across that open circuit. This can be solved by following equivalent circuits

vm
A B

vm
AC mains

RL RL

vm vm
C D

when D1  open circuited(reverse biased) when D1  short circuited(forward biased)

D2  short circuited( forward biased) D2  open circuited(reverse biased)
By applying the KVL we can find out , VAB or VCD
VAB = VCD = 2vm
Thus, when any diode is reverse biased, then a maximum of 2vm appears across that diode. For safe
operation, the PIV rating of that diode should be greater that or equal to 2vm

PIV > 2vm for center tap transformer full-wave rectifier

Rectifiers with filters:

A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into one that has a non-zero
average. A filter circuit is necessary to provide a more steady DC voltage.

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AC input Rectifier Capacitor DC load RL

circuit filter

FIGURE: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:
WITH FILTER

VNL=
IDC VDC VAC RL = VDC / IDC  =VAC/ VDC %regulation
S.No VNL-VDC × 100
VDC

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The action of this system depends upon the fact that the capacitors stores energy during the conduction
period and delivers this energy to the load during the non-conducting period. In this way the time during
which the current passes through the load is prolonged, and the ripple is considerably decreased.
The diode is forward biased (short circuited) when the transformer voltage vi exceeds the
capacitor voltage, then the capacitor starts charging in stepping with applied voltage. The diode will be
reverse biased (open circuited) when the transformer voltage vi falls below the capacitor voltage. Then
the capacitor starts discharging through the load resistor. The following waveforms describe the effect of
the capacitor on the circuit response. Let the capacitor is initially charged during the first quarter cycle
the diode conducts and the capacitor charges with input voltage up to vo = vm . When vi is falls below vm
the diode is not conducting the capacitor discharges at slower rate than input voltage. If the time
constant RLC is large as compared period of input waveform the discharge is slow. Thus only a small
decrease in vo occurs between t1 and t2. At time t = t2, the vi equals the capacitor voltage. The diode again
conducts between t2 and t3 does not conduct between t3 and t4. The process is repeated.

Ripple factor:
The filtered output has a DC value and some ac variations (ripple). These smaller the ac variation
with respect to the DC level the better the filter circuit operation.
The filter voltage waveform with DC and ripple voltages is shown below.
Ripple factor(r) = rms value of ac component of a signal  100% = Vr (rms)  100%
Average value of signal Vdc
Voltage regulation:
The variation of dc output as a function of dc load current is called regulation. The percentage
regulation is given as
% regulation = V no load – V load  100%
V load
V no load  dc output voltage under zero load current (RL = )
V load  dc output voltage at normal load current at which regulation is determined.
For ideal power supply the output voltage is independent of the load current or the load resistance and
the percentage regulation is zero
PROCEDURE:(without filter)
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Give input from AC mains and measure the secondary voltage Vs of the transformer.
3. Measure the no load DC voltage using DMM. Let this be VNL.
4. Now connect the DRB at its maximum resistance position. Vary the DRB and note down the
values of Idc, in the steps of 10mA increase until the current reaches 100mA.
5. At each step measure the VDC and VAC. Calculate ripple factor  as the ratio of VAC VDC.
Plot the graph of VDC Vs IDC .  Vs IDC and calculate the theoretical values of expected DC output
voltage and observe the output on CRO.

PROCEDURE: (with filter)

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Give input from AC mains and measure the secondary voltage Vs of the transformer.
3. Measure the no load DC voltage using DMM. Let this be VNL.
4. Now connect the DRB at its maximum resistance position. Vary the DRB and nte the values of
Idc, in the steps of 10mA increase until the current reaches 100mA.
5. At each step measure the VDC and VAC. Calculate ripple factor  as the ratio of VAC VDC.

Plot the graphs of VDC Vs IDC,  Vs IDC and % regulation Vs IDC

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Model Graphs

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RESULT:

RESULT ANALYSIS:

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TRANSISTOR CE CHARACTERISTICS -
INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS.

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FIGURE: TRANSISTOR CE CHARACTERISTICS

BEEE LAB

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EXPERIMENT-10
TRANSISTOR CE CHARACTERISTICS (INPUT AND OUTPUT)

AIM: To obtain the input and output characteristics of a given transistor in CE configuration.

OBJECTIVES:
To study the characteristics of transistor

OUTCOMES:
 Able to find cut in voltage
 Able to know that the input characteristic resembles with forward bias characteristics of diode
 Able to identify that as VCE increases IB decreases for particular VBE.
 Able to identify active and saturation regions

APPARATUS:
S.No. Item Range Qty
1 Power supply 0-30V
0-1V 1No.
2 Voltmeters
0-30V 1No.
0-10mA 1No.
3 Ammeters
0-100mA 1No.

COMPONENTS:
S.No. Item Rating Qty
1 Transistor(BC 547) 1No.
2 Resistor 1K 2No.

THEORY:

Input characteristics

The input characteristic is the plot of the input current IB Vs input voltage VBE for a range of values of
output voltage VCE.

With VCE = 0 and emitter junction forward biased, the input characteristic is essentially that of a
forward bias. As VCE increases with constant VBE, it causes a decrease in base width and results in a
decreasing recombination base current.

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Input characteristics

VCE=1V

VCE=2V
VCE=0V
IB

VBE

Output Characteristics

IC
IB=600A
SATURATION REGION

IB=550A

ACTIVE REGION
IB=500A

IB=0A

VCE
CUTOFF REGION
ICEO = ICBO

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Output Characteristics
The output characteristics are a plot of the output current IC versus output voltage VCE for a range
of values of input current IB.

Active Region
In the active region the collector junction is reversed biased and emitter junction is forward
biased. In this region the transistor output current IC responds most sensitively to an input signal.
In the active region the output characteristic IC is given by
IC = IB + (1+) ICO.
Note that IB >>ICO, and hence IC IB in the active region. The curves of the output characteristics are
not as horizontal as those of the output characteristics in the common base configuration.
Assume that, because of the early effect , increases by only one half of 1% from 0.98 to 0.985,
as VCE increases from a few volts to 10 volts, then the value of Beta increases from (0.98/1-0.98) = 49
to (0.985/1-0985) = 66, or about 34%. This numerical example illustrates that a very small change in 
reflects a very large change in the value of , and hence upon the common emitter curves.

Cut-off region
The cut-off region is defined as the condition where the collector current is equal to the reverse
saturation current ICO and the emitter current is zero. For the transistor to be in cut-off , IE=0, IC=ICO,IB =
-IC = -ICO, and VBE is a reverse voltage whose magnitude is of the order of 0.1V for germanium and 0 V
for silicon transistor.

Saturation region
In the saturation region the collector junction and emitter junction are forward biased by at least
the cut-in voltage (V). Since the voltages VBE and VBC across a forward biased emitter junction and
collector junction have a magnitude of only a few tenths of a volt (V), VCE = VBE - VBC = zero, (ideal)
or VCE = few tenths of the volt (practical) at saturation. Hence, in output characteristics the saturation
region is very close to zero voltage axis. In saturation region the collector current is approximately equal
to base current, for given values of VCC and RC.

PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Keep the VCE 0V(constant). Increase the VBE and
observe the IB for different values of VBE.
2. Tabulate the results. Plot the graph VBE Vs IB. Repeat the experiment for VCE = 1V & VCE = 2V.
3. Calculate h-parameters, sing the above formulas.

Output Characteristics:
1. Starting with Vbb = 0, increase it to get IB = 500uA. Then increase the VCC in steps and note down the
values of IC, without exceeding the rated values.
2. Tabulate the results. Repeat for different values of IB , say 550A & 600A and draw the family of
characteristics.
3. Calculate h-parameters using the above formulas.

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OBSERVATIONS:
Input characteristics Output characteristics

S.No VCE VCE VCE S.No IB IB IB

VBE IB VBE IB VBE IB IC VCE IC VCE IC VCE

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RESULT:

RESULT ANALYSIS:

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ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENT:
PREDICTION OF EFFICIENCY OF
DC SHUNT MACHINE THROUGH
SWINBURNE’S TEST

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TEST
FIGURE: SWINBURNE’S

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EXPERIMENT-11
PREDICTION OF EFFICIFIENCY OF DC SHUNT MACHINE THROUGH
SWINBURNE’S TEST

AIM: To pre-determine the efficiency characteristics of a DC Shunt machine working as a motor as well
as generator.

OBJECTIVES:

 To obtain the no-load losses of the given DC shunt machine.

 To predetermine the efficiency of the machine at different loads.
 To predetermine the load at which maximum efficiency occurs.

OUTCOMES:

 The ability to identify the theoretical concept of constant losses of the given DC shunt machine
 The ability to understand the no-load operation of motor and calculations corresponding to
generator regarding efficiency of the machine.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

S. No. Specifications Units Rating

1. Power KW
2. Speed RPM
3. Voltage VOLTS
4. Current AMPS
5. Ambient Temperature AMB OC
6. Excitation EXC
7. Winding WDG

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No. Item Description Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC (0-300) V 1 No
MC (0-5) A 1 No
2. Ammeter
MC (0-2) A 1 No
WW 55Ω/2.8A 1 No
3. Rheostat
WW 300Ω/1.7A 1 No
4. Tachometer Digital (0-9999) RPM 1 No

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

No-load current Field current

S. No Voltage (V) Speed (N)
I (A) Ish (A)

Where,
Ia = I-Ish (For motor)
Ia = I+Ish (For generator)

Resistance of the armature winding (Ra) = 3 Ω (Determined from Voltmeter-Ammeter method)

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
For motor:
I = Line current at any load =

Ish = shunt field current =

Ia = Armature current at any load

= (I ˉ Ish) =

Input power = VI =

Armature Copper Losses = Ia2Ra =

= (I – Ish)2Ra

Total Losses = Wc+ Ia2Ra =

Efficiency 
Input - Total Losses
x100 

V [ x.I]  WC  x.I  I sh  R a
2
x100
Input V[ x.I]

Where ‘ x ’ = fraction of load (Ex: ¼; ½; ¾; 1)

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THEORY:

Swinburne’s test is also called as Indirect Test, since the motor is not loaded directly to find the
efficiency of the machine. By using this test, we can predominantly find the constant losses of the
machine and there by analyze the performance of the machine acting as both motor as well as generator.

It is a simple method in which losses are measured separately and from this, the efficiency at any
desired load can be predetermined in advance. The only running test needed is no-load test. This test is
applicable to those machines in which flux is practically constant i.e., shunt and compound-wound-
wound machines.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON 220V D.C. supply by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the D.C shunt motor by using three point starter and measure the no-load speed with
tachometer.
4. Adjust the speed of the motor to the rated speed using armature and field rheostats.
5. Take the readings of all meters at no-load condition with rated speed.
6. Maintain all the initial conditions before switching OFF the supply.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The field rheostat of DC Motor is kept at minimum position before switching ON the power
supply.
2. Connections must be made tight and clear.
3. Take the meter readings without any parallax error.
4. Avoid multiple connections at meter terminals.
5. Ensure that all the initial conditions are maintained before switching OFF the supply.

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For Generator:
I = Line current at any load =

Ish = Shunt field current =

Ia = Armature current any load

= ( I+ Ish) =

Output power = VI =

Armature copper losses = Ia2Ra

= (I + Ish)2Ra =

Total losses = Wc + Ia2Ra =

Output V[ x. I]
Efficiency  x100 
Output  Total Losses  
V[ x .I]  WC  x. I  I sh  R a
2
x100

Where ‘ x ’ = fraction of load (Ex: ¼; ½; ¾; 1)

MODEL GRAPHS:

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RESULT:

RESULT ANALYSIS:

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