Loading and Buckling of Struts

Contents
Introduction .................................................................. 3

Description ................................................................... 5

The Main Parts and the Load Meter (Display) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Deflection Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Eccentric End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Weights and Hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Adjustable and Removable Fixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS®) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Technical Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Young’s Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Noise Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Useful Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Experiment 1 - Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Experiment 2 - Stiffness (Young's Modulus) of the Strut Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Experiment 3 - The Deflected Shape of a Strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Experiment 4 - The Euler Buckling Load using Pinned-end Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Experiment 5 - Comparing Buckling loads with End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Experiment 6 - The Southwell Plot and the Buckling Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Experiment 7 - The Southwell Plot and Eccentricity of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Further Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
 Loading and
Buckling of Struts
Introduction

Figure 1 Loading and Buckling of Struts

Engineers learning about structures need to know how to predict the effects of
compression forces on struts. They can use this information to decide the right type
and thickness of materials for their own designs. TecQuipment’s Loading and
Buckling of Struts shows students how struts of different sizes, materials and cross-
section deflect and buckle under load. This mimics struts in real applications, such as
roof supports in buildings or parts of frameworks in a structure.

The equipment includes ten struts of different metals, lengths and cross-sections. You
can also buy the additional pack of struts (SM1005a) for more experiment with struts
of different materials, including wood and glass fibre.

The apparatus teaches students about the most important factors that affect how well
a strut can resist a buckling load. These include:

• Different end conditions (how you hold or clamp the ends of a strut).
• Eccentricities of loading.
• The material and dimensions of the strut.

It also includes parts to allow basic beam bending tests, to help introduce students to
3
bending theory.

4
Description

Deflection
Load measuring end indicator Loading end
with Hand
wheel
Knife-edge
support

Weights and parts to apply loads

for beam bending and side loads
Knife-edge
support

Load Meter Standard set of different material and Standard set of different length
cross-section struts (supplied). struts (supplied).

Figure 2 Parts of the Loading and Buckling of Struts

The Main Parts and the Load Meter (Display)

The main part of the Loading and Buckling of Struts is a precision frame with
adjustable feet. The frame has slots to hold the loading end and the load measuring
end. The slots allow you to adjust the distance between the two ends to fit different
size struts. The frame also has slots on its front and back, each above a scale. These
slots allow you to fit two adjustable knife-edge supports and the deflection indicator,
for simple beam bending tests.

The loading end has a hand wheel that turns a thread to give a compression force on
the end of a strut. The load measuring end has a load sensor connected with a unique
mechanism. This mechanism allows the sensor to measure the axial force (buckling
load) on the strut, but ignores any bending (rotating) forces.

The load sensor connects to a separate Load Meter (Display) that shows the axial force
on the strut. The Load Meter has a socket for connection to TecQuipment’s optional
VDAS®. VDAS® allows data acquisition from this equipment, with the use of a
suitable computer (not supplied).

The Load Display has two buttons. Press one button to zero the load display before
you take any readings. The other button sets the display to hold a peak value of the
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force. This is useful to help find the maximum buckling load of a strut. To set the peak
hold, press and hold this button for a few seconds. A small symbol appears in the
display to show that the peak hold is working. The display now shows two readings,
one is actual load, the other is the peak (maximum) value that the display has measured
during your experiment. Press and hold the peak hold button to cancel the peak hold.

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The Struts

Figure 3 Each Standard Strut Has a Number Stamped Near Its End and Some have Extra Holes

Included as standard are ten struts. Each standard strut has a number stamped near one
end (see Figure
3). Some struts also have extra holes to accept the special Eccentric End Fittings. Six
struts are the same material, thickness and width, but different lengths, to compare
the effect of strut length. The longer struts also allow for length ‘lost’ in the end
fixings, so you can compare them with shorter struts. Four struts are of different
materials, thickness and length.
The standard struts are all solid cross-section metal struts. For extra experiments you
can also buy the SM1005A pack of optional struts. This includes struts of different
material and cross-section, including wooden struts, a compound strut and struts with
angle and channel cross-section.

The Deflection Indicator

Figure 4 The Deflection Indicator Fits on Two Different Holders for Different Experiments
7
 A digital deflection indicator measures how much the struts deflect (bend). It mounts
on an L-shape holder for strut experiment on the top of the base. It also mounts on a
flat holder on the side of the base for beam bending experiments. Supplied with the
equipment is a cable to connect the indicator to TecQuipment’s optional VDAS®.

An adjustable weight hanger, knife edge hanger and pulley allow students to apply a
light biasing load or side load to the strut under test. This is good for side load tests,
and to prove any theory about struts that are already curved. Students also use the
weight hanger and knife edge hanger to apply a load for beam bending tests.

Eccentric End Fittings

Figure 5 The Eccentric End Fittings

Also included are two special end fittings to help apply out-of-centre loads to the
struts, for tests on eccentric loading. They have two sides, to allow two different out-of-
centre (eccentric) loading distances on a standard strut (see Figure 6).

Figure 6 Out of Centre Loading with the Eccentric End Fittings

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Weights and Hangers

Weight
Hanger and
Weights Knife Edge
Weight Hanger

Cord and
Knife Edge
Weight Pulley assembly
Hanger

Figure 7 Weights and Weight Hangers

Included with the equipment are some extra parts.

These are:

• A pulley assembly that fits in one of the deflection indicator holders. You
use this with the cord and knife edge weight hanger to apply load for side
load tests.

• A Weight Hanger, Weights and a second Knife Edge Weight Hanger. You use
these to apply a load for beam tests and for side load tests.

Adjustable and Removable Fixings

Figure 8 To Remove Fixings

TecQuipment put the fixings in the slots of the frame to suit a standard arrangement.
9
However, if you need to move the deflection holder or the beam supports to the
opposite side of the frame, you can use a steel rule to remove the fixings (see Figure 8).
Carefully insert them back into the slots where you need them.

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Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS®)

Figure 9 The VDAS® Hardware and Software

TecQuipment’s VDAS® is an optional extra for the Loading and Buckling of

Struts. It is a two-part product (Hardware and Software) that will:

• automatically log data from your experiments

• automatically calculate data for you

• save you time

• reduce errors

• create charts and tables of your data

• export your data for processing in other software

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Technical Details

Item Details

Nett Dimensions Main Unit: 1350 mm long x 500 mm front to back x 500 mm
high
Nett Weight Digital Load24Display:
Main Unit: kg 170 mm x 60 mm x 200 mm
Digital Load Display: 1.4 kg
Electrical Supply (for Single-phase 85 VAC to 264 VAC 50 Hz to 60 Hz at 1 A
the Digital Load
Display Power Supply
Fuse No fuses fitted.
Maximum Load 2000 N
Capacity of
Load Measurement
Maximum strut Unit Approximately 800 mm in fixed - fixed ends.
length allowable
Eccentric End Fittings Offset the loading centre of a 3 mm strut by 5 mm and 7.5 mm.
Standard Struts Strut 1 - Steel, 20 mm x 3 mm x
Nominal Dimensions 750 mm Strut 2 - Steel, 20 mm x 3
mm x 700 mm Strut 3 - Steel, 20
mm x 3 mm x 650 mm Strut 4 -
Steel, 20 mm x 3 mm x 625 mm
Strut 5 - Steel, 20 mm x 3 mm x
600 mm Strut 6 - Steel, 20 mm x 3
mm x 550 mm Strut 7 - Brass, 19
mm x 4.8 mm x 750 mm
Optional Struts Strut A
8 - Aluminium,
Hardwood (Mahogany),
19 mm x 4.820
mmmm x 6 mm
x 750 mm x 550 mm
Nominal Dimensions with steel knife edge inserts.
Strut 9 - Steel, 15 mm x 4 mm x 750 mm
Strut 10 - Steel, 10 mm x 5 mm x 750 mm
Strut B - Plywood (Marine Ply), 20 mm x 6.4 mm x 550 mm with
steel knife edge inserts.
Strut C - Glass Fibre, 20 mm x 5.5 mm x 550 mm with steel knife
edge inserts. Strut D - Moulded Brass (Extruded brass), D shape,
19 mm x 4.5 mm x 550 mm Strut E - Steel Compound, Two steel
struts, bolted together. Both 13 mm x
3 mm. One longer (650 mm) with knife edge ends, the
other 640 mm.

Strut F - Aluminium channel, 13 mm x 13 mm and 1.5 mm thick

wall x 750 mm with steel end fittings.

Strut G - Aluminium angle, 13 mm x 13 mm and 1.5 mm thick

wall x 750 mm with steel end fittings.

Strut H - Aluminium angle, 13 mm x 13 mm and 1.5 mm thick

wall x 750 mm with steel end fittings.
Strut I - Steel Rectangular, 13 mm x 6.4 mm x
650 mm. Strut12
J - Steel Round, 6.4 mm
diameter x 650 mm.
Young’s Modulus

Young’s Modulus
Material (Nominal)

Steel 207 GN.m-2 (207 GPa)

Aluminium 69 GN.m-2 (69 GPa)
Brass 105 GN.m-2 (105 GPa)

Noise Levels
The noise levels recorded at this apparatus are less than 70 dB (A).

13
Experiments

Safety

Useful Notes
Never try to release a strut from its end fixings when it is under load.
Always reduce the load force to zero before you change or adjust a strut.

• Do these experiments in order, the results and procedures of the earlier

experiments help you to understand the later experiments.

• The Euler theory assumes that the struts are perfectly straight, this will never
be what happens in real life, and some of these experiments compare the
theory and reality. It is impossible to make a perfect strut, but TecQuipment
take care to make sure the struts supplied are reasonably straight.

• The struts will give good results unless someone accidently bends them past their
elastic limit.
The experiments only use the struts within their elastic limit, so you can reuse
them. However, if you do not use the equipment correctly you may bend the
struts too far, so take care as you reach the buckling load.

• A strut is still useable, even if it has a slight curve. It is not useable if it has a
sharp bend or
‘kink’. You may straighten a slight bend in a strut. To do this, carefully bend
it back in the opposite direction by hand, or use a set of rollers (if you have
them). This may affect some properties of the strut, but will not affect its
bending and buckling properties.

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Experiment 1 - Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam

Aims

To verify the simple beam bending equation for a beam on two supports and show the
background for the Euler formula.

Procedure

1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 1. If you have VDAS®, select ‘Beam
Experiments’. The software will create a table for you automatically when you
start taking readings.

Beam Material: Second Moment of Area (I):

Distance between supports (L): Young’s Modulus (E):

Measured Measured Theoretical

Load (g) Force (N) Deflection (mm) Deflection (m) FL3 Deflection (y)

0 0

100

200

300

400

500

Table 1 Blank Results Table

2. Loosen the fixings of the measuring end if necessary and move it to the end of the
base (see Figure
25).

3. Fit the two knife edge supports to the front side of the main base, above the
measurement scale, so they are exactly 600 mm apart (for example - set them to
200 mm and 800 mm). Make sure the sharp edge is upwards. If necessary, use a
screwdriver or the thumbscrews to slide the fixings along in the slots so you can fit
the thumbscrews (see Figure 26).

15
Figure 25 Loosen the Fixings and Move the Measuring End Along to the End of the Base

Sharp edge upwards

Thumbscrew

Use a
screwdriver or a
thumbscrew to
slide the fixings
along.

Figure 26 Fit the Knife Edge Supports

4. Fit the flat plate digital deflection indicator holder to the front of the base, so that
it is exactly mid- way between the two knife edge supports (for example - at 500
mm).

5. Find the 750 mm long steel specimen strut (number 1). Use an accurate vernier or
micrometer and carefully measure the dimensions of the strut. Use these to
calculate the second moment of area for the strut. If you have VDAS®, enter this
value into the software. Also enter the material type and its nominal Young’s
modulus (see Technical Details on page 15).

6. Put the beam onto the knife edge supports.

7. Fit the digital indicator into its holder, so its display faces forward. The beam will
bend downwards less than 10 mm in this experiment, so move the beam
16
 backwards temporarily. Adjust the deflection indicator in its holder to allow it to
measure approximately 10 mm of downward beam deflection (see Figure 27).

10 mm of
downward
movement

Figure 27 Temporarily Push the Beam Behind the Tip and Adjust the Deflection Indicator for 10 mm
Downward movement

8. Adjust the beam to be central across the Knife Edge Supports (so that an equal
amount of beam‘sticks out’ over the Knife Edge Supports) (see Figure 28). Or, use a
pencil to mark the beam at its centre (375 mm) and adjust it so that the pencil mark
is just under the tip of the Deflection Indicator.

Equal
‘overhang’

888

Beam

Figure 28 Adjust the Beam So that an Equal Amount Sticks Out (Overhangs) Each End

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 9. Hook the Knife Edge Weight Hanger onto the beam at the mid position, just under
the tip of the Deflection Indicator (see Figure 29).

Knife Edge
Weight Hanger

Figure 29 Fit the Knife Edge Weight Hanger to the Beam, Just Under the Tip of the Deflection Indicator

10. Zero the deflection indicator. The deflection reading from this point onwards
ignores any initial bend in the beam and any bend caused by the small weight
of the Knife Edge Weight Hanger.

11. If you have VDAS®, enter the distances between supports and the deflection
indicator position.

12. Fit the Hooked Weight Hanger to the bottom of the Knife Edge Weight Hanger.
Add 9 x 10 g weights to give a total of 100 g load*. Gently tap the frame to
reduce the effect of friction. Record the reading of the deflection indicator. If you
are using VDAS®, enter the load value and click on the ‘Record Data Values’
button.
13. Increase the load to 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500 g. At each increase, record the
deflection.

Results Analysis
Convert your load into force and if necessary, convert your deflection into metres (you
can use mm or metres, but the correct SI unit is metres). Plot a curve of force (vertical
axis) against deflection (horizontal axis) for the beam. What does your curve suggest
about the behaviour of the beam?

Use your measurements of the beam dimensions to calculate the second moment of
area for the beam. Refer to the Technical Details on page 15 to find the Young’s
Modulus for the material that makes your beam. Use the simple beam bending
equation in the theory section of this guide to find the theoretical deflection of the

18
beam for each load. Add your theoretical curve to the same chart as the actual curve
and compare the two curves.

Does the theory accurately predict the deflection of the beam? What are the possible
sources of error- if any?

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Experiment 2 - Stiffness (Young's Modulus) of the Strut Materials

Aims

To test the struts and use your results to find their actual stiffness, and from this, find
the Young’s
Modulus for the material that makes the strut.

Notes

In experiment 1 you use a nominal value of Young's Modulus for your calculations,
which can cause errors, as the metal that makes your struts may not have a
consistent Young’s Modulus. Accurate tests with this equipment will give you more
useful and accurate values for the Young’s Modulus for your struts. You can then use
these values for more accurate results in later experiments.

Procedure
1. Create a blank table of results, similar to Table 2.

Beam Material:
Beam Width:
Beam Thickness:
Distance between supports (L): Second Moment of Area (I):

Measured Measured
Load (g) Force (N) Deflection (mm) Deflection (m) 48yI/L3
0 0

100

200

300

400

500

Calculated Young’s Modulus (E):

Table 2 Blank Results Table

2. Repeat the procedure for experiment 1, using the 750 mm long steel, aluminium
and brass struts.

Results Analysis

Convert your load into force and if necessary, convert your deflection into metres
(you can use mm or metres, but the correct SI unit is metres). For each strut, create a
20
 chart of force (vertical axis) against
48yI/L3. Find the gradient of each curve to find the true Young’s Modulus for the metal
used to make
the strut.

Experiment 3 - The Deflected Shape of a Strut

Aim

To prove the theory about the sinusoidal shape of buckled struts, for each end
condition (fixing).

Notes

You will see immediately the sinusoidal shape of the strut as it buckles. Its amplitude
will grow as the load increases towards the buckling load. So, in this experiment you
add enough load to create a reasonable and measurable deflection. The actual load
value is not important.

You need two people to do this experiment correctly. One person to load the strut
and record the positions for the deflection indicator, the other person to move the
deflection indicator and record its deflection readings.
Procedure
1. Find the strut you need for your test and make a pencil mark at its mid-point (for
example - make a pencil mark at 375 mm along a 750 mm strut). For reference,
measure the thickness and width of the strut.
2. Connect and switch on the Load Display. Allow a few minutes for the display and
the load cell of the measuring end to warm up. Tap the load measuring end to
remove any effects of friction, then zero the display.
3. Turn the hand wheel of the loading end to give 5 to 10 mm gap behind its chuck
(see Figure 30).
5 to 10 mm

Figure 30 Turn the Hand Wheel to Give 5 to 10 mm Gap Behind the Chuck

21
4. Use thehexagon tool supplied, to loosen the four screws securing the loading end
and slide it along the base until your strut fits into each chuck for the end condition
you need, as shown in Figure 31. Re-tighten the four screws.

Pinned - Pinned Ends

Fixed - Fixed Ends

Fixed - Pinned Ends

Figure 31 Different End Fixings

5. Fit the deflection indicator on its L-shaped holder, to the top of the base (see
Figure 32).

22
 6. Adjust it so its tip touches your pencil mark, half-way along the strut.

7. In this experiment, your strut will only bend by a maximum of 10 mm away from
the DeflectionIndicator, so adjust it in its holder, so that its tip will extend at least 10
mm when the strut bends.

Adjust the Indicator to allow 10 mm of

movement, this way (outwards).

Pencil mark at halfway

along the strut.

Figure 32 Fit the Deflection Indicator to its L-shape Holder and Fit it to the Top of the Base

8. Create a table of results, similar to Table 3. If you are to use VDAS®, select the
Strut
Experiments.
The software will create your results table for you automatically.

9. Use the large hand wheel to apply a small force to the strut. Check that its
bends away from the deflection indicator. If not, reduce the force and turn the
strut around.

10. Use the large hand wheel and carefully add a small load to the strut (less than 5
N). This helps to check the end fixings are holding the strut securely, especially if
you are testing with the pinned ends condition.

11. Zero the deflection indicator reading.

23
 Beam Material:
Beam Length: End Fixing Conditions:
Beam Dimensions: Load:

Actual
Deflection Deflection Deflection Deflection
Position Reading Reading (Loaded -
(25 mm steps) (Datum) (Loaded) Datum)

0 (Mid Point) 0

+25 mm

+50 mm

+75 mm

+100 mm

+125 mm

+150 mm
Right
+175 mm
(Positive)
+ 200 mm

+ 225 mm

+ 250 mm

+ 275 mm

-25 mm

-50 mm

-75 mm

-100 mm

-125 mm

-150 mm
Left
(Negative) -175 mm

-200 mm

-225 mm

-250 mm

-275 mm

Table 3 Blank Results Table

12. Move the indicator along the strut, from the halfway pencil mark towards the right
in 25 mm steps.At each step, re-tighten the deflection indicator fixings before you take
24
a deflection reading. If you are to use VDAS®, remember to record the deflection
indicator position and click the ‘Record Data Values’ button.
13. When you have reached as far right as you can go, set the indicator back to the
halfway pencil marks and move in 25 mm steps to the left of the strut, recording
the deflection results as negative values (as shown in the results table).
14. Move the deflection indicator back to the halfway point. Use the hand wheel to
load the strut until the central deflection reaches approximately 6 mm. Record the
load for reference.

15. Repeat steps 12 and 13, recording deflected readings for the
loaded strut.

16. Repeat the experiment with fixed - fixed end conditions and
strut number 3.

17. Repeat the experiment with fixed - pinned end conditions and strut number 4. Use
the loading end as the fixed end.

Results Analysis

As shown in the results table for each test, subtract your unloaded (datum) results
from the loaded results to get the actual deflection. Be careful with your signs
when doing this.

Plot a graph of deflection (vertical axis) against position along the strut (horizontal
axis). Make sure your horizontal axis has an equal negative and positive scale.

For the pinned ends condition, over your results, draw a half sine wave of the same
amplitude and cycle length. For the fixed ends condition, draw a full sine wave over
your results. For the fixed - pinned ends condition, draw a 3/4 sine wave over your
results.

Do your results match the theory for sine

wave shapes?

25
Experiment 4 - The Euler Buckling Load using Pinned-end Struts

Aims

To compare theoretical buckling load with actual buckling loads of pinned end struts
from experiments and prove the theory and show its limits.

Procedure

1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 4. If you are to use VDAS®, select the
Strut Experiments.The software will create a table of results for you automatically.

Strut Details

Second Peak Peak Average Peak

Moment of (Buckling) (Buckling) (Buckling) Theoretical
Length Material Area Load 1 Load 2 Load Buckling Load

Table 4 Blank Results Table

2. Connect and switch on the Load Display. Allow a few minutes for the display and
the load cell of the measuring end to warm up. Tap the load measuring end to
remove any effects of friction, then zero the display.

3. Find the 750 mm steel strut. Use a micrometer or vernier and carefully measure its
dimensions, and calculate its second moment of area.

4. Fit the strut in the pinned ends condition as described in Experiment 3 - The
Deflected Shape of a Strut, but remove the deflection indicator.

5. Use the large hand wheel to load the strut slowly. As you turn the hand wheel,
watch the load reading and the deflection of the strut. When you see that the load
does not increase, but the strut is still deflecting, the strut has buckled. Record the
‘peak load’, shown in the Load Display. Release the load.

6. Apply a light load, and gently push the strut to make it buckle the opposite way to
your last test.Increase the load until the strut buckles, and record the peak load.
26
 7. Repeat the test for other struts of the same cross-section and second
moment of area, but different lengths.

Results Analysis

For each strut, calculate the average peak (buckling) load.

Plot a curve of the length (vertical axis) against the buckling load. Use the second
moment of area to calculate the theoretical buckling load for each length and plot it
on the same chart.
Does the Euler theory predict the buckling load well? You will notice that when the
strut buckles in it's natural direction that the load is lower. Why is that? (Hint - see to
the assumptions made in the Euler theory).

Your curve will be non-linear, so it is difficult to see errors. The Euler Buckling Formula
shows that you can plot 1/L2 against buckling load to give a linear plot that makes it
easier to compare results. This also shows that bucking load is proportional to 1/L2.

27
Experiment 5 - Comparing Buckling loads with End Conditions

Aims

• To test a strut fixed with all three end conditions and prove the
relationship between the buckling load and the end conditions.

• To help show the ‘effective length’ principle.

Procedure

1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 5. If you are to use VDAS®, select the
Strut Experiments.The software will create a table of results for you automatically.

Second Moment of Area for the Strut:

Peak Peak Average Peak

Fixing (Buckling) (Buckling) (Buckling)
Condition Strut Load 1 Load 2 Load

Pinned - Pinned 5

Pinned - Fixed 4

Fixed - Fixed 3

Table 5 Blank Results Table

2. Connect and switch on the Load Display. Allow a few minutes for the display and
the load cell of the measuring end to warm up. Tap the load measuring end to
remove any effects of friction, then zero the display.

3. Find the 600 mm steel strut (number 5). Measure its dimensions accurately
and find its second moment of area. Fit it in the pinned ends condition as
described in Experiment 3 - The Deflected Shape of a Strut, but remove
the deflection indicator.

4. Use the large hand wheel to load the strut slowly. As you turn the hand wheel,
watch the load reading and the deflection of the strut. When you see that the load
does not increase, but the strut is still deflecting, the strut has buckled. Record the
‘peak load’, shown in the Load Display. Release the load.

5. Apply a light load, and gently push the strut to make it buckle the opposite way to
your last test.
Increase the load until the strut buckles, and record the peak load.

6. Release the load and remove the strut.

28
 7. Now find and fit strut number 4 in the fixed - pinned condition. Use the loading
end as the fixed end. This strut is 25 mm longer than strut number 3, to allow for
the length lost in one fixing. This gives a constant test length for correct
comparisons.

8. Repeat the test and record the loads.

9. Repeat the test for strut number 3 in the fixed-fixed end condition. Again, the
length of this strut allows for the length lost in the fixings, to give a fair
comparison.

Results Analysis

For each strut, calculate the average peak buckling load. Do the loads for each fixing
condition follow the theory (fixed-fixed buckles at four times the load of pinned-
pinned, and fixed-pinned buckles at twice the load of pinned-pinned).

Your results for the fixed-fixed condition may be lower than you expect. Can you
explain why? Think about the load on the fixings (chucks) as it buckles, and the
effect it has on the end conditions.

Add your results from this experiment to those of the last experiment (if you have done
it). What do you think about the effective length idea?

29
Experiment 6 - The Southwell Plot and the Buckling Load

Aims

To show how to use the Southwell plot to find the buckling load of a strut, and prove
its usefulness.

Procedure
1. Create a blank table of results, similar to Table 6.

Deflection Deflection
Load (N) (mm) /Load

0 0

Table 6 Blank Results Table

2. Connect and switch on the Load Display. Allow a few minutes for the display and
the load cell of the measuring end to warm up. Tap the load measuring end to
remove any effects of friction, then zero the display.

3. Find the 600 mm steel strut (strut number 5).

4. Fit the strut in the pinned ends condition as described in Experiment 3 - The
Deflected Shape of a Strut.

5. Use the large hand wheel to load the strut slowly to get a deflection of 0.5 mm.
As you turn the hand wheel, gently tap the base to help remove any friction in the
deflection indicator. Watch the load reading and the deflection of the strut.
Record the deflection and load at approximately 0.5 mm intervals until you reach
4 mm deflection. Release the load.

Results Analysis
Divide your central deflection (yc) results by the load (P) at each deflection to
30
complete your table. Create a Southwell Plot of central deflection (yc) against (yc/P),

in fundamental units. From this, notethe gradient, to give you the buckling load of
the strut. If you have done the earlier experiments, does the gradient agree with the

theoretical and actual buckling loads for this strut?

31
Experiment 7 - The Southwell Plot and Eccentricity of Loading

Notes

The last experiment showed that the gradient of the Southwell plot gave us the Euler
buckling load and compared well with theory and actual experiment results. This plot
can also show
the effective eccentricity of loading, or out-of-straightness. As shown in the theory,
imperfections in the strut cause the eccentricity of loading (also, the mechanical
tolerances in the equipment may have a small effect).

From this, if you know the eccentricity of each of a set of otherwise identical struts,
the Southwell plots for each should have the same gradient, but the intercept should
match the known eccentricity plus or minus the other imperfections.

Aims
To show how to use the Southwell Plot to identify the eccentricity of loading.

Notes
This test uses the longest strut (750 mm long) as the reference, with zero eccentricity.
It then uses the next longest strut fitted with the special end fittings to mimic a strut
with a known eccentricity. The end fittings make this second strut the same length as
the first, for a fair comparison. You test the second strut with the minimum and
maximum eccentricity that the end fittings will allow.

The deflection of each strut near to its ends will not be the same, due to the special
end fittings. But because you use relatively long struts, the actual deflection at the
ends is relatively small (compared to the deflection at the mid point of the strut), so
the error is small.

Procedure

1. Create a blank table of results, similar to Table 7.

2. As shown in earlier experiments, set up the 750 mm long steel specimen strut
(number 1) as a pinned - pinned strut.

3. As in Experiment 4 - The Euler Buckling Load using Pinned-end Struts,

test this strut in both directions. Increase the load in steps of 0.5 mm deflection
until it buckles (the load stops rising as fast, but deflection continues).

4. Fit the Eccentric End fittings to strut number 2, with both fittings set to give the
smallest eccentricity(5 mm) (see Figure 6).
5. Fit strut number 2 and readjust the position of the deflection indicator to allow for
the offset.
32
6. Repeat the test with this strut.

7. Reverse
the end fittings at both ends to give the larger eccentricity, adjust the indicator
again and repeat the tests.

Eccentricity (0, 5 mm or 7.5 mm):

Deflection/
Deflection (mm) Load 1(N) Load 2 (N) Average Load Average Load

0 (0) 0 0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
33
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
Table 7 Blank Results Table

34
Results Analysis

For each line of results, find the average load and

deflection/load.

Create one chart of load (vertical axis) against deflection. Add to this chart your results

from each strut. Create one Southwell Plot chart. Add to this chart your results from

each strut.

Compare the results on the load against deflection chart. What effect does
the offset have?

Compare the Southwell plots, especially the gradients. Are the gradients similar?
Has the eccentricity affected the buckling load?

Compare the eccentricities, (the intercept on the y axis) to the actual known offset
made by the special end fitting (5 mm and 7.5 mm). Do the results confirm what we
expect (plus or minus the other non- ideal effects)?

Other than the effects of the end fittings, examine the equipment and see if you can
find an important part of its design that might affect eccentricity of loading on the
struts.

35
Further Experiments
The Loading and Buckling of Struts (SM1005) allows many more experiments than
those suggested in this guide. For example - it has parts that allow more advanced
study into the effects of additional lateral (side) loads.

To apply a lateral (side) load, see

Figure 33:

1. Fit your strut as described in Experiment 3 - The Deflected Shape of a Strut.

2. Fit the pulley into the flat holder to the side of the base.

3. Hook the knife edge weight hanger with cord around the strut. Lay the cord across
the pulley.

4. You can now add a load to the cord to apply a side load to the strut.

Figure 33 How to Set Up a Lateral (side) Load.

Also, the extra specimens pack (SM1005A) will allow students to

investigate:

1) The flexural rigidity and buckling loads for a further range

of materials.

2) Tests on different engineering

sections.

3) The effect of flexibility of end

fittings.

4) The case of a compound (composite) Strut with imperfect shearing connections

36
between the two components.

37
37