Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477 – 492

www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Biomass quantification of Andean wetland forages using

ERS satellite SAR data for optimizing livestock management
Sophie Moreau a,b,*, Thuy Le Toan b,*
a
Asociación Boliviana de Teledetección para el Medio Ambiente (ABTEMA), Calle Reyes Ortiz No. 41, piso 3, Casilla 14248, La Paz, Bolivia
b
Centre d’Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsphère (CESBIO), 18, Avenue Edouard Belin, BPI 2801, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
Received 4 October 2001; received in revised form 9 July 2002; accepted 20 July 2002

Abstract

Spatio-temporal information on the biomass of totora reeds and bofedal water-saturated Andean grasslands, which are a critical forage
resource for smallholders in Bolivia’s Altiplano, is needed to promote their protection and improve livestock management. Satellite radar data
appear well adapted to map biomass and to monitor biomass changes in this environment for two reasons: (a) the C-band (5.3 GHz) radar
data is particularly sensitive to vegetation biomass when the canopy is over an underlying water surface or a water-saturated soil; this is
through the dominant scattering mechanisms involving vegetation – water surface interaction; (b) the cloud cover during the growing period
which corresponds to the rainy season. This paper assesses the potential of ERS satellite radar data for retrieving biomass information, which
is spatially highly variable owing to the numerous small, nonuniform areas of totora harvesting and bofedal grazing. Ground data, including
vegetation humid and dry biomass, were collected over 18 months during satellite descending passes at 12 sites located between the Eastern
Cordillera and Titicaca Lake, representing three vegetation units: shoreline and inland totoras, and Puna bofedales.
ERS-SAR data were analysed as a function of plant biomass at homogeneous totora and bofedal areas. Because of the small size of these
areas (typically 20
30 m), the SAR data need to be processed using an advanced multitemporal filter which improves radiometric resolution
without significant reduction of the spatial resolution. The radar backscattering coefficient (rj in dB) measured by ERS was found to be
sensitive at both per site and per vegetation unit levels to humid and dry biomass of totora reeds and bofedal grasslands. The sensitivity of the
signal to biomass variation is high for dry biomass ranges less than 1 kg/m2 for totora, and less than 2 kg/m2 for bofedal. The corresponding
biomass maps provided by inversion of SAR data are valuable information for livestock management for three critical periods: after the
calving season (October – November), when animal pressure is most significant; toward the end of the rainy season (March – April), as an
indicator of coming trends to promote the adoption of measures aimed at preventing shortages during the winter season; in the middle of the
winter dry season (June – July), to adjust animal charge.
D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Inc.

Keywords: Totora; Bofedal; Andean grasslands; Wetlands; Biomass; Radar; ERS-SAR; C-band; VV polarization; Livestock management; Bolivian Altiplano

1. Introduction thus critically important, for the protection of these ecosys-

In the vast Andean area which stretches from Venezuela
to Chile, biomass-rich wetland pastures are a vital native
forage resource for the extensive livestock production, since
the herbaceous vegetation of dry areas in this region has a
very low productivity. However, these fragile native grass-
lands are being threatened by overgrazing pressure while
livestock living on them are in many cases underfed. It is
* Corresponding authors. Centre d’Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsphère
(CESBIO), 18, Avenue Edouard Belin, BPI 2801, 31401 Toulouse Cedex
4, France. Tel.: +33-5-61-55-66-87, +33-5-61-55-85-12; fax: +33-5-61-55-
85-00.
E-mail address: thuy.letoan@cesbio.cnes.fr (T. Le Toan).
tems and for a more efficient livestock management, to
develop appropriate methods of spatial assessment and
temporal monitoring of the vegetation aboveground bio-
mass, allowing to evaluate their carrying capacity and to
detect overgrazing.
This research focuses on the use of radar remote sensing
(ERS-SAR data) to extract biomass information on Bolivian
Altiplano wet grasslands, namely: totoras, aquatic plants of
the Cyperaceae family, similar to reeds, up to 2 m tall and
bofedales, high-coverage, dense carpets of short grasses and
dwarf reeds with tufts of gramineae, on a permanently water-
saturated soil. These are the only native forage resources
available around the year, including during the dry winter
season.

0034-4257/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Inc.

doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00111-6
478 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492
2. Estimation of wet Andean grassland biomass:
previous work and aim of the study
2.1. Conventional field methods
Overall biomass estimations have been reported by
Alzérreca (1992), Alzérreca, Prieto, Laura, Luna, and
Laguna (2001), Laguna (1987), and Loza de la Cruz,
Moreau, Liberman, Lizeca, and Gasc (2000) for bofedales,
and by Collot, Koriyama, and Garcia (1983) for totoras.
There exists no systematic studies giving detailed monthly
values, except for one performed by Collot et al. (1983)
who measured above- and below-water biomass of totoras
on one single site and only during the growing season
(October –March). Such scarcity of information is explained
by the difficulty of quantifying the biomass of Andean
wet pastures over extensive and remote areas by field
methods, these being point based, time consuming and
expensive, and requiring expertise for reliable measure-
ments.
2.2. Remote sensing
Grassland biomass and primary productivity estimates
based on remote sensing were performed by many authors,
taking advantage of the synoptic and temporal characteristics
of satellite data.
Using optical remote sensing data, several studies based
on vegetation indices or on an energetic yield approach
(estimation of fAPAR) were performed on temperate and
semiarid grasslands (e.g., Cayrol et al., 2000; Lecompte,
2001; Tucker, 1979; Tucker & Sellers, 1986). Their con-
clusions on the biomass or productivity retrieval are, how-
ever, not directly applicable to grasslands under water-
saturated conditions. Even though such studies make use
of coarse-resolution data from Wide Field-of-View (WFOV)
sensors with high temporal frequency to reduce the problem
of cloud coverage, results are limited by the low amount of
cloud-free data during the growing season, which corre-
sponds to the rainy season. In addition, such studies are more
useful for regional estimations than for local livestock
management.
Using radar remote sensing data, several authors exploited
the particular sensitivity of radar signal to the biomass
parameters of vegetation canopy over saturated soil or over
a water layer. Their studies were however restricted to
mangrove and rice (e.g., Le Toan et al., 1997; Paloscia,
Macelloni, & Pampaloni 1998; Proisy & Mougin, 1998;
Ribbes & Le Toan, 1999). Radar studies on wetlands were
only aimed at discriminating, mapping, and determining their
extent (IGBP-DIS, 1999).
2.3. Aim of the study
The work reported herein examines the potential of
currently available satellite SAR data to provide detailed
spatio-temporal information on the biomass of totoras and
bofedales and draws conclusions on the use of SAR data for
wet Andean forage resources monitoring. The focus is placed
on the analysis of ERS (European Remote Sensing satellite)
C-band SAR data provided by the European Space Agency
(ESA) in the frame of an Announcement of Opportunity. The
present project is driven by the need of information on the
part of:
 smallholder organisations [such as the Confederación
Sindical Unica de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia
(CSUTCB) and the Asociación Integral de Ganaderos en
Camelidos de los Andes (AIGACA)], requiring biomass
information particularly for three critical periods: after the
calving season (October – November) when animal pres-
sure is most significant; toward the end of the rainy season
(March –April), as an indicator of coming trends to
promote the adoption of measures aimed at preventing
shortages in the winter season; in the middle of the winter
dry season (June – July), to adjust animal charge (Alzér-
reca, personal communication);
 the Consortium for the Sustainable Development of the
Andean Ecoregion (CONDESAN) for the validation of
the Andean grassland production model being developed
in the frame of the DME-SUR project, supported by the
Dutch International Service for National Agricultural
Research (ISNAR)—Ecoregional Fund—which financed
the field campaign for the present project.
This paper is organized into four sections dealing with site
and vegetation characteristics, ground data collection and
analysis, ERS-SAR data processing and results, and a dis-
cussion on the operational usefulness of radar data for
biomass estimates of Andean wet-grasslands.
3. Site and vegetation characteristics
The test site is located between the eastern shore of the
Lesser Titicaca Lake (Wiñay Marka) and the Eastern Cor-
dillera de Los Andes (16j –16j15Vand 68j –68j40V), within
an area of approximately 30
30 km. Ten representative
sampling sites of about 1 km2 each were selected in the flat
Puna ecological floor, at altitudes between 3,800 and 4,100
m, namely:
 to the West, five totora sites (two in inland areas subject
to seasonal flooding—Cohana 1 and 2—and three of
shoreline reeds—Chililaya 1 and 2 and Cachilaya) and
 to the East, five bofedal wet grassland sites referred to as
‘Puna bofedales’ with drainage channels (Suriquiña,
Isquillani, Kerani, Pariri 1 and 2).
The climate is characterized as high-altitude, sub-tropical,
sub-humid climate with: a 700-mm mean annual precipita-
tion concentrated from November to March (Austral sum-
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 479

Fig. 1. Totora seasonal harvesting.

mer), the rest of the year corresponding to the dry period,
with virtually no precipitation; an average annual temper-
ature of about 7.5 jC; frost normally occurring from mid-
April to mid-August, slowing down plant growth (dry
winter). Both inland totoras and bofedales are subject to
summer floods caused by precipitation and by water runoff
from glaciers in the case of bofedales. The organic-clay soil
background is permanently water saturated, except during
the dry season.
channels and an average height of 1.5 m. Its flowers,
produced between January and March (Mamani Laque,
1973), arising at the extremity of the central stem, are highly
reduced in size, as are the basal three-ranked short linear
leaves submerged in water. Totoras are harvested in small
discontinuous rectangular plots of approximately 20
30 m,
with a ‘‘chessboard distribution’’ (Fig. 1).
3.2. Bofedales

3.1. Totoras ‘Bofedal’ is the common terminology used in Bolivia to

Totora is a perennial reed, Shoenoplectus californicus
spp. tatora of the Cyperaceae family, which grows in water
depths of up to 5.5 m or in inland areas subject to summer
flooding. This macrophyte plant has a single vertical trian-
gular stem (with a diameter from 1.5 cm at the bottom to few
millimetres at the top) with a great number of hollow
characterize permanently water-saturated highland short
grasslands with over 60 plant species forming a dense
carpet—with approximately 90% vegetation cover, ran-
domly crisscrossed during the wet season by seasonal
shallow ( < 10 cm) streamlets (Fig. 2). In Bolivia, Ostria
(1987) and Estenssoro (1991) distinguished ‘bofedales’
with cushion herbaceous plants above 4100 m, from

Fig. 2. Bofedal continuous grazing.

480 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492
‘vegas’ or ‘praderas humedas’ below this altitude, made up
of herbs a few centimeters high with stemless rosette-
shaped species (with, in many cases, succulent leaves close
to the surface) and dwarf aquatic reeds, accompanied by
dispersed tufts of gramineae, 30 –40 cm high. Bofedales
constitute an important source of forage for cattle due to the
high protein content of their predominant species, such as
Plantago tubulosa (14% protein content), Festuca ortophylla
(7.6%), and Lachemilla pinata (13%), as well as to their high
digestibility (Alzérreca, 1992). Bofedales are permanently
grazed by cattle brought there every day and often attached on
specific spots of higher forage availability. Grazing is more
intensive during the winter dry period (April – May to Octo-
ber) when dryland pasture is not available as a second source
of forage.
4. Ground data collection and analysis
4.1. Field sampling
Periodical field measurements of humid and dry total
biomass standing aboveground or above-water (HTB and
DTB, respectively)—depending on water presence—were
carried out during the descending passes of ERS satellite
(every 35 days), between January 1997 and April 1998, and
in some sites in October and December 1996, using the
nondestructive double-sampling-scheme method of Hay-
dock and Shaw (1975) also described by Bonham (1989),
developed for natural herbaceous vegetation. This method
was found to be the most appropriate in this remote
environment characterized by high altitude and harsh
weather, difficult access to sampling sites, water-saturated
ground, resistance of smallholders to vegetation sample
clipping, which required rapid and nondestructive field
sampling. The biomass measurements at each sampling site
consisted in clipping the total standing biomass within a
circular frame of 0.357 m of diameter at five observation
points representing the five biomass levels or categories
present on the site, visually identified in consensus by the
field team of five to six persons. A series of 100 sampling
points are randomly selected by throwing the circular frame
over the field. They are assigned visually to one of the five
previously identified biomass categories to determine the
frequency of occurrence of each biomass category. In the
shoreline totora sites, this was performed by boat. The
clipped samples were weighted in situ and oven-dried (at
85 jC during 24 h), then used to obtain estimates of HTB
and DTB. The weight of plant water per unit area
(PWC = plant water content) is estimated by the difference
HTB  DTB. The botanical composition of the saturated
grasslands or bofedales was estimated using the ‘‘Dry
Weight Rank’’ method of Mannetje and Haydock (1963).
Heights and number of stems were taken in each frame for
each biomass quality. For totora, the frame could contain
around 125 stems in category 5.
4.2. Ground data analysis
Temporal variation of humid and dry biomass, percent
moisture content, plant moisture content, totora height, and
number density were analysed.
4.2.1. Biomass
Figs. 3a and 4a show the temporal variation of humid
biomass global site values for totora and bofedal, respec-
tively. Values are presented in terms of vegetation type
(inland and shoreline totora, and Puna bofedal), together
with cumulative monthly precipitation. The growth periods
(regrowth, maturity, senescence, burning) of totora are also
indicated in Fig. 3.
In general, a seasonal variation of biomass is observed,
with peaks in the rainy summer season between November
and April and a minimum reached at the end of the dry
winter season, in September –October. Totoras have higher
biomass levels, at least twice the biomass of bofedales, with
more fluctuations due to harvesting, versus continuous
grazing of bofedales.
Specific observations on totoras and bofedales biomass
are the following:
 for totoras: (a) during regrowth and maturity, a higher
productivity of shoreline sites with 3.5 –4.5 kg HTB/m2
vs. 2.5– 3.5 kg/m2 for inland sites; (b) during senescence
and burning periods, a continuous decrease of HTB for
inland sites to reach nil values when burned, and post-
burning values of 0.25 kg HTB/m2 in October, while
shoreline sites composed of a mixture of high-standing
yellow old stems and emerging new green stems of a few
centimetres, show fluctuating HTB with a minimum of 1.2
kg/m2; (c) during harvesting periods, more pronounced
fluctuations for shoreline sites due to higher growth rate;
 for bofedales: high productivity of Puna vegetation unit
with values reaching 2.5 kg HTB/m2 in the productive
summer season and 1.0 kg HTB/m2 in the dry winter
season.
4.2.2. Percent relative moisture
With regard to percent relative moisture, response to
precipitation is delayed by 1 – 2 months, and totora values
are higher than bofedal values, except during senescence for
inland totoras:
 for bofedales: Puna vegetation unit shows seasonal
variations, with values between 60% and 70% humidity
in summer and 30– 40% in winter;
 for totoras: shoreline and inland behaviours differ, with a
relatively stable humidity throughout the year fluctuating
between 80% in summer and 60% in winter for the
shoreline vegetation unit, whereas a marked difference
between the two seasons is noted for the inland vegetation
unit, with 60 – 70% in summer when sites are flooded and
30% in winter when sites are ‘‘dry’’ (just before burning).
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 481

Fig. 3. Temporal variation of totoras biophysical parameters: (a) mean humid biomass (HTB); (b) mean plant water content (PWC).

4.2.3. Plant water content
Figs. 3b and 4b show plant water content of totoras
and bofedales. In general, the seasonal variation is similar
to humid biomass. Specifically, for totoras, the fluctuation
of water content in shoreline vegetation unit is pro-
nounced and rapid due to impact of harvesting and quick
regrowth, as well as the strong reaction of inland
vegetation unit to a decrease in precipitation (e.g., end
1997).
The study of plant water content per biomass category
highlights some atypical behaviours in the Puna bofedal
vegetation unit, with plant water content of category 2 often
higher than category 5 and plant water content of category 3
often higher than category 4 during the rainy season
(especially between December and April). This is not the
case for totoras, in which plant water content increases with
increasing biomass categories. This can be explained by the
species composition per category in the Puna bofedales,
where category 2—with less plant cover—has a majority of
water-filled aquatic species which almost disappear in
winter, and category 3 has a predominance of rosette-
shaped species with often succulent leaves and high water
content, the productivity of which decreases during the
482 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492

Fig. 4. Temporal variation of bofedales biophysical parameters: (a) mean humid biomass (HTB); (b) mean plant water content (PWC).

winter, while categories 4 and 5—with higher plant cover—
contain tufts of gramineae with a lower amount of water
and a productivity showing less variations between summer
and winter.
4.2.4. Relationships between humid biomass, dry biomass,
and plant water content
From a physical point of view, the radar signal is
sensitive to the amount of water contained in the canopy
or plant water content (PWC in kg/m2), and since the
biophysical parameters of interest are dry or humid biomass,
relationships between these parameters are analysed.
Fig. 5a and b shows relationship between HTB and DTB,
and between PWC and HTB for inland totoras. In the range of
biomass values observed, the relations can be fitted by linear
regression. Two separate regression lines according to the
growth period (regrowth and maturity vs. senescence) are
observed. One of the inland totora’s regression line corre-
sponds to the rainy season with green plants reaching
maturity and maximum height, having high percentage of
plant moisture; the other corresponds to the dry season
yellow senescing totora stems with lower plant water content.
Fig. 6a and b represents shoreline totoras, where the
effect of growth period is less obvious, the plant being
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 483

Fig. 5. Relationship between humid and dry biomass (a) and between plant water content and humid biomass (b) for inland totora according to phenological
stages.

permanently in water, with a relative stable moisture (see
section on percentage plant moisture).
With regard to Puna bofedales, relationship between
HTB and DTB, as well as between PWC and HTB (Fig.
7a and b), is similar to totora, with however a higher
dispersion due to the atypical seasonal water content of
bofedal plant species from categories 2 and 3.
4.2.5. Totoras’ height and density
Totoras’ height and density vary with time as a function
of precipitation, management, and site conditions. Maxi-
mum height above water surface can reach 2 m in category
5. Differences between shoreline and inland totoras’
heights occur mainly in September – October, when inland
totoras are burned after water withdrawal and shoreline
484 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492

Fig. 6. Relationship between humid and dry biomass (a) and between plant water content and humid biomass (b) for shoreline totora according to phenological
stages.

totoras are composed of a mixture of yellow old standing
stems of 1.5 m and new green stems of a few centimetres,
as well as during the period of ‘‘regrowth’’ (without
harvesting) at the end of which shoreline totoras can reach
an average of 2 m. The smaller negative fluctuations are
due to harvesting: generally, one harvest during the ripen-
ing period, while green, and a second in the case of
shoreline totoras during senescence, while yellow and
dry, to favour regrowth. The lower heights reached at these
periods are those of the unharvested reeds which continue
to grow very rapidly (about 1 cm/stem/day; Collot et al.,
1983). Inland totoras are denser and have between 1250
and 1000 stems/m2 (for category 5) during ripening versus
1000 – 750 stems/m2 for shoreline totoras. The lowest
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 485

Fig. 7. Relationship between humid and dry biomass (a) and between plant water content and humid biomass (b) for Puna bofedal.

value of 500 stems/m2 for inland totoras represents post-
burning counts of new stems after first precipitation. Con-
tinuous production of new stems (category 2) occurs
during senescence—after harvesting of yellow stems for
shoreline totoras and during the ‘‘regrowth’’ period for inland
totoras.
5. Analysis of radar data
5.1. Physical background
In general, the intensity backscattered from a vegetation
canopy is governed by the following major scattering mech-
486 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492
anisms: the direct scattering from the canopy volume, the
reflection of the boundary surface followed by scattering
from the volume scatterers and the opposite volume-surface
scattering, the direct scattering from the boundary surface
through gaps in the canopy, and the scattering from the
boundary surface including the two-way attenuation by the
canopy. The relative importance of the scattering mechanism
depends on the SAR wavelength, polarisation and incidence,
the biomass, and structure of the canopy, as well as on the
moisture and roughness of the surface.
Using ERS data at C-band (frequency f 5.3 GHz or
wavelength f 5.6 cm), VV polarisation, and 23j of inci-
dence, the radar backscatter from a vegetation canopy over a
highly reflecting ground surface, either water or saturated
soil, has been well studied for rice. By using a theoretical
model describing the major scattering mechanisms, it was
found that the backscatter results mainly from the volume-
surface scattering (Le Toan et al., 1997). The theoretical
model indicated that for a given surface condition (water or
saturated soil), the volume-surface scattering increases with
the increasing volume of scatterers in the canopy layer. This
leads to an increasing relation of the backscatter signal with
the amount of water contained in the canopy expressed in
kg/m2. Indirectly, significant relationships may be found
between the radar backscatter and other biophysical param-
eters which are related to the plant water content such as
aboveground humid biomass (HTB), dry biomass (DTB),
plant height, and plant density. During the growth of the rice
crop, the temporal variation of the radar backscatter coef-
ficient rj, expressed in dB, exhibits a specific behaviour.
rj starts with the lowest values (typically,  16 to  18
dB) when the fields are just inundated, then increases
steadily during the vegetative stage of the plant, up to  6
to  7 dB at the beginning of the reproductivity phase, to
show small variations until harvest. Such ‘‘saturation’’ of
the signal is explained by the compensating effect of the
attenuation of the radar signal by the vegetation scatterers
with increasing biomass. At lower biomass, the attenuation
effect is not significant and the signal is dominated by
increasing scattering.
Quantitatively, the saturation is reached at about 2 kg/m2
of humid biomass or 1 kg/m2 of dry biomass and the
backscattering coefficient was found to be related to the
dry or humid biomass of rice (expressed in kg/m2) by a
logarithmic relationship:
Backscattering coefficient rjðdBÞ ¼ alognðbiomassÞ þ b:
The same scattering mechanisms should be found in
inundated totora and bofedal canopies, and significant cor-
relations between the SAR signal and the canopy biomass
are expected. However, the structure of the plants can
provide different relationships from those found on the rice
canopy (e.g., for Puna bofedal) and can change with the
phenological period (e.g., for inland totora). Experimental
observations are required specifically to establish the rela-
tionships between the SAR signal and the totoras and
bofedales biomass.
5.2. The available ERS-SAR data
Twelve ERS-SAR scenes were acquired over the test area
at 35 days interval during the experimental periods. The data
are three-look precision images (PRI) with a pixel size of
12.5 m both in range and azimuth. They have an incidence
angle of 23j at the center of the 100-km-wide swath.
5.3. Calibration and processing
ERS-SAR-PRI amplitude data were transformed into rj
values of backscattering coefficient in the ground range.
This was done on a pixel basis using Laur et al. (1998)
calibration method that includes corrections for the elevation
antenna pattern and the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
nonlinearities, as well as a comparison of the pulse replica
power used to generate each image with the reference replica
power.
These rj values are altered by the presence of speckle
(multiplicative noise generated by the constructive and
destructive interferences of individual scatterers contained
within a resolution cell), which makes it difficult to recog-
nize objects of only few pixels in size such as the harvested
surfaces of totoras or the areas grazed by attached animals in
the bofedales. To reduce the speckle effect and improve the
radiometric resolution of the data without reducing signifi-
cantly the spatial resolution, a filtering using the multi-scene
(multitemporal) data has been performed. The technique
used is an advanced multitemporal filter exploiting all the
available multitemporal ERS images to reduce the signal
variance, thus allowing to retrieve the detailed information
of few pixels in size, whilst preserving the radiometric
information of each image (Quegan & Le Toan, 1998;
Quegan, Le Toan, Yu, Ribbes, & Floury, 2000). The
principle is based on decreasing the width of the probability
density functions (PDFs) of the backscattering coefficient
over homogeneous areas (corresponding in this study to
each of the five biomass categories), through increasing the
equivalent number of looks (ENL) of the data (the ENL
constituting a convenient measure of the PDF width, with
ENL = mean2/variance of the backscattering coefficient over
homogeneous areas). The operation should provide filtered
images with an ENL = M registered channels
L looks of
the data used, with L = 3 for ERS). The simplified scheme of
the Bruniquel and Lopes (1997) multitemporal filter was
used, considering the negligible correlation over vegetated
areas between acquisitions.
This only involves a weighting by the local estimates of
the backscattering coefficient in the M images. The local
estimates of rj in each image involves using a window
surrounding the pixel at the position of interest, and an
estimation scheme which is spatially adaptive to local
structure in order to preserve resolution and to prevent
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 487

blurring of features (i.e., if any feature or point is found
within the window, the filter estimates the mean intensity by
averaging pixels only in the detected edge, line or point
regions to which the central pixel belongs) (Quegan & Le
Toan, 1998).
The ERS-SAR data has a radiometric within-scene
accuracy of F 0.15 dB and a between-scenes accuracy
of F 0.27 dB (Meadows, Laur, Sanchez, & Schattler,
1998). The 12 calibrated three-look ERS scenes, registered
through a simple translation to avoid modification of the
rj values and filtered, gave rise to 36-look intensity
images, this number varying in fact spatially within the
filtered images due to differences resulting from the
spatially adaptive estimates of local mean intensity. To

Fig. 8. Relationship between the ERS radar backscattering coefficient (dB) and the inland totora biomass: (a) humid biomass; (b) dry biomass.
488 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492

detect a difference of less than 1 dB between two areas in
the images, at 95% of confidence interval, the number of
looks should be of about 100 (Oliver & Quegan, 1998).
Using a 2
2 spatial filter, the ENL = 36 after multitem-
poral filtering becomes 36
2
2 = 144; taking into
account the partial correlation between pixels of ERS
(typically by reducing the ENL by a factor of about 3/4,
Oliver & Quegan, 1998), the resulting number of look
ENL is about 100. It means that differences of 1 dB can be
detected between rj values extracted from areas as small

Fig. 9. Relationship between the ERS radar backscattering coefficient (dB) and the shoreline totora biomass: (a) humid biomass; (b) dry biomass.
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 489

as areas of 2
2 pixels (25
25 m). Without the multi-
temporal filter, the corresponding minimum area size
would be 7
7 pixels (c 90
90 m), less suitable for
the small size of the totoras and bofedales areas of a given
biomass category.
The rj values extracted from distinct homogeneous
areas, representing each of the biomass categories present
per study site on each filtered image, are transformed into
rj(dB) values [i.e., rj(dB) = 10log10*rj]. These values are
used to generate temporal rj(dB) signatures of each of the
categories per site and per vegetation unit and are analysed
with regard to biomass.
What emerges from the temporal backscattering coeffi-
cient at different sites is the following:
1. the temporal pattern of rj(dB) is similar for all biomass
categories, with a maximum peak during the rainy season
and the lowest values during the dry season
2. a difference of 6 – 8 dB is observed between high and low
biomass categories,

Fig. 10. Relationship between the ERS radar backscattering coefficient (dB) and the Puna bofedal biomass: (a) humid biomass; (b) dry biomass.
490 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492

3. the highest values are observed in January – February
(growing period), and lowest values in July – August, at
senescence (dry season).
5.4. Relationship between rj and biomass
Radar backscatter relationships with humid and dry bio-
mass will be analysed in the following section. Figs. 8, 9, and
10 present, respectively, the backscatter coefficients of
inland totora, shoreline totora, and Puna bofedales as a
function of HTB (a) and DTB (b). In all the figures, the
backscatter variation as a function of biomass is in good
agreement with the backscattering behavior of an inundated
vegetation canopy: a fast increase of the backscattering
coefficient with increasing humid or dry biomass until a
given biomass level, followed by a lower increase or a
relative stability of the backscatter. The data presented in
Figs. 8, 9, and 10 show slow or no variation of the back-
scatter signal with biomass after the following biomass
values are reached: 3.0 kg HTB/m2 and 1.0 kg DTB/m2
for totoras; 4.0 kg HTB/m2 and 2.0 kg DTB/m2 for Puna
bofedales. The backscattering signal is about  17 dB for the
lowest biomass and reaches a maximum at about  5 to  6
dB, and the corresponding curves can be fitted by logarith-
mic function, similarly to observations on rice.
In general, the data points in the figures present relatively
large dispersion, e.g., as compared to the measurements on
rice crop. The causes of the data spread included the
uncertainties in ERS backscatter measurement and, more
specifically in this environment, in biomass estimates. Uncer-
tainties in rj include, in addition to signal calibration and the
remaining speckle effect, errors caused by delineation of
biomass categories on the ERS scenes. Uncertainties in
biomass estimates have several sources: errors in the random
sample selection, the visual estimates of biomass categories
performed by different members of the team during field
campaigns and errors in weighting and drying operations.
Specifically, the larger data spread in shoreline totoras (Fig.
9) is introduced during field biomass measurements per-
formed by boat, as observed by Collot et al. (1983). The
other important cause is the indirect relationships between the
backscatter signal and biomass, through relation with PWC,
which are dependent on (a) the plant growth stage in the case
of inland totoras (cf., Fig. 5a and b); (b) the species compo-
sition in biomass categories 2 and 3 for Puna bofedales (Fig.
10a), where aquatic and stemless succulent rosette-shaped
plants, which have higher HTB compared to other species
with the same DTB, bloom during the rainy season.
Table 1 presents the logarithmic regressions obtained per
sampling site.
There is consistency between the regression equations for
the different vegetation units:
rj = aln(HTB) + b, with a varying from 1.61 to 2.91, and
b from 10.64 to 12.49, R2 varying from 0.59 to 0.81
rj = aln(DTB) + b, with a varying from 1.90 to 2.45, and
b from 8.01 to 9.87, R2 varying from 0.59 to 0.84
R2 is higher for dry biomass for Puna bofedales and is about
the same for totoras.
For inversion purposes, regression equations are derived
per vegetation unit by putting together the data of different
sampling sites in its corresponding vegetation unit. (see
regression equations and correlation coefficients in Table
2). In the unsaturated part of the radar signal, the logarithmic
and linear relations are similar but with better R2 and lower
root mean square error (RMSE) in the case of linear
regressions. To simplify the process, the linear inversion
can thus be used.
5.5. Biomass mapping
Humid and dry aboveground or above water (depending
on the season and sites) biomass maps can be derived from
the SAR images applying an inversion method to the image
data. The method involves the following steps:
1. application of the 2
2 spatial filtering to the ‘‘multi-
temporal filtered’’ image.
2. application of the inversion algorithms based on linear
regressions (given in Table 2) to the filtered images on a
per pixel basis.

Table 1
Logarithmic regression relationship between ERS backscattering coefficient and aboveground or above-water biomass per sampling site
Vegetation Unit Site Dry biomass (DTB) Humid biomass (HTB)
2
R Log regression equation R2 Log regression equation
Inland totora Cohana 1 0.77 y = 1.90ln(x)  8.68 0.63 y = 1.61ln(x)  10.64
Cohana 2 0.64 y = 2.12ln(x)  8.46 0.73 y = 2.10ln(x)  10.78
Shoreline totora Cachilaya 1 0.59 y = 2.05ln(x)  8.64 0.60 y = 1.84ln(x)  11.20
Cachilaya 2 0.65 y = 2.23ln(x)  8.01 0.63 y = 2.21ln(x)  11.14
Chililaya 0.74 y = 2.38ln(x)  8.21 0.81 y = 2.71ln(x)  10.95
Puna bofedal Isquillani 0.75 y = 2.11ln(x)  9.98 0.59 y = 2.29ln(x)  12.17
Suriquina 0.80 y = 2.23ln(x)  9.55 0.69 y = 2.79ln(x)  11.51
Pariri 1 0.84 y = 2.45ln(x)  9.56 0.74 y = 2.91ln(x)  12.49
Pariri 2 0.72 y = 2.06ln(x)  9.41 0.59 y = 2.31ln(x)  11.41
Kerani 0.84 y = 2.05ln(x)  9.87 0.61 y = 1.67ln(x)  11.47
 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492 491

Table 2
Inversion equations per vegetation unit and root mean square errors (RMSE) of ERS data inversion into dry or humid aboveground or above-water biomass
Vegetation unit Biomass R2 Log inversion RMSE R2 Log inversion RMSE R2 Linear inversion RMSE
equation (kg/m2) equation ERS equation ERS
<  8 dB (kg/m2) <  8 dB (kg/m2)
Inland totora DTB 0.61 y = 15.14e0.36x 0.33 0.54 y = 23.89e0.39x 0.29 0.73 y = 0.09x + 1.48 0.20
HTB 0.59 y = 50.76e0.37x 0.97 0.49 y = 69.03e0.39x 0.84 0.69 y = 0.27x + 4.20 0.51
Shoreline totora DTB 0.59 y = 8.36e0.30x 0.31 0.48 y = 10.68e0.32x 0.28 0.52 y = 0.06x + 1.11 0.22
HTB 0.59 y = 30.66e0.31x 0.91 0.46 y = 35.08e0.32x 0.74 0.62 y = 0.21x + 3.63 0.54
Puna bofedal DTB 0.78 y = 27.79e0.36x 0.61 0.71 y = 54.28e0.41x 0.33 0.73 y = 0.17x + 2.66 0.30
HTB 0.61 y = 27.21e0.27x 1.26 0.55 y = 47.44e0.31x 0.96 0.53 y = 0.26x + 4.69 0.74

Since at values of rj higher than  8 dB the sensitivity of
the SAR signal to biomass is low for dry biomass (DTB)
exceeding 1 kg/m2 in the case of totoras, and 2 kg/m2 in the
case of bofedales, a threshold is fixed for rj saturating
values (e.g., for rj>  8 dB, DTB> 1 kg/m2 for totoras and
DTB>2 kg/m2 for bofedales).
The overall results of ERS data inversion into bio-
mass have a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.2 kg/
m2 in dry biomass for totoras and 0.3 kg/m2 for bofe-
dales.
Fig. 11 gives an example of mapping results for shoreline
totoras, using the above inversion method. These maps of
humid biomass on four dates, from January 1997 to June
1997, show temporal variations of biomass values. They
clearly depict the development phases of the reeds, as well as
the impact of seasonal harvest: peak biomass values in
January 1997 corresponding to the peak of the growing
period during the rainy season; decrease in March due to
harvesting; post-harvest regrowth in April; low biomass in
June corresponding to senescence period.
6. Conclusion: applications, limitations and prospects
The feasibility of inverting ERS data into plant biomass
shows the relevance of using C-band VV polarized data for
the detailed spatial estimation of biomass of values up to 1 kg/
m2 of dry biomass for totoras and 2 kg/m2 of dry biomass for
bofedales, at any specific date, with acceptable accuracy for
rangeland management purposes (RMSE of 0.2 and 0.3 kg/
m2, respectively). The retrieved information could be used to
promote the adoption of measures aimed at preventing forage
shortages and maintaining a balance between grazing charge
and forage availability, such as adjustment of animal charge
through selling, cultivation of irrigated fields of introduced
forage, purchase of additional forage, animal movements
among pastures (Alzérreca & Liberman, personal communi-
cation).
Results are very promising, but need to be validated more
quantitatively. For an in-depth interpretation, the study
should be performed over several vegetation cycles to ana-
lyse the influence of climatic phenomena (i.e., El Niño, La

Fig. 11. Above-water surface humid biomass (HTB) maps of shoreline totora derived from ERS-SAR data.
492 S. Moreau, T. Le Toan / Remote Sensing of Environment 84 (2003) 477–492
Niña). Furthermore, ENVISAT ASAR and future RADAR-
SAT2 data should be used to verify how different polar-
izations could optimize the estimation of wet Andean grass-
land biomass.
Finally, with regard to the cost efficiency of biomass
estimates from radar ERS-SAR data, some comparative
studies with high temporal resolution, medium spatial reso-
lution optical data from sensors such as NOAA-AVHRR or
the new Terra-MODIS and ENVISAT-MERIS are necessary
to evaluate their complementarity and find the most cost-
effective solution for Andean smallholders to improve native
forage and livestock management.
Acknowledgements
The 12 ERS scenes for this research were provided by the
European Space Agency (ESA) in an Announcement of
Opportunity project. Support for the fieldwork was given by
the Dutch International Service for National Agricultural
Research (ISNAR) in the framework of the DME-SUR
project. The Confederación Sindical Unica de Trabajadores
Campesinos de Bolivia (CSUTCB) helped establish the link
with smallholders to perform field sampling on their lands
and understand their specific needs, whereas the Bolivian
experts H. Alzérreca and M. Liberman shared their valuable
knowledge on the productivity and management of Andean
wet grasslands.
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