LL ————————————— Rheometry K. WALTERS. Professor of Applied Mathematics University College of Wales Aberssewyth @ CHAPMAN AND HALL - LONDONie First published 1975 by Chapman and Hall Led 1] New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Typeset by Preface Lid Salisbury, Wiltshire Printed in Great Britain by Whitstable Litho Whitstable, Kent ISBN 0 412 120909 © 1975 K. Walters All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted, or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or ‘other means, now known or hereafter invented, ingluding photocopying and recording. oF in any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher Distributed in U.S.A. by Halsted Press, «a Division of John Wiley & Sons, Ine., New York Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-2105 Preface Many industries, government research establishments and university research groups are concerned with a wide range of fluids which ean te broadly classified as ‘non-Newtonian’; polymer melts and polymer solutions come readily to mind in this connection, but the complete list is seemingly endless. Those who are practically concerned with the flow behaviour of these fluids invariably require measurements of their mechanical properties, so that “Kheometry’ plays a major role in the expetimentalists’ approach to non-Newtonian fluid mechanics. The theoretician is also concerned, since apart from his interest in supplying the background theory to a variety of existing rheometers, he is also involved in suggesting and describing new thcometer flow Situations and these are becoming progressively more sophisticated. ‘At the 6th International Congress on Rheology held at Lyon, France, in September 1972, two new commercially available rheometers were displayed — the Mechanical Spectrometer (Rheomettics Inc.) and the Rotary Rheometer (Instron Ltd.), together with established instruments such as the Weissenberg theogoniometer (Sangamo Weston Controls Ltd.) and the Balance Rheometer (Contraves, A.G.), These are sophisticated instruments requiring a working knowledge of both theoretical and experimental ‘heology on the part of those who use them. The present book is. intended to be a text book for such instruments as well as providing a background to ‘Rheometry” in general “There are two basic objectives in Rheometry. The first involves straightforward attempt to characterize the behaviour ofoj vi Preface non-Newtonian liquids in a number of simple (theometrical) flow situations, with a view to correlating material behaviour with either ‘molecular structure or observed behaviour in practical situations, The second objective concerns the construction of rheological equations Of state for the liquids which can be later used in the solution of flow problems of practical importance. To accomplish these objectives, especially the second, a working knowledge of theoretical theology {a difficult subject by common consent) is essential. This book is written by a Mathematician, but a genuine attempt has been made to avoid unnecessary mathematical rigour. It is hoped that the overall impression is one of sympathy for the needs of those with only a limited mathematical background, ‘The author was introduced to practical aspects of the subject of Rheometry during a three months visit to the Dallas Field Research Laboratory of the Mobil Oil Corporation in 1964 and the help and encouragement of Mr. J. G. Savins in particular were largely instrumental in motivating the formation of an experimentat programme within the author's research group. A further visit to the U.S.A. in 1973, (this time to the Mathematics Research Center of the University of Wisconsin) was also beneficial in formulating the general structure of this book. Stimulating discussions with Professors R. B. Bird and A. S. Lodge were of significant help in this connection. Lowe a great debt of gratitude to Professor J. G. Oldroyd who first awakened my interest in Rheology as a graduate student, and to Professors T. V. Davies and J. Heading who have in turn provided 1 very congenial atmosphere for research within the Applied Mathematics Department of the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Since 1967, experimental work within our research group hs been in the capable hands of Dr. J. M. Broadbent. His quiet and helpful influence is apparent in various sections of this book. ‘Some of the work contained in the book is a summary of research carried out at U.C.W., Aberystwyth with a succession of research students. | am happy to acknowledge their significant contributions to the text. Finally, Mr. J. F, Hutton of Shell Research Ltd. and my colleague, Dr. W. M. Jones, read an early draft of the text and made a number of useful suggestions for improvement, K. WALTERS, October 1974 © Contents Preface 1. Introduction and basic equations LL Viseoetasticity 1.2 From viscometry to eheometry 1.3 Basic equations 2. Rheological equations of state 2.1 Basie principles 2.2. Application of the theory ~ the simple fluid of Coleman and Noll 2.3. Other general rheological equations of state 24 Some relatively simple rheological equations of state 2.5 Restricted flow situations 2.6 Boundary conditions 2.7 Conclusion je sheomettical concepts 3.1 Steady simple shear flow 3.2. Small-amplitude oscillatory-shear flow 3.3. Combined steady and oscillatory shear flow 3.4 Extensional flow 3.5. The measurement of material functions in various geometries 3.6 The measurement of extensional viscosity in various geometries 3 7 18 19 20 21 2 2 28 30 31 32 40