Professional Documents
Culture Documents
293 PDF
293 PDF
E. WM. HEINRICH
Depm'/lIIellf of Mineralogy
U llitJc rsify of Michi"an
All" Arbor, Miclligan
1956
MICHOSCOPIC PETHOGRAPHY
CO\Jyright © ) 956 hy the MeGraw-Hill Book Company, In('. I'rint l·d ill the
United Stntes of America. All rights l'('st'TVt'd. This hook, or parts lht'rt'-
of, mny not b e reproduced in any for11l wi thout PCTlllission of the pub lishers.
NBS S (":;
RegionJI r' :
Bang .I:,):,:
MICROSCOPIC PETROGRAPHY
McGraw-HiI1 Series in the Geological Sciences
ROBERT R. Sm~O<:K, ConS lilting Editor
Because of the div 'rsity of rocks, the several ways in which they are
formed , and the C'llormOLiS size variation of the units which they
compose and which compose them (batholiths to submicroscopic
crystallites), the scienc of petrology utilizes several contrasting modes
of illvestigation in seeking answE'rs to problems of pctrogenesis .
Among the most important of these approaches are:
1. Gcological ( field ) hlchniques
2. Chemical techniques
3. Exp 'rimental techniqu es
4. Petrographical techniques
The petrographical approach coucerns its 1£ principally with textur -'
and mineral composition, the latter involving not m rel~' min ral
identincutioll hut, for chemically complex species, an approximation
of their ('omposition through meas urem nt of their optical properties.
Considerable petrographic information can be obtained b y the mega-
scopic examination of outcrops and hand specimens, usually with the
aid of a hand lens. However, most of th e available data are obtainable
by means of the petTographic polarizing micros 'ope, and for some
refinements (e.g., clay min eral identities, p rthitc studiC:'s ) other t('ch-
niqu cs capable of high ' r resolution , slIeh as x-rays and the electron
microscope, have become both desirable and necessary.
Petrography today stands as a p €trological tool and no longer as an
end itself. Nor can it b employed as the sole means of eff ctive rock
investigation. Yet it remains as the method that ean conh'ibutc, under
proper application, th gr atest amoullt of information to the de-
ductive approach in the science of rocks.
This book is intend d as a text to scrv Oil the initial to intel'm diate
level of th syst matic microscopic shtdy of rocks. Its use presupposes
vii
viii Preface
that the student is familiar with the techniques of mineralogical optical
microscopy and with the general optical characteristics of the more
common rock-forming and accessory mineral s.
Few modern textbooks have been devoted principally to petrog-
raphy, most of the more fec nt books b eing preoccupied with
petrogenesis. This preponderance of emphaSiS has forced stud nts to
refer to older books for petrographic information. Yet many new
petrographic data and many fin recent petrographic studic have
supplemented or revised older petrographic descriptions, parti cul arly
with respect to th e variation in mineral composition in rocks alld its
significance. It is hoped that this book will bring some of this scattered
information within the ken of the student.
No new rock nam es or group names have b een introduced, and rela-
tively few varietal names are listed. Even such listin g does not neces-
sarily imply approval of their continued usc. The use of a v ry few
nam s, such as phonolite, has bel:!n somewhat extended ovcr historical
usages in order to simplify groupings. In citing examples of rock types
the writer has attempted to list well-known United States or North
American examples wherever possible.
Mr. Fred Anderegg has prepared most of th e photomicrographs.
Credit is given separately for all photomicrographs originated by other
individuals. The writer is greatly indebted to his co lleagues in the
Department of Mineralogy for continuous advic and assistance, par-
ticularly to Prof. Walter F . Hunt. Edith Dunn Hein ri ch assumed mu ch
of the difficult task of checking the manu script ancl proofreading. Mrs.
F. L. Everett performed much of the laborio us stenograp hic work.
Despite careful preparation, editing, and proofreading, errors of com-
mission and omission will no doubt appear. The writer will 'onsider
it a favor if readers will bring these to his atten ti on .
E. WM. H EINRICH
CONTENTS
Preface. vii
TJlin Sf'ctions I
Ceneral . 1
Pn'pnration 2
Staining . 7
Pro('(:'dure fOJ ,,' pheline. 7
Praceciurl' for Nephelille and Pln~i(lclas(' 7
Procedure far Brucite-Ser pentine and Calcite- Dolamit· 8
Micram tric Min eralogical Ana lysis . 8
The Imlllersion Method . 12
Examination with the Binoctllnr l\·!icroscopt: 13
Other Methods. 13
CllAPTEll 2. ICNuous ROCKS-CE~EHAl . 15
Earth Stnlcture and Primary Ma gmas 15
Devdopt1)(' nt of c('ondary Magmas . 16
Di rfl'f('n tia lian 16
Syntcxis . 18
Mingling of Magillas 18
Granitization 19
Classification Hl
Textur S find Mi rostmdures. 21
Individual Min ora ls. 21
Mineral Comhinations and Croups 22
Texture" . 23
Sequence of Crystnllizatiall 26
CHA1'TElI 3. DE ClI.!PTJONS OF k ' EOUS HOCKS 29
Granite-Rhyolit, Fall lily 29
Granite 29
Rhyolit 35
bsjdian and Helutt'd Rocks 38
ix
x Contents
Granodiorite-Quartz Latite F umily 41
Granodiorite. 41
Qu~z Lti~ ~
Syenite-Trach yte J:< \ ullily 44
Syenite 44
Trachyte. 49
Monzonitc-L a tite Falltily 51
Monzonite 51
La ote 53
Foidal Syc nit('-!'honolitc Fa mily 54
r oidal SyenitE's . 54
Phonolites 60
Ton alite-Dacite F am il y 64
Tonalite ( Qua rtz Di'orit e) 64
Dad te 65
Diorite-Andesite F a milv 67
Diorite 67
Andesite. 70
Gabbro-Basalt Family. 73
C abbro 73
Diahase . 7R
Basalt 80
Foidul C a bbro-Foidal Basalt F am ily. R4
Foidal Ga bbro . 84
Foid al Basa lts and Related Rocks 86
Peridotite F a mily 89
Pyroclastic Rocks 92
Vitri c Tuffs . 94
Crystal Tuffs 96
Lithic Tuffs . 9-;
Hy brid Tuffs DR
C lII\PTEII 4. S E OIM ENT AlIY H OCKS-GENEHA I. . 99
Origin a nd Classification . 99
T " tures a nd Mic rostru ctures . 102
T cx turt:'s of E piclast ie Hocks 102
T exhlfC's of Chemi cally Precipitated Rocks 101)
T extur s of Orga ni c Rocks. Ion
Speeial r ca turp.s 107
Insol1lble Rl's icillt'S J07
Carhona te Rock Res idul's 108
Saline Residues LOR
Accessory D etrital Minerals 109
Authi genic Minerals . 112
CHAPTE R 5. D ESC HIPTJO NS Ot- S,I,;J)IMEN'J'A RY ROCKS. 1J 4
San dstone a nd Related Hocks . 114
Sa ndstone find Siltstone 11 4
Contents xi
Conglomerate and Breccia 120
Arkos(' 122
Graywacke 123
Clay. Sha le. anel Ih,lat<,el Hocks 126
Clay. 126
Kaolin and Kaolinit( , C lay 126
lIIit e Clay, 127
Montmori ll onite Clay 12R
Diaspore Clay. 130
Other C lays 130
Bauxite 130
Shale·· . 132
Chal ('cdo ni e and Rp]ntecl Rocks 135
Clwrt. 135
Dintolnit(' and Hadinlaritc . 138
I .i",,'storl(' and J{(·1at(·d Hocks 139
Li lllC'slonc 139
Tra\ (·rline and R('lated Rocks 144
Dolomite. 145
J 'ilosphnril eS 147
V('rr\l~inous lind Ma1\~anifero ll s Hocks 149
Iron Carhonalt· Rocks 150
Iroll Oxidl-' Hucks 15]
Iron SulRde Rocks . 153
Iron Silicate Rocks ]54
Manganiferous Hocks 155
Sa lill es ( Evaporit(·s ) . 156
Ro·k Salt and R('lull'd Rocb 156
Sylvite-Halitc Hock s 159
Carnallite Rocks. ]59
Poly halite Rocks. 160
Hock Gypsum 161
Hock Anhydrite. 163
Kainite Rocks 166
Burite Rocks . 166
Strontium Hocks. 166
Hoek Horates ]67
Soda Niter . 168
Hoek Sulfm . 168
Analcite Rocks 168
CIiAJ'TEfI 6. METAMOIIPII IC ROCKS - GENEHAI. 170
Origin and Classiflt-ntion 170
Introduction. 170
Chemical Classes 171
Types of Metamorphism 171
IntenSity of M(·tfllllorphislll . 172
Texh lres and Microstructures 176
xii Contents
Cataclastic Textures 176
Crystalloblastic Textures 176
Porphyroblasts 177
Relict Tex tures 178
Maculose, Phacoidal, and Rrlated Textures . 179
Symplectites and Other Semirrgll lar Intergrowths 180
Foliation. 182
CHAPTEH 7. DESClUPTJONS OF Ml!:TAMOrtPIlI C H OCKS. 184
Cataclasites and Related Rocks 184
Brecciated Rocks 184
Phacoidal Hocks . 185
Mylonitic Rocks . 186
Vitrified Rocks . 187
Pyrometamorphic Rocks 187
Spotted Slates and Hornf"ls('s J90
Pelitic Hornfelses 190
Spotted Slates 192
Other Hornfelses ]93
Marbles and Related Rocks 193
Marbles . 193
Calc-silicate Hornfelses. 198
Calc Schists . 199
Calc-silicate Gneisses, Tactites, and R bted Rocks 201
High-Temperature Calc-silicate Rocks. 204
Magnesite Rocks 205
Quartzites and Related Rocks 206
Argillites, Slates, and Phyllites 2()$)
Argillites. 209
Slates. 209
Phyllites 211
Micaceous Schists. 212
Chlorite Schists and Related ROl,ks 212
Chloritoid Schists 214
Stilpnomelane Schists 216
Muscovite Schists 217
Biotite Schists 219
Graphite Schists. 222
Talc Schists and Soapstonf' 223
Talc Schists . 223
Soapston es . 224
Pyrophyllitc Schists. 225
Sillimanite-group Schists and Gneisses and Related Rocks 226
Staurolite Schists and Gneisses 226
Kyanite Schists and Gneisses . 227
Sillimanite Schists and Gneisses 228
Cordierite Gneisses. 231
Sapphirine Hocks 232
Contents xiii
Topaz, Dumortierite, and Andalusite Rocks 232
Quartz-Feldspar Gneisses and Related Rocks 233
Quartz-Feldspar Gneisses 233
Fel~ic Granulites 236
Alkali Gneisses . 239
PYTOXf'ne Granulites, Ch:unoekites, Eclogites, and Related Rocks 239
Pyrox('n Granulites and Charnockites 239
E'" IOg'i tcs . 242
lade . 243
Al~phihok Schists and Gneiss!'s and AmphiboHlt'S 244
ActinolitC" Schists 244
Ant hophyllitc Schists and Iklated Roeks 245
Glnu eophan(, Schists and Belated Roeks . 247
Glnueophane Schists . 247
GlallC'ophanf' Alliphiholites a nd Related Roeks 250
OCClll'reJle(' and Origin 251
ll ornhl('nde Schists 252
HOTnbll'nd,·· Gn('iss('s and Alilphibolitt·s 253
Epidote-group Rocks . 256
Ct'lwral . 256
J'ieul11nntitc Sehists . 257
Unnkitc, EpidusitC", and lklatt'd Rocks 258
Ferruginolls and Manganiferous Hot:ks . 259
Hydrous Iron Silicat(' Rocks . 259
Jaspilites, Hl'lllatite Schists, and Related Rocks 261
Map:llt·tit(' Rocks . 263
Eulysites and Relate·d Hocks 266
EIII CT), 269
l\!allganese Silicate Hucks 270
Migl1latitf's . 271
lilBLIOGHAPllV 273
Gen('ral . 273
Ign('ous Rocks and ProCCSSf'S 273
S(·dilllcntary Rocks and Procf'SScs. 274
~f<otalllorphil' Rocks and Proc 'sses 274
Illdex 275
1
METHODS OF MICROSCOPIC STUDY
THIN SECTIONS
General
FJr. . 1. Diamond-saw assembly for cutting thin sections. A , Universal clump block;
11, buttrcss block ; C, basp block; D, swing above fced track; E, verti cal "lift"
adjustment; F, clamp bar for universal clamp; G, mounted rock slice; Ii , lubricant
dispenser; ] , turntahle; K , end bolt, for thickness adjustment. (Courtesy of Charles
M eyer and ECl1rlomic Geology.)
ing dge of the universal clamp pr vent the rock slice (Fig. IG) from
slipping backward or forward during cutting. A later improvement
holds the slide onto the block through suction appli d to the rear of
the slide by means of two hoI s through the block. The bottom edge
of th object glass rests on that slight proj ction of th base block
(Fig. Ie) which forms one wall of the notch where the saw blade
Methods of Microscopic Study 5
travels. The bottom of the blade, while making the cut, should pass
at Jeast 1 ~ in . below the lower edge of the object glass. The base block
is capable of movement on a track oriented perpendicularly to the
axis of the compound. This adjustment is made by tightening the two
eml bolts ( Fig. lK) against one another. It controls the thickness of
th e resulting section. A 6-in. sintcred-diamond blade is used On th('
machine. Kerosene, the lubricant, is supplied to the cutting edge by
jets on either side of the blade (Fig. IH ). With experience, sections
may b e cut directly to a uniform thickness of 0.08 mm. The section is
then hand -fini shed to 0.03 mm, using a coarse polishing abrasive in
water or kerosen on a flat lap or on a glass plate.
After the thin secti on has been prepared, it is best to use Canada
balsam il mounting th e cover slip. The balsam should be heated to
about]] OOC, at which temperature it Bows readily, but at which the
Lakesid .is merely soft. A wooden spatula cut to the width of the
glass slide is used to spread a film of balsam over the surfaee of th e
section. One strok of the spatula is best in order to avoid air bubbles.
Both the seetion and the cover slip should b e preheated gently. A
small ridge of balsam is placed down the center of the cover slip
with th e side of the spatula . The cover slip is then tou ched to the glass
sliel e' at th top end and allowed to d sc:end I1neler its own weight upon
the full surface of the sHde. A small weight in th e shape of a rectangu-
lar block is then placed upon the cowr slip in order to press out the
excess balsam, whieh may be removed with xylol.
In old thin sections th e balsam may have partly crystallized to
polarizing, randomly oriented needles or minute spherulites. Gentl e
heating should restore its isotropic chara cter.
Friable specimens can nrst be impregnated with lucite (methyl
metha crylate) monomer, using a vacuum. The lucite may be cut and
ground with the constituf'nts of the rock and does Dot soften notice-
ably at 130 to 140°C.
The inhibitor in the methacrylat is nrst removed with ither a 2 or
3 per cent aqu ous solution of potassium hydroxide. This solution is
addecl in small amounts until the hvdroxide solution remains colorless
and is not tinged brown by the inhibitor. Two washings accompanied
by thorough shaking aTe g€'nerally sufficient; three may be necessary.
The solution is then washed three times with thorough shaking with
water. Water that remains is removed by adding dehydrated calcium
chloride several times in amounts of about 1 g each time, agitating
the mixture and collecting the wat r that drains off. This is repeated
until the liquid lucite is entirely clear.
6 Microscopic Petrography
The specimen to be impregnated is placed smooth surface down in
a disposable glass jar. A pi ce of benzoyl peroxide about the size of
a large rice grain is placed on top of the specimen. The prepared lucite
is then run through filter paper (No. 41) onto the specimen in the jar,
and the benzoyl peroxiue is dissolved.
The jar is stoppered tightly with a suitable rubber stopper penc-
tJ'ated by a thick-wall d glass tube conllected to an aspirator vacuum
pump. The pump, which should have a suitable trap to prevent the
rptllTJ1 How of water, is started slowly, and pressure is diminished
gradually. Generally 2 min will suffice for smaller specimens, although
materials such as clays may require as much as 20 min. Observe the
jar closely, and when most of the larg bubbles of air have been with-
drawn, small bubbles will begin to form. This may indicate that the
lucite is boiling under reduced pressure. The formation of these
bubbles will be accompanied by a rapid decline in temperatur of the
jar. Tn coverillg the specim n an excess of about 20 per cent of lucitc
should be used. For jars 2 in. or so in diameter this amounts to a
height of about 1 ~ in. above the sp cimen. After the material has
been completely evacuated, the pump should be released, and air
pressure will force the lucite into the evacllatecl openings.
The lucite is cured at 90°C in the covered jar for a period of 10 to
12 hr; overnight is not too long. The jar is thf'n broken to remove the
specimen, which may be sawed and trimmed as any other.
Various other impregnating media have been us d for honding
friable sediments, volcanic debris, and other incoherent natural and
synthetic materials for thin-section preparation. Canada balsam has
b en employed, as have kollolith, which has nearly the same index as
balsam, and bakelite varnish, with n = 1.60 to 1.64. The application
of these media is hind >red by their relativ ly high Viscosity, and they
must be used in some solvent, whos evaporation is attended by the
formation of bubbles within the specimen unless special pr cautions
are observed. A liquid of lower viscosity is aroda!" 4465 with
n = 1.66+, by mans of which friable materials may b impregnated
quickly and effectivcly through capillary action, without any solvent.
Thin sections of saline rocks containing water-soluble min rals
present some special difficulties. The rock must be cut dry or with
paraffin. If deliqucscent minerals are present, the rock slice must b
kept moist during final grinding. Paraffin will slowly dissolve Canada
balsam. If halite is the only soluble mineral, the section may be cut
and ground in a saturated NaCI brine. Rock slices that contain
gypsum should not be heated strongly, but even if this precaution is
Methods of Mict'Oscoplc Study 7
observed, calcium sulfate hemihydrate may form during grinding but
may be reconverted to gypsum by wetting the surface.
It may be advantageous not to cover sections of salines, in order to
observe reactions in moist air. Deliquescent salts will collect moisture.
Etching with water and various brin s will also assist identi£.cation
and bring out microstructural cletails. Some minerals may be detected
b eca use of their marked efflorescence . Sections of deliquescent min-
eral s should b stored in a CaCl 2 dessicator.
Staining
In some cases, particularly if rocks contain two or more mineral
species tha t arc oppcally similar superficially or if the speed and ac-
curacy of Rosiwal determinations are to b e incr ased, sel ctive stain-
in g of min rals in uncovered thin sections may b e highly ad-
vantageous. Although stains have been described for many mineral
specie'S, in practice only a few are necessary and in common use :
1. To distinguish nepheline from potash feldspar and plagioclase
2. To di stin guish potash feldspar from untwinncd or very fin ely
twinned plagioclase
.'3. To distinguish b etween calcite and dolomite
-:I.. To distingui sh b etwe n brucite and serpentine
J. Sprc'ad with glass rod a thin film of sirupy phosphoric acid oVIJr
section; allow to remain 3 min.
Z. Wash by dipping gently in wat'r.
3. Immerse sljde in 0.25 per cent solution of methyl!:'ne hll1c 1 min .
4. Wash off excess dye by dipping gently in water.
By this technique nepheline, socialite, and analcit are stained deep
blue, mclilite a light blue; potash feldspar, plagioclas , and I ucite
are unaffected . Zonal structure in nepheline may b e revealed, the
IInstained zones b eing richer in SiO ~ .
P'
/
5
flG. 5. Mec.:hnnical stage with slap mechanisms, for USe as Chaycs point counter.
1, OV 'l'sized knob with 24 holes drilled from below; 2, stop pin; 3, pinholdcr;
4, lockscrew; 5, elongut<-d hole for locking lockscrew. By turning knob 1, the
stop pin 2 jumps from one hole to the next in step of 0.5 111m. ( Courtesy of
Felix C/1(l1j 1.'8 rwd J3a!t,imo/'e lnsll'llm enl Co.)
OTHER METHODS
Syntexis
Syntexis refers to th e assimilation of forei gn material by magmas
by means of various mechanisms-melting, solution, and reaction. One
of the most widely accepted theories for th E' ori gin of somc f 1c1-
spathoidal syenites postulates large-scale reaction bt'twe<:'n granitic
magmas and calcareous sedimentary or metamorphic rocks involving
either desilication of the granitic magma throu gh th formation of
Ca or Ca-Mg silicates or through the enrichment of the magma in
CO 2 , or both. Another group of rocks that apparently have crystallized
from basaltic-type magmas modified by the assimilation of sialic mate-
rial are the mafic potassic rocks-leu cite basalts and th eir kindred.
The form ation of some diorites has been ascribed to reaction b etween
granitic magma and manc wall rocks snch as amphibolites or gabbros
or even limeston s or marbles. The dev lopment of spilitic b asalts has
been xplained, under one of several theories, by assuming an incor-
poration of associated graywacke sedimentary material and / or sea
water.
Mingling of Magmas
The mixing of partly crystalline magmas of different composition
prior to eruption (e.g., basaltic with rhyolitic) has b n suggested to
explain the origin of certain volcanic rocks, especially andesites (San
Juan Mountains, Colorado) , which contain plagioclas phenocrysts of
markedly diverse composition or with abnormal zoning.
Igneous Rocks- General 19
CLASSIFICATION
Pyroclastic rocks
Igneous Rocks-General 21
separate subdivisioll. Since many pyroclastics are contaminated by
sedimentary material or have been rew0rked, some advantage may be
gained by studyillg them after th student is familiar with sedimentary
rocks.
No new ign ous names h ave been introduced ; no old obscLLr names
have been resuscitated ; th e t1L11nb<'r of varietal types describ d is small,
Hod their appearance is not necessarily indicative of approval for the ir
continued usag .
In Table 1, felsic indicates that the amount of light-color d con-
stitUl'nts exc eds that of dark; intermediate, the two groups are nearly
equal; mafic, dark-colored minerah exceed light-colored ones; essen-
tial , 10 per cent or morc; sodic p lagioclase, Ab lUo-&u; calcic plagioclase,
Ab:,IJ-o,
Individual Minerals
The form of individual min rals is largely a reflection of th degree
of crystallizutioll and the perfection of their normal outline. The
_.
• •• • .• •~.• ....
•. ... ....... ~
~.
•••
, • •••
•
• .~
••
Flc. 6. Crystallites. Top row. left to 1·jght, globulites, cumulites. mnrgarites; lower
row, /('"11 10 righI, hc-Ionitcs, trkhitC's . scOpuli ll'S.
Sequence of Crystallization
The g neral order of crystallization from ign ous magmas may be
illustrated by Bowen's reaction series ( Fig. 8). As a result of cooling,
crystals that are precipitated at a given temperature are in equilbrium
with the remaining liquid at that temp rature. With continued cool-
ing, earlier crystallized minerals no lon ger are in equilibrium with the
magma, but will, if cooling takes place slowly, react with the liquid to
change their composition or to form as new minerals. Thus th e left-
hand branch of the reaction series ( Fig. 8) is discontinuous ( involv-
ing formation of new species at the expens of different, older min -
erals ), whereas the right-hand arm is contin nou s (forming plagioclase
of progressively different composition). In many cases the time avail-
able for complete reaction was insufficient, and early minerals app ar
corroded, as reli cts, cores, or zones.
It should not b e assumed that one mineral completes its growth b e-
fore others begin theirs, but rath er that iJTegular tim overlapping oc-
curs. The exact sequ ence also depends in part on th e composition of
the magma, and in some cases simultaneous or partly simultan ous
crystallization of min ral pairs takes place. In general the sequence is:
1. Early accessory minerals: magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, zircon ,
sphene
2. Anhydrous ferromagnesian sili cates (olivine, pyroxenes) and
calcic plagioclase
3. Hydrous f rromagnesian silicates (amphiboles, biotite) and in-
termediate to sodic plagioclase
Igneous Rocks- General 27
4. Alkali f Idspars and qnartz
5. Late accessories: muscovite, fluorite, tourmaline
6. Exsolution min rais
Calcic plagioclase
Rodic plagioelase
j
/
/
(M u~cov i te)
Potash fpldspur
(>Na1
Qllartz <N a
FIG. 8. Th reaction series of Bowen (modifh-d ).
GRANITE-RHYOLITE FAMilY
Granite
Definition. Granite is plutonic und IJypab)'ss~II , holocrystallin ,
phaneritic, contain:ng:
(u)
F IG, gu, b, ( l/ ) Cranite, Woodbury, Vprmont. Micro 'line, quartz, oligoclase,
bioti,t .' Nicols erossed" X9,5: (b) Alkali ,granite, Quincy, Massachusetts. Quartz,
kaolimzed orthoclase, n ebechtc, ZlTcon, NIcols not crossed, X9,5.
quartz are especially abundant, and in a few cases the feldspar be-
comes poikilitic, enclosing quartz and/ or oligoc.:Jase, Micropegmatite
is widespread anu abundant; som orthoclase grains grade into rims
of micropegmatit , Anorthoclase, either twinned Or untwinned, also
may show zoning, In some cases a broad core with nonuniform x-
tinction is set in a narrow, unifOlm frame, Rims of albite also occur,
and inclusions of aegirine needles are common,
In porphyriti c gl;an itcs the phenocrysts are commonly microcline or
ortho -las , All matrix minerals may be included, but biotite inclusions
ar palticularly common, In granite porphyri s sanidine also forms
phenocrysts.
Potash feldspars are altered to kaolinite, other clay mjnerals, seri-
cite (or coarse muscovite), and I 5S usually to zeolites or chlorite. The
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks 31
feldspars commonly have a turbid aspect. Alteration may be zonal,
along cleavages, or irr gular.
In normal granites the plagioclase (exclusive of that in perthites)
is sodie to intermediate oligoclase. In granites richer in mafics or con-
taining pyroxene, andesine may be present. In alkali types th pI agio-
das > is albit or oligoclase. Zoning of the normal type is common;
very fin e albite or albite plus Carlsbad twinning is characteristic.
Hounded quartz inclusions may be zonally auang d. Myrm kite
forms interstitial patches or marginal rims. Antiperthite also occurs.
Plagioclase, which forms uncommon phenocrysts in SOm granite
porphyri s, shows zoning and may be rimmed by alkali feldspar.
Plagioclase alters to sericite or coarse muscovite and clay minerals.
Zonal replacemcllt or even sel ctive replacement of One set of twin
lamellae is not uncommon . Usually plagioclase is altered before potash
feldspar.
Quartz is 110nnally interstitial, except in some granite porphyries
in which it forms bipyramidal phenocrysts that may be conod d,
deeply t mbaycd, or evell rOllnded. Milch quartz also occurs in graphic
jJlh>rgrowths with the feldspars-with potash feldspar as micropeg-
matite and granophyre, and with plagioclase as myrmekite. In plutonic
quartz inclusions of hairlike rutil may be pr sent. Minute, irregularly
dishibuted liquid-gas inclusions are common ("bubble trains") .
Apatite and tommalin e arc also included. Strain effects are wide-
spread-undulatory extinction, anomalous biaxial character, mortar
structure, Or even crushing of the entire grain.
Biotite, the most common mafic mineral, is in some granites tht:'
only mafic; in others it occurs with muscovite, in still others with am-
phibole. Th biotite of alkali granites is iron-rich, eith r Fc 2 , Fe", or
hath, showing very strong absorption , and has uSl1ally been called
lepidomelane. In calc-alkali granites the biotite is lighter brown, rarely
green. Bird's-eve extinction is characteristic. Inclusions:1r zircon with
its llsual pI oc"ttroic halos, magn tite ilnwnite, apatite, allanite, xello-
time, and quartz. Intergrowths with and overgrowths by muscovite
are conspicuous in some granites. In granite porphyries biotite, as un-
COmmon phenocrysts, shows partial or complet resorption to magnet-
jte or magnetite and pyroxene. Biotite alters to chlorite (eommonly
penn inc ) with by-product magnetite, sphene, or rutile. Prior to this
conversion, the biotite may be bleached gr'en.
M tlscovite occurs with biotite, very rarely alone. Much of it cl early
replaces biotite, along margins, cleavages, or even in micrographic in-
tergrowths; magnetit . acem nt. Some
NB SS&LUP
Region :ll C "n Ire LI brary
Bangalore 560 024.
32 Microscopic PetrogralJhy
coarse muscovite also forms by replac ment of plagioclase. Pleo-
chroic halos appear around zircon, and bird's-eye-extinction mottling
characterizes coarse flakes.
In calc-alkali granites the amphibole is green or brownish green
hornblende. Zoning may ocelli, and twinning on (100 ) is common.
lnclusions are magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, sphene, and zircon ( with
halos ). In some granite porphyries horn blend or oxyhornblende
forms phenocrysts, resorbed marginally or generally.
In alkali granites the amphibol is a sodic type- hastingsite, arfv d-
sonite, or riebeckite. Zoning is not uncommon, especially in arfved-
sonite, in which brown cores are mantled by bIll rims, or in which the
cnds of irr gular grains grade into riebeckite. Inclusions of aegirine
and aenigmatite may be present, and some arfvedsonite is mantled
by aegirine.
Uncommon diopside and augite are the pyroxenes in calc-alka1i
granit s; ferroan hypersthen e is rare. Usually th e pyroxene survives
as an irregular cor in hornbl ende. Twinning on (100) is not uncom-
mon, and various accessories, including balo d zircon, form inclusions.
In alkali types, aegirine-augite, aegiJ"ine (including acmite), or rarely
hedenbergite OCClli. Aegirine is replaced by riebeckite or arfvedsonitc.
Accessories includ magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, pyrite, apatite,
xenotime, monazite, zircon (may be zoned), allanite, sphene, tour-
maline, fluorite, fa yalite, and garnet (especially in muscovite types ).
The allanit may be overgrown by epidot . Less widespread are an-
dalnsit " cordierite, and sillimanite. Alkali varieties may also contain
aenigmatite, astrophyllite, pyrochlore, and thorite. Astrophyllite oc-
curs in elongate, light brown sheaves, usually in radial groups.
Th alt ration minerals are chlorite, calcite, epidote-clinozoisite,
zoisite, quartz, kaolinite and other clay minerals, sericite, zeolites,
leucoxene, sphene, rutile, magnetite, hematit , and limonite. Some
granite walls of hydrothermal cassiterite deposits show extensive re-
placement to greisen-an aggregate of quartz, litbium mica, topaz,
tourmaline, fluorite, and cassiterite. Othcrs are transformed to topaz-
quartz aggregates, or are tommalized (Juxullianites) (Fig. 9c ).
The main mineralogical types ar biotite granite ("normal") , musco-
vite-biotit granite (binary or two-mica granite), hornblend -biotite
granite, hornblende granite, pyroxene granite, tourmaline granite,
rieb ckite granite, arfvedsonite granite and aegirine granite. Some rare
granites are rich in quartz, containing nearly 60 per cent. The term
alaskite is an unnecessary name for a leucogranite. Granitite is an
obsolete name for the normal, i.e., biotitic, granite. Silexite and
Dese--riptiolls of Igneous Rocks 33
arizonite were names given to quartzose-vein materials of presumed
magmatic origin.
Textures and Microstructures. Granites are anhedral-granular, ev n-
grain d , fine- to coarse-grained, with the mafic 'onstituents and
plagio 'lase usually somewhat suhhedral to euhedral and quartz and
potash feldspar anh dral (Fig. 9a ) . Zircon, apatite, sphene, and mag-
netite are euhedral, hut Bnorite is characteristically interstitial. In
alkali granites (Fig. 9b ), the mafics may he entirely anhedral and
even interstitial (agpaitic texture ). Riebeckite, particularly, forms
spongy, irregular crystals, including grains of feldspar and <J uartz·
~Ia£c minerals may h e clustered
in aggregates, as is biotite, or in
stTings, as is pyroxene (synnellsis
t('xture ). Tn addition to the graphic
quartz-feldspar intergrowths similar
to dactylic intergrowths occur be-
tween biotite-muscovite, biotite-
qllartz, and biotite-orthoclase. In
gneissoid types the maRes are snh-
parallelly oriented, as are any pheno-
crysts.
Granites are not uncommonly
porphyritic, the phenocrysts bcin~
orthoclase or microcline. In granite FIG. 9c. Toumlalinized granite,
porphyri s, however, ph enocrysts of Cornwall, England. FihrOlls tourma-
line, (luartz, topaz, lower left.
the mafic minerals as well as the fcld- Nicols not crOss d, X9.
spars and quartz occur. Quartz
may show considerable embayment or granopbyric rims, and plagiO-
clase phenocrysts may b armored by potash feldspar. Microgranites
ar merely very fine grained types.
Cataclastic effects are common-undulatory and biaxial quartz,
mortar structure, bent feldspar cleavages and twin lamellae, mosaic
structure in quartz and feldspar, and bent mica plates.
The aplitic texture is fin - and ev n-graincd, saccharoidal, with
sutured to interlocking grain boundaries. Aplites in the narrow sense
are leucogranites with these textures (Fig. lOa) , but all rock families
cOntain representatives with aplitic textures. Lik wis , pegmatite, in
the narrOw sens ref rs to leucogranitic dike and sill rocks of very
coarse grain, but all families have pegmatitic types. Granitic and
granodioritic pegmatites are by far the most common. In th rapakivi
texture large porphyritic ovoids of orthocJnse are surrounded by a
34 Mk'1'osco pic Petrography
mantI of oligoclas and arc set in a matrix of smaller rounded oligo-
clase grains, quartz, biotite, and hornblende. Orbicular structures
are well represented among granites. Miarolitil: sb'ucturcs also occllr·
O CCU1·rence. Granites occm in all types of plutonic and hypabyssal
bodies, especially in batholiths, tocks, and plutons of various shap s
and sizes. TIu'ee general cat gories of granitic bodies are recognized:
1. Enormous plutons of pre-Cambrian shields
2. Bathouths in the cores of mountain ranges
3. Minor intrusives
Two contrasting structural types of graniti . batholiths can b e dis-
tinguished: (1) a type of rather variable composition, gneissic struc-
(b)
FIC. 10. (a) Aplite, Waynesvm , North Carolina. Microcline, quartz, oligoclase'.
Nicols crossed, X 19. (b ) Cranophyr~, San Lllis Ht'y Qlladran t, California. Ortho-
clase with inter grown quartz; magnetite. Ni (lIs crossed, X 19.
Holocrystalline
1. Microgranular (Fi g. 110 )
2. Pilotaxitic 01' felted
3. Trachytic
4. Granophyric (Fig. lOb)
5. Sphemlitic
6. Cryptocrystalline; devitrified
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks 37
F IG. J la, h. ((J) Hhyo litC' dtrnpil yl'C'. Arran , Scotland. Elllbayc·d q ua rtz pht'no-
t'l'~'~ts , a u git t' microLitt·s , glass . .,\i t'( ll.~ 1I0t c rossc'd ,
XR. ( b ) Hh., o li te . Tc'ncioy
\rtllinlains , ;\Iontnll:l . ()u,lrtz pht 'lloc 'rysls in a flow-hand ed cl'ypl o- to Illicro-
l'1"., ·'ln liin C' matrix. Nicols not ('ross(,d , X B.
(a)
F IG. 12(1, h. ( (I ) Pumice, Millard County, Uta h . Glass, ll ighly vcs icu lar, SOll)e' eli-
(('("lionl\ l texture. Nicols not cros~ed, X 11. ( h ) Perlite , Ch!lfl"e(' County, Colorado.
Class with ll1ultiplt· concentri c fraduct!s. icols lIot crosst'ci, X ] J. •
Granodiorite
Definition. Grallodiorite is intrusive, holocrystalljne, phaneritie, con-
taining:
Potl.lHh f IdKplLl" ... , . . . . . . . .. . 20- 40 '7"
~odi c plH.l!;io.-lus!! ...... , ... , . . . .. 25- 45
Quartz . . . ' ........ . 31i 10
.'vI a ficli (bioi it (', horllblf'lldc) :30- 10
SYENITE-TRACHYTE FAMILY
Syenite
Definition. SyC'nite is intrusive, ho!o<.:rystalline, phan ritie, conta in -
ing:
POlURh feldspar ............. .... ........... . . ;{O HO %
Sodie piagic)('lflRf' '" ............. .......... 5- 25
:\1.afic·s (hiolitC' , arnphiho Jr, pyroxC'llr ). ~O 10
Ftc. 14a, b. «(l) Mitwtte. New Mexico. Biotite' phenocrysts in matrix of biotite,
ortJ loclase. icoIs not (:ross('d , X 10. ( b ) A<,!~jrine syenite' ("Lill/unite"), ,ludith
Mountains . Muntana. Pheno 'I'yst~ of anorthoclase, m elanite (zoned) , aegirine-
augite (ZOIW] ) in III a tr;", of aegirine, anortboclase, albite. Nicols not crossed,
X 10. (Courtesy of S. R. Wa llace, u.s. Geological SII!I'VCY.)
Mafic:s (biotite, horub lend ,augite). ..... . . .. 15--{)0% (av. about 30)
Sod ic pJagioclase (andesine or oligoclase) . . . .. 50--30
Potash feldspar (usually orthoclas ) .......... 45- 20
Here monzonite is used in the ext nded sense, including not mer ly
rocks with about equal amounts of sodic plagioclase and potash feld-
spar but also those in which sodic plagioclase exceeds potash feldspar
(syenodiorites ). With an increase in potash feldspar, so that it exceeds
sodie plagioclase, monzonites grade into syenites. With a decrease in
potash feldspar to accessory amounts they grade into diorites. With
quart'.l becoming an essential mineral they pass into granodiorites.
52 Microscopic Petmgraplty
Mineralogy. The plagioclase is andesine or oligoclase, but may be
zon d (Fig. 14d) ; in som' alkali types, very strongly (e.g., An ou - u )
with labradorite cores and oligoclase rims. The alkali feldspar is usu-
ally orthoclase, rarely microcline, and may show zoning. In alkali
types barian orthoclase and anorthoclase (or barlan sanidine) occur,
and th plagioclase may be albite.
Biotite, biotite plus hornblende, hornblende, hornblende plus augite
are common manc minerals and combinations. Augite alone also oc-
curs, as does hypersthene, uncom-
monly. Olivine-bearing or olivine
monzonites are not common. The
olivine is of median composition.
Th biotite is light brown, horn-
blende gre n, and augite pale green.
Augite may show color or microlite-
inclusion zoning; biotite and ortho-
clase may also be includ d. In alkali
monzonites titanian augite, aegirine-
augit , and a girine occur, not un-
commonly in zoned crystals. In this
type the amphibole is hastingsite
(including barkevikite) or artved-
sonite and also may be zoned. Oxy-
hornblende appears in some mon-
FIG. 14d. Monzonite porphyry, Big
zonite porphyries.
Belt Mountains, Montana. Zoned The numerous accessories include
andesin phenocrysts in microcrystaJ- apatitc, sphene, zircon, magnetite,
Jill e matrix of sanirune, oligoclase,
pyrox ne, magn tite. Nicols crossed,
ilmenite, allanite, garnet, pyrite,
X IO. quartz or the feldspathoids nephe-
lin , analcite, and sodalite. Alteration
minerals are epidote, calcite, chlorite, kaolinite, sericite, nontronite,
and s rpentine.
Mineralogical varieties are biotite or biotite-hornblende monzonite,
hornblende monzonite, augite monzonite, hypersth ne monzonite, and
olivine monzonite. Some rocks called essexites are monzonites.
Textures and Microstructures. The textur is equigranular-subhedral,
fin - to medium-gramed. Porphyritic monzonites are very rare, but
monzonite porphyries are not uncommon (Fig. 14d). In the porphyries
both feldspars may app ar as phenocrysts, but usually potash feldspar
is confined to the matrix. Th manes al 0 form phenocrysts.
In qUigranular types plagioclas is euh dral to subh dral, and
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks 53
potash feldspar is typically anhedral-interstitial or in large anhedra,
poikilitically enclosing th other min >rals. Antiperthite Or potash feld-
spar shelJs may occur on plagioclase crystals, and these, in turn, may
be rimmed by albite. Myrmekite may be present. Biotite and ho1'O-
blend may be inter grown, and in some types biotit flakes surround
magnetite-augite clusters. Hornblende replaces augit in some ex-
amples.
Aplitic, Huidal, and gneissoid textures also occur.
Occurrence. Monzonites occur as stocks, laccoliths, dikes, sills, and
small plutons, also as marginal phases of granodiorite and dioritt'
masses; not abundant. Associated rocks al'e syenites and foidal sy-
enites. Well-studied representatives occur in the Big Belt and Bear-
paw Mountains, Montana.
Latite
Definition. Lalite is extrusive and hypabyssal intrusive; usually por-
phyritic with holocrystalline to vib'eous aphanitic matrix. The com-
position is similar to that of monzonit .
Mineralogy. The plagioclase pht'nocrysts are of the high-tem-
perature variety and usually zoned, with cores rarely as calcic as
bytownite. Normally they are andesine, but labradorite Or oligoclase
phenocrysts are also known. Glass inclusions, which may be confined
to cores, may b very abundant. Biotite plates are also included.
Albite and albite-Ala twinning are common. Matrix plagioclas is
andesine or oligoclas . Sanidin or anorthoclas forms uncommon
phenocrysts, which may be corrod d, but these feldspars ar usually
restricted to the grollndmass. In some types potash feldspar shells have
formed around plagioclas phenocrysts.
Biotite alone or with an amphibole or a pyroxene occurs mainly as
phenocrysts, although in holocrystallin groLlndmasses it may also be
present. The mica phenocrysts include euhedral p]agioc]ase and apa-
tite and may be bleached marginally or show the typical dark resorp-
tion rim. Th amphibole is usually oxyhornblend or ordinary horn-
blende, also with the resorption border of iron oxides and pyroxene.
Hornbl nde a]so may occur in a holocrystallin matrix. Diopsidic
augit also may appear in two generations, more commonly as matrix
microlites. Hypersthene .is fOllnd in some rocks as phenocrysts. Aegir-
in -augite appears in som types. Olivine is ver uncommon in ex-
h'usive types (mugearite).
Accessories are titanian rnagnetHe, apatite, quartz, anel h·jdymite or
f Idspathoids. Alteration min rals in 'lude calcite, quartz, chlorite, seri-
54 Microscopic Petrography
cite, limonite, aJld leucoxene. Chlorite-Ieucoxen -sphene aggregates
form pseudomorphs after amphibole; calcite-chlorite-sphene-leucox-
en after pyroxen in some rocks.
T extures and Microstructures. The textur is usual1 porphyritic
with a holocrystalline or hypocrystalline matrix; rarely with a vitreous
matri · (latite vitrophyre) or very rarely entirely vitreous, without
phenocrysts. Latite glasses can b distinguished mainly through ch m-
ical analysis. Many latites contain potash feldspar confined to the cryp-
tocrystalline matrix and thus aJ'e re 'ogniz d with difficulty. Holo-
crystallin matrix fabrics are pilotaxitic, trachytic, and microgranitic.
Common phenocrysts are plagioclase, biotite, and hornblende. Latit€'
porphyries are not common.
Occurrence. Latites occur as flows and uncommon hypabyssal in-
trusive bodies, associat d with trachytes, quartz latites, basalts, and
in some cases, rhyolites. Unit d States xamples OCCUI" on the western
slop of th Sierra Nevadas and in the San Francisco Mountains of
Arizona.
FOIDAl SYENITE-PHONOLITE FAMILY
Foidal Syenites
Ho~t Guest
Alkali feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . Npphelinc
Alkali fe ldspar . . . . .. . ..... Cllncrinite
ephelin l" . . . . . ... . . . .. .. . Cancrinit<-
Nepheline . ........ .. .. ... Sodalltc
Aegirin ... . . . . . . . . .. Aenigmatih'
Aegirin e-a ugit l' . . . . . . . . . .. Biotite
Arfvcdsonih .. . . .. ..... .. Aen ignlatiLe
TONALITE-DACITE FAMilY
Tonalite (Quartz Diorite)
DIORITE-ANDESITE FAMILY
Diorite
Definition. Diorite is intrusive, holocrystallin " ph aneritic, contain-
ing:
Plagioclase (oligodase or andesille) . . ..... , .. .. .. 55- iO%
MaBes (commonly hOl'llhlend (' or biotite) .. ..... . 40- 25
If the average plagioclase is more calcic than and sine, the rock be-
longs to the gabbro family. If quartz becomes essential, the rock is a
tonalite. Diorites with essential feldspathoids are very rar .
Mineralogy. The plagioclase normally varies from calcic oligoclase
to calcic andesine (Fig. 17b) and commonly shows marked normal-
type zoning, so that its average composition must be estimated. Oseil-
latory and reverse zoning also oCCur. Augite diorites may ev n have
plagioclase with labradorite cores; in some varieties albite form the
rim of zoned crystals. Illcluded maBcs, magnetite, and apatit are
abundant. Potash feldspar (usually orthoclase) is present only in ac-
cessory amounts. Rare porphyritic dike rocks may contain labradorite
or bytownite phenocrysts, with a predominant matrix rich in oligo-
clase.
The most common mafic mineral is hornblende, typically green, less
commonly brownish. Color zoning may be present. Rar alkali diorites
may contain a soda amphibole, near hastingsit . Biotite, brown to
greenish brown, is also common, usually accompanying hornbl nde,
with which it may be intergrown. Biotit diorites without hornblende
are rare. Pyroxene is the least common typ of mane, with augite or
diopsidic augite being more typical than hypersthene. Uralitic am-
phibole replaces pyroxene. Olivine diorites are known but ar very
rare.
Quartz, in accessory amounts, may be intergrown with orthoclase or
very rar 1y microclin as micropegmatite or in some cases with plagio-
clase as myrmekite. Myrmekite also occurs as films along plagioclase-
orthoclase grain boundaries. Other aec ssories are magn tite, u-
rn nite, apatite, sphene; less commonly, zircon, pyrite, pyrrhotite;
rarely, olivine and allanite and in alkali types, nepheline.
68 Microscopic PetrogmpllY
The pJagio ·lase alters to sericite or kaolinitc, with calcic corf'S or
zones pref 'fcn tially T'placed. Other secondary min erals are hlorjtc
(from any of the mafics) accompanied by magnetite and sphene, cal-
cite (from plagioclase, hornblende, or augite), pic]ote-zoisit (from
plagioclase, augite, or hornblend e) and hcmatite, limon ite, and leu-
cox ne. Accessories usually ascribed to contamination are garnet,
spinel, andalusite, sillimanite, and cordierite.
FIC. lib, c. (b) Diorite, San Luis Hey Quudranglt:, Californiu. And esi ne, horn-
hI nde, magnetite. Nicols not eross d, X 11. (c) CUUlptonite, Ii d lIill, Ne,,",
llampshire. Andesine, hornblende, biotite. ieol not crossed X 11.
clast'
J3iotito , ' " , Phelllwl'},st!:l alld Accessory A('('essol'y or UDCOln-
motrix nlOn I), as pheno-
tr),sts
Amphibole , , •' ubonlinate gn'(''11 01' PhelJocrysts aud llll- Phenoc' I',vsts allt! ma-
brown horllblclldc trix hrown 01' J:(1't'ell trix bHrkevikite
lISlIld,ly prcl:!('nt ill I ltOrllhh.ncl e
JlIf1.(,I'lX
PyruX('I1P , IUsually SlI i>ur- ])iopsidi(' augite
SOlJlC L(!BS ('om mOil pIWHO-
I dinate' matrix diop- rnny hc "('('(~ sory, el'ysts and n ,atl'ix
sirlie nll!!;itt' 01' ii- )'fIr('I), ('ssential , titania.11 augite
Lttllill.n l1ug ite ;
rarely as ph 110-
c ryl3ts
Olivill(' , '" " UncolYllJlon and Aus('ut AC('('llllOI'Y to cs~('n
minor ItR phpno- tilll phel)orrysts
('r'yaLs
Magnetite, ihn('lIill', A}Jatitl', IlIal::11 tite, Apatite', i itnn iOIl
apatite, py rite" I SphPIIC, ort ho('lase, mag"ctit , pyrite',
rplartz,orthodlll:!!', I quartz sphClll'
glass
crysts may be found, The texture varies from anhedral granular to suo-
bedral granular, Plagioclase outlines may be relatively regular; quartz
find orthoclase are interstitial. The mafics may b s<:,gregated in
clust,J's, Both the mafics and plagioclase may be oriented in not un-
common gneissoid textures, In some typ s amphibol is markedly
poikilitie, Sympl ctitic plagioclase-hornblende intergrowths are formed
through recrystallization along grain boundaries, Orbicular structures
are rare, In diorite porphyri s plagioclase phenocrysts Dormally ap-
pear as broad laths in section, In diol'itic lamprophyres the mane min-
erals form the phenocrysts and also appeal' in the matrix; plagioclas
very rar Iy forms ph nocrysts, Some lamprophyres are nonporphy-
riti ' and arc fin e-, ven-grained rocks with a tendency of most con-
stituents toward euhedralism-the I anidiomorpbi c textll1'e, In many
cases the matrix is pi]otaxitic; rarely h alopilitic, Amygdllics are
known,
OCcul'renc', Bodi s of diorite occur in large intrusives such as com-
plex batholiths, ei ther as marginal phases (Vermilion granite, Minne-
sota) oj' as separHte intrllsive masses (southern alifornia ) , Diorites
70 Microscopic Petrography
also form the p ripheral phases of smaller dominantly granitic, grano-
dioritic, and syenitic bodies and occur as single dikes and stocks of
limited dimensions. Another noteworthy United States occurrence is
in the Adirondacks.
Andesite
Definition. Andesit is volcanic and hypabyssal intrusiv , holo-
crystallin or hypocrystalline, with matrix aphanitic, and having the
sam gen'ral mineral composition as diorit .
Mineralogy. Th normal plagioclase ranges from oligoclase to calcic
andesin . Where phenocrysts occur, th e matrix plagioclase is more
sodic, and the average of alJ plagioclase should b more sodic than
Ab so in order for the rock to qualify as an andesite. Phenocrysts of
labradorite may 0 cur. In some districts an extreme range in plagio-
·Iase composition OCCurs in a single rock, with a few phenocrysts of
bytownite, som microphenocrysts of labradorite, and abundant micro-
lites of andesine. The ph ·nocrysts ar high-temperature plagioclase,
and most of them show zoning of various types, espeCially normal, but
also oscillatory and calcic-core types. Cores as calcic as anorthite are
recorded. In som andesites two distinct types of plagioclase pheno-
crysts may be present, which differ in th details of their zoning,
twinning, and av rage composition. Irregular 01' rounded inclusions
of brown glass are common and may be abundant, usually in cores or
in zan s (Fig. 18b ). Iron ore inclusions are also preval nt, as are many
of th oth r rock minerals. The matrix plagioclas is not zoned. Sani-
dine is uncommon but has been reported as rims on plagioclase
ph nocrysts. Anorthoclase occurs rarely as a matrix feldspar .
A sUlgle mafic mineral as phenocrysts is uncommon. Biotite and
hornblend commonly occur togeth r, as do hornblende and diopside
or diopsidi . augite, and diopside or diopsidic augite and hypersthene.
The most common andesite is one in which hornblende predominates
as phenocrysts. Biotite ph noc1'ysts appeal' in six-sid d plates 01' lath-
shap d cross sections, but the min ral appears rarely in th matrix.
The phenocrysts show varying degrees of corrosion and r sorption. In
early stages the reaction rim is a crust of fine-grained augite, mag-
netite, and h matit ± feldspar. With complet resorption th form er
presence of biotit is indicated only by th pseudomorph of granular
iron oxides and pyroxene. Biotit andesites commonly contain an Si0 2
matrix mineral in minor amounts. Biotite is uncommon in pyroxene
andesites.
Hornblende, brown or gre n, and oxyhornblend form pri matic
D scriptions of Igneous Rocks 71
phenocrysts. Lik biotite, hornbleno is exceptional as a matrix min-
eral. Corrosion lIects similar to thos of biotit s typicall are present.
The amount of resorption increases with increasing crystallinity of
the matrix, and resorption effects on phenocrysts in a glassy matrix
are not pronounc d.
The common pyroxene phenocrysts are diopside, diopsidic augit
(Fig. lSa), and hypersthene. Sodic pyroxenes app ar rarely. Augit
(a) (b)
FlG. 18a, b. (a) Andesite, Tendoy Mountains, Montana. Diopsidic augite pheno-
crysts in matrix of andesine and augite. Nicol~ not crossed, X ] 1. (b) And sit ,
San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Andesine (with inclusions of glass) and augite
phenocrysts wjth magnetite jn cryptocrystallin matril(. Nicols not crossed, X 11.
Gabbro
DefiniNOll . Gabbro is intrusive, pluloni " holocrystalline, phaneritic,
containing:
Mufies (u ugit.e, hyper/St.h·1J , 01' ulivill e, JOSIS common ly
hornblende ) ...................... . ............. .. " 25- 50 %
Pla~joclflse (lllhradol'ite or hyto\\'llit(' ) ... , ....... , ...... 7()- +i'i
(h)
FIG. 19a, b. (a) Olivine gabbro, Cuyamaca region, California. Orthopyroxene
corona, foUowt'd by horn blend . eorollu on olivine, in bytownite. Nicols not crossed,
X 21. (b) Gabbro, Cuyulflaca region, California. Labradorit , augite, hornblende,
lJIagnetite. Nicols not crossed, X10.
FIG. 20. (a) Anorthosite, San Luis Rey Quadrangle, California. Bytownite. Nieol~
crossed, X 10. (b) Diabase, Dillon, Montana. Labradorit ·, augite, magnetite;
ophitic texture. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
Diabase
Definition. Diabase is intrusive, hypabyssal, normally holocrystal-
line, usually containing:
Mafics (various pyroxenes, les8 common ly olivine) .... ... . 65- 25%
Plagioclase (labradorite, ICBS commonly byt wnite) ..... " 30- 70
FIr.. 21a, b. (a) Hornbl nde basalt, Tendoy Mountains, Montana. Oxyhornblende
phenucrysts with resorbed margills in matrLx of Illbradorite, augite, magn 'tite.
Nicols not cross >d, X 10. (b) Basalt, Modoc, California. Labradorite micropheno-
crysts in cryptocrystallinc Illatrh: containing ome augite. Nicols not cross 'd, X 10.
Foidal Gabbro
Definition. The mafic feldspathoidal rocks. which vary Widely in
mineralogy, can be divided conveniently into two major groups: one
with essential calcic plagioclase, the other without essential calcic
plagioclase. Both groups ar mafic, in that f rromagn sian minerals
equal or exceed light-colored constituents, and both carry essential
feldspathoids. Th rocks, which are intrusive and mainly holocrystal-
line, usually phaneritic, are very rare, but a multiplicity of minor
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks 85
mineralogical varieties have been described and named. Only the
more prominent members of the family are considered.
Main Types. B cause of their variabl mineralogy, the chief repre-
sentativ scan b b st described individually.
Types with essential calcic plagioclase
1. Theralites
Au~it(' and olivi ~Je .... ............. 4 80%
Lalll'll.dori tl' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35- 15
Nephelen(· ....... ....... .. ........ J5- 5
A(·(·(lssori('s . Biotit{l, barkevikitc, apatite, magnetite, ihll cnite,
analcite
2. Teschenitcs
Malics (titnnill.n augite, barkevikitp). . . . . . . . . . 45- 7.'; %
Labradol'it<' . .... . ....... . ............ . . . .. 3D- JO
Anal('it<' 15- 10
ACCOHsorie ... Olivine, biotite, apatite, Illllgll etit(~, ilmenite, nephe-
line,orthoullls('
Many cssexi tes are fin e-grained and trachytojd; alkali feldspar
and nepheline are anhedral. Ess xite porphyries are also known.
Types without calcie plagioclase
1. Melt igites
Ncphl'iiIH' .... ..... ......... .... .. ... . .. . 2:l- .J.5%
A(1gil'i ll l' fwd / or aCl(il'ine-ltll!(itE' ............. 50-30
O ccurrence. Rocks of this group are rare and occur as minor in-
trusions and differentiates in small intrusives-stocks, sills, sheets, lac-
coliths. Their associates are gabbros and peridotites of alkali affiniti es,
syenites, nepheline syenites, and other feldspathoid-rich rocks. Thera-
lit occurs in the Lugar sill at Lugar, Ayrshil'e, Scotland, together with
teschenite. In the Unit d States essexites were first described from
Salem Neck, Massachusetts; melteigites are represented by occur-
rences at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, and Iron Hill, Colorado; and rocks
of the monchiquite type by dikes in the Fourche Mountains of Ar-
kansas (fourchite). Th type locality for alnoite is the island of Alna,
Sweden.
Foidal Basalts and Related Rocks
Flc. 22. ( a.) Leucite tephritc, Borne, Italy. Lcucite and aegirine-augite phenocrysts
in matrix of leu cite, labradorite. aegirine. Nicols Dot eros ed, X 11. (b) Lencitite,
Rhenish Prussia. Germany. Hniiyne phenocrysts, leucite. and aegirine-augite micro-
phenocrysts in Jcucit -aegirine matrix. N i coL~ not crossed. X 11.
PERIDOTITE FAMilY
(a )
FIC. 23a, b. (a) Dunite, Jackson County. North Carolina. Olivine in mosaic aggre-
gate. Nicols cross d, X9. ( IJ ) Pyroxenite ( harzburgite ), Wolf Creek, Dillon,
Montana. Enstatite and olivine. 'icols not crossed, X9.
FJ(:. 23c. Serpcntinite, Blacktail Range, Montana. Antigorite, cluysutil ', IIlUgnetite.
Nicol~ crossed, X9.
are r ~presented in the Unit d States by the peridotite belt of the Ap-
palachian Mountains and by the swarms of dikes, sills, and plugs in
the Coast Range of Oregon and California.
PYROCLASTIC ROCKS
The coarser rocks, such as agglomerates, are not well suited for thin-
section studies, except for any fin e-grained matrix they may poss s ·.
Tuffs, which may be weakly indurated, commonly req uire impregna-
tion prior to sectioning. Tuffs can be describ d on th basis of four
factors: (1) the source of the materials (2) th physical nature of
LITHIC CRYSTAL
TUFF TUFF
o c
o
(b)
FIG. 25. (0) Shards from Kansas volt:anie ash (transmitted li ght ). A-F, Pliocene
ash; G-L, Pleistocene ash. X 144. (Courtesy of Kansas Geological Survey. ) (b)
Shards from Kansas volcanic ash (reJlectcd light). A-E, Pliocene ash; F- J, Pleisto-
cene ash . X 144. (Courtesy of Kansas Geological Suroey.)
96 Microscopic Petrography
minor to subordinat component. The crystal pieces are of the minerals
of sllch rocks as rhyolites, andesites, etc. Pieces of various rocks may
also be present in minor amounts. Fossils include se ds, insects, and
vertebnt remains. Secondary minerals are calcite, montmorillonit ,
aJlophanc, halloysite, celadonit, zeolites, cristobalit, opal, chal-
c dony, quartz, and iron oxides. One type of general alteration, to
montmorillonite and cristobalite, results in the formation of bentonit .
Replacement by opal, chalcedony, and cryptocrystalline quartz results
in the formation of silicified tuffs ("porcellanites"), with flinty, crypto-
crystalline textmes. Some vitri.c tuffs, which were dcposited in bodies
of water, contain a c ment of chemically or biochemically precipitated
calcite.
Wcld d tuffs, or ignimbrites, are vitric tuffs in which shards have
been fused together. In this process shards are flattened, vesicles ate
collapsed to curving dusty lines, and the pieces are tightly molded one
to another. In some cases th glass pieces show crystallization of
fibrous sanidine and tridymite inward from the shard margins, so that
the dms consist of normally anangcd crystallin fibers, and the cores
remain hyaljne and isob·opic. In some weld d tuffs containing sani-
dine crystals, n w a-rich sanidine has formed overgrowths on th
inh'atelluric crystals.
Crystal Tuffs
In crystal hl[S inb'atelJuric crystal ' and crystal fragm nts, which
und r nonexplosive onditions would have fonned phenocrysts in
lavas, form the larg st single component. The crystals are rar ly com-
p] te, being usually cracked or broken and corroded' angular frag-
ments of crystals ar very common. For rhyolitic crystal hills th
crystals are of quartz, sanidine, biotit , hornblende, and 1 ss usually
augite. Som rhyolitic tuffs contain considerable tridymite which acts
as a binder. For dacitic types the crystals are hornblende, pyroxene,
sodic plagioclase, and quartz. In andesitic types (Fig. 260) horn-
blend , hypersthene, andesine, and magnetite are the usual crystals.
Sanidine and augit or aegirine-augite fonn most of the crystals in
trachytes and sodic trachytes. Trass is a comm reia} term for trachytic
tuffs and (nepfielin ) phonoliti . tuffs in parts of Germany. Pllzzolane
is a commercial t rm for a h'achyte or leucite phonolit tuff used in
Italy in th manufacture of hydraulic cemcnt. In basaltic tuffs olivine,
augite, magnetite, and labradorite form th crystals and crystal frag-
ments. Som tuffs hav the composition of m lilit basalts.
The crystals display the usual textural charact ristics of ph l1ocrysts,
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks 97
such as glass inclusions and zoning. Envelopes of glass may enclose the
crystals. Crystal tuffs usually contain a variable amount of shards, and
all gradations occur between crystal and lithk tuHs. A subordinate
number of rock fragments may also be present. In some types spheru-
lites of feldspar appear.
(a) (b)
FIC. 26. (a) Andesitic agglomerat , sonthwestern Montana. Horublende, augite,
and si ne, magnetite crystals, glass shards. (,ryptocrystalline mat rial. Nicols not
crossed, X9. (b) Basa ltic lithic tuff, Big Belt Mountains, Montana. Labradorite
and magnetite crystals, rock fragments, glass, cryptocrystalline material. Nicols not
crossed, X9.
Lithic Tuffs
If rock fragments constitute the most important fraction, the rock
is a lithic tuH. The fragments may include pieces of older eruptives or
throat rocks (accessory type), of the strata or other wall rocks through
which the conduit extended (accidental type) or of flows and other
pyroclastic rocks genetically associated with the tuH itself (essential
type). Pumice, scoria, obsidian, various flow rocks (particularly an-
desite and basalt) , granophyres, and fin e-grained or porphyritic
hypabyssal igneous types are common, but plutonic igneous, meta-
morphic, and sedimentary varieties may also be repres nt d. Other
components are glass shards and shattered pyrogenic crystals in sub-
ordinate amounts (Fig. 26b).
98 Mioroscopic Petrography
Hybrid Tuffs
Tuffs that have been eroded, retransported, and redeposited by
running water usually contain admixed sedim ntary material in vari-
ous proportions-detrital quartz, clay, or both. Tuffs grade through
argillaceous tuffs and tuffaceous clays into clays and likewise through
(a) (b)
FI(:;. 27. (a) Hybrid tuff, Sweetwater Basin, Montana. Detrital quartz, feldspar,
augite, garnet, biotite in matrix of glass shards. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
( b) Hybrid tuff, Swe twater Basin, Montana. Clastic quartz, feldspar, granite
fragment, upper right, in matrix of glass shards (dark) and calcite (light). Nicols
crossed. X 10.
The initial subdivisioll of sedim ntary rocks is based upon the domi-
nant mechanism of their formation ; thus the main groups are:
1. Epiclastic: those resulting from the mechanical accumulation of
rock and mineral pieces formed through physical pro 'esses
2. Chemical: those form ed by the accumulation of minerals pre-
cipitated directly from aqu ous solution by inorganic chemical proc-
ess s or precipitated by reaction betwe n min rals and aqueous solu-
tions
3. Organic: those consistin g of minerals ancI materials precipitated
from aqueous solutions tlU'ollgh the action of organisms or consisting
in large part of organic remains (coal )
4. Residual: those formed in situ by advanced decomposition and
not having undergone appreciable transportation.
Epiclastic or detrital sedimentary rocks consist of the physically
w athered (disint grated) and chemically weathered (decomposed)
material from older rocks (igneous, metamorphic, or s dimentary) ,
which has been transported and deposited by running water (streams,
ocean currents ), wind, or ice. In the main they consist of min rals not
readily soluble- quartz, feldspars, and clay minerals, which ar tran '-
ported a particles. Epiclastic rocks have two prominent characteristics
that are used as a basis for th ir further subdivision, nam ly, size and
composition of the particles. In Table 2 are listed th generally ac-
cepted size-range subdivisions, the corresponding materials and rocks,
and various adjectival terms.
In psephitic aggregates a distinction is also made if tll partic1 s ar
rounded (conglom rate) or angular (breccia). Psammitic and pelitiC'
99
100 . MicroscolJic Petrography
1 ((irahau )
Boulder
256 Gl'avel I'sep h it!, (pseph itic ) lludite (rudarP.ou s)
Cohble Conglomero t<,
64
Pebble
4-
CnHr.~(_'
Hund
Sail clston c l'sILmmil1' (pRlLmmitir ) An'nite (I1rcnac'colls)
2
Salld
7fs -- ---
Silt E:i ll s tonl'
~56 ['plil t' (p r lit.iC', argil - Lui ito (lutaceolls )
Clay Chi." IItc!,,," t1)
Shfl ll'
Cd) (e)
FIG. 29. Roundn<>ss. (a) Angular, (b) subangular. (c) subrounded, (d) round ~d .
( e) very rounded.
1. Equigranular
a. Anhedral: Jim ston ,rock salt, anhyddte, by direct pr cipitation ;
some ch rt by r crystallization
b. Subhedral to euhedral: dolomite by replacement
2. Heterogranular
a. Uneven-grained: som cherts and anhydrit -gypsum rocks by
recrystallizatiou; some dolomWc limestones by replacement
b. "Porphyroblastic": some rock salt, dolomite, rock gypsum, rock
anhydrite, polyhalite rock by recrystallizatioD; quartz euhedra in
salines
106 Microscopic Petrography
3. Fibrous: rock gypsum by replacement of anhydrite
4. Colloform
a. Colloform banding (minute, closely spaced, scalJopy bands):
dripstone, travertine, some cherts
h. Oolites and pisolites: oolitic limestones, some phosphorite
c. Ovules (granules): phosphorite, glauconitic rocks
d. Spherulites: chert, sphaerosiderite
5. Porous
a. Primary: hlfa, sandstone
b. S condary: microvugs in dolomite, dolomolds in chert and other
crystal solution cavitics-halite in clay, glauberite in dolomite
6. Miscellaneous secondary textural features
a. Oriented overgrowths: calcite, dolomite, feldspar
h. Marginal corrosion: chlorite and sericit on quartz
c. Pseudomorphs: limonite after chamosite oolites, halite + anhy-
drite after gypsum, sylvite after anhydrite, chalcedony after
ca1cit oolites
d. Veinlets: calcite in limestone and dolomite, gypsum in rock
anhydrite
Most of these textural types require no further description. Oolites
consist of concentric layers of mineral material deposited successively
around a center. The nuclei commonly consist of clastic grains or
aggr gates-quartz, calcite, clay, silt, microfossils, shell fragments, and
even oolite fragments. Some oolites show both concentric and radial
fibrous structures due to postdepositional recrystallization . R place-
ment may d stroy the layered structure. Calcite and aragonit ar
common oolitic minerals; others, formed in some cases by replacement
of oolites originally calcareous, are dolomite, siderite, chalcedony,
quartz, hematit , limonite, glauconite, chamosite, collophane, analcite,
barite, pyrit , sulfur, and the aluminum hydroxide minerals of bauxite.
Some oolites are markedly irregular in shape, being attenuated, flat-
tened, and indented ; these are spastholiths. Ovoid bodies similar to
oolites but without the concentric lay ring are called ovules (granules)
and are represent d by glauconite, greenalite, and collophane. Spheru-
lites are ovoid bodies with a radially fibrous structure only; chalcedony
and some siderite are typical; some oth r minerals that form them
ar barite, strontianite, anhydrite, and colemanite.
Textures of Organic Rocks
The texture of a rock cootainin dominantly organic remains is de-
termined chiefly by:
Sedimentary Rocks- General 107
1. The original fossil form
2. The ext nt to which the original form is preserved, if it was
transported
3. The internal grain pattern of the fossil
4. The extent and type of replacement or reerystallization of the
original material
5. The nature and texture of the binding agent
SPECIAL FEATURES
Insoluble Residues
In carbonate rocks and som salines study of minor constituents
may be facilitated through concentra tion of an insoluble residue frac-
tion by r moval in solution of minerals forming th bulk of the rock.
108 Mi(;roscopic Petrography
In the process, however, some soluble acc ssory constituents may be
destroyed. The residu once concentrated may then be studied ad-
vantag ously by the immersion m thod, whereas thin sections of the
unb'eated rock may not display any of these minor accessory con-
stituents.
CARBONATE ROCK RESIDUES
TABLE 5. DETRITAL MINEJlAL SUITES (BOTH HEAVY ANI> LIGHT) O,F SANDS
ANI> ANDSTONES CHARACTERISTIC OF SPECIFIC SO\JRCE GROUPS OF ROCKS
I . Pcgrnatites and hydrothermal veins
l\1icrocJine Anatase
Albi!,!' Brookite
::\fUMcovite Oolum bit ('-talltalite
Biotite Oassiterite
TourrnuJin£' (It II v!lrif't ics cX('evt dmvite) Apatitf'
Dumorti('fite Hematite (MJ.lecu lar)
Spodumeue Sphalerite
Topaz Wolframite
Bllritp Gold
Fluorite
V . Peridotites, serpentiui1,es
Magneti1,£' Leucoxerw
PicoUta Serpentinc'
Ohromite Talc
Umenite Ohlorite
An thophyllite Pyrop
Enstatite Magncsit.e
112 Microscopic Petrogl'lL1Jhy
The accessories together rarely exceed 1 per cent and not uncom-
monly constitute less than 0.1 per cent. Older sedim nts normally con-
tain a less varied suite than younger rocks, and sediments deriv (1
from older sediments carry a simpl r suit than those from igneous
and/ or metamorphic rocks. The variety of minerals varies inversely
as the distance from the source rocks. Tectonic movements result in
I' juvenation of th suite.
1. Clastic binders
a. Clay minerals-argillaceous sandstone
b. Muscovite (including s ricite )- mi caceous sandstone
2. Precipitated cem nts
a. Carbonate, usually calcite, rarely dolomite; ankerite and siderite
are uncommon-calcareous sand tone
b. Silica, usually quartz (Fig. 30a), I ss commonly chalcedony or
opal (Fig. 30b)
116 Microscopic Petrography
c. Iron oxide, limonite, goethite, and h matitc- ferruginous sand-
stone
d. Sulfate, gypsum, anhydrite, barite, celestit '-sulfa tic sandstone
e. Oth rs- pyrite, collophane, fluorite, manganese oxides, bitumen
(asphalt)
The most common cements are calcite and quartz. Sandstones with
quartz cement have been given various names-quartzitic sandstone,
sedimentary quartzite, and orthoquartzite (Fig. 30a).
Not uncommonly more than one mineral forms the cement, and as
many as four different species have been found occurring together.
Such combinations as quartz and calcite; quartz, dolomite, calcite;
quartz, dolomite, calcite, anhydrite were precipitated in the sequences
listed. Calcite cement also may precede quartz cement. A combina-
tion of calcit and iron oxides is not rare. Opal and chalcedony may
Occur together, or quartz and chalcedony, clay-calcite, and c1ay-
limonite.
In addition to the secondary cement minerals, other authigenic con-
stituents are adularia, illite, chlorite, glauconite, pyrite, and marcasite,
and uncommon tourmaline, zircon, ruti! , brookite, anatase, and zeo-
lites (especially heulandite and laumontite).
Other sandstone varietics include fl agstone-a thin-bedded, usually
argillaceous or micaceous sandston (also used less commonly for a
thin-bedd ed, sandy limeston e); brownston -a ferruginou s sandstone
with quartz grains coated by iron oxide films ; ganister-a compact,
highly siliceous sedimentary quartzite consisting of angular quartz
grains cemented by secondary quartz; grit-many grits are actually
graywackes, others are sedimentary quartzites in which the sharpness
of the quartz grains is a result of secondary enlargement by quartz
cement. Black sand is a placer sand, rich in magnetite and/or ilmenite.
Greensands are rich in glauconite, which, upon cementation, usually
by calcite, become glauconitic sandstones. Siltstones, which are finer-
grained than sandstones, are mineralogically similar, but may contain
a relatively high content of h eavy accessory min erals.
Loess, a poorly consolidated eolian depOSit, ontains both siIt- and
clay-size fractions. In th usually anguJar to subangular silt fraction
quartz predominates, with orthoclase, microcline, sodic plagioclase,
muscovite, biotite, chlorite, che1t, calcite, dolomite, volcanic shards,
and carbonaceous material also present. Scattered quartz grains also
may be subrounded. Accessories ar calcic plagioclase, sanidine, as
well as various combinations of the heavy minerals, including epidote
and zoisit , ilmenite, garn t, bornblend , leucoxene, pyroxenes, rutile,
Descriptions of Sedime ntary Rocks 117
sillimanite, sphene, staurolite, tremolite-actinolite, zircon, and others.
[n the clay fraction, montmorillonite, illite, quartz, dolomite, cristo-
halite, and volcanic shards are present, with some kaolinite. Much
material designated adobe is clayey silt, similar in composition to loess.
Textures ancl Microstructures. The bulk of the clastic particles
should fall in the sand-size range, l!J 0 to 2 mm, or, according to some
usages, 0.1 to 2 mm. If the majority of th particles are in the silt-siz
range, i.e., li250 to 'lio mm or 0.01 to 0.1 mm, the rock is a siltstone
( Fig. 30c). Dune sands and eolian
sandstones are of slightly fin er aver-
age grade than water-deposited
sandstones. The degree of sorting
varies considerably, but for the
highly quartzose types the degree of
sorting is generally hi gh. Beach and
marine sandstones normally display
very good sorting; eolian sandston s
are nearly as well sorted; whereas
outwash and river sandstones are
much less restri cted in th sizc range.
The textural characteristi cs of
sandston es depend in large part upon
( 1 ) shape of the clastic particles,
usually measured in terms of sphe-
ricity, (2) degree of roundness, usu-
ally expressed as angular, subangu-
lar, subrounded, round d, and well FIG. 30c. Siltstone, Rondout, New
rounded, (3 ) degree of sorting, (4) York. Chiefly silt-sized quartz par-
ticles witll som!' carbonaceous
arrangement of particles and pack- shreds. Nicols Dot crossed, X 10.
ing, ( 5 ) natur and amount of
cement. Both shape and rounding vary cOllsiderably in sandstones.
In fact, no systematic characteristic differences in spheriCity, round-
ing, sorting, or size can be uscd to distinguish in all cascs among dune,
beach, or riv r sands.
In some sandstones that contain elongated quartz grains, the axes
of elongation tend to coincide with th c axes of the quartz, and the
axes are arrang d subparallelJy. This parall I or subparall el orienta-
tion with bedding also characterizes detrital accessory micas and
chlor ites. Som siltston s, particularly thos of lacustrine origin, show
nne rhythmic banding. In som sandston s the quartz grains show
frosting and pitting, which has usually been ascribed to eolian abra-
118 Microscopic Petrography
sion. The characteristics of th quartz have been used to determine
it source. Undulatory extinction, fractures, biaxial character, and such
inclusions as graphite, sillimanite, and kyanit indicate a metamorphic
source. Relatively large subhedral inclusions of feldspar, zircon, apa-
tite, magnetite, and mica also suggest metamorphic derivation. Planes
of liquid-gas in lusions and inclusions of monazite, needl tourma-
line, and rutile (sagenite) ar more characteristic of ign ous and hy-
drothermal quartz.
In sandstones with quartz cement, the cement may be fine-grained,
interstitial, and clouded by fin dust. In other types it has been de-
posit d as crystallographically (and optically) continuous over-
growths on clastic grains. The boundary between the two may be dis-
tingnjshed by a film of iron oxide, by a line of dusty inclusions, or by
frosting and pitting of th DUcl us . In other cases the distinction be-
tw n the core and the rim is not marked. First the detrital quartz is
enlarg ·d to form subhedral to euhedral crystals, and with iner asing
silicification the pore space tends to be eliminated and an anhedral
quartz mosajc is produced. In some rocks minor ragged relicts of cal-
cite give vid nce of replacement of an original calciti cement by
secondary quartz. Cryptocrystalline to feathery chalcedony may also
b a cementing agent, some of it formed by crystallization of opal.
Some of th chalcedony may be set in radial patterns around quartz
grains. Opal cement is generaJJy con£ned to geologically young sand-
stones.
Ori nt d authigenic overgrowths also occur on other minerals: (1)
tourmaline, on which colorless feath ry protub ranees are d posited
prefer ntially over the rounded negative pole of th more darkly
color d d hital nucleus, (2) zU'con with rare dentations attach d to
prism faces, (3) feldspar, usually cor s of microcline, but also of other
feldspars, including even caJcic plagioclase, and authigeniC rims nor-
mally of adularia and rarely of microchne or of albit . Several g nera-
tions of overgrowths may be present. The rounded nucleus may be
kaolinized or coat d by iron oxide to distinguish it from th fresh over-
growths. Th mm"ginal feldspar tends to form euhedral faces and
crystals of simple rhombic outline. Overgrowths hav also been r -
ported on garnet and hornblende.
Carbonate cement show considerable variation in grain size, from
very fin e grain d, nearly cryptocrystalline, through m dium-grain d,
to very larg interlocking poikilitic anhedra each of which enclose sev-
eral to numerous quartz grains. Continued growth of such large poiki-
!itic grains may lead to the development of euhedral "sand calcite"
Descriptiorl$ of Sedimentary Rocks 119
crystals. Barite cement shows similar development to form "sand
barite" rosettes, and gypsum may be likewise developed. Rarely cal-
citic or ,iron oxide oolites appear. Som carbonate cement is formed
by recrystallization of clastic calcite; some results from intrastratal
solution of shell fragments. The calcite grains usually form an an-
hedral mosaic or an interlocking sutured aggregat . In dolomitic ce-
ments the grains tend toward eub dral rhombs. Another euh dral
mineral is widespread pyrite, in cubes.
Various clastic minerals show marginal solution and etching-
quartz, feldspar, garnet, augite, hypersthen , hornbl ende, and stauro-
lite.
Glauconite occurs in subronndcd, mammillary grains, colored light
to dark green, and composed of cryptocrystalline aggregates. Some
are internal casts of foraminifera; some show alteration to limonite.
tlost sandstones contain voids or interstices b twc ' n grains, un-
filled or only partly filled by cement. This porosity may be primary,
depending mainly on sor~g, grain shape, and packing, or it may b e
secondary, dep nding largely on amount of resolution of cement. The
voids usually ar minute but may b suffiCiently large to accommo-
date the formation of small quartz or calcite crystals or linings of
chalcedony or drusy calcite.
Siltstones that are thinly bedded or fissile normally are grouped
with shales, at least m gascopically.
Occurrence and Origin. Highly quartzos sandstones occur as rela-
tively thin but widespr ad blanket-type unjts, rar ly thickcr than a
few hundred feet. Fossils usually are uncommon, and cross-bedding
may be a conspicuous structural feature. The major varieties, quartz-
rich sandstone, glauconitic sandstone, micaceous sandstone, and fer-
ruginous sandstone, all can be found as part of a stable-shelf tectonic
association, accompanied by clay shales and normal marine and fos -
siliferous limeston s. The ferruginous sandstones not uncommonly
occur in red-bed associations. Feldspathic sandstones characteris-
tically are formed in unstable sh If environments. Sandston s are
form d as the result of marine, littoral, allUVial, and eolian deposition.
High-quartz sands may be formed (1) by intense chemical destruc-
tion of all original minerals except quartz, (2) by reworking of nrst-
cycle quartzose sands, and (3) by local re-sorting of arkosic sandstones
and graywackes. Well-known United States examples include the
Flathead (Fig. 30a) and Potsdam (Cambrian), St. Peter (Ordovi-
cian), Berea (Mississippian), Dakota (Cretaceous), Tensleep Or
Quadrant (Pennsylvania).
120 Microscopic Petrography
Siltstones are princ:ipally products of Huvial, lacllstrine, eolian, and
glacial environments.
Cong lo merate and Breccia
Although conglomerates and breccias, as units, do not lend them-
selves well to thin-section studies, their matrixes may usefully be
studied by microscopic techniqu es. Conglomerates are clastic rocks
with pebbl s Or subanau]a_r to rounded mineral or rock pieces larger
than 2 mm in di ameter. The term breCCia is used if the fragments are
not rounded. GeneraiJ y the rock
is called a conglomerate if about
10 per cent or mar of the frag-
ments are of pebble size; the
matrix of sand or fin er sizes nor-
mally predominates. P bblv
sandstone is intermediate be-
twcen conglomerate and sand-
stone. Glacial conglom rates, or
tillites, contain relatively few
large pieces in a matrix of pr -
dominantly clayey material. The
degree of sorting varies greatly,
ranging from very well sorted
types, such as quartz-pebble con-
glomerat s, to tillites, which are
characterized by an extreme
FIC. 31a. Jasper conglomerate, Buffalo range of siz grades.
Gap, South Dakola. Pebbles of chert, Many conglomerat s show two
sandstone, and quartzite; grains of distinct peaks in their size-dis-
'luartz, chalc donj c cement. Nkols
crossed, X 10. tribution curves; i.e., they tend to
be bimodal. These also tend to be
lithologically homogeneous and usually contain pebbles of quartz,
quartzite, or chert in a matrix of quartz sand bonded by a mineral
cement (Fig. 31a). The p bbles in these (oligomictic) conglom rates
are in the nne- to medium-pebble-size ranges, are well sorted, have
a high sphericity, and are highly rounded. The matrix sand, which at
least in some cases has been introduc d into the interstices of the
gravel after its deposition, is commonly a well-sorted quartz sand
bonded by calcite or quartz. Such conglomerates are typical1y derived
from marin gravels form ed on a transgressive beach area, are asso-
iated with sedimentary quartZites, and form blankets that may
Descriptions of Sedimentary Rocks 121
be widespread, but are usually relatively thin and may pinch out
locally.
In contrast are the (polymictic) conglomerates in which pebbles
are of varied lithology anu mineralogy, consisting not only of quartz,
but also of granite and other plutonic rocks, as well as eruptive and
ven other sedimentary and metamorphic types. Fanglomerates be-
long in this group. Such conglomerates have particles that are usually
coarse, poorly sorted, and show moderate sphericity and roundness
values. The subordinat sand and silt matrix consists of quartz, fresh
feldspar, mica, and the alteration products sericite, kaolinite, and
chlorite, cemented by subordinate quartz or calcite. One variety is the
granite pebble (arkosic) conglomerate, in which most of th pebbles
consist of granite, aplite, or pegmatite. Another variety is graywacke
conglomerate. Conglomerates of this type arc thick and wedge-shaped,
representing Huvial outpourings into marginal parts of geosynclines
derived from adjacent, markedly uplifted source regions.
Intraformational conglomerates and breccias are formed by desic-
cation and cracking during temporary withdrawal of shallow waters
and subsequent shifting during reflooding. Two types ar common:
shale-pebble breccia Or conglomerate (Hat-pebble conglomerate),
conSisting of thin shale pieces in a sandy matrix; limestone conglom-
erate or breccia, in which flat and r Jatively small pieces of usually
sandy Or oolitic limestone or dolomite are embedded in a matrix of
limestone or sandy limestone and dolomite. The flat pieces may be
packed together on edge to form the striking dgewise conglomerates.
Till and tillite are characterized by extr me heterogeneity of com-
position and lack of sorting. The larger pieces may be faceted and
striated and are set in a greatly pr dominating matrix of clay and
som sand, eonsistinu of angular particles of quartz, fresh feldspar,
calcite, dolomite, and other rar r minerals, and rock pi c s in a still
finer grained aggregate of illite, sericite, chlorite, and in some cases
also montmorillonite and kaolinite. Older tillites contain little or no
montmoriJIonite 0)' kaolinite.
onglomerates with limon it or hematite cement are not common .
Cementing pyrite may also appear. In some examples cementing mate-
rial penetrates pebbles along cracks. Silica cement may be deposited in
crystallographic continuity over matrix quartz grains or may be cryp-
tocrystalline to slightly coarser toward tlle center of interstices.
Sedimentary breccia vari ties of special origin are talus breccias,
col1apse breccias, and bone breccias (bone beds). Breccias of cata-
clastic origin (fault br ccins, friction breccias) are in this book con-
122 Microscopic Petrography
sid red to bclong with metamorphic rocks; volcanic breccias are
referred to under pyroclastic ro ks, intrusion breccias under
migmatites.
Arkose
(c)
FIC. SIb, c. (b) Arkose, Belt series, Tendoy Mountains, Montana . Moderately
sorted, subrounded particl '5 of quartz, microcone, and orthoclase. Nicols crossed,
X 10. (c) Arkose (brownstone), Portland, Connecticut. Poorly sorted, subangular
to subrounded quartz and feldspar in matrix with some sericite and clay; tour-
malin ,lower left. Nicols not cross d, X 10.
(a) (b)
FIG. 32. (a) Graywacke, Fortune formation (Ordovician), Lawrence Harbour,
Newfoundland. Angular to subrounded quartz, chert, and feldspar pieces, poorly
sorted, in matrix of chlorite, s -'ricite, biotite, clay minerals, and pyrite. Nicols nut
crossed, X 10. (b) Graywacke, Sansom formation (Ordovician), Snows Pond.
N wfoundland. Angular to subangular, poorly sort d, quartz, feldspar, and rock
fragments in chlorite-s ricite-kaolinite matrix. Nicols not crossed, XIO.
Clay
ILLITE CLAY
(b) (c )
FIG. 34h, c. ( h ) Bentonite, Mod 10 form ation ( Mioeene), Ventura Quadrangle,
California. Glass shard partly replaced hy ll'Iunbnorillonile. icols not crossed,
X 60. ( Courtesy of Paul Kerr (lnd EcotlOmic Geology.) (c) Bentonite, sam
fonnation and loca lity. Glass shards in montmorillonite matrix. Ni cols not crossed,
x 60. ( Courtesy of Paul Kerr arid Economic Geology. )
njte, and chlorite. Other constitllcnts are gypsum crystals and micro-
rosettes, opal, limonite, pyrite lenticles and cubes, z olites, organic frag-
ments, and such fossils as diatoms and sponge spicul s. Montmorillonite
replac s qu artz, f ldspar, and glass. In some types the montmoril-
lonite is shr ddy and oriented parallel to subparallel. Coarse-
grained patches and streaks of kaolin it -halloysit or kaolin it -halloy-
site-allophane are set in a granular or flaky montmorillonite 'base that
also may contain kaolinite and som halloysite. Patches and veins of
coarsely crystalline montmorillonite with lmdula~o}'y xtinction appear
along cracks. Clays of trus type occur in th Coastal Plain of Texas.
The so-called metabentonites consist of a mixed-layer clay min Tal,
usually montmorillonit -illite, along with minor chloritic clay ma-
terial in some cases. Glass, biotit , apatite, and zircon of pyrogeni
130 Microscopic Petrography
origin may also be present. Paleozoic metabentonites are known from
Appalachian states.
DIASPORE CLAY
drain ed aluminous rocks. Bauxites are either r sidual or, less usually,
transported. Another subdivision is (1) terra rossa bauxites- associated
with carbonate rocks and reportedly formed from clays; (2) lateritic
bauxites-formed from and on crystalline rocks under h'opit:al con-
ditions.
Shale
Definition. Shale is a laminated or thinly bedd cl rock consisting
ither of clay-size particles, silt-size particl s, or a combination of th
two. Claystone or mudstone is an indurated clay that lacks the thin-
bedded character of shal .
Descriptions of Sedimelltary Rocks 133
Mineralogy. The complete min ral composition of shales, as of clays,
is not easily det rminable microscopically. The coarser particles,
which consist of quartz, feldspar (both potash and plagioclase) , mus-
covite, chlorite, and accessory biotite, hornblende, epidote, magnetite,
tourmaline, and zircon, are set in a "paste"-a microcrystallin to
crypto(.;rystaJJjne matrix of clay minerals, quartz, sericite, chlorite,
limonite, rutil needles ("clay slate n edles"), and carbouae ous
FIC. 36. ( a ) Sha le, Mont fey formution ( Miocene), Los Angeles, CaHfornia.
Quartz palticles in matrix silty qu:utz, clay, and bitllminous material. Change
in color is due to displacement along microfa olt. Nicols not cross d , X9. (b)
Shale, satlle formation and locality. B tter sorted, less bituminous material, more
calcite. j(;oL~ not crossed , X9.
Chert
Definition. Chert is composed predominantly of fine-grained chal-
cedony, of cryptocrystalline quartz, or of combinations of the two
(75 per cent or more). Flint is synonymous with chert.
Mineralogy. The silica takes the form of ( 1 ) feathery chalcedony,
(2) cryptocrystalline quartz, (3) microcrystalline quartz, (4) opal,
or (5) rarely as cristobalite. Clastic quartz grains may also be present
in subordinate numbers. Older cherts or somewhat metamorphosed
cherts contain little or no chalcedony or opal, being characterized by
microcrystalline quartz. Many cherts are relatively impure, contain-
ing abundant calcite, also dolomite or siderite. Such rocks, poorly
termed porcellanites, grade into cherty limestones. Porcellanite also
has been applied ( 1 ) to rocks composed of clay and silt with large
amounts of opal or chalcedony, which grade into siliceous shales, and
(2) to silicified tuffs.
Otller constituents that may be abundant are carbonaceous mate-
rial (Fig. 37a) , bitumen or graphite (sapropelic chert), d trita] quartz
(silty chert ), pyrite, chlorite, siliceous sponge spicules (spiculite
chert ), and radiolarian capsules (radiolarian chert). Other micro-
scopic fossils, which may be abundant locally, are usually conodonts,
foraminifera, graptolites, ostracods, and spor s. Less abundant con-
stituents are limonite, sericite, feldspar, glauconite, and clay minerals.
Jasper consists of cryptocrystalline quartz, form ed by r crystalliza-
tion from chalcedony, stained brown, yellow, and red by iron oxides.
136 Microscopic Petrography
it is associated with iron Ores. Tripoli is a light-color d, porous, rough
aggregate consisting chiefly of finc-grained silica, believed to r pI' s nt
th residue of partly silicined carbonate rocks from which carbonate
was leached. Siliceous sinter, which is deposited from hot springs, is a
lightweight, soft, porous, light-colored aggr gate composed main I)'
of a delicate network of minute fib rs or concretions of opal. Geyscrit
is the same material deposited by geysers. Limonite and manganese
oxides are common impurities.
(a.) (h)
FIC. 37. (a) Chert, Teton County, Wyoming. Chalcedony, iron oxides, and car-
bonaceous material. Organic structures partly preserved. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
( b ) Oolitic ch rt (siliceous oolite), Statc College, Pennsylvania. Chalcedony and
quartz, pseudomorphous after calcareous oolit s and matrix carbonate. Nicols
cross d, X 10.
Limestone
(a)
F I G. 38a, h . (a) Calcarenite ( clastic limestone). Oriented overgrowths of dear
ealcite on rounded, turbid, clastic (;!Ilcite grai ns . Two Mile Canyon, Buulder,
Colorado. Nicols nol cros ed, X 10. (b) Fossiliferous (cncrinal ) limestone, Lo 'k-
port, New York. Nicols nol crossed, X 10.
PHOSPHORITES
normally darker. Many oolites show bleaching. Oth r typ s have al-
t mating collophan and francolite zones or collophane and calcite
zones. The oolites are well to poorly sorted and may show som abra-
sion and fracturing. Many are not rounded but are ellipsoidal, flat-
tened, Or with rather straight sides or even with marked indentations.
Calcite veins them or selectively replaces cores Or zones, which may
also be replaced by chalcedony. Quartz, muscovite, and shell pieces
are commonly irr gularly included.
The matrix for the oolites is variable: in some cases it is chiefly
Description.s of Sedimentary Rocks 149
collophan , Or francolite, or both; in others it is mainly calcitic, and
in still others it consists primarily of clay min rals and silty quartz.
Quartz pieces are enveloped in comb-structure franconte. Irregular
patches or hairlike to dentr:tic pieces of carbonac ous material may
be common. Sh II fragments are abundant locally, and some rare types
consist dominantly of fragmented phosphatic fossil debris. Minute
vugs lined with apatite, calcite, and fluorite ar pI' sent. Some phos-
phatic b ds lack the oolitic structure and are massive, very finely
granular.
Phosphorite is also widely distributed as a Sllbordinate constituent
in oth r s >dimcntary rocks, occurring as concretions, nodules (in nme-
stones and chalk) , and as cement (in sandstone and glauconitic sand-
stone). Th concretions display collofonn banding or cryptocrystal-
lin e to uhedral-granular textures. Usually much foreign mat rial is
included: shell fragments, carbonaceous material, ca]cit , quartz, glau-
conite, muscovite, pyrite, gypsum, and limonite. Insular phosphate
may be highly porous and vesicular; some is granular, som oolitic.
Occurrence and Origin. The Phosphoria formation (Permian) of
Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyom ing represents the primary, chiefly
oolitic type of bedded marine phosphorite, fonn d by the slow pre-
cipitation of colloidal phosphate under anaerobic conditions, with
close conb'ol of the water temperature and pH. Phosphates accwnu-
late where deposition of clastic and other sedimentary minerals is
minor. Francolit forms by recrystallization of the ori Tinal collophane.
Some sediments, originally lean in phosphate, ar converted to phos-
phorites through leaching of the nonphosphatic constituents, prin-
Cipally calcit. Thes s('condary phosphorites ar partly residual
( "lancl-p bble phosphate" of Florida) and partly transported ("river-
pebble phosphat" of Florida). Some of the phosphat of the residual
nodules and "pebbles" is redissolv d and repr cipitated, or the nodules
may serve to initiate precipitation of new pho!>phate from sea water.
Considerable collophane is of organic c1 rivation , from bones, te tll,
som invertebrate shells, and fecal pellets; some also is diagenetic in
origin, replacing mainly calcite.
Included in this cat gory are rocks with ] 0 pel' cent or mOl' of iron
or 15 per cent Fe 2 0:1 or its quival nt. Major sl1bdivisions are (1) iron
carbonat (siderite) rocks, (2) iron oxid (hematite, limonite) rocks,
( 3) iron sulfide (pyrite, marcasite) ro ks, (4) iron silicat (chamosite,
150 Microscopic Petrography
glauconite, etc.) rocks. Also included are the manganese-rich sedi-
mer:ltary rocks. Most rocks of this group are best studied by a com-
bination of thin sections and polished sections.
Iron Carbonate Rocks
A few calcite oolites may also b pres nt. Most of th ooHtes have
clastic quartz nu lei, although some contain cor s of cryptocrystaUin '
quartz, chalcedony, shell particles, and oolitc fragments. Thin coronas
of dendritic hematit and quartz smround some oolites. The hema-
tite may be of two types-a reddish brown type and a steely gray
variety, with the oolites usually th red variety and th matrix the
gray variety, although r versals and combinations also occur. Other
FIC. 41b,. c. (b) Oolitic hematite rock, Clinton forutation ( Silurian) , Wayne
County, New York. icols not cross d, X9. (c) Fossiliferous hematite rock, same
fonnation aod locality . Nicols not crossed, x 9.
Flc. 42. (a) Glauconite sandstone, Haylet, New York. Glauconite and quartz in
a clay-glauconite matrix. Nicols not crossed, x 9. (b) Oolitic chamosite rock.
Clinton formation (Silurian) , Franklin Springs, N w York. Oolites of chamosite,
some with nuclei of quartz grains, in carbonate-clay matrix. Nicols not crossed,
x 9.
chamosite rocks, (4) glauconite rocks, and (5) green alit rocks. Each
of these must contain one or more of the iron silicates as the principal
iron mineral in order to be plac d in this group.
Varieties. The chamositic mudstones (chamosite ironstones) consist
of a fine-grained aggregate of gr en, cryptocrystalline to isotropic
chamosite. Chamosite oolites (Fig. 42b) occur in som types in a
chamositic matrix, and in others (chamosite-siderite mudstones) sid-
Descriptions of Sedimentary Rocks 155
erite is the dominant matrix constituent as rhombohedra or grain
clusters, commonly corroding or replacing the oolites. In many cases
chamosite oolites, which have a marked concentric structure and also
show a pseudo interference figure, have formed by replacement of
fossil fragments. Nuclei are grains of quartz, calcite, silt or chamosit
or shell pieces. Oolites may b Batt ned or irregularly deform d
(spastoliths ). Other matrix constituents inelude quartz, feldspar,
sericite, kaolinite, pyrite, collophane, dolomite, ankerite, and organic
debris. Another variety consists of chamosite oolites in a matrix of
calcite or of calcite plus disseminated chamosite. Complex chamosite-
pyrit oolites are also found. Chamosite rocks are regard d as result-
ing from chemical depOSition in shallow marine waters and complex
diagenetic changes.
Th ferric chamosite rocks are hybrids of chamosite and hematite.
These are typified by the Wabana, N wfoundland, ores. The oolites
consist of h matit or of chamosite or of alternate layers of the two.
The matrix contains hematite, chamosite, and local siderite, as well as
some quartz, collophane, and calcite. Other ferric chamosite rocks con-
tain limonite or magnetite, with complex chamosite-magnetite-hema-
tite oolites in a chamosite-rich matrix that may also contain magnetite,
h matite, quartz, calcite, dolomite, and apatite. Many oolites have
quartz-grain nuel i. Tn other rocks these com pI x oolites occur in a
sideritic matrix or even a magnetite-nch mab·ix. Much of th magnet-
ite appar ntly r suIts from recrystallization during shearing and fold-
ing, by which mans some stilpnomelane may also be developed.
Glauconitic ironstones (greensands) consist of glauconite granules,
which may have been transported, mixed with detrital quartz, calcite,
shell piec s, and other min rals (Fig. 42a) . Th se may be cemented
by calcite. Glauconite forms pellets, thin tablets, vermicular crystals,
and internal casts of foraminiferal shells. Most of it appears to b of
authigeniC origin.
Greenalite rocks, found in the Lake Superior iron distri ·t, contain
ovoid granules of isotropic Or cryptocrystalline greennlite in a crypto-
to microcrystalline matrix of quartz (ch rt) or quartz and ca1cite.
Siderite may also be present.
Manganiferous Rocks
Manganese oxide minerals, prinCipally as concretions, coatings,
cements, and dendrites, occur in shales, sandstones, and otb r rocks.
Rhodochrosit also forms concretions in shales. S dimentary beds that
consist predominantly of manganese min ra15 are rare. Examples are
156 Microscopic Petrography
the manganiferous strata of Svabovce in Slovakia, where two typ s,
a carbonat and a combined oxide carbonate type, are associated.
Both types contain cryptocrystalline quartz, opal, pyrite, and organic
debris. In addition the carbonate beds carry rhodochrosite, calcite,
and pyrite, and th oxide-carbonate layers contain manganocalcite,
pyrolusite, manganite, marcasitc, and dolomite. Detrital constituents
are quartz, feldspar, muscovite, and biotite. The carbonate rock
shows an oolitic textur ; the oxide-carbonate rock is cryptocrystalline.
At Con eption Bay, Newfonndland, shaley beds contain conc ntrations
of rhodochrosite, collophane, and pyrite.
SALINES (EVAPORITES I
(a) (b)
FIG. 43. (a) Halitc-nnhydrite-carnullit rock (Permian ), Eskdale, East Yorkshire,
England . Rounded eamallite grain (stipplt!d) and slllall anhydrit crystals in
angular patches outlining former halite grain pattern, all enclosed in single larg ,
recrystallized halite unit. Nicols not crossed, XB. (CO-lIrtcsy of F. 11. SI,ewart,
Mineralogical Mag(l zine,) (b) Halite-talc-quartz rock, sam ' loeality. Talc platt!s
along hant cleavages and grain boundaries, Eulwclral qUlutz rystals and patches
of angu lar clastic quartz grains . Nicols not crossed, X7. ( ourtesy of F. H.
Stewart, M inerlliogical Magazine.)
Polyhalite Rocks
Definition. In poJyhante rocks polyhalite is an essential constituent;
some varieties consist chi fly of polyhalite, whereas others contain a
varied assemblage of other constituents to the total of whieh poly-
haHt may be subordinate.
Descriptions of Sedimentary Hocks 161
Mi1l.cralogy. Thrc major types 0 'cm:
1. Rocks consisting mainly of polyhalitc with accessory dolomite,
anhydrite, halite, and kieserite
2. Polyhalite-anhydrite rocks; accessory minerals magnesite, lang-
beinite, kieserite, leonite, and pyrite
3. Polyhalit -halite rocks with variable amounts of magnesite, dolo-
mite, kieserite, langbeinite, and bischofite
Polyhalite shows a wide variety of forms including fin -grained
irregular groups, equidimensional grains, elongated crystals witb ran-
dom orientation, fibroLls and spherulitic masses, spear-shaped crystals,
rods and plates, and fibrous veinlets. In a singl rock polybalite may
appear in several forms, as, for exam pI , fibers mixed with granular
material, or it may grade from fine-grained to coarse-grained. It is
characteristically twinned, either in pairs or in sectors, and alters
readily to gypsum.
Textures and Microstructu1·es. Polyhalite replaces principally halite
and anhydrite. Some rocks have anhydrite-halite pseudomorphs after
gypsum arrang d in layers, with polyhaljte corroding the secondary
anhydrite. Anhydrite that occurs as platy rectangular crystals is also
corroded by polyhalite. Layers of coarse, subparallel polyhalite grains,
with their long axes vertical, rest on thin seams of magnesite in an-
hydrite. "Blebby salt" is a miner's term for a rock with coarse-grained
polyhalite aggregates ill a halite matrix. Th relations to ki serite
vary; some rocks contain kieserite that replaces polyhalite and includes
it; in others euhedral polyhalite crystals are associated with corrod d
kieserite.
Occurrence and Origin . Pol halite rocks form beds as much as 8 ft
thick in the New Mexico-Texas fi ld, and in the G rman Stassfurt
region the polyhalite ZOne is 40 to 60 ft thick. They are associated
with kieserite and carnallit rocks, rock salt, and anhydrite-dolomite
rocks. Most polyhalite is secondary, formed by th replacement of
preexisting minerals by natural brines. Polyhalite rocks ar formed by
the replacement of such varieties as rock salt, halite-gypsum rock,
and anhydrite-dolomite rock. Every gradation OCClll'S betw en an-
hydrite-dolomite rocks with minor accessory poly halite to polyhalit
rocks with subordinate relict anhydrite.
Rock Gypsum
Definition. Rock gypsum consists either nearly entir ly of gypsum
or with gypsum as the major essential ·onstituent.
162 Microscopic Petrography
Mineralogy. Some anhydrite is also commonly pr sent, and gypsum-
anhydrite ro 'ks grad into rocks containing mainly anhydrite. Other
min rals includ calcite, dolomit , haHt , sulfur, barit , quartz, and
clay. Many strata are relatively impure. Doubly terminated quartz
crystals, some with a pseudocubic habit and included hematite, have
b n found in cavities in massive gypsum.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is fine- to coarse-grained,
bedded or massive, equigranular or heterogranular. Gypsum forms
(b)
FIG. 45. (a) Rock 6'YPs um, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Tabular to fibrous gypsum
( twinned) replacing anhydrite. Nicols cro s d, X 10. (b) Rock anhydrite, Sun
City, Kansas. Vein of granular gypsum replacing radial anhydrite. Nicols not
crossed, XIS. (Courtesy of D. MacGregor.)
( a) (b)
FTG.46a, b . (a) Coarse anhydrite-halite-magnesit rock (P rmian) , Eskdale, Eas t
Yorkshir', England. Blocky secondary anhydrite crystals across radial anbydrite;
network of magnesit platcs across a haHt cavity, upper right. Nicols not rossed,
x 6. (Court esy of F. H. Stewart, Mitle1'(lZogicai Maga zh1e.) (b) Anhydritc-
dolomite-magnesite rock, same locality. Granular dolomite agg l' gate, eut by
magnesite plates and enclosed in granular anhydrite. Nicols not crossed, X ] 2.
(Courtesy of F. H. Stewart, Miner(llogical Magazin e.)
Introduction
Chemical Closses
Metamorphic rocks may be assigned to several large groups on the
basis of their bulk chemical compositions, which reHect, to a large
extent, tb natme of the parent material, provided no significant
m tasomatism has intervened ;
1. Quartz-feldspar rocks; parents; sandstones, arkoses, cherts, rhyo-
lites, aplites, granites, granodiorites. Examples; quartzites, quartzose
gneiss s, f lsic granulites.
2. Al uminous (pelitic) rocks; parents : cIa ys, shales. Examples;
slates, mica schists, andalusite hornfelses, sillimanite gneisses.
3. Carbonate rocks ; parents; limestones and dolomites, commonly
with quartz, chalcedony, and clay minerals as additional constituents.
Examples: marbles, calc schists, calc-silicate gneisses.
4. Basic rocks; parents : andesites, diorites, basalts, diabases, gab-
bros, and their tuffs ; marls, some graywackes. Examples; chlorite
schists, actinolit schists, h0l'l1b1 nde gneisses, eclogites.
5. Magnesian rocks; parents; peridotites, pyroxenites, serpentinites;
chloritic sediments. Examples; talc schists, anthophyllite gneisses.
6. Ferruginous (and managaniferous) rocks· parents; ferruginous
(and managaniferous) sediments. Examples; jaspilite, grunerite
schists, eulysites.
Types of Metamorphism
&:a
c
"
'~ JJ
,...
c"
",0
~
s
~
"
..;8
.. 0 -;;; ... -;;;
c
H o
'Q
~c "o
~e "
p::
o
U i
.&
:ac.
, ..8
1l
·C ...
".,
c "
e~
00
l!l "
=£
... '" S
~.!: :0 8.
oS ~o
~t~e~
<v-:;:"
----+---------,---~--------+-----------
]
E
..,o
"~
!
175
176 Microscopic Petrography
and correlated . lot all proposed facies ar well established, nor are
the temperature-pressure conditions definable exc pt in a very general
way. The g nerally accepted faci s their min ralogicaJ criteria, and
their environm ntal conditions are pr s nted in Tabl 7.
In this book an attempt has been made to grollp metamorphic rocks
into min ralogical groups, in so far as possible. From th standpoint
of genesis this results here and ther in some unusual bedfellows. Con-
v rs 1y, however, if the rocks are grouped by means of faci es, min-
eralogical mesalliances are the rule, and the beginning student may
cxperieuc considerable difficulty in rock identification.
Cataclastic Textures
CatacJastic t xtur sand f atures result from the mechanjcal dis-
ruption of mineral grains or grain aggregates. Individual grain char-
acteristics include wavy or irregular extinction (Fig. 490 ); anomalo11S
2V in uniaxial minerals (quartz, calcite ); bent, brok n, or mkrofaulted
cleavage and twin planes; and intt:mal or marginal granulation.
Quartz may show Bohm lamellae, which are fine lamellae with minute
inclusions, form d apparently by gliding along surfaces subparallel
with (0001).
Quartzose or quartz-feldspar rocks may show mortar strLlctur , in
which grains a1' girdled by a much fin r gl'ained marp;inal aggregate.
Further cataclasis may proceed along sets of subparallel planes re-
sulting in very fin e grained zon s or strcaks (Fig. 49c). This leads in
ultimate development to rocks that are completely pulverized to
cryptocrystalline and even optically isob'opic mat rial ( mylonite,
pseudotachylite ).
Crystalloblastic Textures
CrystalJoblastic textures and microstructures result from the growth
of mineral grains and aggregates in solid media. Bll/sto, used as a
suffix, indicat s the £eatur is metamorphic in development; used as
a prefix it indicates that the feature occurs in metamorphic rocks but
is partly residual in origin . 1£ th crystalloblastic grains ar anh dral
they al' xenoblastic; if (luh dral, idioblastic. Xenoblastie grains in all
equidimensional mosai pattern have a granoblastic arrang m nt
(Fig. 52a). If x noblastie rocks are highly interlocking, as in jigsaw
puzzle, th yare sutured (Fig. 52b ). Some min rals show more marked
tendenci s to be idioblastic than others, and a general crystalJoblastic
Metamorphic Rocks-General 177
series has heel) dev loped in which high r listed sp 'cit's tend to show
idioblastic fac s against those listed lower in the column .
Rutile, spinel, magnetite, sphen , pyrite
Garnet, staurolite, andall.1site, tourmaline, chloritoid
Clinozoisit -epidot , zoisite, forsterite, chondrodite
Wollastonjte, amphiboles, pyroxenes
Biotite, muscovite, chlorites, talc
Dolomite, calcite
Cordi rite, scapolite
l' eJdspars, quartz
With little difficulty one can find numerous exceptions to this gen-
eralized scheme. Th series is a function of the crystal structures of the
minerals, at least in part.
In decussate textures the grains, partkularly platy or prismatic
minerals, lie crisscross. ParaH I or subparall el orientations of platy or
flaky minerals are lepidoblastic in texture; similar unangements of
prismatic or fibrous minerals ar nematoblastic (s e under Foliation ).
Porphyroblasts
One widespread crystallobl astie textur is that in which relatively
larg metamorphic crystals or porphyroblasts of one or more species
occur in a matrix of small r grains. A sing! species may be r pre-
nted both in the matrix and as porphyroblasts. In many cases por-
phyroblasts have idioblastic olltlines (Figs. 59b, 61a) ( staurolite,
anclalusite, ottr lite ), but som are xenoblastic (hornblend , albite,
and cordierite). In many cases th yare crowded with inclusions of
other minerals, one or more speci s, which may be zonally distributed
(chiastolite, garnet, 'ordi rite). This is the poikiloblastic or si v
structure, characteristic of som cordierite and staurolite (Fig. 610).
Poikiloblastie strudu re is, however, not confined to porphyrobla ts.
Some porphYl'oblasts (albite, chloritoid ) contain inclusions that are
at an angl to th foliatiou, and others hav inclusious arranged in
spiral pattern (helical or snowball garnet), both of which indicate
rotation at one or several growth stages. Not uncommonly porphyro-
blasts may show zoning.
Porphyroblasts result from:
1. The superior crystallizing ability of minerals high in the crystal-
loblastic series
2. Two stag s or kinds of m tamorphism
3. Metasomatic introduction of c rtain el ments
178 Microscopic Petrography
Some petrologists would confine porphyroblasts to crystals result-
ing from the rearrangement of elements available in the rock and
would use metacrysts for large, generally idioblastic grains r suIting
from the introduction of materials. Only in som cascs, from the chem-
ical nature of the large crystals and the Beld relations of the rock, is
it possible to decide if the crystals have been form d as the result
of metasomatism (i.e., that they are metacrysts rather than porphyro-
blasts )-microcline in schists adjacent to granite plutons; tourmaline in
schists adjacent to pegmatites (Fig. 58b).
Relict Textures
FIG. 47. Pressure shadow of feath r quartz around pyrite metacrysts in slate,
Mariposa formation (Juras ic), Moth r Lodt' belt, California. Nicols crossed.
(After A. Knopf. U.S. Geological Survey.)
Plagioclase .... ... ' Quartz (mYl'm kiti Many quartz-feldspar gu isseI!
Plagioc:lase. , , , . ' ., Orthoclase (~uartz-.felds).lar gnei s
Plagioclas ... , . .. . Muscovite Biotite gneiss and schist, gran-
ite gneiss
Plagiotla ·e ....... , Augite Grnllu lite
Plagio(, lase ....... , Hornblende Granulite
Ortho 'lase .. .... . ' (~uartz (mi(,l'og l'aphic to j!;l'Iln- Fritted snndstODP
ophyrir )
Orthoclase .. . ... . . Mus('ovitc Biotite gm!i s
MicrocJi ne .... . ... Garnet Calc [whist
Biotite ...... .... , Muscovite Biotite gneiss, sill il1llLllitl'
glH'iss
Calcite . ... . . . .. . . Dolollt it,(\ Cult- .w hilst
Chon drod it .. ... . al 'ite :\(a l'h lt,
~capolite . ....... . Quartz l\'lttl'hlc
E pidote ......... . Quartz Gneiss, ('(lle s 'hist
182 Microscopic Petrography
roxene, hornblende, actinolite, biotite, plagioclase, magnetite, or
various combinations of these occur around garnets in eclogites and
pyroxene granulites. Sphene overgrowths on magnetite or ilmenite are
not rare in some metamorphic rocks, and uralitic marginal replace-
ments by amphibole of pyroxene are widespread.
Foliation
Foliation designates all parallel structures in metamorphic rocks of
metamorphic genesis, as the result of which the rocks can be broken
along nearly parallel surfaces. Some petrologists use schistosity as the
equivalent of foliation, others subdivide foliation into various kino s,
on the basis of the degree of perfection of the parallel surfaces that can
be obtained:
Slaty cleavage (most perfect)
Schistosity
Gneissic structure (least perfcct)
The European t 'rm S surface includes all types of foliation as well
as other surfaces in metamorphiC rocks that al'e of nonmetamorphic
origin- r lict surfaces and postmetamorphic fracture cleavage. Folia-
tion results from (1) parallelism or subparallelism of tabular, pris-
matic, and fibrous minerals (lepidoblastic and nematoblastic arrange-
m nt of micas, amphiboles, etc.); (2) crystallographic orientation of
xenoblastic minerals (quartz, calcite); (3) mineralogical banding.
Banding is of three genetic types: (1) relict sedimentary layering
(stratification) or relict igneous layering (How structure, primary
layering in peridotites) ; (2) banding resulting from metamorphic:
diffusion (metamorphic diHerentiation) ; (3) banding formed by lit.
par-lit inj ction of igneous material (usually granitic).
Not uncommonly in some direction within foliation planes th re
exists a parallelism of linear units, including such elements as prismatic
or fibrous crystals of hornblende or sillimanite; elongate rods or "pen-
cils" of grain aggregates, e.g., quartz or sillimanite; stretched pebbles;
crests of microfolds Or plicatioDs; and intersection of relict beddjng
and foliation . This structur is lin ation. Not all types of lineation orig-
inate in the :;ame way. Microfolds or corrugations may be essentially
drag folds, whereas elongate minerals in most cases apparently crystal-
lized with their long dimensions parallel with the ax s of folds formed
during compression.
Foliation in many instances has been formed parallel with the sur-
faces of differential movement in the rock, and in such cases mineral
Metamorphic Rocks- Gerleral 183
linea tion typically is oriented normal to the direction of differential
motion. Where foliation results from simple compression the folia-
tion planes are normal to the direction of the compressive forcc ; where
it results from a couple the foliation planes are at an angle to the
directions of the forces.
The detailed delineation of the fabric of metamorphic rocks includes
determination of the directions of crystallographic orientation of stich
xenoblastic minerals as quartz, feldspar, and calcite. The techniques
and interpretation of the results fall in the field of petrofabrics, which
is an extensive subject by itself, involving use of the universal stage,
beyond the scope of this work. 1
'Sam basic references and books on p trofnbrics in English include J. C. Haff,
.Pr~pa rutiul1
of Pctrofabric Diagrams, Am. Min.eralogist" 23: 543--514, 1938;
E. n. Knopf und E. Ingerson, Structural Petrology, Gaol. Soc. Amer. MMn . 6,
1938; II. W . Fairbairn, Structural Petrology of Deformed Rocks, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Cambridge, Mass. , 1949; F. J. Turner and J. V rhoogen,
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, pp. 511-564, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1951; P. Niggli, Rocks and Mineral Deposits, pp. 280-304,
W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1954.
7
DESCRIPTIONS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Brecciated Rocks
Metamorphic breccias (also called friction breccias) are charac-
terized by angular units consisting in the main of rock fragments , not
uncommonly of varying size, set in a normally subordinate matrix
made up of smaller rock pieces and mineral fragments and powder.
Many breccias are so coarse grained that thin-section studies of any-
thing but the matrix ar impractical. If the particles are of smaller
size and inconspicuous in h<nd specimen, th term microbr ccia may
be employed. In such rocks the individual elements are usually sharply
angular to only slightly rounded (Fig. 49a). Many of the pieces show
internal fractW'ing, and some of their component mineral grains may
show strain, cleavage rupturing, and bent cleavage or twinning planes.
If considerabl rotation of the particles has occurred, tbe corners be-
come rounded off through mutual abrasion, producing subangular to
rounded pieces and supplying considerable additional finer rock and
min ral powder for th matrix, which may thus predominate. Such
cataclasites hav b n r ferred to as crush conglomerat s. In sam
types breccia pi ces are surrounded by numerous subparallel shear
184
Descriptio11s of Metamorphic Rocks 185
surfaces along which the rock has been much more intensely granu-
lated, resulting in a fragmented and str aked texture. Some recrystal-
lization may take place along the sh ar planes (kakirite).
Brecciation affects a wide variety of rocks lllcluding such types as
sandstones, limestones, plutonic igneous rocks, quartzites, marbles,
and gneisses. Some of th so-called schistose grits may also be in-
cluded in this group. These ar naceous sediments, well r pres nted
in the Highland Border of Scotland, show varying degrees of trans-
.FIc. 49a, b. (a) Brecciated arkose; microcline, orthoclase, quartz. Hot Springs,
Arkansas. icols crossed, x9. (b) Biotite gneiss, cataclastically ddormcd; quartz,
orthoclase, hiotite. Neihart district, Montana. Nicols not crossed, x9.
(a)
FIC. 50a, b. (a) Fritted sandstonfrom contact witl1 basaltic bomb; quartz
remnants in 1 chatlicrite, some magnetite. Sunset Crater, Arizona. Nicols not
cross d, X21. (b) Xenolith of homb] ode granite in b-Isalt; quartz and turbid
feldspar partly melted. larg hornhlcnd cony rted to diopsid -glass mixtllre.
Mitlcchtcrn, Odenwa)d. G 'rmany. Nicols not crossed, x21.
(a)
FIG. SIa, h. (a) Hornf Is; quartz, hyperst11E'ne, magn tite. Base of Stillwater
Complex, Stillwater Creek, Beartooth Mountains, Montnno. ic::ols not crossed,
X 11. (b) Spotted hornfels ; carbonaceous ·lols in v 'ry nn!' groi JJed s ricite-quartz
aggregate. Andlau, Vosges Monntains, France. Nicols crossed, x22.
Marbles
Definition. Marbles consist predominantly of calcite, of calcite plus
dolomite, or of dolomite. Here are included only the m tamorpbic
equivalents of the pllIer CaCO a and CaMg( CO a )2 s dim ntary rocks.
+
If various Ca, Mg, or Ca Mg silicates are essential constituents, they
b com important textural and mineralogical factors, and such rocks
are described und er the calc-silicate rocks.
Mineralogy. Most marbl s are calcitic; others consist chieHy of
dolomite; still oth rs contain calcite with variabl , usually minor,
amounts of dolomite. Th natur of th accessory minerals depend to
a considerable extent on wheth r the original rock was a limestone or
194 Microscopic Petrography
a dolomite and on th nature of the impurities- siliceous, argillaceoLls,
or both. In a g'n ra1 way the following correlations may b made:
(b)
F ,G. 520, h. (a) Mllrble; calcite in granoblastic t xture. Tate. Georg.ia. Ni ols not
crossed, X 10. ( h ) Marble; ca lcite in sutured texture. Felch, Michiga n. Nicols
crossed, X 10.
«(I)
FIc. 53a, b. (a) Ophicalcite; calcite, lobate grains of forsterit; partly alter d to
serpentine, quartz (clear ), graphite upper ·rig/lt. Moriah. New York. Nicols not
Tossed, X 10. (b) Pcncatite; calcite, brucite rosettes after periclas . Ontario,
Canada. Nicols crossed, x21.
section (Kraus, Hunt, and Ramsdell, Mineralogy, 4th ed., pp. 226-227,
McGraw Hill Book Company, IDc., N w York, 1951).
Banded varieties also occur, either with alternating coarse- and
fine-grained layers or with som layers richer in various accessory
minerals. Among the more uncommon varieties containing both car-
bonates in abundance, there ar those containing alternations of
irregular calcit grains with angular dolomit grain . Others contain
dolomite concentrated in I nses and ·h·ingers. Some dolomitic marbles
are cut by calcit vein 1 ts.
The grain size varies greatly: grain as small as 0.0075 mm have
b en measured, and anhedra of calcite rea h a foot on edge excep-
Descriptjon~ of Metamorphic Rocks 197
tionally. Fin -grained types range in average grain size from 0.02 to
0.5 rom ' medium-grained, 0.5 to 1 mm; and coars>-grained, 1 to 5 mm.
Types in whieh silicates and other accessories are relatively abun-
dant may show more complex textural patterns. Porphyroblasts of
chlorite, tremolite, forsterite (usually altered to serp ntine) , phlogo-
pite, grossularite, clinozoisite, vesuvianite, scapolite, wollastonite,
chondrodite, and dravit may be conspicuous. Some v suvianite groups
arc set in shells of feldspar . The silicat s or oth race ssories may be
concentrated in thin bands, streaks, or granular to radial aggregates.
Many contain inclusions of other
minerals. Periclase usually appears
as corroded relicts showing cubic
cleavage, set in a rounded, whorl-
lik aggr gate of curved brucite
plates. Where both s rpentine
pseudomorphs after forsterit and
brucite pseudomorphs after pcri-
clase appcar in the same rock, some
cJjffieulty may arise in separating
th m. Dravite and chondrodit ' also
occur together and may b con-
fused . The platy and prismatic sili-
cat '5, as well as the crystal direc-
tion s of the calcite, are oriented to
varying degrees in regional mar-
bles, but are usuall y irregularly
arranged in contact types. FIG. 53e. Clinozoisi te-d iopsidp-scap-
(a)
FlG. 54a, b. (a) Calc-Uinta; dark bands rich in diopside, epidote, and axinite,
light hands of quartz and wollastonite. St. Dennis, Cornwal1, England. Nicols not
crossed, X 10. (b) Calc-silicate hornfels; erenulated bands of diopside in quartz,
garnet, Yestlyiunite, phlogopite. Fri drichsbrunn, Harz Mountains, G rmany.
ieols crossed, X 10.
Grossularite-diopside
Grossularite-vesuvianite
Grossl1larit -cl inozoisite (or epidote )
Grossl1larite-anorthite
Diopsi d e-phlo gopite
Diopsid -tremolite
Serpentine (from forsterite) -calcite-ophicalcite
Gross111arite-diopsidc-wollastonite
Gross111arite-diopsid e-an orthi tc
Grossularite-diopside-spicel
Grossularitc-zoisite (or clinozoisit )-tremolite
Diopsid -vesuvianite-wollastonite
Diopside-phlogopitc-anorthite
Diopsid -phlogopite-tremolite
Rock Bands
Diopside gn eiss. . . . . . . .. Diopsid -quartz-phlogopitc, calcite
Diopside gneiss ... .. ... . Diopside, quartz-diopside
Diopside gneiss ........ , Diopside, scnpolite with diopsid blebs
ScapoliLc marble . . . . . .. Scapolit -zoisite, quarLz-phlogopit,c, diopsid e-trcmoliLe
Diopside-zoisite gneiss .. Diopside-pyrrbotite, zoisite-microcline-quartz
Garnct-zo isit gneiss.. .. Zoisite, tremolitc-zoisite, garnct
(0) (b)
55. (a) Quartzite. Southern Ruby Mouotains, Montana. Nicols cross d, XIO.
FICo.
(b) Quartzite.Henry's Lake, north ast rn Idaho. Nicols crossed, X 10.
Argillites
Although some petrographers prefer to regard them as sedimentary
rocks, most argillites show some recrystallization and may well be
coosid red as very low grade metamorphic rocks. Argillites arc
massive fine-grained rocks, usually thinly, even seasonally banded
(varved), containing quartz, feldspar, chlorite, and some clay min-
erals, probably chiefly illitic. Most of the particles are of silt size with
scattered coarser piec s of quartz or even small rock fragments. Good
examples occur in the late pre-Cambrian Belt rocks of -northw stern
Montana and in the Upper HllTonian of Ontario, Canada.
Slates
Definition. Slates are fine-grained to aphanitic metamorphic rocks
with a highly developed foliation, call d slaty cleavage, by m ails of
which the rock is enabled to split along closely spaced, parallel, and
relatively smooth planar smfaces. Except for a few rar m tacrysts
or porphyroblasts the minerals of slates are not identifiable m ga-
scopically, and even under the microscope with highest magnifica-
tion, an unresolvable fraction usually remains. X-rays may be n eded
to identify these matrix materials positively.
Mineralogy. The main constituents of the coarser, optically id nti-
Sable fraction are quartz, chlorite, sericite, biotite, magnetite, hematite,
rutile, pyrite, calcite, dolomite, and organic material. Less common
are epidote, albite, apatite, zircon, tommaline, rhodochrosite, barite,
gypsum, and ilmenite. The cryptocrystalline matrix or paste has been
demonstrated, by means of x-rays, to consist chiefly of illite and chloTi-
tic-type clay minerals, although kaolinite also occurs in some slates.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is fine-grained to crypto-
crystalline, with a high degree of parallel orientation of both the
coarser and finer minerals, not uncommonly in minute lenses and
210 Microscopic Pet'l'Ogmphy
string rs. Banding of sedimentary inheritance may be at various angles
to th foliation. In addition to the primary foliation or slaty cl avag ,
which is th r suIt of mineral orientation, a secondary or fals cleavag'
may b present across the major structure. This secondary structure
results from the parallelism of the axial planes of numerous minute
folds or plications. In some places th corrugations pass into tiny
shear fractures. Small lenses of semiradial calcite, chlorite, quartz
( Fig. 56a), or muscovite appear in some vari ti s. Porphyroblasts
are not common, consisting of
magnetite, pyrit , or chlOIite
in euJledral Hakes transverse to
th foliation. Pressure-shadow
growths of quartz or of quartz
and chlorite may be d vcloped
on two sides of the magnetite
or pyrit crystals, elon gated with
the foliation dir ction. Chlorite
also forms rhombs pseudomor- '
phoLls after carbon at. Quartz
app ars both in rounded grains
and as irregular patches of ce-
ment. Rutile is an abundant
matrix mineral, forming minute
n edl s (clay slate needles) of
random arrangement within fo-
liation planes. Many purple or
F IG, 560. Siale; coarser quartz lenses in reddish slates have green spots
quurtz-sericit -chlorite-magnetite matrix.
Granville, New York. icol~ not crossed, of circular, ellipsoidal, or irregu-
x22. lar outline, which range from a
fraction of an inch to several
inches in diameter. The diff renee in color is due to the absence of
hematite in th green areas, which usually contain more calcite.
Occurrence and Origin. Slates ar formed by low-grade regional
metamorphism of clays and shales, very rarely of tuffaceous rock '. Th
fine-grained texture is largely 1nb rited; recrystallization is minor.
Slates al' included in the chlorite zone of r gional metamorphism,
formed under the environment of tIle muscovite-chlorite subfacies of
the greenschist facies . In the United States slat s CCUl' in Pennsylvania
(Martinsburg formation, Ordovician age), in New York (Mettawee
formation, Cambrian age), in various othel' parts of the Appalachian
belt, and also in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (pr -Cambrian).
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 211
Phyllites
Definition. Phyllites are fine-grain ed, micaceous rocks with a highly
developed foliation, intermediate in perfection between slaty cleavage
and schistosity. Usually a satiny luster is characteristic. Also in grain
size and min eralogy, phyllites lie between slates and mica schists, and
no sharp boundaries separate them. Indeed, sericite schists or micro-
crystalline schists are phyllites.
FIC. 56b, c. (b) Phyllite; muscovite, q uartz, minor biotite, magn tite; plicat d
foliation. Albenlarle County, Virginia. Nicols not crossed, x22. (c ) Phyllite;
muscovite, ?rumpl d quartz hands, magnetite. Eastern Beartooth Mountains,
Montana. NI('ols crossed, X 10.
MICACEOUS SCHISTS
Chlorite Schists and Related Rocks
Definition. Chlorite schists ar rocks with a marked schistose texhue
containing a chlorite as the principal micaceous mineral, usually with
one or more oth r micac ous minerals and quartz ± albite as the other
main components. Som of the rocks call d greenschists (or green-
ston s) are chlorite schists (Fig. 57a).
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 213
Mineralogy. Vari(JUS mincralogical combinations occur:
(b)
Flc. 57a, h. (a) Chlorite schist (gre nschist ); chlorite, epidotr. albitt!, muscovite,
<luurtz, sphene. Bluemont, Virginia. Nicols crosst!d, X22. (b) Chlorite-muscovite
schist; chlorite, muscovite, quartz, magnetite. Eight Mile Park, Fremont County,
Culorado. Nicols not crossed, XIO.
Stilpnomelane Schists
Definition. Stilpnomelane schists are schistose rocks containing
stilpnomelane as an essential constituent, usually in association with
various combinations of quartz, albite, chlorite, actinolite, and epidote.
Mineralogy. The stilpnomelane is usually the brown ferric type,
but some schists also contain the green ferroan type, which may be
rimmed by the brown. Rarely the brown and green types occur inter-
leaved. The various mineral assemblages with which stilpnomelaJl
occurs are:
Quartz-albite
Quartz-muscovite
Quartz-chlorite
Quartz-garnet
Quartz-muscovite-chlorite-garnet
Quartz-albite-epidote-chlorite ± garnet
Quartz-albite- pidote-actinolite
Albite-epidote-chlorite
Albite-epidote-actinolite ± chlorite
Albite-actinolit
Albite-chlorit -muscovite
Chlorite- pi dote ± magnetite
Garnet-calcite ± chlorite
Garnet-pyrit -sphene
Magnetite-garn t-actinolite-apatit
The most common associated minerals ar quartz, albite, epidote,
actinolite, and cbJorit , whkh occur in essential to accessory amounts
Or may be entirely absent. Muscovite and sp ssartitic garnet may be
ss otial, whereas calcite, magnetite, sphene, and apatite only rarely
exee d accessory status. Other accessories ar biotite, rutil e, and
tourmaline.
Textures and Microstructures. Stilpnomelane occms in fin to coarse
plates io subparallel to crisscross groups and bands, or in semiradial
shea Bike groups of curving plates. It appear to be most coarsely
dev lop d in schists containing albite, epidote, chlorite, and actinolite.
It also forms transgr ssiv veinlets, and in many rocks replaces chlorite.
Common are interlayerings with pal green proebJorite; chlorite-
muscovite interleavings also occur. Sph ne and epidote ar inclu-
sions; and som stilpnomelane plates ar mark dly poikiloblastic.
Quartz and albite form anhedral granules, although th feldspar also
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 217
appears as porphyroblasts with cores crowded with inclusions of gar-
net, epidote, and magnetite; it is rarely twinned. Quartz, which may
display pronounc d undulatory extinction, also appears as blebs in
feldspar . Euhedral minerals includ actinolite and garnet. Actinolite
also forms porphyroblasts that may be inter grown with stilpnomelane
plat s. Sphene, calcite, pyrite, and epidote are usually anhedral, but
sphene and epidote may also be euhedral. Many stilpnomelane
schists show mineralogical banding.
Occur,.ence and 01·igin. Sti]pnorn lane is formed by low-grade re-
gional metamorphism (greenschist facies) of various quartz-feldspar
s diments containing a high ratio of Fe to Mg. WeIJ-studi d occur-
rences are found in Lake Wakatipu region, West Tn Otago, New
Z aland. B ' cause it is casily confused with biotite, stilpnomelane is
doubtless more Widespread than has been reported.
Muscovite Schists
Definition. Muscovite schists are schistose rocks containing mus-
covite as the principal micaceous mineral, in many ca ' s accompanied
by other micac ous minerals. Quartz normally is very abundant, with-
out, or less commonly with, much f ldspar.
Min eralogy. Muscovite schists are conveniently grouped on the
basis of th main accompanying minerals:
Muscovite + garnet
Muscovit -chlorit
Muscovite-chloritoid ± garnet
M uscovit -biotite-chloritoid
Muscovite-biotite ± gam t
Muscovit -tourmalin (Fig. 58b) ± biotite + garnet
In this group also may be included the rare paragonite schists, but
paragonite cannot be distinguished from muscovite in thin section.
Also included are mica schists that contain a green chromian mus-
covite (fuchsite).
The proportions of the various constituents vary considerably. The
micaceous minerals may exceed quartz, but not uncommonly the r -
vers is true. Quartz normally dominates over feldspar, but in som
types ortho 'las (or microcline) and/ or oligoclas -andesine occur
abundantly. How vel', muscovit -rich schists in g n ral are poor in
potash f ldspar, and f ldspar may b absent or m rely accessory (Fig.
58~1 ). Other minerals that may be present in essential amounts are
almanditic gam t and epidote.
218 Microscopic Petrography
The accessories are numerou; common are magnetite, ilmenite,
hematit~, zircon, apatite, sphene, and rutile; less common are kyanite,
sillimanite, andalusite, staurolite, graphite, zoisite, cordierite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and spinel. Alteration minerals are sericite, kaolinite, limo-
nite, leucoxene, and chlorite ± magnetite and sphene. Chlorite re-
places biotite and garnet. Accessories reported from fuchsite schists
are oligoclase, chlorite, trcmolite, c1in ozoi site, sphene, tourmaline,
chromite, magnetite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite.
FIG. 58. (a) Muscovite schist; muscovite bands, quartz bands. Drill core, Por-
cupine Dome, Rosebud County, Montana. Nicols crossl·d, X 10. (b) Muscovit(-'-
tourmaline schist; muscovite, biotite, quartz, zoned tourmaline mctncrysts,
magnetite, minor feldspar. Black lliJis, Suuth Dakota. icols not crossed, X 10.
Biotite Schists
Definition. Biotite sch ists are schistose rocks containin g biotite as
one of the major essential min rals and as the principal micaceous
mineral.
Mineralogy. Biotite schists show considerable variation in min-
eralogy, the principal types being distinguished chiefly on the pres-
ence of other micaceous minerals, amphiboles, or various AI silicates.
In addition ther is considerable variation in th quartz-feldspar ratio,
from types quartz-rich and mainly feldspar-free through some that
contain both in abundance to others n arly quartz-free. Some of the
main types are:
The biotite is usually light or red brown in color, but green brown,
deeper olive brown, dark brown, and dark red brown shades also
appear. The common f Jdspar is plagioclase, albite to andesine, al-
though in some rocks mOre calcic varieties may occur. Gamet varies
220 Microscopic Petrography
from a spessartite-almandite to an almandite-rich type (Fig. 59a).
Other min rals pr s nt in small to mod rate amounts are tourmaline,
microcline, sillimanite, staurolite, diopside, and rarely corundum
(Fig. 59b ). Accessories are also numerous and vari d: pyrite, hema -
tite, magn tite, iIm nite, graphit , apatite, zi rcon, sphene, rutile, cal-
cite, corclierite, kyanite, actinolite, and anthophyllit. Secondary
minerals are chlorite chi efly from biotit , staurolite, garnet, and horn-
blende; sericite after feldspar , staurolite, andalusite, kyanite, and
FIC. 59. (a) Diotite-garnet schist; biotite, garnet, quartz, magnetite, minor feld-
spar. Latah County, Idaho. Nicols not cross d, X 10. ( b) Corundwn-biotite schist;
zoned porphyroblasts of corundum in biotite. Dillon, Montana. Nicols not crossed,
X IO.
thc rock, its blackness and physical properties make it the most con-
spicuous mineral both microscopically and mcgascopically (Fig. 60a).
Many rocks includcd as graphite schists actually contain only 2 to
5 per cent of graphite. The other constituents are variabl , although
most graphitic schists are dominantly mi ac ous. Other essential min-
erals include muscovite, biotite, quartz, ortho lase, gam t, and silH-
manite in various combinations. Accessories are plagioclase, apatite,
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 223
zoisite, epidote, magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, pyrite, rutH " zircon,
and tow'maline, and alteration minerals are leucoxene, calcite, chlo-
rite, sericite, limonite, and kaolinite.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is usually schistose, but
gradations to gneissic types also occur. Graphite forms small spangles
ano shreds, s gregations and lentides, layers and vein like masses.
Graphite plates may be curved or crumpl d, with edges appearing
scanopy under high magnification and irregularly oriented grinding
striations app aring in reflected ught. Thin sections con ta.ining much
graphite may display graphitic dust in balsam along their margins.
In some types graphitic layers may be markedly contorted. Garnet
usually appears as porphyrobJasts, commonly with inclusions of
quartz, feldspar, and graphite. Graphite inclusions in garnet may-
take the form of thin plates or dusty aggregates, which may be zonally
concentrated. Graphite may also be ineluded in feldspar or form rims
arollnd feldspar.
Occurrence and Origin. Graphite is formed by the medium- to high -
grad regional metamorphism (usually sillimanite-almandite sub-
facies of the amphibolite facies ) of carbonaceous pelitic sediments
such as black shales. Graphite is associated with garnetiferous mica
schists aIld sillimanite schists. Also graphite is a widespread accessory
in kyanite and sillimanite schists and marbles. Well-known United
States exampl s include those of Chilton, Coosa and Clay Counties,
Alabama, and of McDowell County, North Carolina (Brevard forma-
tion, pre-Cambrian). Various oth r highly carbonaceous m tamorphic
rocks generally not suitable for thin-section studi s include anthracite,
graphitoid (implll'e massive graphite) , and rock graphite (massive
impure graphite formed by high-temperature contact metamorphism
of coal).
Talc Schists and Soapstones
TALC SCHISTS
FIG. 60b , c. (b) Talc-serpentine schist ; talc with band of cross- fiber antigorite.
Red Hock Quadrangle, New Mexit;o. Ni<.:ols crossed, X 10. (<.:) Talc-tremolite
rock; talc replacing tre1110lit . Turr "tl, Colorado. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
SOAPSTONES
FlG . 62c. Massive sillimanit rock ; radiating blad s of coarse sillimanite, corun-
dum, tipper center, rutH ( black) . India. Nicols cross d, X 10.
" ' f (. ~
.,.J.:
. .. .:....
~ '.
' f" ... ,
.
' '
/
. ~.~ .
(a) (b)
FIG. 63. (a) Quartz-feldspar gneiss; biotite, quartz, oligoclase, minor microcline.
Munroe, Connecticut. Nicols not crossed. X 11. (b) Garn t gneiss (kinzigitc) ;
quartz, oligoclase, biotite, garnet porphyrohlasts. Jackson County, North Carolina,
icols not cross(;ld, xII.
Felsic Granulites
Definition. Felsic granulites are granoblastic metamorphic rocks
consisting mainly of quartz, feldspars and lesser garnet, sillimanite,
and accessories. Biotite is usually rare; hornblende is not common ;
sphene is absent. In many places felsic and interm diate to mafic
granulites alternate in bands. No sharp scparabon from som quartz-
feldspar gneisses is possible. To some investigators the term granulite
is restrict d to granoblastic metamorphic rocks consisting predomi-
nantly of quartz, feldspar with garnet, and other subordinate minerals.
However, the term has also been used in a more genera) way, to in-
elude not only such f lsic (acid) granulites but even interm diate
and mafic granoblastic rocks containing chieBy plagioclas , pyroxen ,
and garu t. These pyroxene granulites are here grouped with the
intermediate and mafic charnockites, and similarly, the felsic (acid)
charnockites are placed with the felsic (acid) granulites.
Mineralogy. Quartz, which contains gas or rutile inc1usions, may be
subordinate to the combined feldspars. Potash feldspar is either ortho-
clase or microcline. Some orthoclase is converted to microclin , the
conversion beginning with undulatory extinction ; next appear patches
of gridiron twinning in thes strain d areas; and finally the grain is
completely transformed. Th orthoclas may be p rthitic or nonper-
thitic. In some cryptoperthites the Or : Ab ratio = 50: 50. In many felsic
granulites the plagioclase is An20-aO, and in varieties poor in orthoclase
it may be as calcic as An.o. That of the andesine rang commonly is
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 237
antiperthitic with stubby or hairlike orthoclase inclusions. Garn t
varies considerably in composition, but is chiefly pyrope-almandit .
ther minerals that may be common locally are sillimanite or kyanitc,
cordierite, diopside, hypersthene, hornblende, and graphite. Biotit >
may proxy for garnet but usually is absent in sillimanit types or in
som areas in types characterized by platy ql1artz. Accessories ar
ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, rutile, apatite, mona-
Flc. 64. (a) Sillimanite granulite; sillimanite (high relief, diamond-shaped crys-
tals), kaolinized orthoclase, lenticles of quartz. B1aeklail Deer Creek, Montana.
Nicols not crossed, X 10. (b) L ptite; porpbyroblastic quartz, oligoclase-quartz-
muscovite matrix. Mauri, Finland. icols crossed, X 10.
Flc. 66b, c. (b) Anthophyllite schist; antbophyllit , biotite, minor quartz. Masons
Mountain, Franklin, North Carolina. Nicols not cross d, X ] O. (c) Cummingtonite
schist; quartz, hornbl nde, cummingtonite in semiradial groups. Jardine, Montana .
Nicols not crossed, X 10.
GLAUCOPHANE SCHISTS
other common ess ntia] constituents are quartz, biotite, garnet, and
I ss commonly microcline. Zoisit may proxy for pidote. Th horn-
blende is usually light green to deep bluish gr en, i.e., "actinolitic"
hornblende (Fig. 67b) , in contrast to the dark green and brown
varieti s of higher-grade amphibole rocks, although some quartzos
schists hay dark gr n hornblende. Th plagioclase is albite or sodi
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 253
oligoclase, rarely more calcic to and sine, or extraordinarily to labra-
dorite. Garnet is almanditic. In mo:;t typps plagioclas exce ds quartz
0)' microcline. Acc ssories include magn 'tite, h matitc, ilmenit , apa-
tite, sphene, and chlorite.
Textures and Microstructur s. The amphibole forms slead r prisms
and needles, with marked parallel ori ntation and with intergranular
epidote. In some cases hornblend also forms porphyroblasts with
rims of epidote granules. Biotite flakes also show distinct paralJelism.
Garnet, which may be concentrated in bands, forms rough porphyro-
blasts, in some cases poiki)jtic. Quartz and feldspar are anhedral, in
aggr gates or interstitial grains. "Feather amphibolites," or Horn-
blendegarbenschiefer, contain large poikiloblastic hornblende blades,
which include quartz, feldspar, and magnetite, and wbkb are flattened
in decLlssate or stellatc patterns on foliation planes.
Occurrence and Origin. Hornbl nde schists are form ed by ]ow-
grade regional metamorphism of eith ~r mafic igneous rocks such as
basalts, diabases, basaltic tuffs, gabbros, and some andesites and
diorites or of arenaceous sediments containing admixed dolomite,
kaolinite, and iron oxide minerals or chlorite and iron oxide minerals.
Most of the rocks are referred to the albite-epidote amphibolite facies,
chloritoid-almandite subfacies. Some types, with nonactinolitic horn-
blende and garnet and andesine, were form d under somewhat higher
int nsity conditions, Examples occur in the Van Horn area, Texas, and
in N w England.
Hornblende Gneisses and Amphibolites
Defini.tion. Amphibolites are amphibol -rich rocks with es ential
plagioclase. Some are well foliated , even schistose, but most are
poorly foliated or hardly at all. Hornblende gneisses are fo1iated horn-
bI nde-feldspar-quartz rocks.
Mineralogy. The main types are:
(0) (b)
FIC. 68. (a) Banded horobl nde gneiss ; hornblende, an de ill , quartz, magnetite.
Northeastern Idaho. Nicols not crossed, X 10. ( b ) Amphibolite; hornblende,
and sine. Thirty-one Mil Mountain, GulIey, Colorado. icols not crossed, X32.
section cut normal to foliation. (COt~rl esy of J. E. Beoel'.)
EPIDOTE-GROUP ROCKS
General
Foliated rocks in which pidote is an abundant ess ntial constituent
have aIr ady been describ d under various other groups : chlorite
schist·, stilpnomelane schists, calc schists, muscovite schists, biotite
schists, hornblende schists and gneisses, and glaucophane schists. Like-
wise some skarns may be classed as nonfoliated epidote-rich rocks.
Zoisite also is widespread in a variety of metamorphic rocks, includ-
ing skarns, marbles, biotite-zoisite schists, zoisite amphibolites, and
zoisite ( ± hornblende) granulites. The last is formed by tb high-
grad regional metamorphism of impur sandstones containing dolo-
mite and kaolinite 01' chlorite and calcite.
Pumpel1eyite may be an abundant constitu nt of chlorite schists,
Descriptions of Metamorphic Rocks 257
actinolite schists, and glaucophane schists. It also is form d by the
low-grade hydrothermal alteration of a variety of rocks including
nndesites, basalts, diabases, spilites, skarns, and hornfelses.
The process of saussuritization involves the breakdown of plagio-
clase with sepal'ation of the Na and ea into different products. Na
forms clear albite granules, and ea appears chiefly in zoisite or epi-
dote, less usually prehnite or grossularite. Other minerals detected in
the normally fine-grained greenish to white mixture are quartz, cal-
cite, actinolite, chlorite, rutile, and rare mu scovite, orthoclase, and
scapolite. The proc ss is usually accompanied by other changes in the
rock, including alteration of pyroxen e to actinolite or hornblende
( uralitization), chlorite and iron oxides, and the alteration of olivine
to serpentine, talc, chlorite, or actinolite. Under ideal development
it results in fin e- to medium-grained rocks consisting chiefly of aJbite,
epidote or zoisite, actinolite, and pr hnite. The proc ss is widespr ad
in gabbros but also occurs in diorites and manc gneisses. In some cases
it is hydrothermal, perhaps ev n autohydrothermal, in origin. In meta-
morphic rocks it may I' present a retrograde metamorphic change.
Piedmontite Schists
Definition. Piedmontite schists are schistose rocks containing pied-
montite as an essential to major constituent.
Mineralogy. The main pCb'o]ogic types are all quartzose:
Muscovite-piedmontite -I- hematite
Muscovite-calcite-piedmontite
Minor constituents ar albite, epidot , and spcssartite. Accessories
are magnetite, tourmaline, sphene, rutile, and apatite. Rare accessori s
are chlorit , barite, and kyanite. The piedmol1tite, pleochl'oic in bril-
liant shades of yellow, viol t, and carmine, commonly shows marked
zoning. Th zoning may differ in different crystals in th same rock.
In some rocks both piedmontite and epidote occur togeth r, and th
epidote may have a core containing irregular rose (manganiferous )
spots. Tourmaline is colorl ss to pale purple.
T extures and M'icrostruct·ures. The texture is schistose, with well-ori-
ent d piedmontit and muscovite. Quartz grains may also be slightly
elongated. Many of th rocks are minutely banded with layers rich
in piedmontite alternating with quartzose or micaceous layers. Quartz,
anhedral and ven-grained, may include pieclmontite, epidote, and gar-
net. Undulatory xtinction is common. Albit is fin ly granular or
forms porphyroblasts enclosing pi dmontite, epidote, and hematite.
258 Microscopic Petrography
Piedmontite typically forms minute prismatic anhedra, parallelly
ori nted, in bands or disseminated. Cracks at right angles to the elon-
gation (b) are typically present. Some prisms may be bent or broken.
Muscovite forms nne to coarse Rakes and plates, rarely interleaved
with chlorite. Spessarite appears in small euhedra or porphyroblasts
that include piedmontite, magnetite, epidote, magnetite, rutile, and
hematite. Hematite and magnetite are eith r anhedral or euh dral,
the former in deep red hexagonal plates, the latter in octahedra. Ru-
tile forms rounded grains, euhedral crystals, and knee-shaped twins.
Uncommon barite appears in angular anh dral grains. Tourmaline
euhedra form singl crystals or clusters.
Occur-renee and Origin. Piedmontit schists are rare rocks, asso-
ciated with epidote schists, chlorite schists, stilpnomelan schists, am-
phibole schists, glaucophane schists, and muscovite schists. Formed
by the low-grade, regional metamorphism (muscovite-chlorite sub-
facies of the greenschist facies) of impure manganiferous sandstones.
That Mn has entered epidote instead of forming spessartite may be
due to the presence of abundant water. W ll-shldicd examples occur
in Japan and in western Otago, New Z aland. Piedmontite-muscovite-
quartz schists also occur near Pilar in northern New Mexico.
Una kite, Epidosite, and Related Rocks
Among epidote-rich rocks formed by m tasomatism or by meta-
morphic differentiation are unakites, epidosites, and epidotites.
Unakites arc epidote-quartz-feldspar rocks formed from granites,
granodiorites, and quartz syenites by hydrothermal r placement of
plagioclase, potash feldspar, and mafics by epidote. Where all feld-
spar and mancs are replaced, unakites grad into epidosites. The
potash feldspar is either orthoclase or microcline. Oth r minerals in
unakites are r lict biotite, apatite, magn tite, and zircon. Secondary
constihlents in addition to the pidote are quartz, pyrite, rutile, seri-
cite, kaolinite, chlorite, leucoxene, and limonite. Unakites arc medium-
to coars -grained, usuaUy nonfoliated. Epidote occurs in irregular
patches of minut granules and in fine-grain d veinlets. Quartz is
commonly undulatory, may show mortal' structure, and is fiHed with
fin rutile needles. E Idspar also may be fractured. Some secondary
quartz veinJets may cut other minerals, including epidote. Unakites
occur as irregular masses, lenses, and veins in granitic rocks. In the
Unit d States th rock was first described from the Unaka Mountains
of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Other occurrences
are in western Virginia.
Descripti011S of Metamorphic Rocks 259
Helsinkites are "epidote granites and epidot quartz diorites" prob-
ably formed by metasomatic action similar to the development of una-
kites but on a larger scale.
Epidosites are metasomatic epidote-quartz rocks that occur as veins
in greenschists, amphibolites, and granitic rocks . They also contain
minor albite, chlorite, actinolite, calcite, and leucoxene. Their texture
is usually fine-grained anhedral, but albit may appeal' as scattered
euhedral tablets. Quartz veinlets cut the aggregate. The name pi-
dosite also has been erroneously applied to quartz-epidote-muscovite
schists formed by low-grade regional m tamorphism of calcareous
graywackes.
Epidotite, a variably used term, may be appli d to massive or poorly
foliated rocks composed mainly of epidot , commonly with minor
hornblende, plagioclase, chlorite, quartz, calcite, and garnet. Many
are associated with amphibolites intruded by grauite sills.
FJG. 69. (a) Magnetite sehi t; magn tite, beU111ti te, quartz in variously prupur-
tioned bauds. Cherry Cr >k, Montana. ieols not crossed, X 10. ( b) Ma metite-
gruneritc schist; quartz, magnetite, gruneritc in variously proportioned bands.
Cherry Cre k, Montana. Ni ols Dot crossed, X 10.
grains at' also somewhat cIon gat d. Pyrox nes of th se rocks may
show ura}itizatioI1 or intergrowths with amphiboles.
Som > rocks ar massive, particularly the magnetite-garnet types. In
a variety from Kaymajarvi, northern Sweden, fine-grained magnetite
occurs in rounded blebs that arc regarded as metamorphosed greena-
lite granules.
Oecu,rr nee and Origin. Magn tit rocks are common in th pl'-
ambrian of many areas including the Lake Superior region, south-
west I'D Montana, Norway, Sweden, outh Africa, India, and Australia.
ssociated rocks includ grun rite and actinolite marbles, hematite
266 Microscopic Petrography
schists, leptites, pyroxene-garnet gneiss, amphibole gneiss, garnet am-
phibolite, ulysite, sillimanite-quartz schist, and glassy quartzite.
Lower-grade rocks, such as spotted hornfels, calc-silicate rock, and
ill tatuff, occur with some contact types.
Magnetite rocks are usually formed by high-grade regional meta-
morphism of chert-siderite or chert-greenalite rocks. With increasing
metamorphism quartz tends to b eliminated through the formation of
silicat s. They are also formed by increased metamorphism of lower-
grade hematite-quartz metamorphic rocks. Some types are of contact
m tam orphic origin ( Harz Mountains, Germany) and were limonitic
sandstones and shal s.
Eulysites and Related Rocks
Definition. Eulysites are charact riz d by the presence of iron-rich
olivine, fayalite, as an ssential or important constituent. Iron py-
roxenes, amphiboles, and garnet are also commonly abundant. Th
textur is massive to crud ly foliated.
Mineralogy. Olivine ranges from about 50 to 75 per c ot normally,
but some nlysites contain as little as 10 per cent fayalite. The com-
position of the olivine varies from 55 to 66 per cent FeO; some types
are manganiferous with 4 to 9 per c nt MnO. A few eulysites are rich
in th manganiferous varicti s, kneb lite and tephroit . Several min-
eralogical types may b distinguished:
1. Normal eulysite: Fayalite or manganiferous olivine with com-
binations in varying proportions of diopsid -hedenbergite, spessartite-
almandite, ferroan anthophyllite, hornblende, magnetite, and accessory
zircon, apatite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, grunerite, picotite, biotite, quartz,
labradorite, and potash feldspar. Some are relatively rich in quartz;
others lack it almost entirely.
2. Hypersthen eulysit: Iron-rich hypersth ne and fayalite with
combinations of hed nbergite, augit , grunerite, hornblende, and ac-
cessory garnet, magn etite, apatite, and pyrrhotite.
3. Grunerite eulysite ( colJobrierite): Grunerite and fayalite with
magnetite, sp ssaltite-almalldit , and accessory zircon, apatite, pyrrho-
tite, hornbl nde, biotite, and quartz.
4. Anthophyllite eulysite : Fayalite, ferroan anthophyllite with gru-
nerite, bornblend , and accessory almandite, quartz, hedenbergite,
apatite, and magnetite.
5. Cordierite ulysites: Fayalite, cordierite (as much as 33 per
cent) with combinations of magn tite, quartz, siderite, garnet, biotite,
and accessory hedenbergite, hypersthene, grunerite, anthophyllite, ac-
Descriptions of Meta11l0T1Jhic Rocks 267
tin olite, hornblende, CIocidolite, potash feldspar, pI onaste, pYlTho-
tite, and apatite.
6. Other varieties: (a.) Fayalite, siderite, quartz, pyrrhotite. (b)
Tephroite, schefferite, manganoan vesuvianit . (c) Knebelit , man -
ganoan hornblende, spessartite, rhodonite, rhodochrosite, magnetite,
orthocla e.
The proportions of th ' various minerals in th se types may vary con-
sid rably. Grunerite eulysites ( Fig. 70a ) grade into grun rite schists
FIC . 70. ( a. ) Eu lys ite; large faya litc crystals enclosing grunerite and much rnag-
netite, som in bands, minor quartz. Beartooth 1ounblins, Montana. Nicols not
cross d, X 10. (h) Emery; corundum, spinel, magnetite in streaks. axos, Greece.
Nicols not crossed, X 10.
GENERAL