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Mass Transfer Lecture Notes PDF
Mass Transfer Lecture Notes PDF
by
Prof. Bishnupada Mandal
Professor and Head, Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039
Lecture 1
1. Synthesis of Materials
2. Remediation of polluted air, water and soil
3. Energy Generation
Almost all chemical processes require a preliminary purification of the raw materials or separation of
products from by products.
Separation of chemical mixture into their constituents has been practiced for a long time. For
example
1. Extract metals from ores, perfumes from flower, and dyes from plants.
2. Evaporate sea water to obtain salt
3. Distil liquors.
The human body could not function for long, if it had no kidney- a membrane that selectively
removes water and waste products of metabolism from blood.
In chemical industries although chemical reactor is the central feature but separation cost
dominates the major part of the process cost.
The separation cost directly depends on the final to initial concentration of the separated
substances. If this ratio is larger, then the product cost is large. For example, sulphuric acid is
relatively low price product since sulphur is found naturally in a relatively pure state but pure uranium
is expensive due its low concentration found in nature.
Chemical engineers are more concerned with the manufacture of chemicals using economical,
large-scale separation methods which are significantly different from laboratory techniques. For
example, chemist may separate hydrocarbon mixtures by gas- liquid chromatography but in a large
manufacturing plant, distillation is used to separate the same hydrocarbon mixture.
There are many separation methods which are based on entirely mechanical, for example,
Mass transfer is the net movement of a component in mixture from one location to another where
the component exist at different concentration.
Flow of a liquid through a pipe and transport of solids through a conveyor belt are not mass
transfer operation
Common Examples
i. Lump of sugar added to a cup of tea: dissolves and diffuses throughout uniformly
ii. Deliberate use of Agarbati: Fragrance spreads uniformly throughout
iii. Drying of cloths under the SUN: Moistures diffuses into the air
Examples on Industrial Processes
i. Separation of CO2 from Flue Gas: Absorption
ii. Separation of a mixture of Ethanol and Water into its components: Distillation
iii. Separation of mixtures of Toluene and Water using Benzene as solvent: Extraction
iv. Drying of wet solid such as wood with the help of air: Drying
The chemical separation methods include absorption, distillation, liquid-liquid extraction, drying,
as well as newer methods such as adsorption and membrane separation.
Knowing the principle of separation operations, chemical engineers can successfully develop,
design and operate industrial processes.
The three states, gas, liquid and solid can lead to six possibilities of phase contact.
1. Gas-Gas: Almost all gases are completely soluble in each other and practically this system is
not realized.
2. Gas-Liquid:
Absorption: It is an operation in which a gas mixture is contacted with a liquid for the
purposes of preferentially dissolving one or more components of the gas and to provide a
solution of them in liquid.
Consider ‘solute ‘changing hands’ between gas & liquid
(Draw figure and show)
e.g.: If NH3- air mixture is brought in contact with water, a large portion of NH3 but
essentially no air dissolve in water.
Distillation: It is an equilibrium stage operation. In each stage, a vapour phase is contacted
with the liquid phase. Mass is transferred from vapour to liquid and from liquid to vapour.
The less volatile, ‘heavy’ or ‘high boiling’ component concentrate in the liquid phase and
more volatile, ‘light’ components concentrate in the in the vapour. By using multiple stages in
series with recycle, separation can be accomplished.
e.g.: separation of petroleum crude into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil & lubricating stock.
3. Gas-solid:
Drying: If a wet solid is exposed to a relative dry air the liquid leaves the solid and diffuses
into the gas.
Consider ‘solute ‘changing hands’ between solid & gas
(Draw figure and show)
e.g.: Drying of wood or laundry by exposure to air are the example.
Adsorption: If the diffusion takes place in the opposite direction, the operation is known as
adsorption.
Consider ‘solute ‘changing hands’ between gas & solid
(Draw figure and show)
e.g: If mixtures CH4, C2H6, C3H8 are brought into contact with a activated carbon, the hydro-
carbon are adsorbed in different extents, leads to a separation of gas mixture.
4. Liquid-liquid:
Extraction: Separation involving two immiscible liquid phases. Here a solution (called feed)
is brought into intimate contact with a second immiscible or slightly miscible liquid (called
solvent) in order to achieve transfer of solute from the feed to the solvent.
e.g.: separation of acetone from acetone-water mixture using carbon tetra chloride as a
solvent.
5. Liquid-solid:
Crystallization: Process of formation of solid from a liquid solution based on difference in
solute concentration and its solubility at a certain temperature.
e.g.: obtain sugar (an important component of our diet) from sugar cane or sugar beet; Sodium
chloride from sea water
Leaching: Selective dissolution of a component from solid particles by a liquid solvent.
e.g.: leaching of medicinal compounds from plants.
Dissolutions of one or more substances from solid particles accompanied by chemical
reactions.
e.g.: leaching of gold from its ores by sodium cyanide solutions is the typical example.
6. Solid-Solid: the rate of diffusing in solid-solid system is very slow, so there is no such
industrial separation process.
In a two-phase system not at equilibrium such as a layer of ammonia and air as a gaseous mixture
in contact with a layer of liquid water, spontaneous alteration through molecular diffusion occurs,
ultimately bringing the entire system to a state of equilibrium, whereupon alteration stops. At the
end, we observe that the concentration of any constituent is the same throughout a phase, but it
will not necessarily be the same in both phases. Thus the ammonia concentration will be uniform
throughout the liquid and ~ uniform at a different value throughout the gas. On the other hand, the
chemical potential of ammonia (or its activity if the same reference state is used), which is
differently dependent upon concentration in the two phases, will be uniform everywhere
throughout the system at equilibrium, and it is this uniformity which has brought the diffusive
process to a halt evidently, then, the true driving force for diffusion is activity or chemical
potential and not concentration. In multiphase systems, however, we customarily deal with
diffusional processes in each phase separately, and within one phase it is usually described in
terms of that which is most readily observed, namely, concentration changes.
Lecture 2
Molecular diffusion
Movement of individual molecules through a substance by virtue of their thermal energy
Explanation by simplified kinetic theory
A molecule is imagined to travel in a straight line at a uniform vel. until it collides with
another molecule, whereupon its vel. changes both in magnitude and direction.
Avg. distance the molecule travels bet. Collisions is its mean free path.
Molecule travels through a highly zigzag path, net distance travels in one direction in a given
time is the rate of diffusion.
= ∑ 𝑖
𝑖=1
Mass fraction
𝑖
𝑤𝑖 = = 𝑖
∑𝑖 𝑖
𝑛
Sum of mass fraction
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖
∑ 𝑊𝑖 = ∑
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Molar Concentrations
Molar concentration of component i
𝑝𝑖
𝐶𝑖 =
𝑅𝑇
Total molar concentration
𝑛
𝐶 = ∑ 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1
The feed gas to an absorber has the following composition at 313 K and 200 kPa in the fig 1.
Calculate
i. Composition of the feed gas in terms of mass fractions.
ii. Total mass concentration of the feed gas.
Solution:
(i) Basis: 100 kmol of feed gas mixture
Table
Components kmol Molecular Wt. Mass (kg) Mass Fractions
CH4 90 16 1440.00 0.80
C2H6 5 30 150.00 0.08
nC3H8 4 44 176.00 0.09
nC4H10 1 58 58.00 0.03
100 1824.00 1.0
𝑃 200 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
(ii) Total molar concentration (C) = 𝑅𝑇 = 8.314 ×313 = 0.077 𝑚3
1824.00
Average molecular weight( 𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = = 18.24 kg/kmol
100
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Total mass concentration (𝜌) = 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.077 ( 𝑚3
) × 18.24 (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 1.40 𝑚3
Example 1.2
A liquid mixture contains 30wt% NaNO3 and 70wt% H2O. The solution temperature is 300K and the
density of the solution is assumed to be 1050 kg/m3.
Calculate
Solution
1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔
Average molecular weight (𝑀𝑎𝑣 ) = = 0.0424 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 23.585 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
1050 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
Total molar concentration (𝐶) = = 23.585 = 44.52 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⁄𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑣 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
DIFFUSION VELOCITIES
Mass Average Velocity
Defined in terms of mass concentrations
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖
Vmass−avg = = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( 𝑖⁄) 𝑣𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖
∑𝑛
A gas mixture containing (H2=15%, CO= 30%, CO2=5% and N2= 50%) flows through a tube of 1
inch diameter, at 15 bar total pressure. If the velocities of the respective components are 0.05m/s,
0.03m/s, 0.02m/s and 0.03m/s, calculate the mass average and molar average velocities of the
mixture.
Solution
Here y1 is the mole fraction of component i in the gas mixture. Putting the values, we get
𝑚
Vmol−avg = (0.15)(0.05) + (0.3)(0.03) + (0.05)(0.02) + (0.5)(0.03) = 0.0325 𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑀𝑖 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Now,
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑦1 𝑀1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 + 𝑦3 𝑀3 + 𝑦4 𝑀4
= (0.15)(2) + (0.3)(28) + (0.05)(44) + (0.5)(28) = 24.9
1
Vmass−avg = ∑𝑛=4
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑀
1
Vmass−avg = 𝑀 (𝑦1 𝑀1 𝑣1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 𝑣2 + 𝑦3 𝑀3 𝑣3 + 𝑦4 𝑀4 𝑣4 )
𝑎𝑣𝑔
(0.15)(2)(0.05)+(0.3)(28)(0.03)+(0.05)(44)(0.02)+(0.05)(28)(0.03)
Vmass−avg = 24.9
Flux: Rate of transport of species i through unit area normal to the transport.
Flux may be calculated w.r.t coordinates fixed in space and coordinates moving with the mass or
molar average velocity.
Mass Flux
Calculated w.r.t mass average velocity or Relative to an observer moving with the mass
average velocity
Molar Flux
Calculated w.r.t molar average velocity or Relative to an observer moving with the
molar average velocity
Fick’s law :
Fick’s first law defines the diffusion flux of a component A in an isothermal, isoberic binary system is
proportional to the concentration gradient in a particular direction.
For diffusion of component A only in the ‘x’ direction is
𝑑𝐶𝐴
𝐽𝐴,𝑥 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑥
Q. Show that for a binary mixture A and B, the mutual diffusivities are same, i.e. 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐵𝐴
Solution
We know that,
𝐶𝐴
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐽𝐴 + N (1)
𝐶
Similarly,
𝑑𝑦𝐵
𝑁𝐵 = −𝐶𝐷𝐵𝐴 + 𝑦𝐵 𝑁 (4)
𝑑𝑥
(𝑦𝐴 + 𝑦𝐵 )𝑁 (5)
Since for two component
𝑑𝑦𝐴 𝑑𝑦𝐵 𝑑𝑦𝐴 𝑑𝑦𝐵
𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁, 𝑦𝐴 + 𝑦𝐵 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + = 0, so = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦𝐴 𝑑𝑦𝐴
𝑁 = −𝐶𝐷𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷𝐵𝐴 +1×𝑁 (6)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The change of concentration of a component of the diffusive constituents in a mixture over a time is
unsteady state of diffusion.
Balance Equation:
In + Generation = out + accumulation
Where,
𝑀𝐴 = molecular weight of A
= 𝑀𝐴 𝑅𝐴 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (2)
Mass rate of flow out An elemental Volume
= 𝑀𝐴 [𝑁𝐴,𝑥 |𝑥+𝑥 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑁𝐴,𝑦 |𝑥+𝑥 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑁𝐴,𝑧 |𝑥+𝑥 𝑥𝑦] (3)
Rate of Accumulation
𝜕𝐴
= 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (4)
𝜕𝑡
𝐴 = density of A
𝑠𝑜,
In + Generation = out + accumulation
We have
For Component A
For Component B
𝑀𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 𝑅𝐵 = 0,
𝐴 𝐴,𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐵,𝑥
𝑉𝑥 =
𝐴 + 𝐵
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐴 𝐴,𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐵,𝑥
= 𝑀𝐴 𝐶𝐴 𝐴,𝑥 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐶𝐵 𝐵,𝑥
= 𝑀𝐴 𝐶𝐴 𝐴,𝑥 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐶𝐵 𝐵,𝑥
= 𝑀𝐴 𝑁𝐴,𝑥 + 𝑀𝐵 𝑁𝐵,𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝑑
( 𝜕𝑥𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕𝑧
) + 𝑉𝑥
𝜕𝑥
+ 𝑉𝑦
𝜕𝑦
+ 𝑉𝑧
𝜕𝑧
+
𝑑𝑄
= 0 (10)
(12)
(13)
(14)
When = constant, using equation (11) and dividing in equation (14), we have
fick's law for unsteady state:
(15)
In the special case, where velocity equals to zero & there is no chemical reaction, from equation (15):
(16)
For the gaseous mixture, at constant pressure and temperature C and D AB are constant,
independent of position and composition. Also all the molar fluxes are constant in equation
(2). Therefore the equation (2) can be integrated between two boundary conditions as
follows:
at x= x1, yA = yA1
at x = x2, yA = yA2
Where 1 indicates the start of the diffusion path and 2 indicates the end of the diffusion path.
Let 𝑵𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨 𝑵 = 𝒁
− 𝒅𝒚𝑨 𝑵 = 𝒅𝒁
𝒅𝒁
−d𝒚𝑨 = 𝑵
𝑵𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨𝟐 𝑵 𝑵
𝐥𝐧 (𝑵 ) = 𝑪𝑫 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨𝟏 𝑵 𝑨𝑩
𝑵
𝑵( 𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨𝟐 ) 𝑵
𝑵
𝐥𝐧 [𝑵(𝑵𝑨− 𝒚 ] = 𝑪𝑫 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝑵 𝑨𝟏 ) 𝑨𝑩
𝑵
𝟏 𝑪𝑫𝑨𝑩 ( 𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨𝟐 )
𝟏= × (𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )
𝐥𝐧 [ 𝑵
𝑵 ]
𝑵 ( 𝑨 − 𝒚𝑨 ) 𝟏
𝑵
After integration with the above boundary conditions the equation for diffusion for the said
condition can be expressed as
NA
y A2
N A CD A B N
NA ln (3)
N x 2 x1 N A
y A1
N
CD A B 1 y A2
NA ln (4)
x 2 x1 1 y A1
Pt p
Since for an ideal gas C and for mixture of ideal gases y A A , the equation (4) can
RT Pt
be expressed in terms of partial pressures as
D A B Pt Pt p A2
NA ln (5)
( x 2 x1 ) RT Pt p A1
where Pt is the total pressure and pA1 and pA2 are the partial pressures of A at point 1 and 2
respectively. For diffusion under turbulent conditions, the flux is usually calculated based on
linear driving force. For this purpose the equation (5) can be manipulated to rewrite it in
terms of a linear driving force. Since for the binary gas mixture of total pressure Pt,
Pt = pA + pB
Pt p A2 p B2 ; Pt p A1 p B1 ; p A1 p A2 pB2 pB1
DA B Pt p A1 p A2 pB2
NA ln (6a)
RT ( x2 x1 ) pB2 pB1 pB1
Or
p
DA B Pt
NA p A2 (6b)
RT ( x2 x1 ) pBLM
A1
p B2 p B1
p BLM (7)
pB
ln 2
pB
1
dy A
The component A diffuses by concentration gradient . Here flux is inversely
dx
proportional to the distance through which diffusion occurs and the concentration of the
stagnant gas ( p BLM ) because with increase in x and p BLM , resistance increases and flux
decreases.
Example 1:
CO2 is diffusing through non diffusing air under steady state conditions at a total pressure of
1 atmosphere and temperature 300K. The partial pressure of CO2 is 20kPa at one point and
5kPa at other point. The distance between the points is 5cm. Calculate the flux of CO2. Given
that 𝑫𝑪𝑶𝟐 −𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 2 x 10-5 m2/s at 300K and 1 atm.
Solution:
Assume ideal gas
Let air = B
𝑫𝑪𝑶𝟐−𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑷𝒕
𝑵𝑪𝑶𝟐 = × (𝑷 − 𝑷𝑪𝑶 𝟐,𝟐 )
𝑹𝑻(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) 𝑷𝑩𝑳𝑴 𝑪𝑶 𝟐,𝟏
Given
𝑫𝑪𝑶𝟐 −𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐 ⁄𝒔
P = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 1.013 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa
T= 300 K, 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝒑𝑪𝑶 𝟐,𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝑷𝒂 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑲
𝑃𝐵,1 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝐶𝑂 2,1 = (101.3 − 20) 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 81.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 2.75 × 10−6 𝑚2 𝑠
CO2 is diffusing at steady state through a straight tube of 0.5m long with an inside diameter of 0.05m
containing N2 at 300K and 1 atm pressure. The partial pressure of CO2 at one end is 15kPa and 5kPa
at the other end. Given that 𝐷𝐶𝑂2 −𝑁2 = 4 × 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠 at 300K and 1atm. Calculate the
Solution:
𝐷𝐶𝑂2 −𝑁2
𝑁𝐶𝑂2 = (𝑝 − 𝑝𝐶𝑂2 ,2 )
𝑅𝑇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 𝐶𝑂2 ,1
Given
𝐷𝐶𝑂2−𝑁2
a) 𝑁𝐶𝑂2 = 𝑅𝑇(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
(𝑝𝐶𝑂2 ,1 − 𝑝𝐶𝑂2 ,2 )
4 × 10−5
= (15,000 − 5,000)
8314 × 300 × 0.5
0.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 3.21 × 10−7 2
1247100 𝑚 𝑠
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 CO2 = 3.21 × 10−7 2
× 1.96 × 10−3 𝑚2 = 6.29 × 10−10
𝑚 𝑠 𝑠
𝐷𝐶𝑂2−𝑁2
b) 𝑁𝑁2 = (𝑝𝑁2 ,1 − 𝑝𝑁2 ,2 )
𝑅𝑇(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 N2 = −3.21 × 10−7 × 1.96 × 10−3 𝑚2
𝑚2 𝑠
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −6.29 × 10−10
𝑠
When one mole B diffuses towards A and two moles of A diffuse in opposite direction. Here,
N A N B / 2 . Hence,
Lecture 5 Variable cross section Area
Consider a component A is diffusing at steady state through a equilateral triangle conduit which is
tapered uniformly as shown in Figure 1. At point 1 the side of the triangle is a1 and at point 2 it is a2.
At position x in the conduit, A is diffusing through stagnant, non-diffusing B.
For an equilateral triangle, the formula for area (where 𝑎 = length of one side) is:
1
𝐴= × 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
2
√3
altitude ∶ ( 𝑎) for equilateral triangle
2
1 √3 √3 2
𝐴= × 𝑎× 𝑎 = 𝑎
2 2 4
Returning to the Fick's Law formula, at position x the flux of A through a triangle of stagnant B can
be written as
𝑝𝐴 −𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑝𝐴 ̂𝐴
𝑁 ̂𝐴
4 𝑁
𝑁𝐴 (1 − )= 𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑁𝐴 = =
𝑃𝑡 𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 √3 𝑎2
𝑅𝑇 ̂𝐴
4𝑁 𝑑𝑃𝐴
∴ − × 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃𝑡
𝐷𝐴𝐵 √3𝑎2 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑝𝐴
Before limits are imposed, it must be remembered that 𝑎 is a function of x, as the size of triangle
uniformly tapers with distance along the duct:
𝑎2 − 𝑎1
𝑎 = 𝑎1 + (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑎2 − 𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑎1
= 𝑎1 + 𝑥− 𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 1
𝑑𝑎 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑎1
∴ =0+ (1) − (0) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑎
𝑎2 − 𝑎1
We can now substitute x for a in the expression, and integrate with limits of pA1 at triangle of side a1
and pA2 when the triangle is of side a2:
−𝑅𝑇𝑁̂𝐴 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑎2 4 𝑝𝐴2
𝑑𝑝𝐴
∫ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑃𝑡 ∫
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 𝑎1 √3𝑎2 𝑝𝐴 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑝𝐴 1
̂𝐴 x2 −x1 −1 a2
−4RT𝑁 pA
=> [a] = −[ln(Pt − pA )]pA2
√3DAB a2 −a1 a1 1
̂𝐴 x2 −x1
4RT𝑁 1 1 Pt −pA
(a − a ) = ln (P −p 2 )
√3DAB a2 −a1 1 2 t A1
Pt −pA
̂𝐴 (a1 −a2 ) =
𝑁
√3DAB Pt a2 −a1
(x ) ln (P −p 2 )
a a 1 2 4RT 2 −x1 t A1
√3DAB Pt a1 a2 Pt − pA2
̂𝐴 =
∴ 𝑁 ln ( )
4RT x2 − x1 Pt − pA1
Example Problem 1:
The CO2 is diffusing through non-diffusing N2 at steady state in a conduit of 2m long at 300K and a
total pressure of 1 atmosphere. The partial pressure of CO2 at the left end is 20kPa and 5kPa at the
other end. The cross section of the conduit is in the shape of an equilateral triangle being 0.0.025m at
the left end and tapering uniformly to 0.05m at the right end. Calculate the rate of transport of CO2.
The diffusivity is DAB = 210-5 m2/s.
Solution:
Given that
m2
DAB = 2 × 10−5
s
R = 8314 (m3.Pa)/(kmol K)
T = 300K
𝑎1 = 0.025 𝑚
𝑎2 =0.05 m
x2 − x1 = 2 m
Now substituting values in the following equation
√3DAB Pt a1 a2 Pt − pA2
̅̅̅̅
NA = ln ( )
4RT x2 − x1 Pt − pA1
m2
√3 × 2 × 10−5 s × 101.3 × 103 Pa × 0.025m × 0.05𝑚 101.3 × 103 Pa − 5 × 103 Pa
= ln ( )
(m3 . Pa) 101.3 × 103 Pa − 20 × 103 Pa
4 × 8314 × 300K × 2m
kmol. K
There are lots of examples where diffusion can take place through the spherical shape bodies. Some
examples are:
From the Fick’s law of diffusion, the rate of diffusion can be expressed as:
(1)
P -D dP NA
N A 1- A = AB A where N A =
Ptotal RT dr 4πr 2
-RTN A dr dPA
Ptotal
-DAB dPA 4πDAB r N A Ptotal PA
2 (2)
= where NA =
RT dr 4πr 2
PA -DAB dPA NA
dr dPAN A 1- P = RT dr where N A = 4πr 2
Ptotal total
2
Ptotal PA (3)
-RTN A dr dPA
Ptotal
4πDAB r 2
Ptotal PA
(4)
-RTN A 1 1 Ptotal PA2
ln
4πDAB Ptotal r1 r2 Ptotal PA1
As A r2, then 1/r
r1 <<
RTN 2≈
Ptotal 0: pA2 pA1 pA2
ln
4πr1DAB Ptotal P
total pA1 PBM
(5)
N A DAB Ptotal (pA1 pA2 )
N A1 , the flux at the surface
4πr12 RTPBLM r1
This equation can be simplified if PA1 is small compared to P (a dilute gas phase), PBM ≈ P. Also
setting 2r1 = D1, diameter, CA1 = PA1/RT
DAB
N A1 = (CA1 - CA2 ) (6)
D1
Example Problem 2
A sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 5 mm is suspended in a large volume of still air at 310 K
and 1 atm. The partial pressure at the surface of naphthalene at 310K is 50 Pa. Assume dilute gas
phase. The DAB of naphthalene in air at 310 K is 610-6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of evaporation of
naphthalene from the surface.
Solution:
After substitution,
5
610−6 × 1.013 × 10 × 50
= 5
8314 × 310 × 1.013 × 10 × 0.005
303.9×10−6
= 13054.22
= 0.023 × 10−6 kmol/ m2 . s
Steady state equimolar counter diffusion:
Consider a component A is diffusing at steady state through a circular conduit which is tapered
uniformly as shown in Figure 3. At point 1 the radius is r1 and at point 2 it is r2.
We know that
dyA
NA = C DAB + yA N
dx
DAB dyA
=− P + yA N
RT t dx
pA
DAB d ( Pt ) −DAB dpA
NA = − P =
RT t dx RT dx
̂A DAB dpA
N
NA = =
πr 2 RT dx
Using the geometry as shown, the variable radius r can be related to position x in the path as follows:
r2 −r1
Again, r = ( ) x + r1
x2 −x1
̂A x2
N dx −DAB pA2
∫ 2 = ∫ dpA
π x1 r −r RT pA
[(x2 − x1 ) x + r1 ] 1
2 1
r2 − r1
Let, C1 = ( )
x2 − x1
̂A x2
N dx −DAB pA2
∴ ∫ = ∫ dpA
π x1 [C1 x + r1 ]2 RT pA
1
Let C1 x + r1 = z
dz
∴ dx =
C1
dz
̂A z2 C1
N −DAB pA2
∫ = ∫ dpA
π z1 [z]2 RT pA
1
̂
− NA 1 z2 −DAB
=> [ ] = [pA ]ppA2
πC1 z z1 RT A1
N̂A 1 1 DAB
=> [ − ]= [p − pA2 ]
πC1 z1 z2 RT A1
N̂A 1 1 DAB
=> [ − ]= [p − pA2 ]
πC1 C1 x1 + r1 C1 x2 + r1 RT A1
̂A
N 1 1 DAB
r2 −r1 [ r −r − r −r ]= [pA1 − pA2 ]
π( ) ( 2 1 )x1 + r1 ( 2 1 )x2 + r1 RT
x2 −x1 x2 −x1 x2 −x1
r −r
DAB π( 2 1 ) [pA 1 −pA2 ]
̂A =
N
x2 −x1
RT
1 1
[ r −r − r −r ]
( 2 1 )x2 + r1 ( 2 1 )x1+ r1
x2 −x1 x2 −x1
r −r
π( 2 1 ) [pA 1 −pA2 ]
̂A = DAB
N L
1 1
DAB
= RT
π r1 r2
(pA1 − pA2 )
RT [ − ] L
r2 r1
Example Problem 3:
The CO2 is diffusing at steady state through N2 by equimolar counter diffusion in a conduit 2 m long
at 300K and a total pressure of 1 atmosphere. The partial pressure of CO2 at the left end is 20 kPa and
5 kPa at the other end. The cross section of the conduit is in the shape of cylindrical of radius is
0.025m at the left end and tapering uniformly to a radius of 0.05m at the right end. Calculate the
molar flow rate of CO2. The diffusivity is DAB = 210-5 m2/s.
Solution:
Given that
Given that
m2
DAB = 2 × 10−5
s
R = 8314 (m3.Pa)/(kmol K)
T = 300K
𝑎1 = 0.025 𝑚
𝑎2 =0.05 m
L = x2 − x1 = 2 m
Now substituting values in the following equation
DAB π r1 r2
̅̅̅̅
NA = (pA1 − pA2 )
RT L
m2
2 × 10−5 s × 3.14 × 0.025m × 0.05𝑚
= (20 × 103 − 5 × 103 )
(m3. Pa)
8314 × 300K × 2m
kmol. K
0.00785×15
= × 10−2
4988400
molecules increases with increase in temperature. The diffusivity is generally higher for gases
(in the range of 0.5×10–5 to 1.0 × 10-5 m2/s) than for liquids (in the range of 10–10 to 10-9
m2/s). The diffusivity value of the gases into solids is in the range of 10 –13 to 10-10 m2/s. The
diffusivity of permanent gases is in the order of 10-10 m2/s for polymer.
There are several methods of experimental determination of gas-phase diffusion coefficient. Two
methods are (a) Twin-bulb method and (b) Stefan tube method. Predictive equations are sometimes
used to determine diffusivity. These may be empirical, theoretical or semi-empirical.
Two large bulbs are connected by a narrow/capillary tube. The schematic representation is shown in
Figure 6.1. There is a suitable arrangement for stirring the contents of the bulbs to maintain the
uniform concentrations in the bulbs. In the beginning two bulbs are evacuated and all the three valves
[Va1, Va2 and VaT] are kept closed. Then Va1 is opened and bulb 1 is filled with pure A at a total
pressure Pt. After that Va2 is opened and bulb 2 is filled with pure B at the same pressure Pt. The valve
VaT is opened and diffusion proceeds for some period of time (say t) and then the valve is closed. The
samples from the individual chambers are collected and analyzed their composition.
Assumptions:
Consider, Ax is the inner cross sectional area, L is the length of connecting capillary tube, v1 and v2
are the volumes, and pA1 and pA2 (pA1 > pA2) are the partial pressures of component A at any time t, in
the bulbs 1 and 2, respectively. Because the total pressures in the bulbs remain constant and equal,
equimolar counter diffusion will occur.
At steady state the transport of A from bulb 1 to bulb 2 can be written as follows.
A x D AB (p A1 p A 2 )
Ax NA A x N B (6.1)
RTL
If pA1 and pA2 are partial pressures of A in two bulbs at any time, for ideal gases:
v1 dp A1
Ax NA (6.2)
RT dt
v 2 dp A 2
and Ax NA (6.3)
RT dt
(pA1 decreases with time while pA2 increases with time and hence there is negative sign in equation
(6.2))
d(p A1 p A 2 ) A x D AB (p A1 p A 2 ) 1 1
(6.5)
dt L v1 v 2
Applying the above boundary conditions, Equation (6.5) is integrated to obtain the expression of DAB
as follows:
Pt A D 1 1
ln x AB t derive this relation (6.6)
(p A1,t p A 2,t ) L v1 v 2
(ii) Partial pressures of one of the components in the vessel at the end of the experiment
Mutual diffusion coefficient is then can be calculated directly from equation (6.6)
Example problem 6.1:
To measure the diffusivity of CO2 by two-bulb method, the pure CO2 and pure N2 is filled in bulb 1
and bulb 2, respectively. The volume of bulb 1 is 4 liters and bulb 2 is 3 liters. These two bulbs are
connected by a capillary tube of 5 cm length and 2 cm internal diameter. The partial pressures of CO2
in the bulbs 1 and 2 are 60 kPa and 40 kPa, respectively at the end of 6 hours. The bulbs are
maintained at 100kPa total pressure and 313K temperature. Calculate the diffusivity of CO2.
Solution:
We know that
Pt A D 1 1
ln x AB t
(p A1,t p A 2,t ) L v1 v 2
Or
Lv 1 v 2 Pt
D AB ln
A x t v 2 v1 (p A1, t p A 2, t )
Given:
L = 5 cm = 0.05 m
v1 = 4 lit = 0.004 m3
v2 = 8 lit = 0.003 m3
Pt = 100kPa
pA1 = 60kPa
pA2 = 40kPa
= 2 10-5 m2/s
(b) Stefan tube method
Stefan tube consists of a vertical narrow glass tube joined to a horizontal larger diameter tube to form
a tee (T). The vertical tube is held at a constant temperature water bath. Component B (say Air) is
pumped through the horizontal tube. Volatile component (A) is taken in the narrow vertical tube.
Evaporated A diffuses through B and reaches to the top of the vertical tube and then swept away by
the flowing B. Component B is assumed to be insoluble in A and hence considered to be non-
diffusing B. The liquid level in the vertical tube will drop very slowly and pseudo-steady state
condition can be assumed. This means that as soon as there is a small drop in level, a new steady state
rate of diffusion is established simultaneously.
Let, at any time t, partial pressure of A at the h distance from the top of the vertical tube is pA1 and
that at the top it is pA2. The diffusional flux of A through non-diffusing B can be written as:
D AB Pt (p A1 p A 2 )
NA (6.7)
RT h p BLM
Where
ρA (dh.1)
NA . 1 = (6.8)
MA .dt
Boundary conditions:
Substituting the Equation (6.8) in Equation (6.7) and integrating with above BC’s, one gets
or
RT p BLM (h 2F h 02 )
D AB (6.11)
2Pt M A (p A1 p A 2 ) t F
Where, partial pressure of a at liquid surface, pA1 is equal to vapour pressure at the same temperature.
The partial pressure of A at the top of the vertical tube, pA2 is zero due to high flow rate of B.
Example problem 6.2:
To measure the diffusivity of water vapour by Stefan tube method, the water is filled in the vertical
narrow glass tube and held at a constant temperature of 30oC. The air is flowing through the
horizontal tube at a total pressure of 1 atmosphere and the temperature is 30 oC. Initially, the water
level was at distance of 1 cm from the top of the vertical tube and after 30 minutes the level drops to
1.2 cm from top. The vapour pressure of water at 30oC is 4.5kPa. Calculate the diffusivity of water
vapor.
Solution:
We know that
RT p BLM (h 2F h 02 )
D AB
2Pt M A (p A1 p A 2 ) t F
Given
R = 8314 (m3.Pa)/(kmol K)
Pt = 101.3x 103 Pa
pA2 = 0
MA = 18
ho = 1cm = 0.01m
hf = 1.2cm = 0.012m
tf = 30 min = 30 x 60 = 1800s
Predictive Equations:
Experimental diffusivities values for different binary gas mixtures are available in the literature. Still
there are several mixtures for which experimental data are not reported. In this situation, we can use
suitable correlation to predict the value of diffusivity.
A very simple and reasonably accurate empirical equation was suggested by Fuller, Schettler and
Giddings (1966) for the prediction of binary gas-phase diffusivity up to moderate pressures:
1
10 7 T 1.75 1 1 2 2
D AB 2
m /s
Pt A B 3
1
3
1 M A M B
where,
T is temperature in K
Example 7.1
For mixtures of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, predict the diffusivity using the Fuller et al. (1966)
formulae for the following conditions:
1 1
10−7 𝑇 1.75 √ +
𝑀 𝐴 𝑀𝐵
(i) D AB = 2
𝑃𝑡 [(∑ 𝑉𝐴 )1⁄3 +(∑ 𝑉𝐵 )1⁄3 ]
A= CO, B= H2
∴ ∑ VB = 2(2.31) = 4.62
MB = 2(1) = 2 kg/kmol
Temperature T = 100+273=373K
1 1
10−7 (373)1.75 √ + 31658.51 × 10−7 (0.732)
28 2
D AB = 2 = 1(19.98)
= 1.159 × 10−4 m2/s=1.16 × 10−4 m2/s
1[(21.98)1⁄3 +(4.62)1⁄3 ]
A only 3 significant figures are available in the question, 1.159 × 10−4 m2/s
(ii) There is no need to calculate the other diffusivities from scratch, as they all have the same
molecular volumes and weights, i.e. at same temperature
1
D AB ∝ 𝑃
𝑡
DAB2 𝑝𝑡1
∴ =
𝐷𝐴𝐵1 𝑝𝑡2
𝑝𝑡1
∴ DAB2 = ( ) 𝐷𝐴𝐵1
𝑝𝑡2
So now the new diffusivities can be calculated by adjusting the first one for pressure. It is best to
use the accurate value and approximate later.
i.e as only 3 significant figures are available in the question , 0.5795 × 10−4 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
(iii) There is no need to calculate the other diffusivities from scratch, as they all have the same
molecular volumes and weights, i.e. at same pressure
D AB ∝ 𝑇 1.75
DAB2 𝑇2 1.75
∴ =( )
𝐷𝐴𝐵1 𝑇1
𝑇2 1.75
DAB2 = ( ) 𝐷𝐴𝐵1
𝑇1
473 1.75 m2
∴ DAB2 =( ) 1.159 × 10−4 = 1.761 × 10−4 m2 ⁄s
373 s
i.e as only 3 significant figures are available in the question , 1.761 × 10−4 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
There is a useful correlation suggested by Chapman and Enskog. This correlation is based on the
kinetic theory of gases and the diffusion coefficient is strongly dependent on the binary
interaction parameter of mixture pair.
1
1.858 10 7 T 1.5 1 1 2
D AB
Pt AB D
2
MA MB
Where, T is temperature in K
( A B )
σAB is characteristic length parameter of binary mixture in Å
2
Example 7.2
For mixtures of ammonia and hydrogen, predict the diffusivity using the Chapman-Enskog formulae
at 1 atmosphere pressure and 100oC temperature
Solution:
MA = NH3 = 17; MB = H2 = 2
Pt = 1 atmosphere
( A B ) (2.900 2.827) o
NH3 (A) – H2 (B) pair: AB 2.8635 A
2 2
AB A B
1/ 2
k k k
kT 373
2.04
AB 182.6
ΩD = 1.075
1
1.858 10 7 T 1.5 1 1 2
D AB
Pt 2AB D MA MB
1⁄
1.858 × 10−7 × (373)1.5 1 1 2
= [ + ] = 1.134 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠
1 × (2.8635)2 × 1.075 17 2
Measurement of liquid-phase diffusion coefficient
There are few methods of determination of liquid-phase diffusivities. The most commonly used
method is Diaphragm cell method.
Diaphragm cell contains two compartments as shown in the Fig 7.1. These are separated by
diaphragm.
In this measurement a very dilute solution in one compartment and a solution of slightly higher
concentration in other compartment are placed. Molecular diffusion takes place through the narrow
pores of the diaphragm cell.
The lengh of diffusion path is not equal to the thickness of the diaphragm since the pores are not
straight. To account for this a tortuosity factor must be introduce.
where τ is tortuosity. As the solute concentration is very low, bulk flow term can be taken as zero.
Hence,
equimolar counter type
dC A (C C A 2 ) (C C A 2 )
N A D AB D AB A1 D AB A1 (7.2)
dh (h 2 h 1 ) x
where (h 2 h1 ) = xd
We can write the flux equations for both sides of the diaphragm
dC A1
v1 AN A (7.3)
dt
dC A 2
and v 2 AN A (7.4)
dt
Adding Equations (7.3) and (7.4) and substituting NA from Equation (7.2) we have,
d(C A1 C A 2 ) AD AB (C A1 C A 2 ) 1 1
(7.5)
dt xd v1 v 2
Boundary conditions
1
x 1 1 C A1, 0 C A 2, 0 C C A 2, 0
Therefore, D AB d ln 1 ln A1, 0 (7.6)
AtF
v1 v 2 C A1,F C A 2,F t F C A1,F C A 2,F
A 1 1
where
x d v1 v 2
is the ‘cell constant’ and can be determined by using a solute of known diffusion coefficient.
Example 7.3 To measure the diffusivity of acetone in water at 20oC a diaphragm cell is used.
Initially, compartment 1 of volume 50 cm3 is filled with 0.5 molar acetone in water and the
compartment 2 of volume 55 cm3 is filled with water. The molar concentration of acetone dropped to
0.4 molar in compartment 1 after 40 hours. The cell constant is given as 0.3cm-2. Calculate the
diffusivity of acetone.
Solution:
Given:
v1 = 50 cm3; v2 = 55 cm3
tf = 40 hours = 406060 seconds = 144000 seconds
= 0.3cm-2
CA2,F = 0.091
Now,
Example 7.4 Predict the diffusivity of acetone in water at 20oC using Wilke-Chang equation. The
association factor for water is 2.26. The molar volume of acetone is 0.074 m3/kmol. The viscosity of
water at 20oC is 1.00210-3 kg/m s.
Solution:
1.173 10 16 (M B ) 0.5 T 1.173 10 16 (2.26 18) 0.5 293
D AB 1.04 10 9 m2/s
B 0A.6 1.002 10 3 (0.074) 0.6
(C) Stokes-Einstein Equation
The Stokes-Einstein equation, one of the first theories, was derived for a very large spherical molecule
(A) diffusing in a liquid solvent (B) of small molecules. Stokes’ law was used to determine the drag
on the moving solute molecule. Then the equation was modified by assuming that the all molecules
are alike and arrange in a cubic lattice and expressing the molecular radius in terms of molecular
volume:
9.96 10 16 T
D AB
v1A/ 3 (7.8)
Liquid diffusivity varies linearly with absolute temperature and inversely proportional to viscosity of
the medium. The well known Stokes-Einstein equation shows this type of dependency as given below:
D AB
Cons tan t (7.9)
T