upper Eocene igneous intrusions are, however, restricted to the second and third regional

types, and the Makran group to the coast of that name. upper Eocene igneous. Upper.
[Makran group] (Upper. Siwaliks Middle. Lower. Upper.
Lower.
Sea-birds are numerous along the coast. Reptiles include the tortoise, several genera of
lizards, of which the species Phrynocephalus is the most common, and the skink. Eleven
genera of snakes have so far been discovered, the most numerous in
species being Zamenis, Lytorhynchus, and Distira. They also include
Eristocophis macnmahonii. The coast swarms with fish and molluscs, the former
including sharks, perch, cat-fish, herrings, yellow-tails, and pomfrets. The Province has a
coast-line of about 472 miles. The distance in a direct line, however, from Karachi to
Gwetter Bay is only 335 miles. Owing to small rainfall, the salt nature of the soil, and the
physical conformation of the country, the shore is almost entirely desert, presenting a
succession of arid clay plains impregnated with saline matter and intersected by
watercourses. From these plains rise precipitous table hills. The coast-line is deeply
indented, but its most characteristic feature is the repeated occurrence of promontories
and peninsulas of white clay cliffs, table-topped in form. The intermediate tract is low,
and in some places has extensive salt-water swamps behind it. The chief ports on the
coast are Sonmiani or Miani, Pasni, and Gwadar. They are much exposed, and, owing to
the shoaling of the water, no large ships can approach nearer than two or three miles.
For geological purposes Baluchistan is conveniently divided into three regions:-
(I) An outer series of ranges, forming a succession of synclines and
anticlines comparable in structure to the typical Jura mountains of Europe. In this
region we have two subdivisions: (a) the semi- circular area of Sewistan2, and (b)
the ranges of Kalit, Sind, and Makran, which continue into Southern Persia as far
west as the Straits of Ormuz. Further curved ranges of the same type extend
as far as Kurdistan. desolate jungle of stunted scrub, the individual
plants of which are almost all armed to the leaf-tip with spines, hooks,
and prickles of diverse appearance but alike in malignancy. The commoner
constituents of this ill-favoured flora are Capparis aphylla, Periploca aphylla,
Boucerosia, Tecoma undulata, Acan- thodium .spicatum, Prosopis spicigera,
Withania coagulans, Zizyphus Jujuba, Salvadora oleoides, Calotropis procera,
Caragona polyacantha, three kinds of Acacia, Leptadenia Spartium, Taverniera
Nummularia, Physorhynchus brahuicus, and Alhagi camelorum. In low-lying
parts where water is available Tamarix articulata and T. gallica are found.
Here and there Euph6rbia neritfolia and the dwarf-palm (Nannorhops
Ritchieana) occur, the latter often in great quantities. The herbaceous
vegetation is very scanty, consisting of such plants as Aerua javanica,
Pluchea lanceolata, Fagonia arabica, Mimulus alatus, and Cassia obovata;
near water, Eclipta erecta; and as weeds of cultivation, Solanum dulc-
amara and Spergularia. Two species akin to Haloxylon, Suaeda vermi-
culata and Salsola foetida, abound on saline soil. Panicum anlidotale is
the most important grass, but Eleusine flagellifera and a species of
Eragrostis are also abundant. In the lower highlands the mairkhor is replaced by
the Sind ibex (Capra aegagrus). The leopard (Felis pardus) is fiequently seen, The
characteristic game-birds of the country are chikor (Caccabis chucar) and sisi
(Amnmoperdix bonhami), which abound in years of good rainfall and afford
excellent sport. Large flocks of sand-grouse pass through the country in the
winter, and the tanks are frequented by many varieties of wild-fowl. A few
woodcock are also to be found. Most of the birds of Baluchistan are migratory.
Of those permanently resident, the most characteristic are the raven, frequent
everywhere; the lammergeyer, for which no place is too wild; and the golden
eagle.
Among the visitors the most common are different species of Saxicola,
headed by the pied chat, and several kinds of shrikes which appear in
spring in large numbers. Sea-birds are numerous along the coast.
Reptiles include the tortoise, several genera of lizards, of which the
species Phrynocephalus is the most common, and the skink. Eleven
genera of snakes have so far been discovered, the most numerous in
species being Zamenis, Lytorhynchus, and Distira. They also include
Eristocophis macnmahonii.
The coast swarms with fish and molluscs, the former including
sharks, perch, cat-fish, herrings, yellow-tails, and pomfrets.
Baluchistln lies outside the monsoon area and its rainfall is exceed-
ingly irregular and scanty. In the Shdhndma we have an account of the conquest
of Makran by Kai Khusru (Cyrus), and the Achaemenian empire which
reached its farthest limits under Darius Hystaspes included the whole
of the country. to Strabo that we owe the best account, and from his writings we are
able to identify the localities into which Baluchistan was distributed
in ancient geography. On the north-east, and probably including all
the upper highlands, was Arachosia; directly west of it was Drangiana;
to the south lay Gedrosia; while in the Ichthyophagoi, Oraitai, and
Arabies or Arabii are to be identified the fishermen of the Makran
coast, the inhabitants of Las Bela, and the people of the Hab river
valley respectively.
Alexander's retreat from India led him through Las Bela and Makran,
while a second division of his army under Craterus traversed the Mula
Pass, and a third coasted along the shore under Nearchus. Alexander's
march and the sufferings of his troops are graphically described by
Arrian. After Alexander's death, Baluchistan fell to Seleucus Nicator,
and later on passed from his descendants to the Graeco-Bactrian kings
who ruled also in Afghanistan and in the Punjab. Between I40 and
130 B.c., they were overthrown by a Central Asian horde, the Sakas,
who passed along to the valley of the Helmand. About this time
Buddhism, of which many traces are still to be found, flourished in
Baluchistan. The empire of the Sassanians which followed expanded
slowly towards the east, and Baluchistan was not conquered till the
time of Nausherwan (A.D. 529-77).
Henceforth the suzerainty over the petty rulers of Baluchistan alter-
nated between east and west. In the fourteenth year of the Hijra
(635-6) Rai Chach marched from Sind and conquered Makran. . The Arabs reached
Makran as early as the year 643. Shortly afterwards Baluchistan fell into the hands of
Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin; and his son, Mahlmud of Ghazni, was able to effect his
conquests in Sind owing to his possession of Khuzdar. From the
Ghaznivids it passed into the hands of the Ghorids and, a little
later, was included in the dominion of Sultan Muhammad Khan of
Khwarizm (Khiva) in 1219.
About 1223 a Mongol expedition under Chagatai, Chingiz Khan's
son, penetrated as far as Makran. A few years later Southern Baluchi-
stan came under the rule of Sultan Altamsh of Delhi, but it appears
soon to have reverted to the Mongols. The raids organized by Chingiz
Khan have burned deep into the memory of Baluchistan. From
Makran to the Gomal, the Mongol (known to the people as the Mughal)
and his atrocities are still a byword in every household.
The forty-four years of the rule of Nasir Khan I, known to the
Brahuis as 'The Great,' and the hero of their history, were years of
strenuous administration and organization interspersed with military
expeditions. He accompanied Ahmad Shah in his expeditions to
Persia and India, while at home he was continuously engaged in the
reduction of Makran, and, after nine expeditions to that country, he
obtained from the Gichkts the right to the collection of half the revenues.
A wise and able administrator, Nasir Khan was distinguished for his
prudence, activity, and enterprise. He was essentially a warrior and
a conqueror, and his spare time was spent in hunting. At the same
time he was most attentive to religion, and enjoined on his people
strict attention to the precepts of the Muhammadan law. His reign
was free from those internecine conflicts of which the subsequent story
of Kalat offers so sad a record.
Two expeditions were made to Makran: the first in 1883-4, during which the
disputes between the Nausherwanis and the Khan of Kalat were settled;
and the second in I890-I, when the question of the better administration
of Makran was taken up. According to a careful estimate made in 1903,
the population of Makran amount to about 78,000 Western Baluchi, also called
Makrani, is more largely impregnated with Persian words and expres-
sions than the Eastern dialect. A considerable body of literature has
sprung up in this language. The Meds, the Afghans, and the Jats appear to have been the
inhabitants of Baluchistan at the time of the Arab invasions. The Meds
now, as then, live on the coast. The Jat cultivators now form only a small minority; but
many of them have undoubtedly been absorbed by the Baloch and Brahuis.
In Makran many mixed races occur, which may be divided into two principal groups: the

dominant races forming a small minority, and the races of aboriginal

type known as Baloch, Darzadahs, Of sects, the Zikris or Dais of Makran
are the most interesting. They are the followers of a MAhdi, who is
stated to have come from Jaunpur in India, and they believe that the
dispensation of the Prophet Muhammad is at an end. While denying
many of the doctrines of Islam, they have imitated others. They have
constituted their Kaaba at Koh-i-Murad near Turbat, and thither all
good Zikris repair on pilgrimage in the month of Zil Hij. They are
very priest-ridden, and believe their mullds to be endowed with miracu-
lous powers. On the coast rice and fish are eaten, while
in Makran dates and dried fish form the staple diet of the people.
In Las Bela a peculiarity of the houses is the
wooden framework, generally of tamarisk; there are no windows, but
light and air are admitted through a windsail in the roof The best-known places of
pilgrimage are Hinglaj and Shah Bilawal in Las Bela, and Pir Lakha Lahrani in Kachhi.
Jowar (Andropogon, sorghum) is the chief autumn crop in the plains Dates constitute the
sole crop of importance in Makran. Of minor products may be
mentioned barley, gram, and beans among spring crops In the plains wheat is not grown
unless there are late floods towards the end of August, affording
moisture which is carefully preserved for sowing as soon as the heat of
summer subsides in October. Both autumn and winter wheat are culti-
vated, the former ripening in about nine months and the latter in about
five or six. Jowar is sown broadcast as soon as the lands which have absorbed
the summer floods have been ploughed. If spring floods occur, much
iowar is cultivated for fodder, and the same plants, if they receive water
from the summer floods, bear a good crop of grain. Many varieties
occur, of which those known as thuiri and thor are most extensively
cultivated. Not only does jozwdr form the staple food-grain of the tracts
where it is cultivated, but the fresh stalks contain saccharine matter
which is much relished. When dry, they constitute excellent fodder
(karb).
Throughout Makran the staple food is dates. Great attention is paid
to the cultivation and care of the date-tree, and the dates of Panjgur are
declared by Arabs to excel those of Basra. Though all the trees belong
to the species Phoenix dactyjifera, they are distinguished locally into
more than a hundred kinds, according to the weight, size, and quality of
the fruit. All trees are known either as pedigree trees (nasabi) or non-
pedigree trees (kuroch). Among the former, the best varieties are
mozdati, d-e-dandan, haleni, begam jangi, and sabso. Fresh trees are
raised from offsets; they produce fruit after three to eight years, and
continue to do so for three generations. The young offsets must be
carefully watered for the first year, and afterwards at intervals until their
roots strike the moisture of the subsoil. The date season is divided
into three principal periods: machosp, rang or kulont, and naen. In
machosp (March) the artificial impregnation of the female date-spathes
by the insertion of pollen-bearing twigs from the spathe of the male tree
is effected. In the season of rang or kulont (June) the colour first
appears on the fruit, and there is general rejoicing. The harvest (amen)
lasts from July to September, when men and cattle live on little else
but dates. The fruit is preserved in various ways, the most common
being by pressing and packing in palm-leaf baskets (laghati). Better
kinds are mixed with expressed date-juice and preserved in earthen jars
known as humb. Owing to the excessive quantity of dates in the diet
of the people of Makran, night-blindness is common.
Donkeys are used by every nomadic household and are most useful
animals. They frequently carry over 300 lb., and require little or no
fodder besides what they can pick up on the march. The Buzdar
breed, obtainable in the Loralai District, is the best, and there are some
good ones near Kalat. To enable donkeys to breathe freely when
going uphill, it is usual for their nostrils to be slit soon after birth. . In the plains the
stalks (karb) ofjowdr constitute almost the only fodder. The majority of the crops depend
either on permanent or flood irrigation, and those raised from rain-water are
insignificant. Except jowdr, nimng, and oilseeds, for which a single flooding of the land
is sufficient, all other crops require further waterings to bring them to maturity The
Makran coast is famous for the quantity and quality of its fish,
and the industry is constantly developing. It affords a considerable
income to the States lying along the coast, as they Fi
generally take one-tenth of the fresh fish as duty.
The fishermen are principally Meds and Koras. The fish are caught
both with nets and with the hook and line. Large shoals of cat-fish
(gallo) and of kirr (Sciaena diacanthus) appear off the coast towards
the end of the cold season, when they are surrounded and caught.
After arrival on shore the air-bladders are extracted, and are eventually
exported to England for the manufacture of isinglass. The fish are
salted and used as food by the people of the country. They also form
a large article of export to Bombay and Zanzibar. Sharks are prized especially for their
fins, which fetch as much as R. i per lb. Fresh
sardines are so plentiful that they not infrequently sell at the rate of
forty for a pice (one farthing).
The greater part of the land is held by a cultivating class of peasant
proprietors. The few tenants are almost all tenants-at-will. In local
parlance such a cultivator is ' the husband of a slave
Rents, wages, girl,' for he can be replaced at his master's will. He
can acquire no permanent rights, and is liable to
ejectment after the crop has been harvested. Sometimes, when much
labour has to be expended on the construction of embankments, a
tenant retains possession so long as the embankment remains unbreached
or for a given term of years. In Makran a curious custom prevails,
giving to a tenant-at-will a permanent, alienable right in all date-trees
which he may plant. Occupancy rights are seldom, if ever, acquired
in irrigated and only occasionally in unirrigated lands. Where they
have been so acquired, they usually represent compensation for the
labour expended by the tenant on raising embankments.
As might be expected in a backward country in which crops are
liable to great variations, rent consists in a share of the grain-heap.
Various systems are in vogue; but, as a general rule, the distribution
in unirrigated lands is made on the principle of an assignment of a
portion of the produce for each of the chief requisites of cultivation: the
land, seed, bullocks, and labour Generally speaking, the country is scantily clothed with
vegetation, trees are few in number, and most of the hills which are not protected
by other and higher ranges are bare of forest growth. The
principal trees in these forests are Prosopis spicigera, Capparis aphylla,
Tamarix indica, Tamarix arlicilata, Dalbergia Sissoo, Olea cuspidata,
Pistadia khatnjak, and Acacia modesta. Earth-salt is manufactured chiefly in Kachhi and
along the coast Silk-weaving is done in Makran alone. The best
specimens are tartans, known as man-o-bas, and a dark-green crape with
crimson border called gushan. In Kachhi, Kalat,
Las Bela, and Makran, shoes, sword-belts, and other leathern goods
embroidered in silk are popular. Among minor industries may be mentioned tanning, the
manufacture of carbonate of soda, mat- and basket-making, and indigenous methods of
dyeing. Tanning is in vogue chiefly in Kachhi, Las Bela, and Makran.
A good soft leather is produced by immersing the hides in lime and
carbonate of soda, and afterwards tanning them with a decoction of the
exudation of the tamarisk The manufacture of carbonate of soda,
chiefly from the saltworts known as Halo.v'lon Griffithii and Halovylon
salicornicum, is increasing. The white variety is preferred to the black.
The saltworts are cut and after being partially dried are set on fire.
Much matting and raw material for mat-making is exported from
Baluchistan, especially from the lower highlands and Makran. For this
purpose the dwarf-palm (A2ninzorhops Ritchieana, called pish or dhord
in the vernacular) is employed. Exports consist chiefly of
wool, dried and fresh fruits, medicinal drugs, fish and shark-fins, raw
cotton, and mats; imports, of piece-goods, food and other grains,
metals, and sugar. The maritime trade is carried on from the coast of Makran chiefly
with Bombay and Karachi, salted fish, shark-fins, mats, wool, and raw
cotton being exchanged for cotton piece-goods, food-grains (chiefly rice),
and also sugar. but native craft carry dates and matting from Makran to the Persian Gulf,
Arabia, and the east coast of Africa. Trade by land is carried on with Persia and
Afghanistan, but is much hampered by the fiscal policy of those
countries. The first telegraph line constructed in Baluchistan was the Indo-
European system, which reached Gwadar in I863
Makran (Urdu/Persian: ‫ )مکران‬is a semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan,
in Iran and Pakistan, along the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman. The
Persian phrase Mahi khoran, fish-eaters (Mahi = fish + khor = eat) is believed to be the
origin of the modern word Makkuran.[1]
The narrow coastal plain rises very rapidly into several mountain ranges. Of the 1,000 km
coastline, about 750 km is in Pakistan. The climate is very dry with very little rainfall.
Makkuran is very sparsely inhabited, with much of the population being concentrated in a
string of small ports including Chabahar, Gwatar, Jiwani, Gwadar (not to be confused
with Gwatar), Pasni, Ormara and many smaller fishing villages.
The coast of Makran possesses only one island, Astola Island, near Pasni, and several
insignificant islets. The coastline can be divided into an eastern lagoon coastline and a
western embayed coastline. The main lagoons are Miani Hor and Kalamat Hor. The main
bays of the embayed coast are Gwadar West Bay and Gwatar Bay. This latter bay shelters
a large mangrove forest and the nesting grounds of endangered turtle species.
Two ancient Harappan era settlements have been found at Sutkagen dor (on Dasht River)
and Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River). The coastal sites are evidence of trade between
Harappan and Sumerian cities as well as those of the Persian Gulf region, possibly from
around 3000 BCE.
Alexander the Great marched through Makkuran during a disastrous exodus after the
Indian Campaign (325 BCE). According to one theory, Alexander's well-stocked fleet
under Admiral Nearchus was supposed to have continuously provisioned the army as it
marched West along the barren coast towards Persia. In the event, a major portion of
Alexander's route through Makkuran (Bela-Averan-Hoshab-Turbat and then south to
Pasni-Gwadar) turned out to be much further inland than expected, apparently due to
faulty knowledge of the terrain. The fleet and the marching army were able to eventually
rendezvous in Susa, Persia.[2]

Central Makkuran range

The first Islamic conquest of Makran took place during the Rashidun Caliphate in the
year 643 A.D. Caliph Umar’s governor of Bahrain Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who was on
his campaign to conquer the southern coastal areas of Iran send his brother Hakam ibn
Abu al-Aas to raid the Makran region, the campaign was not meant for whole scale
invasion but merely was a raid to check the potential of the local inhabitants. The raid
was successful[2] In late 644 A.D Caliph Umar sent an army for whole scale invasion of
Makkuran under the command of Hakam ibn Amr. Reinforcement from Kufa joined him
under the command of Shahab ibn Makharaq and Abdullah ibn Utban, the commander of
campaign in Karman, also joined them, no strong resistance was faced by them in
Makran until the Hindu King of Rai Kingdom in Sind, along with his army having
contingents from Makran and Sind stopped them near River Indus. In mid 644, Battle of
Rasil was fought between Radhisun Caliphate and Rai Kingdom where Raja's forces
were defeated and retreated to eastern bank of river Indus. Raja’s army included War
elephants, and they didn’t make any trouble for the Muslims veterans who handled War
elephants during the conquest of Persia. According to the orders of Caliph Umar the war
elephants were sold in Islamic Persia and the cash was distributed among the soldiers as a
share in booty.[3] In response of Caliph Umar’s question about the Makran region, the
Messenger from Makkuran who bring the news of the victory told him:
O Commander of the faithful! It's a land where the plains are stony; Where water is
scanty; Where the fruits are unsavory Where men are known for treachery; Where plenty
is unknown; Where virtue is held of little account; And where evil is dominant; A large
army is less for there; And a less army is use less there; The land beyond it, is even worst
(referring to Sind)
Umar looked at the messenger and said: "Are you a messenger or a poet? He replied
“Messenger”. Thereupon Caliph Umar, after listening to the unfavorable situations for
sending an army instructed Hakim bin Amr al Taghlabi that for the time being Makkuran
should be the easternmost frontier of the Islamic empire, and that no further attempt
should be made to extend the conquests. ThereuponFrom the 15th century onward, the
area was ruled by Zikri families and sometimes by the Iranian government. In the late
18th century, the Khan of Kalat is said to have granted sanctuary at Gwadar to one of the
claimants for the throne of Muscat. When that claimant became Sultan, he kept hold of
Gwadar, installing a governor, who eventually led an army to conquer the city of
Chabahar some 200 kilometres to the west.
The sultanate held onto the Makran coast throughout the period of British colonial rule,
but eventually only Gwadar was left in the hands of the sultan. On the independence of
Pakistan, Makran became a district within the province of Balochistan, minus an area of
800 km² around Gwadar. The enclave was finally transferred in 1958 to Pakistani control
as part of the district of Makran. The entire region has been subdivided into new smaller
districts over the years.
Khor Kalmat is lagoon located on Makran coast in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Basol
River drains into the Khor Kalmat lagoon. Kalmat lies about 350 km west of Karachi on
Makran coast in Balochistan province. The area is located at a distance of about 20 km
from Makran Coastal Highway. There are four main settlements in the area viz. Kalmat,
Chundi, Gursant and Makola. People are living below the poverty line and thus
dependence on natural resources mainly fishery has increased. Now there is uncertainty
in returns expected from fishing.
The population of Kalmat area is about 2,000. Majority of them are fishermen and belong
to Kalmati and Sanghoor Baloch tribes. About 95% of the population is engaged in
fishing activities.
Fishery
The region of Pasni and Khor Kalmat provides high quality prawns and other different
types of fish, it is also a breeding place for many marine species. Every year, millions of
rupees worth of prawns and fish are exported from Kalmat Chundi Hore to Karachi and
the international market. The state of Makran was established in the eighteenth
century.Ruled by the Sardars of the Gichki Family of Makran, a status which remained
until 1948. On 17 March 1948, Makran acceded to Pakistan and on 3 October 1952 it
joined Kalat, Kharan and Las Bela to form the Baluchistan States Union. The state was
dissolved on 14 October 1955 when most regions of the western wing of Pakistan were
merged to form the province of West Pakistan. When that province was dissolved in
1970, the territory of the former state of Makran was organised as Makran District and
later Makran Division of the province of Baluchistan (later changed to Balochistan).

Map of Balochistan with Gwadar District

Highlighted
Makran coastal range

Th
e Makran Coastal Highway is located primarily in Balochistan, Pakistan. It follows the
Arabian Sea coast from Karachi to Gwadar. It is also referred to as National Highway 10
or N10.
[edit] History
Previously there was a muddy track linking Karachi with the town of Gwadar. Journeys
between the two could take several days as the safest route was to travel via Quetta. The
journey time has now been reduced to six or seven hours with the construction of the new
Makran Coastal Highway (National Highway N10). The highway was built as part of an
overall plan to improve transport facilities in southern Balochistan; other parts of the plan
include the new seaport and international airport at Gwadar and the construction of a road
linking Gwadar to Khuzdar.
In the coastal areas of Balochistan, the main livelihood is fishing. The catch could not be
sold in Karachi because the fish would rot by the time they reached Karachi. However,
the new highway has improved people's livelihoods by giving them the opportunity to
sell fish in major markets in Karachi.

Makran CoastalMakran CoastalMakran Coastal

Princess Of Hope
Highway Highway N10 Highway N10

Makran CoastalMakran CoastalMakran Coastal

Kund Malir
Highway N10 Highway N10 Highway

GwadarCoordinates: class=noprint
title="show location on an interactive map" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025">25°42′N 62°11′E
/ 25.7°N 62.19°E
- Estimate (2006[1]) 53,080
 View of the Earth centred over Gwadar,
Pakistan. The Makran region surrounding Gwadar was occupied by an ancient Bronze
age people which settled in the few oases. It later became the Gedrosia region of the
Achaemenid Persian empire. It is believed to have been conquered by the founder of the
Persian empire, Cyrus the Great. The capital of the satrapy of Gedrosia was Pura, which
is thought to have been located near the modern Bampûr, in Iranian Balochistan. During
the homeward march of Alexander the Great, his admiral, Nearchus, led a fleet along the
modern-day Makran coast and recorded that the area was dry, mountainous, and
inhabited by the "Ichthyophagoi" (or "fish eaters"), an Greek rendering of the ancient
Persian phrase "Mahi khoran" (which has itself become the modern word "Makran").[5]
After the collapse of Alexander's empire the area was ruled by Seleucus Nicator, one of
Alexander’s generals. The region then came under "local rule" around about 303 BC.
The region remained on the sidelines of history for a millennium, until the Arab-Muslim
army of Muhammad bin Qasim captured the town of Gwadar in 711 CE and over the
intervening (and nearly equivalent) amount of time the area was contested by various
powers, including the Mughals (from the east) and the Safavids (from the west). The
Portuguese captured, sacked and burnt Gwadar in 1581,[6] and this was then followed by
almost two centuries of local rule by the various Balochi tribes. The city was visited by
Ottoman Admiral Sidi Ali Reis in 1550s and mentioned in his book Mirat ul Memalik
(The Mirror of Countries), 1557 CE [7]. According to Sidi Ali Reis, the inhabitants of
Gwadar were Baloch and their chief was Malik Jelaleddin, son of Malik Dinar. In 1783,
the Khan of Kalat granted suzerainty over Gwadar to Taimur Sultan, the defeated ruler of
Muscat.[8] When the sultan subsequently retook Muscat, he was to continue his rule in
Gwadar by appointing a wali (or "governor"). This wali was then ordered to subjugate the
nearby coastal town of Chah Bahar (in modern-day Iran). The Gwadari fort was built
during Omani rule, whilst telegraph lines were later extended into the town courtesy of
the British.
Until 1958 Gwadar was part of Oman but was transferred to Pakistan on 8 September
1958. The Gwadar enclave sold to Pakistan (effective 8 December 1958). It was
integrated within the Balochistan (Pakistan) on 1 July 1977 and became a full sub-
division of the Gwadar District.The money for the purchase was generated by way of
taxation and donations. It was then made part of the Balochistan province. In 2002, the
Gwadar Port project (of building a large, deep-sea port) was begun in the town. The
government of Pakistan intends to develop the entire area in order to reduce its reliance in
shipping on the port of Karachi. In addition to expanding port facilities, the Project aims
to build industrial complexes in the area and to connect the town via a modern highway
to the rest of Pakistan. By the end of 2004 the first phase had been completed.
Gwadar is at 0-300 meters above sea level, is dry arid hot. The oceanic influence keeps
the temperature lower than that in the interior in summer and higher in winter. The mean
temperature in the hottest month (June) remains between 31°C and 32°. The mean
temperature in the coolest month (January) varies from 18°C to 19°C. The uniformity of
temperature is a unique characteristic of the coastal region in Balochistan. Occasionally,
winds moving down the Balochistan plateau bring brief cold spells, otherwise the winter
is pleasant. In Gwadar, winter is shorter than summer. Although Gwadar is not a monsoon
region it still receives light monsoon showers coming from Karachi. But in winter,
Western Disturbance can cause heavy Showers. Annual rainfall is only 100mm (3
inches).

Gwadar City
Oman has offered $100 million aid for the development of social and infrastructure
facilities in Balochistan. Out of $100 million, Oman has provided $7 million for
extending of runway at Gwadar Airport, construction of jetties, upgradation of Gwadar
Hospital, provision of 100 engines to fishermen and construction of power house. Oman
is also financing construction of Gwadar-Hoshab Road, water supply scheme in Gwadar
area and construction of irrigation dams.[citation needed]
Pakistan and Oman have signed a number of agreements including Avoidance of Double
Taxation, Promotion and Protection of Investment, Cultural, Technical and Educational
Cooperation, Agreement on cooperation between Oman Chamber of Commerce and
Industry and FPCCI, Maritime Boundary Agreement and Agreement to establish Pak-
Oman Joint Investment Company.[citation needed]
Rice Exporters Association of Pakistan (REAP)-apex body of the rice exporters in the
country- has decided to establish a rice zone in Gwadar to fetch the opportunities in the
area after the construction of new port. The establishment of warehouses will provide
extraordinary facilities to rice exporters especially for those who export rice to Iran as the
Iranian border is only at a distance of three hours from Gwadar.
The Makran coast is Balochistan's southern strip and stretches for 754 kms. Long sandy
beaches, rugged promontories and tidal creeks characterize the coast-line. There ranges of
hills, rising to over 1500 meters (5000feet), run parallel to the coast: the Coastal Makran
Range, 30 kms inland; the Central Makran Range, 130 kms inland; and the Siahan Range,
200 kms away from the sea. There is very little rain in the Makran region; the few
villages and towns along the coast and between the hills are sustained by spring water.
Many of the Makran people are dark-skinned and have African features. They are
probably descended from slaves brought by Arab merchants to the subcontinent. They
subsist on fishing, date farming and camel breeding. Most of the men work part-time in
the gulf state and Oman, and send money home to their families.
Alexander the great marched half his army home along the inhospitable Makran coast in
325 BC, and Muhammad bin Qasim came from Baghdad to Sindh through Makran in 711
AD. The Makranis stood firm against the Mughals, but bowed nominally to the British
Raj. It is only since 1971 that some effort has been made to develop the region.
There is no road along the coast, but daily flights connect the four main coastal towns of
Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar and Jiwani with Karachi, and there are flights to Quetta three
times a week, Gwadar and Jiwani, both picturesque towns flanked by cliffs and beeches,
belonged t o Oman for about 200 years. The Khan of Kallat gave them as a present to the
sultan in the 18th century, and in 1958 they were sold back to Pakistan. Ormara is
currently being developed as a major port.
First, the Makran desert itself, an inhospitable, pitiless landscape of rock, dust, sand and
baking heat along the southern coast of Iran. The shoreline of today has advanced
considerably leaving Alexander’s coastline high and dry, a barren line still visible many
miles inland from today’s coast. Extensive geological and archaeological research of the
region has been going on for over 50 years so there is considerable knowledge of the
possible conditions there in Alexander’s time.
Nearchos, a personal friend of Alexander’s as well as being one of the chief officers,
states that Alexander had full knowledge of the difficulty of the terrain over which they
were to travel. He also gives another reason for Alexander’s choice of this route: his
strong desire to do better than Queen Semiramis and Kyros who had attempted to travel
the same route with their respective armies, but had only managed to bring a mere
handful through to the other side. Looking at these figures, it might suggest that the
Makran had a marchable route which was not quite so inhospitable during Alexander’s
time as research today seems to indicate. For those who believe Nearchos’ story that
Alexander had always intended to march through the Makran, maybe Alexander knew
something that we do not which made it a more plausible idea. Had his initial plan
worked out (ie to have the army be supplied by the fleet, or if the fleet had not been
delayed), the disaster might not have happened at all. Alternatively, if the Makran was
totally inhospitable territory, then for Alexander to have got even 18,000 through says a
great deal for his leadership in a crisis.
Written by Sikander/Halil
The Makran coast is Balochistan's southern strip and stretches for 754 kms. Long sandy
beaches, rugged promontories and tidal creeks characterize the coast-line. There ranges of
hills, rising to over 1500 meters (5000feet), run parallel to the coast: the Coastal Makran
Range, 30 kms inland; the Central Makran Range, 130 kms inland; and the Siahan Range,
200 kms away from the sea. There is very little rain in the Makran region; the few
villages and towns along the coast and between the hills are sustained by spring water.
Many of the Makran people are dark-skinned and have African features. They are
probably descended from slaves brought by Arab merchants to the subcontinent. They
subsist on fishing, date farming and camel breeding. Most of the men work part-time in
the gulf state and Oman, and send money home to their families.
Alexander the great marched half his army home along the inhospitable Makran coast in
325 BC, and Muhammad bin Qasim came from Baghdad to Sindh through Makran in 711
AD. The Makranis stood firm against the Mughals, but bowed nominally to the British
Raj. It is only since 1971 that some effort has been made to develop the region.
There is no road along the coast, but daily flights connect the four main coastal towns of
Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar and Jiwani with Karachi, and there are flights to Quetta three
times a week, Gwadar and Jiwani, both picturesque towns flanked by cliffs and beeches,
belonged t o Oman for about 200 years. The Khan of Kallat gave them as a present to the
sultan in the 18th century, and in 1958 they were sold back to Pakistan. Ormara is
currently being developed as a major port.
The long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coastline by the magnificent cliffs of
Malan, the hammer-shaped headlands of Ormarah and Gwadar, and the precipitous cliffs
of Jebel Zarain, near Pasni. Makran is the home of remnants of an innumerable company
of mixed people gathered from the four corners of Asia and eastern Africa. The old Tajik
element of Persia is not so evident in Makran as it is farther north; and the Karak pirates
whose depredations led to the invasion of India and the conquest of Sind, seem to have
disappeared altogether.

POTENTIAL OF TSUNAMI GENERATION ALONG THE MAKRAN

SUBDUCTION ZONE IN THE NORTHERN ARABIAN SEA. CASE STUDY: THE
EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI OF NOVEMBER 28, 1945
George Pararas-Carayannis
ABSTRACT
Although large earthquakes along the Makran Subduction Zone are infrequent, the
potential for the generation of destructive tsunamis in the Northern Arabian Sea
cannot be overlooked. It is quite possible that historical tsunamis in this region have
not been properly reported or documented. Such past tsunamis must have affected
Southern Pakistan, India, Iran, Oman, the Maldives and other countries bordering
the Indian Ocean.

The best known of the historical tsunamis in the region is the one generated by the great
earthquake of November 28, 1945 off Pakistan's Makran Coast (Balochistan) in the
Northern Arabian Sea. The destructive tsunami killed more than 4,000 people in Southern
Pakistan but also caused great loss of life and devastation along the coasts of Western
India, Iran, Oman and possibly elsewhere.

The seismotectonics of the Makran subduction zone, historical earthquakes in the

region, the recent earthquake of October 8, 2005 in Northern Pakistan, and the
great tsunamigenic earthquakes of December 26, 2004 and March 28, 2005, are
indicative of the active tectonic collision process that is taking place along the entire
southern and southeastern boundary of the Eurasian plate as it collides with the
Indian plate and adjacent microplates. Tectonic stress transference to other, stress
loaded tectonic regions could trigger tsunamigenic earthquakes in the Northern
Arabian Sea in the future.

The northward movement and subduction of the Oman oceanic lithosphere beneath
the Iranian micro-plate at a very shallow angle and at the high rate is responsible
for active orogenesis and uplift that has created a belt of highly folded and densely
faulted coastal mountain ridges along the coastal region of Makran, in both the
Balochistan and Sindh provinces. The same tectonic collision process has created
offshore thrust faults. As in the past, large destructive tsunamigenic earthquakes
can occur along major faults in the east Makran region, near Karachi, as well as
along the western end of the subduction zone. In fact, recent seismic activity
indicates that a large earthquake is possible in the region west of the 1945 event.
Such an earthquake can be expected to generate a destructive tsunami.

Additionally, the on-going subduction of the two micro-plates has dragged tertiary marine
sediments into an accretionary prism - thus forming the Makran coastal region, Thick
sediments, that have accumulated along the deltaic coastlines from the erosion of the
Himalayas, particularly along the eastern Sindh region near the Indus River delta, have
the potential to fail and cause large underwater tsunamigenic slides. Even smaller
magnitude earthquakes could trigger such underwater landslides. Finally, an earthquake
similar to that of 1945 in the Makran zone of subduction, has the potential of generating a
bookshelf type of failure within the compacted sediments - as that associated with the
"silent" and slow 1992 Nicaragua earthquake - thus contributing to a more destructive
tsunami. In conclusion, the Makran subduction zone has a relatively high potential for
large tsunamigenic earthquakes.
INTRODUCTION
Large earthquakes along the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) have generated
destructive tsunamis in the past (Berninghausen, 1966). Although the historic record
is incomplete, it is believed that tsunamis from this region had significant impact on
several countries bordering the Northern Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. The
tsunami generated along the MSZ on November 28, 1945 was responsible for great
loss of life and destruction along the coasts of Pakistan, Iran, India and Oman
(Qureshi, 2006; Pakistan Meteorological Department 2005; Mokhtari and
Farahbod, 2005; Pararas-Carayannis, 2006a). The effects of this tsunami on other
countries bordering the Indian Ocean have not been adequately documented.

Reports on the potential for tsunami generation along the Makran coast of Pakistan
have been cursory. Based on a thorough review of recent geophysical surveys and
seismic data, the present study analyzes the potential tsunami generation
mechanisms along the MSZ by reviewing subduction processes of the Oman oceanic
lithosphere underneath the Iranian microplate and - more specifically - the
seismotectonics of the east and west segments, including the section in the Gulf of
Oman. Furthermore, the study examines the seismo-dynamics of compressional
collision of the India and Eurasia plates along the northwestern boundary of India
in the vicinity of the Northern Arabian Sea - as potential sources of future tsunamis
and evaluates the tsunami risk from major earthquakes along coastal Karach, the
deltaic Indus region and the grabens of Northwestern India. Finally, the study
evaluates the possible effects of the extensive sedimentation from major rivers in the
region on subduction processes.
THE TSUNAMI OF 28 NOVEMBER 1954 ALONG THE MAKRAN COAST OF
PAKISTAN IN THE NORTHERN ARABIAN SEA
On November 28, 1945, an earthquake, off Pakistan's Makran Coast (Balochistan)
generated a destructive tsunami in the Northern Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
More than 4,000 people were killed in Pakistan by both the combined effects of the
earthquake and the tsunami. However, the tsunami was responsible for most of the
loss of life and the great destruction, which occurred along the coasts of Iran, Oman
and northwestern India (Pararas-Carayannis, 2006b).
THE EARTHQUAKE
The great earthquake occurred at 21:56 UTC (03:26 IST), on 28 November 1945).
Its epicenter was off the Makran coast at 24.5 N 63.0 E (24.2 N, 62.6 E according to
USGS, in the northern Arabian Sea, about 100 km south of Karachi and about 87
kms SSW of Churi (Baluchistan), Pakistan. The quake's focal depth was 25 kms.
The earthquake's Richter Magnitude (Ms) was 7.8. The Moment Magnitude (Mw)
was later given as 7.9 and reevaluated to be 8.1 (Pacheco and L. Sykes, 1992). The
quake was recorded by observatories in New Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta) and
Kodaikanal. Its intensity was high throughout the region. It was strongly felt in
Baluchistan and the Las Bela area of Pakistan. It was reported that in the western
and southern sections of Karachi the strong surface motions lasted for about 30
seconds. According to eyewitness reports, people were "thrown out of their beds",
doors and windows rattled, and windowpanes broke. The underwater cable link
between Karachi and Muscat (Oman) was damaged, disrupting communications.
The lighthouse at Cape Moze - 45 miles from Karachi - was also damaged. The
earthquake was strongly felt also at Manora, where the lighthouse was damaged. It
was moderately felt in Panjgaur and Kanpur.
Other Earthquake Effects
The earthquake is reported to have caused the eruption of a mud volcano a few miles off
the Makran Coast of Pakistan (Wadia, 1981). The eruption formed four small islands. A
large volume of gas emitted at one of these islands, is reported to have sent flames
"hundreds of meters" into the sky (Times of India 1945; Mathur, S.M. "Physical Geology
of India). Such mud volcanoes are not uncommon in the Sindh region of the Makran
coast. Their presence indicates the existence of high petroleum deposits. They are known
to discharge flammable gases such as methane, ethane and traces of other hydrocarbons.

The observed flames resulted from emitted natural gas which cFig 1. The Makran coast
of Pakistan, showing location of the submarine communication cable cut by the
earthquake (after Qureshi, 2006)
Historical Earthquakes and Tsunamis in the Northern Arabian Sea
Most of the earthquakes in this region of Southeast Asia occur mainly on land along
the boundaries of the Indian tectonic plate and the Iranian and Afghan micro-

plates. At least 28 earthquakes with magnitudes close to 7 or over 7 are known to

have occurred in this region from 1668 to the present time (Ambrasseys and Bilham,
2003). According to historical records, in 893-894 A.D an earthquake with an
estimated moment magnitude of 7.5 occurred in the Debal (lower Sindh) region of
what is now Pakistan killing 150,000 people and destroying several towns. There is
no data on whether it generated a tsunami. Also, historic records indicate that a
large earthquake in late October/early November 325 BC generated a tsunamiwhich
impacted the fleet of Alexander the Great, which was in the vicinity of the Indus
river delta at that time (Pararas-Carayannis, 2006a).
Fig. 2 The generating area of the 28 November 1945 tsunami off the Makran coast of
Pakistan.
Effects of the November 28, 1945 Tsunami in Pakistan, India, Iran, and Oman
PAKISTAN - The tsunami reached a maximum run up height of 13 m (40 feet) along the
Makran coast. The waves destroyed fishing villages and caused great damage to port
facilities. More than 4,000 people died from the combined effects of the earthquake and
the tsunami, but most deaths were caused by the tsunami. The tsunami destroyed
completely Khudi, a fishing village about 30 miles west of Karachi, killing its entire
people. At Dabo Creek, 12 fishermen were swept out to sea.
Elsewhere along the Makran coast there was considerable destruction and loss of life.
Many people died at the towns of Pasni and Ormara but no details are available. Many
more were washed out to sea. At Pasni, the waves destroyed government buildings, rest
houses and postal and telegraph facilities. The tsunami was recorded at Gwadar, but there
is no report on damages.

Karachi was struck by waves of about 2 m (6.5 feet) in height. According to reports
the first wave was recorded at 5:30 am local time, then at 7:00am, 7:15am and
finally at 8:15am. The last wave at 8:15 was the largest. The tsunami arrived from
the direction of Clifton and Ghizri. There was no reported damage to the port and
boats in the harbor of Karachi. However, at Keamari the waves flooded a couple of
compounds along the harbor's oil installations.
INDIA - Waves as high as 11.0 to 11.5 m struck the Kutch region of Gujarat, on the
west coast of India, causing extensive destruction and loss of life. Eyewitnesses
reported that the tsunami came in like a fast rising tide.
The tsunami reached as far south as Mumbai, Bombay Harbor, Versova (Andheri),
Haji Ali (Mahalaxmi), Juhu (Ville Parle) and Danda (Khar). According to reports
the first wave was observed at 8:15am (local time) on Salsette Island in Mumbai. In
Mumbai the height of the tsunami was 2 meters. Fifteen (15) persons were washed
away. There was no report on damage at Bombay Harbor. Five people died at
Versova (Andheri, Mumbai), and six more at Haji Ali (Mahalaxmi, Mumbai),
Several fishing boats were torn off their moorings at Danda and Juhu.

THE POTENTIAL OF TSUNAMI GENERATION ALONG THE MAKRAN

SUBDUCTION ZONE AND THE KUTCH GRABEN IN THE NORTHERN
ARABIAN SEA
The active, subduction zone along the Makran coast of Pakistan and Iran has
produced many tsunamigenic earthquakes in the Northern Arabian Sea in the past
and is a potential source region for future destructive tsunamis. As demonstrated by
the 1945 event, the region is capable of generating tsunamigenic earthquakes with
moment magnitudes up to Mw 8.1. Also, large earthquakes along the Kutch Graben
of India have caused major sea flooding and destruction of coastal areas. Extensive
sedimentation by major rivers has created unstable continental slope conditions, so
the potential of tsunami generation from such sources cannot be overlooked.
Understanding the seismotectonics of the region and the subduction processes
SETTING
Migration of the Indian tectonic plate and collision with the Eurasian tectonic plate
has developed a diffuse zone of deformation and seismicity in the entire South Asia
region. Continuous compression due to continent-continent convergence along the
Himalayan arc boundary has resulted in major thrust or reverse type of faulting
which has caused upward displacement of the Indian plate, the formation of the
Himalayan Mountain Range and the Tibetan Plateau. High compression and seismic
activity characterize the entire tectonic boundary along both the eastern and
western sections of the thrust. Continuing active collision along the northwestern
boundary at the foothills of the Himalayan mountains caused the destructive
October 8, 2005 earthquake in Pakistan (Pararas-Carayannis, 2005).
Fig. 3. The India tectonic plate has been drifting and moving in a north/northeast
direction, for millions of years colliding with the Eurasian tectonic plate and
forming the Himalayan Mountains. (USGS graphics)
The continental convergence has further deformed and folded the western
boundary, creating fractured microplates, great faults, large grabens and a major
subduction zone. A complicated pattern of tectonic micro-plates and areas of both
subduction and upthrust characterize the region. Complex, kinematic earth
movements along the boundaries of such active zones have caused numerous
destructive earthquakes in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran and Tibet in recent
years. Earthquakes along the Makran Subduction Zone and in the Kutch Graben
region of India are infrequent but have the potential of generating destructive
tsunamis - some with far reaching impact.
Fig. 4 British Geological Survey graphic of the seismicity of Southern Asia of the
Carlsberg Midoceanic Ridge and of the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula
and the Red Sea.
MORPHOTECTONICS OF THE EURASIAN PLATE'S MAKRAN MARGIN
Active tectonic convergence of the India plate with the Arabian and Iranian
microplates at a rate of about 30 to 50 mm/y (Platt et al. 1985) has created an
extensive and complex tectonic plate margin in Southcentral Asia along the Makran
coasts of Iran and Pakistan. The east-west oriented complex is one of the largest
accretionary wedges on earth. It is more than 800 km long, bounded to the east and
west by large transform faults which define the plate boundaries. The present front
includes the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) and its associated topographic trench
which, to a large extent, is buried by sediments. Also, the margin includes the
Makran Accretionary Prism (MAP), the Makran Coastal Range (MCR) and the
Chegai Volcanic Arc. To the west of the Accretionary Prism, continental collision has
formed the Zagros fold and thrust belt (Regard et al., 2003).

The Gulf of Oman and the Makran offshore region have been extensively surveyed
over the years with swath mapping, high-resolution and single-channel reflection
seismics, ocean-bottom seismology, micro-seismicity monitoring, magnetics, gravity
and 2D seismic data collection (GEOMAR, Germany, the University of Cambridge
and the National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan, - Cruise (SONNE-123), 1997,
2000; Dorostian & Gheitanchi; Hutchinson et al 1981).

Fig. 5 Distribution of earthquake epicenters along the boundaries of the Pakistan,

Afghanistan, Iran and Arabian microplates.

Fig. 7. Tectonic compression along the Makran Accretionary Prism has formed an
extensive orocline, The Makran Coastal Range in southern Pakistan.
Along the Balochistan section of the Makran coast of Pakistan there is less
sedimentation. Several small river deltas have been formed and the continental shelf
of the Arabian Sea in this region measures only 15-40 km in width. However, in the
eastern Sindh region, the Indus River has formed one of the largest deltas in the
world. Past meandering of Indus have formed extensive deltas east of Karachi and
have altered significantly ancient shorelines. In this region of the Northern Arabian
Sea, extensive sedimentation has widened the continental shelf to about 150 km.
The Makran Coastal Range (MCR)
The same active tectonic convergence of the Oman oceanic lithosphere beneath the
Iranian micro-plate has lifted the tertiary marine sediments into a very extensive
coastal mountain range at the southern edge of the Asian continent (White and
Louden, 1983; Platt et al., 1985). The Makran Coastal Range (MCR) is a narrow belt of
highly folded and densely faulted mountain ridges which parallel the present shoreline
and extend for about 75 percent of the total coast length for about 800 km (500 mi) in
both the Balochistan and Sindh Provinces. The steep mountains rise to an elevation of up
to 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The coast is rugged with uplifted terraces, cliffs and headlands.

NASA Satellite photo of a section of the Makran rugged and tectonic coastline showing
uplifted terraces, headlands, sandy beaches, mud flats, rocky cliffs, bays and deltas.
Numerous mud volcanoes are present along the shores.
Fig. 9. Seismicity of Pakistan, 1990-2000 (Pakistan Seismological Agency)
SEISMO-DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIONAL COLLISION AND SUBDUCTION
AT EURASIA'S SOUTH TECTONIC MARGIN ALONG THE MAKRAN
COASTS OF PAKISTAN AND IRAN
The seismo-dynamics of the Southcentral Eurasian plate's margin along the
Makran coast are complex because of compressional collision of major and minor
tectonic plates. The entire region is traversed by thrust and transform faults, formed
by great tectonic stresses. Major and great earthquakes occur with frequency. The
following review of major faults can help identify potential tsunamigenic sources in
the region.
Segmentation of the Makran Subduction Zone
Deformation along the entire length of the MSZ appears to be uniform - which
indicates that the rate of subduction does not change appreciably from east to west.
However there is a large change in seismicity, degree of deformation, as well as
significant variations in rupture histories between the eastern and western MSZ
(Minshull et al., 1992; Dorostian & Gheitanchi). Each region exhibits a different
seismicity pattern. Also, recent geological studies indicate that two Paleozoic
continental blocks dominate the overriding tectonic plate. The boundary between
these two blocks is approximately coincident with the transition and the differences
in seismicity between the eastern and western MSZ.

Also, recent surveys of the Makra accretionary wedge using swathmapping and 3.5
kHz Parasound echo sounding (Huhn et al., 1998), indicate that a sinistral, strike-
slip fault crosses the wedge obliquely and continues to the abyssal plain. The
significance of these findings is that this fault separates the MSZ, into two different
segments - the western which has very low seismicity, from the eastern where the
seismicity is significantly higher. Also, this unique morphotectonic feature has led to
the postulation that the north-easternmost part of the Arabian plate, is actually a
separate micro plate that moves independently. Two recent shallow earthquakes in
this central region exhibited right-lateral strike-slip motion, (Dorostian &
Gheitanchi, Iran & Institute of Geophysics, Tehran Univ.) which also supports that
there are two major segments to the MSZ - each behaving differently, but still
capable of generating large tsunamigenic earthquakes. Therefore, the apparent
variation in seismicity between the eastern and western segments of the MSZ may
be due to differences in slip mechanisms of two different tectonic microplates.
Eastern Segment: The length of the eastern MSZ segment is estimated at about 350-
400 km. Most of the 14 known earthquakes have occurred along this segment. Of
these, only the great (Mw 8.1) earthquake of 1945 was instrumentally recorded
(Byrne et al. 1992). Also, there appears to be a pattern in seismic activity prior to
major earthquakes on the eastern segment. Large earthquakes are preceded by
increased activity of smaller events. For example, for ten years prior to the 1945
Makran earthquake, there was a concentration of seismic activity in the vicinity of
its epicenter.
Western Segment: The western segment of the MSZ has not generated any known
tsunamigenic earthquakes. However, recent seismic activity indicates that a large
earthquake is possible in the region west of the 1945 event. Such an earthquake
could generate a destructive tsunami.

Since the western segment is an extension of the eastern rupture of an active

subduction zone in a region where major earthquakes have occurred recently in
Iran, Afganistan and Pakistan, its relative seismic quietness over a long period is
somewhat puzzling and posing several questions. Why has this region remained
aseismic? Is the western segment locked and building stress for a great event in the
future? Is it possible that the western segment is significantly different from the
eastern and experiences largely aseismic slip at all times? Can an earthquake as
great as the 1945 occur along the western segment? Is this segment of the MSZ a
potential source of destructive tsunamis in the North Arabian Sea and the Indian
Ocean? A review of the geophysical and geological processes and the findings of
recent surveys on both segments of the MSZ can help answer some of these
questions and help evaluate the potential for tsunami generation along the western
region.
Comparison of the Eastern and Western Segments: The seismodynamics of the
western segment of the MSZ are complex. The presence of late Holocene marine
terraces along sections of the coasts of both eastern and western Makran could be
construed as proof that both segments of the arc are able to produce large plate
boundary earthquakes. The absence of earthquakes along the plate boundary on the
western segment indicates that either entirely aseismic subduction occurs or that the
megathrust plate boundary is currently locked.

Aseismic deformation has been inferred elsewhere along the north-south

convergence between the plates of Arabia to the south and Eurasia to the north. For
example, earthquake and geodetic data indicate greater aseismic deformation in the
Zagros region in Southern Iran than that in the Alborz-Kopet-Dag regions of
northern Iran, where deformation results primarily from earthquake activity
(Masson et al., 2005). The implication from these findings is that aseismic
subduction and deformation must also occur south of the Zagros fault along the
western subduction boundary of the MSZ, in the Gulf of Oman. This could account
for the lack or seismic activity on the western segment of the MSZ. Of course, this
does not mean complete absence of earthquakes along thrust faults on the western
segment of the MSZ and of the MAZ - only that aseismic deformation occurs most
of the time. Occasional major earthquakes can be expected and these have the
potential to generate tsunamis that could be particularly destructive in the Gulf of
Oman.
EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION ON SUBDUCTION PROCESSES AND THE
GENERATION OF TSUNAMIGENIC EARTHQUAKES
A better understanding of the complex processes of sediment transport and the
effect of sedimentation on shear stresses and interactions along tectonic boundaries
of subduction zones, can lead to improved evaluation of seismic and tsunami risks.
Also, continental slope instability due to extensive sedimentation from major rivers
in the region adds to the tsunamigenic potential from underwater landslides.
Aside from tectonic stresses, sedimentation may be partly responsible for the
observed differences in seismicity between the eastern and western segments of the
MSZ. Therefore a comparison of the sedimentary structure of the eastern and
western MSZ helps shed some light on how subduction processes may be affected
and the potential for the generation of tsunamigenic earthquakes.
Effects of Sedimentation on Aseismic Subduction
As with other subduction zones, the aseismic region on the entire MSZ lies within
that part of the accretionary wedge that consists of largely unconsolidated sediments
with seismic velocities less than 4.0 km/s. This region in the overlying accretionary
wedge remains aseismic during and between great earthquakes. Thus, the extensive
forearc and accretionary wedge seem to have significant effects on the type of
boundary slips that can be expected along the MSZ - and thus on the frequency and
intensity of potential tsunamigenic earthquakes in the Northern Arabian Sea region.

Fig. 11 Major rivers in Southern Pakistan contribute enormous amounts of sediments and
turbidite deposits
Fine turbidite deposits in the offshore region may affect the mechanics of
subduction processes near the deformation boundary of the tectonic plates. As
mentioned previously, the subducted oceanic crustal structure of the MSZ has been
partially studied with seismic velocity models from four wide-angle seismic lines that
image the wedge sediments and with collection of seismic reflection data (Kopp et al.
2000). The data indicates that fine turbidite sediments bypass the accretionary
ridges and are transported to greater depths offshore and may be responsible for the
sparse earthquake activity associated with subduction in different segments of the
subduction zone. Such turbidite bypass occurs primarily in the western region.
Essentially, these findings suggest that fine sediments are available to lubricate the
western segment plate boundary sufficiently to allow slow slippage most of the time.
Such mechanism could account for the suspected aseismic slip of the tectonic plates
along the western segment.

However, if the plate boundary is locked or partially locked, this would suggest that
great earthquakes with long repeat times might be possible also along the western
segment. Based on the present studies and surveys, it appears that both seismic and
aseismic slips occur along subsegments of the western plate boundary and that a
portion of the western segment may be locked. Furthermore, the he size of the
earthquakes in the western segment - and thus the potential for tsunami generation
- may be limited by other factors. Because of additional fracturing and segmentation
of the western segment, earthquakes would be expected to have shorter ruptures
and deeper focal depths.
Effects of Sedimentation on Earthquake Rupture Velocity and Tsunami Generation.
If the above-stated hypothesis of lubrication by sediments is correct, then the
following explanation can be provided for the seismicity differences between the
eastern and western segments of the MSZ and their potential for producing
tsunamigenic earthquakes. In the eastern segment of MSZ, thrust earthquakes
occur along the plate boundary where the sediments appear to be more
consolidated, dewatered or lithified and thus, more likely to stick or lock before the
stress is released by an earthquake. The earthquakes appear to be shallower in focal
depth. Also, the consolidated sediments along the plate boundary would have a
tendency to slow the rupture velocity of an earthquake. Additional, "en echelon",
bookshelf type of sediment failure along an earthquake's rupture zone - would
account for slower rupture velocity and for greater tsunamigenic efficiency. Such
appears to have been the case in the Andaman Sea segment of the rupture of the
December 26, 2004 earthquake along the Great Sunda Trench. The rupture velocity
was much less in the Andaman Sea segment than in the Sumatra segment - which
was not as heavily sedimented.
Also, such slower rupture occurred along the Mid-America Trench when the
September 2, 1992 Nicaragua tsunamigenic earthquake struck. It is believed that
block motions of consolidated sediments were associated with bookshelf faulting
which contributed to the slow, silent and deadly tsunami- earthquake. The block
motions were extremely shallow and occurred within subducted sediments where
there was a lot of shear - thus the rupture was slower in speed (Pararas-Carayannis,
1992). The same slower rupture occurred in the Andaman Sea segment of the Great
Sunda Subduction Zone in December 2004. In both of these cases, the degree of
sediment consolidation along the plate boundary appears to have been a key factor
in locking slippage on the megathrust region of the tectonic boundary, then releasing
greater energy when the stress thresholds were exceeded.

The eastern segment of the MSZ appears to behave in a similar way. There is more
sedimentation closer to the Indus and other major rivers in the east. The sediments
are much thicker. The earthquake rupture velocities would be expected to be slower
and the tsunamigenic efficiency would be expected to be greater because of potential
bookshelf type of fault failures along the Makran coastal area.

Furthermore, the existence of thrust earthquakes along the MSZ indicates that
either the sediments along the plate boundary in the eastern segment become
sufficiently well consolidated and dewatered at about 70 km from the deformation
front, or that older, lithified rocks are also present within the forearc so that stick-
slip sliding behavior along the subduction boundary becomes possible when the
stress exceeds a critical level. Thus, a repeat of a great tsunamigenic earthquake like
the 1945 event is very possible. Earthquake ruptures may be as long as 300 km long
and moment magnitudes could be as much as 8.

In contrast to the eastern segment, the plate boundary along the western segment of
MSZ has not produced great earthquakes and there have been no recordings of
shallow events. Most of the earthquakes along the western segment occur on the
down going plate at intermediate, rather than shallow depths. This would suggest
that dewatering and lithification of sediments occur at greater depth along the
decollment surface of the plate boundary and, because of the greater focal depth,
such earthquakes would not be as efficient tsunami generators as those along the
eastern segment. Also, there appears to be much more fracturing along the western
segment, which would suggest that future earthquakes may have shorter ruptures
and lesser magnitudes.

In spite of these observations, a large quantity of unconsolidated sediments does not

necessarily mean a lower potential for great thrust earthquakes along a subduction
boundary. It is rather the overall structural distribution of consolidated and
unconsolidated sediments along the boundary that become the key factors.

At the present time there is not sufficient data to evaluate better the effect of
sediments on subduction dynamics in this region. The western segment of the MSZ
could produce a great earthquake but more likely it could rupture as a number of
segments in somewhat smaller-magnitude events. On the basis of the above
evaluation, it can be concluded that the western segment of the MSZ is a potential
source region of infrequent major earthquakes and potentially destructive local
tsunamis. However, because of the shorter crustal ruptures, earthquakes on the
western segment would not be as great as the 1945 event on the eastern segment.
Maximum expected ruptures would be less than 100 km long and earhquake
magnitudes would be up to 7.
REGIONAL EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL FOR TSUNAMI
GENERATION IN THE NORTHERN ARABIAN SEA
Based on the above discussion of earthquake data, geology morphotectonics and
subduction processes, the following is a regional assessment of the tsunami
generation potential in the Northern Arabian Sea, and the possible tsunami near
and far- field effects elsewhere in the Indian Ocean. In addition to the source
seismodynamics, a factor that could also contribute to the destructiveness of a
tsunami generated in the Northern Arabian Sea would be the relatively large
astronomical tide, which is about 3-3.5m (10-11 feet) along the Makran coastline. A
tsunami arriving during high tide at a coast in the northern Arabian Sea could be
expected to be significantly more destructive because of this high tidal range.
Potential for Tsunami Generation along the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ)
Although the Makran Subduction Zone in the Northern Arabian Sea is an active
seismic zone, large tsunamigenic earthquakes have been relatively rare. It is quite
possible that tsunamis in this region have not properly reported or documented. A
thorough analysis of historical records may reveal that many tsunamis occurred in
the past. Such tsunamis could have affected Southern Pakistan, India, Iran, Oman,
the Maldives and other countries bordering the Indian Ocean.

Overall, the seismicity of the Makran region is relatively low compared to the
neighboring regions, which have been devastated regularly by large earthquakes
(Jacob and Quittmeyer, 1979). Although infrequent, major and great earthquakes
have occurred along the MSZ throughout geologic history and in recent times.
Several tsunamis must have been generated in the past along this active zone but
have not been adequately documented. As already mentioned a large magnitude
earthquake generated the oldest known tsunami in the region in 325 B.C. and not in
326 B.C. as reported in the literature (Pararas-Carayannis, 2006a). It is believed
that the tsunami destroyed part of Alexander the Great's fleet while on its journey
back to Mesopotamia after the India campaign (Lietzin 1974, Murty and Bapat,
1999, Pararas-Carayannis, 2006a).

Large tsunamigenic earthquakes can be expected mainly on the eastern portion of

the subduction zone. As previously described, the great earthquake (Mw 8.1) of
November 28, 1945 on the MSZ generated a very destructive tsunami in the North
Arabian Sea. According to the literature, the earthquake was a thrust event that
ruptured approximately one-fifth of the entire length of the MSZ, which would be
approximately 200 - 250 km. (Byrne et al. 1992). What was reported may be an
underestimate. Although no centroid solution could be obtained for this event, the
revised moment magnitude of Mw 8.1 would suggest a longer rupture - in the order
of 300-350 Km (Pararas-Carayannis, 2006b). Nine other smaller earthquakes are
known to have occurred in the eastern Makran with similar thrust mechanisms. The
1945 event's magnitude of 8.1 appears to be the upper limit of tsunamigenic
earthquakes this region can produce along the plate boundary. The limiting factors
appear to be an apparent segmentation of the MSZ and the large volumes and
spatial distribution of both consolidated and unconsolidated sediments. The
significance of the sediments to the subduction dynamics was discussed previously.
In brief, tsunamis generated along the eastern segment of the MSZ can be expected
to be destructive in Pakistan and other countries bordering the Northern Arabian
Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Along the western segment, the dynamics of subduction are different. Although
aseismic subduction may be occurring, there are subsections which may be locked
and have the potential to generate earthquakes with magnitudes up to 7 and local
tsunamis along the Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan as well as along the north
coast of Oman.
Potential for Tsunami Generation along the Makran Accretionary Prism (MAP)
from Gas Hydrate Collapses

The MAP region exhibits high internal deformation, layering and compaction of
sediments (Fruehn et al., 1997). As reported previously, the 1945 Makran
earthquake caused the eruption of a mud volcano a few miles off the Makran Coast.
It was reported that a large volume of gas was emitted which caught fire and sent
flames "hundreds of meters" into the sky. The observed flames probably resulted
from emitted natural gas, which caught fire after the earthquake. This event and
geologic studies of the MAP stratigraphy (Harms et al., 1984) indicate that the
region has high petroleum deposits, including gases such as methane, ethane and
traces of other hydrocarbons. The ocean floor of the continental margin along the
MAP is thick with sediments in an oil producing area of the world. The unique
geology, morphology of the sea floor and the thick sedimentary layers on the MAP
region indicate that thick methane gas hydrate layers must exist in this region.
Therefore, the explosion of gas hydrate deposits has the potential to generate
tsunamis or to trigger submarine landslides that could generate tsunamis in the
region.
Potential for Tsunami Generation along the Makran Coastal Range (MCR)
The Owen Fault Zone is a transform fault in the Arabian Sea that is associated with
the active tectonic boundary of the India and Arabia plates. It extends from the Gulf
of Aden in a northeast direction towards the Makran coast where it enters the coast
in the Balochistan region. Then it continues as a land fault known as the Chaman
Fault - an extensive system that extends in a north-northeast direction along
Pakistan's western frontier with Afghanistan. The Chaman fault begins near Kalat,
in the northern Makran Range, passes near the city of Quetta and continues to
Kabul, Afghanistan. The Balochistan province in and around Quetta is the region of
highest seismicity. On May 30, 1935, a great earthquake (Mw 8.1) along this fault
destroyed the city of Quetta and killed about 30,000 people (Ramanathan and
Mukherji, 1938). Up to the October 8, 2005 earthquake this had been the deadliest
in Pakistan. Large earthquakes along the Owen Fault Zone or the Chaman closer to
the Makran coastal range are infrequent, but have the potential of generating major
earthquakes and tsunamis.
Fig. 12 The Karachi and Deltaic Indus Region
Potential for Tsunami Generation along the Karachi and the Deltaic Indus Region
Around Karachi and other parts of deltaic Indus, there are several thrust faults
which have the potential of generating major earthquakes and local tsunamis.
Unfortunately, most tsunamis in this region have not been adequately documented.
A major thrust fault which runs along the southern coast of the Makran coast and
parts of deltaic Indus is believed to be of the same character as the West Coast fault
along the coast of Maharashtra, India. The Allah Bund is a major fault that
traverses Shahbundar, Jah, Pakistan Steel Mills, and continues to the eastern parts
of Karachi - ending near Cape Monz. This fault has produced many large
earthquakes in the past in the deltaic areas along the coast, causing considerable
destruction. For example, a major earthquake on this fault destroyed Bhanbhor in
the 13th century. Another major earthquake in 1896 was responsible for extensive
damage in Shahbundar. There is no record of whether any tsunamis were generated
near the coastal regions. However, because of the proximity of this fault to sections
of deltaic areas, it is possible that past earthquakes have generated landslides and
local tsunamis.

Another major fault near Karachi is an extension of the one that begins near Rann
of the Kutch region of India. Still another one is the Pubb fault which ends into the
Arabian Sea near the Makran coast. Finally, a major fault in the lower Dadu
district, near Surajani, is also in the vicinity of Karachi.

In brief, destructive local tsunamis can be generated near Karachi and the deltaic
Indus area because of the proximity of thrust faults to coastal areas, the nature of
crustal movements of major earthquakes, and the unstable, heavily-sedimented,
coastal slopes of this deltaic region.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Active tectonic convergence of the India plate with the Arabian and Iranian
microplates has created an extensive and complex tectonic plate margin in
Southcentral Asia along the Makran coasts of Iran and Pakistan. The east-west
oriented tectonic plate margin complex includes one of the largest accretionary
wedges on earth. It is more than 900 km long, bounded to the east and west by large
transform faults which define the plate boundaries. The present margin includes the
Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) and its associated topographic trench, the Makran
Accretionary Prism (MAP), the Makran Coastal Range (MCR) and the Chegai
Volcanic Arc. To the west of the MAP, continental collision has formed the Zagros
fold and thrust belt. To the east, lateral transition between subduction and collision
of the India and Arabia tectonic plates has formed the Kutch, Bombay, Cambay and
Namacia Grabens, of northwestern India. Tsunamis generated in these regions of
the Northern Arabian Sea can have a significant near and far field impacts.

The MSZ is a relatively active and can produce destructive tsunamigenic

earthquakes. Its seismic history indicates significant variations in rupture histories
primarily in two segments. Large earthquakes occur mainly on the eastern segment.
The earthquake of November 28, 1945 had a moment magnitude Mw 8.1 and a
rupture estimated at about 300-350 km long. It generated a destructive tsunami.
Waves of up to 13 m (40 feet struck Pakistan and waves as high as 11.5 m struck the
Kutch region of India. Waves of 2 m struck as far south as Mumbai. Also Iran and
Oman were struck. The magnitude of 8.1 of the 1945 event is the upper limit of
earthquakes this region can produce along this plate boundary. The limiting factors
are the apparent segmentation of the MSZ and the large volumes and spatial
distribution of both consolidated and unconsolidated sediments. The degree of
sediment consolidation along the plate boundary appears to be a key factor in
locking slippage on the megatrhrust region, then releasing greater energy when the
stress thresholds are exceeded.

The sediments are thicker and the continental shelf wider along the eastern segment
of the MSZ because of the proximity to the Indus and other major rivers. The
existence of thrust earthquakes indicates that either the sediments along the plate
boundary in the eastern segment become sufficiently well consolidated and
dewatered at about 70 km from the deformation front, or that older, lithified rocks
are present within the forearc so that stick-slip sliding behavior becomes possible
when the stress exceeds a critical level. Thus, great tsunamigenic earthquakes with
magnitudes up to Mw 8 and ruptures of 300-350 km can be expected to occur in the
future.

In contrast, the plate boundary along the western segment of the MSZ has not
produced great earthquakes and there have been no recordings of shallow events.
The present absence of earthquakes indicates either entirely aseismic subduction or
those subsegments of the megathrust plate boundary are currently locked. It is more
likely that both seismic and aseismic slippage is occurring. The extensive forearc
and accretionary wedge seem to have a significant effect on the type of boundary
slips that can be expected along or near the western segment - and thus on the
frequency and intensity of potential tsunamigenic earthquakes in this region.
Surveys of the area indicate that the mechanics of subduction processes near the
deformation boundary on the western segment may be affected by the introduction
of fine turbidite deposits which, perhaps, lubricate the decollment surface of the
subduction boundary. Such deposition and lubrication could account for the
aseismic slip and the sparse earthquake activity along sections of the western
segment of the MSZ.

Also, most of the earthquakes on this segment occur on the downgoing plate at
intermediate, rather than shallow focal depths. This would suggest that dewatering
and lithification of the sediments occur at greater depth along the decollment
surface. Because of the greater focal depth, such earthquakes would not be as
efficient tsunami generators as those along the eastern segment that have shallower
focal depths The size of earthquakes - and thus their potential for tsunami
generation - may be limited by other factors. There appears to be much more
fracturing along the western segment of the MSZ. Earthquakes would be expected
to be smaller-magnitude events (less than 7) and to have shorter ruptures (less than
100 km) along subsegments. In spite of these observations, a large quantity of
unconsolidated sediments does not necessarily mean a lower potential for great
thrust tsunamigenic earthquakes along a subduction boundary. It is rather the
overall structural distribution of consolidated and unconsolidated sediments along
the boundary that become the key factors. At the present time there is not sufficient
data or surveys to fully evaluate the effect of sediments on the subduction dynamics
of this region. On the basis of the above evaluation, it can be concluded that the
western segment of the MSZ is a potential source region of infrequent major
earthquakes and of potentially destructive local tsunamis.

The MAP region is another potential source of local tsunamis. Its unique geology,
morphology of the sea floor, thick sedimentary layers and its proximity to vast
sources of oil and natural gas deposits indicate the presence of thick methane gas
hydrate layers. Explosion of gas hydrate deposits has the potential to trigger
submarine landslides that could generate local tsunamis.

Another potential source for tsunamis in the North Arabian Sea is near Karachi and
the deltaic Indus. Local tsunamis would be generated because of the proximity of
thrust faults to coastal areas, the nature of crustal movements of major earthquakes,
and the unstable, heavily-sedimented, coastal slopes of this deltaic region.

Finally, the Kutch Graben region of India has produced several large earthquakes
in the past and there is a record of extensive "sea flooding" associated with the 1819
earthquake. Thus, earthquakes associated with thrust and subsidence faulting in the
coastal region of the Kutch Graben or along a major fault - which runs along the
west coast of Maharashtra - have the potential of causing tsunamis directly or by
triggering undersea landslides. Similarly further south, thrust and subsidence faults
on the Bombay, Cambay and Namacia Grabens, have the potential to generate local
tsunamis, particularly from landslides triggered by major earthquakes.
Beach erosion and energy dissipation
Tidal currents are a highly dynamic phenomenon that varies not only with the
seasons of the year but also change throughout the years resulting in an ever changing
geography in beaches. This beach transformation is known as beach erosion or beach
evolution.
Furthermore, as the global warming problem starts to show its effects it is now known
that within the next thirty years many near-to-shore populations will have severe
problems due to the rise of the sea level, and there is a need for the development of land
reclamation and beach erosion control methods in addition to the existing ones.
The currently in use methods for the control of beach erosion and land reclamation
vary in price, complexity, size and impact on the shore. The can be broadly classified
according to their stiffness as rigid and flexible or according to their capacity to absorb
energy as energy absorbing and non-energy absorbing.
Among the most common methods to control beach erosion are:
 Vertical walls (rigid, non energy absorbing).
 Rubble mounds and sloping walls (rigid, energy absorbing).
 Grass rows (flexible, energy absorbing).
 Fences for sand trapping (flexible, energy absorbing).
Seminar on transboundary coastal and marine protected areas with special
priorities for spawning grounds - Pakistan
Concept note on “A Seminar on transboundary coastal and marine protected areas
with special reference to spawning grounds” proposed to be held at Karachi,
Pakistan in May, 2009
The fluid and dynamic nature of marine ecosystems, and the high diversity of habitats
and species that may occur within an area, including migratory species, often requires
multiple objectives and diverse management schemes. Multiple–use MPA (Marine
Protected Areas) are generally zoned, each type zone having different objectives, with
allowing some greater use and removal of resources than the others. A critical habitat
may be zoned for strict protection (Nursery ground/spawning ground for any
commercially important fish or shellfish), it may be surrounded by an area managed for
broader objective e.g. recreation (National park), and this turn might be surrounded by an
area managed for a range of uses (fishing area). Any Marine National Park may also be
categorized as core zones with strict protection (no take) zone and general use zone
(fishing area). No take zones have become an important tool for marine biodiversity
protection and fisheries management. They may comprise a whole MPA or be a core
zone within multiple-use MPA. Within them any removal of marine species and
modification, extraction or collection of marine resources (e.g. through fishing,
harvesting, dredging, mining or drilling) are prohibited. Other forms of human
disturbance may also be restricted. Recent research demonstrating the role of no-take
areas in increasing fishery stocks and their importance as key elements in the ecosystem
approach to marine biodiversity protection has stimulated efforts to create such areas.
There are proposals to establish such protected areas in Pakistan. Astola Island, Jiwani-
Gawater Bay, Ormara and Miani Hor on West coast of Pakistan and Cape Montz-Churna
Island and Sandspit-Hawks Bay on East coast of Pakistan, near Karachi are some
important proposed sites for Marine Protected areas. The importance of some of these
sites has already been recognized internationally as wintering grounds for migratory birds
and the sites of Miani Hor, Ormara, Astola Island and Jiwani- Gawatar Bay have been
declared as Ramsar Sites. The species like Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus), White
pelican (Pelecanus oncrotalus) and Lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) have been recorded
from these sides, and these species come under Appendix 1 of CMS (Convention on
Migratory Species) that lists migratory species that are endangered. Twenty-seven species
of birds were also recorded from these localities which come under Appendix II of CMS
(Appendix II describes migratory birds which have unfavorable status among Range
States but not declared endangered as yet) Astola Island, Jiwani-Gawater Bay, Ormara
and Sandspit-Hawks Bay are important breeding grounds of marine turtles. Two
important species of marine turtles, green turtle (Chelona mydas) and Olive Ridley turtle(
Lepidochelys olivacea) breed in these areas. Out of 43 species of marine mammals that
inhabit the Indian Ocean, 12 species of marine mammals have been recorded from
Pakistan waters and all of them are migratory and some of them often listed as Data
Deficient because there is insufficient information to determine the risk of extinction.
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus ) frequently use Pakistan waters, Oman and Iran in
its western range states and there are several records of its stranding on western part of
Pakistan coast. The Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae ) is one of the most
common species on eastern coast of Pakistan while Humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis),
Bottlenose dolphin (Neophocaena phocaenoides ) and Finless porpoise (Tursiops
truncates) are common throughout coastal waters of Pakistan. About 50 species of
sharks are reported from South Asian region and their biology is more comparable to
large mammals than to the bony fishes. Whale sharks tend to come to inshore especially
during periods of heavy rain fall, probably to feed on the plankton that blooms with
increased nutrients and coinciding upwelling. Sharks fins have particularly high value
and sharks are increasingly being caught for these alone. Dries shark fins are used for
soup in many Asian countries. All five maritime nations of South Asia are involved in
shark fin fisheries. Pakistan and Sri Lanka feature in top 20 shark catching countries.
Large sharks travel long distances. The collection of lobsters in Pakistan began with the
demand for the tourists and export markets. Spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.) are
traditionally not a favoured food item among local communities in South Asia including
Pakistan. West coast of Pakistan has excellent breeding/spawning grounds for spiny
lobsters. A considerable quantity of spiny lobsters is collected from the waters of
Ormara, Astola Island, Pasni, Gawadar and Jiwani (West coast of Pakistan) and Cape
Montz, Churna Island (East coast of Pakistan).
The shrimp fishery in Pakistan bears a strong relation to the extent and status of the
mangroves. Mangroves are especially important as nursery grounds for fish and shrimp
are widely distributed along the coast of Pakistan. Major portion of mangroves belongs to
Sindh Coast. The Sindh Coast (Eastern coast) is studded with dense growth of
mangroves extending from Karachi to beyond Indo-Pakistan border. The distribution of
mangroves along the Balochistan coast is restricted to three geographical locations
namely Miani Hor, Kalmat Hor and Gwatar Bay. Government of Pakistan is earning an
average of Rs.8.8 billion from the export of shrimps and fish annually. The destruction of
habitats will seriously hamper fisheries production which in turn could jeopardize food
security for local communities and reduce the economical contribution of the fisheries
sector to the national economy.
The coral diversity in Pakistan is very low as compare to other South Asian maritime
nations. India is near the centre of coral diversity in the world, with at least 250+ different
species of corals. They often occur in association with other ecosystems, particularly
seagrass beds and mangrove forests which provide nursery and feeding areas of high
primary productivity which provide nutrients for the coral reef organisms. In Pakistan
attempts are being made to explore coral reef ecosystems and recently 20 species of
corals have been recorded from Astola Island. Similar attempts are being undertaken in
mangrove areas at Gawater Bay (Jiwani).
A seminar on the issues: migratory species or species that straddle between the
boundaries of the adjacent countries, spawning grounds and general biodiversity of the
coastal areas is proposed to be held in Karachi-Pakistan in May 2009. The proposed
seminar will increase the importance of marine protected areas in protecting biodiversity
and fisheries management. It will also encourage managers, policy makers and
researchers to establish no take zones (core areas) within the MPA for increasing fish
stoks.
Astola (Haft Talar) Island - Makran Coast (Balochistan) - Pakistan

Astola (Haft Talar) Island, spread over 5,000 ha is an uninhabited island about six km
in length, some 25 km south of the desert coast of Balochistan. It is the only significant
offshore island along the north coast of the Arabian Sea, and as such maintains the
genetic and ecological diversity of the area. The endangered Green turtle (Chelonia
mydas) and possibly the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbracata) nest on the beach at
the foot of cliffs, and it is a very important area for endemic reptiles such as the viper
Echis carinatus astoli. The island is said to have an aura of mystery and is venerated by
Hindus; there are architectural remains of an ancient temple to the Hindu goddess Kali
Devi, as well as a prayer yard constructed for a Muslim saint associated with oceans. It
serves as a base for fishermen between September and May, but is unfrequented during
the period of rough seas and high tides. Feral cats originally introduced by fishermen to
control the endemic rodent population pose an increasing threat to birds’ nesting and
breeding sites. Reprint of the RIS. Ramsar site no. 1063. Most recent RIS information:
2001.
Spread over an area of 2,400 ha, Ormara Turtle Beaches on the Makran Coast of
Balochistan is a sandy beach extending about 10 km along the shores of the Arabian Sea.
The site supports a considerable number of marine turtles, particularly the endangered
Olive Ridley and Green turtles and possibly the Hawksbill turtle as well. Because the
area falls in the subduction zone of the Indian Ocean tectonic plate moving northward,
clusters of mud volcanos have developed along the shore, where gas-charged water
escapes to the surface. The vegetation is composed of salt-tolerant and arid area plants
which grow in very harsh, freshwater-scarce conditions. Migratory waterbirds visit the
site but not in significant numbers. Subsistence and commercial fishing is the primary
economic, social, and cultural activity of the local communities, and drying of fish is an
important source of employment. Accumulations of plastic debris along the coast cause
significant problems, as does the capture of turtles for export.

Jiwani Coastal Wetland - Olive Ridley

Jiwani Coastal Wetland located along Gawater Bay around the delta of the Dasht River
in Balochistan is spread over an area of 4,600 ha Located. The wetland has a very
significant area of mangrove forests extending westward to the Iranian frontier,
contiguous with Iran’s Govater Bay and Hur-e-Bahu Ramsar site. The site is a
particularly important nesting ground for endangered Olive Ridley and Green turtles,
especially at four moderately wide and gently sloping sandy beaches in the eastern part of
the site. Fishing is the most important human activity, practiced by clans that have
migrated from Iran and from farther east in Pakistan as well as descendants of traders and
soldiers from North and East Africa and the Gulf.
Miani Hor in Balochistan, spread over an area of 55,000 ha is a large shallow sea bay
and estuarine system with several low-lying islands and extensive mangrove swamps and
intertidal mud flats, separated from the adjacent Sonmiani Bay in the Arabian Sea by a
broad peninsula of sand dunes. The site is the only area of Pakistan’s coast where three
species of mangroves (Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, and Ceriops tagal)
occur naturally. The Hor receives freshwater input from a number of seasonal streams
rising in the hills of eastern Balochistan to the north. The site is important for large
concentrations of water birds. Smaller fish, shrimp, and crabs are abundant and are both
consumed locally and brought to market. The area is archaeologically interesting:
Balakot, 16 km to the northeast, was once home to a thriving civilization which
flourished around 2000 BC. Domestic waste disposal and accumulated solid waste debris
(plastic bags and bottles, etc.) are growing problems. Both IUCN-Pakistan and WWF-
Pakistan are very active in the region, in collaboration with local communities.
"The Makran" is a traditional name for the desert northern coast of the Gulf of Oman and
the Arabian Sea in eastern Iran and Pakistan. The Makran coast is on a converging
tectonic plate margin, where oceanic lithosphere of the Arabian plate is subducting under
the continental Eurasian plate. This is obviously a Pacific type of coast (p. 354) with
folded and faulted mountain ridges trending parallel to the present shoreline. Seaward of
the Pakistan portion of the Makran shown in this image, the Arabian Plate is subducting
northward at a very shallow angle of about 2°, and is dragging Tertiary marine sediments
many kilometers in thickness into an accretionary prism at the southern edge of the
continent (White and Louden, 1983; Platt et al., 1985). The young sedimentary rocks are
being scraped off the downgoing lithosphere and crumpled against the continental margin
to form the wide belt of fold mountains that dominates the image. At the present coast,
the process continues; the bold headlands at Jabal Zarain, Ras Ormara, and elsewhere are
upthrust fault blocks of weakly consolidated mudstones and conglomerates Miocene to
Pleistocene age that are the latest increments of land to the southern edge of Eurasia. In a
1945 earthquake, several new islands emerged along the Makran coast, including one at
locality A in the image that is now obscured by muddy water around (and probably over)
it. The cliffs of weakly consolidated geologically young sediments are so easily eroded
that some sea cliffs are dangerous to approach by ship, for fear of rock falls and slides
(Snead, 1969, p. 26).
Ras Ormara is an especially interesting example of a tombolo, or sand beach, that
connects an island to the mainland (Figures C-9.1). The north-facing fault scarp, 300 m in
height, is clearly visible on the Landsat image. The trends of the beach ridges on the
mainland show that the headland was an island several kilometers offshore, toward which
refracted waves gradually built beach ridges that tied the uplifted fault-block island to the
mainland. Subsequently, intense erosion, especially from strong southwesterly wind and
waves, has eroded much of the tombolo (Figure C-9.2). Coastal archeologic sites tens of
kilometers inland have been cited as evidence that dramatic changes in this coastal
outline have occurred only in the last 3000 to 5000 years (Snead, 1967). The next
earthquake could create new islands or peninsulas anywhere on the coast. Fishermen
claimed that part of the coast near Pasni was uplifted 5 m during the 1945 earthquake
(Snead, 1967, p. 552).
Near the center of the image is a large coastal lagoon and salt flat called "Kalmat Khol."
Its existence here is anomalous, for it seems doomed to be either filled in by erosion of
the surrounding mountains of soft mudstones or drained by continued tectonic uplift. The
Basol River to the east could be diverted into the basin by tectonic uplift, hastening the
infilling.
The rapid tempo of change on the Makran coast is aided by climatic as well as geologic
factors. Strong southwest monsoon winds blow steadily for several months toward this
coast, causing extended periods of high water and high waves sweeping in from the
southwest. The swell patterns of the southwest monsoon refract around headlands to
create sweeping curves of beaches on both sides of headlands such as Ras Ormara
(Figure C-9.3). The dominant beach drifting appears to be toward the east, so that the
beach at Pasni, in the lee of Jabal Zarain, develops a zetaform or logarithmic spiral shape
(see Plate C-2). Erosion by wind- driven waves is undoubtedly enhanced by tsunamis
(seismic sea waves) such as the one 12 to 15 m in height that followed the 1945
earthquake (Snead, 1967, p. 551).
Powerful waves and currents, infrequent but intense flash floods, erodible young
sedimentary rocks, and strong tectonic uplift combine to make this one of the most active
and dramatic coastal regions of the Earth. Its outlines could change within the lifetimes of
the readers' of this book.
Some of the more official names of white dirt are white clay, kaolin, porcelain clay,
china clay, chalk, or the long winded scientific name aluminum silicate hydroxide.
Whichever name you choose, it's still white dirt.
There are many uses for this natural product. Kaolin (white dirt) is used medically to treat
diarrhea, dysentary, cholera, and is also used in paper making, paint, fiberglass,
porcelains and ceramics, china, and toothpaste. Some of the most popular products made
with kaolin (white dirt) are Kaopectate, Rolaids, Di-gel, Mylanta, and Maalox.
Some people have actually been known to consume White Dirt regularly and not
only like the taste but crave it. It has been said that the taste of white dirt is akin to
the fresh way that the ground smells when it's real dry and a little sprinkle of rain
falls. Dirt-eating is an ancient tradition that is practiced all over the world and
although the demise of the practice has been predicted for many years, it still
persists, particularly in rural areas of the South.
"Geophagy" the scholarly term for dirt-eating, is practiced by both blacks and
whites but is most commonly associated with black women, particularly during
pregnancy. The dirt-eating tradition appears to have been handed down from
generation to generation and several years ago it was not uncommon to see women
gathered together sharing a pan of dirt.
In fact, an ABC News article claims that eating dirt actually might be good for you
and experts claim that the habit of eating clay may be beneficial for pregnant
women. to quote from the ABC News article:
"Though the practice is rarely if ever recommended by medical professionals, some
nutritionists now admit the habit of eating clay may have some real health benefits.
"It is possible that the binding effect of clay would cause it to absorb toxins," said
Dr. David L. Katz, nutrition expert at the Yale School of Medicine and a medical
contributor for ABC News.
Clay's ability to absorb plant toxins is well documented. Jared Diamond, professor
of geography and physiology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and
author of "Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies" has written on
clays that are especially good at binding with plant toxins." You can read the
complete article by clicking here.
White Dirt (kaolin) has also been used as a natural, chemical free shampoo.
Begin by soaking about 4 ounces of white dirt in water. After about 2 hours the clay
will absorb the water and become soft and pliable. Mix the clay thoroughly so that
all the lumps are broken up and it becomes a smooth, thick paste.
Gently rub this paste into your scalp and hair, applying as you would an ordinary
shampoo. Rub for about 5 - 7 minutes, then rinse.
If you feel the need, you can rinse, then re-apply the paste before the final rinse and
wash off.
According to information available on the web, you should use this kaolin shampoo
twice a week and your hair will be as smooth as silk. Your hair will reportedly feel
better and be softer, smoother and silkier than when treated with commercial
conditioners.
Kaolin is used in ceramics, medicine, coated paper, as a food additive, in toothpaste, as a
light diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs, and in cosmetics. It is generally
the main component in porcelain.
It is also used in paint to extend titanium dioxide (TiO2) and modify gloss levels; in
rubber for semi-reinforcing properties; and in adhesives to modify rheology.[9]
Kaolin was also used in the production of common pipes for centuries in Europe and
Asia.
The largest use is in the production of paper, including ensuring the gloss on some grades
of paper. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, semi-
dry noodle or as liquid slurry.
Kaolinite can contain very small traces of uranium and thorium, and is therefore useful in
radiological dating. While a single magazine made using kaolin does not contain enough
radioactive material to be detected by a security-oriented monitor, this does result in
truckloads of high end glossy paper occasionally tripping an overly-sensitive radiation
monitor.[10] [11] [12]
Kaolinite has also seen some use in organic farming, as a spray applied to crops to deter
insect damage, and in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald.
In April 2008, the US Naval Medical Research Center announced the successful use of a
Kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate nanoparticle infusion in traditional gauze, known
commercially as QuikClot Combat Gauze.[13]
When heated to between 650 and 900 °C kaolinite dehydroxylates to form metakaolin.
According to the American National Precast Concrete Association this is a supplementary
cementitious material (SCM). When added to a concrete mix, metakaolin affects the
acceleration of Portland cement hydration when replacing Portland cement by 20 percent
by weight.
In ceramics applications, the formula is typically written in terms of oxides, thus the
formula for kaolinite is:
Al2O3 ▪ 2(SiO2) ▪ 2(H2O)
This format is also useful for describing the firing process of clay as the kaolinite loses
the 2 water molecules, termed the chemical water, when fired to a high enough
temperature. This is different from clay's physical water which will be lost simply due to
evaporation and is not a part of the chemical formula.
[edit] Medicinal and culinary uses
A folk medicine use is to soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later,
humans) in South America originally used it.[14]
Kaolin is, or has been, used as the active substance in liquid anti-diarrhea medicines such
as Kaomagma and Kaopectate. Such medicines were changed away from aluminium
substances due to a scare over Alzheimer's disease[citation needed], but have since changed
back to compounds containing aluminium as they are more effective.
Kaolin is known in traditional Chinese medicine by the name chìshízhī (赤石脂 ),[citation
needed]
literally "crimson stone resin".
In Africa, kaolin is sometimes known as kalaba (in Gabon[15] and Cameroon[16]), calaba,
and calabachop (in Equatorial Guinea). It is used for facial masks or soap[17] and is eaten
for pleasure or to suppress hunger.[16] Consumption is greater among women, especially
during pregnancy.[18]
This practice is also seen among African-American women in the Southern United States,
especially Georgia.[19] There, the kaolin is called white dirt, chalk or white clay.[19] The
product is commercially marketed by companies such as White Dirt of Georgia.
HS-901B Ultra Fine & Super White calcined kaolin
[Character and Performance]：
The crystal is in laminar structure of pseudo-hexagonal kaolinite platelets.
Super fine particle with narrow distribution, little residue on 325 mesh, and low abrasion;
Great whiteness, covering power, light dispersion, fluidity and viscosity;
Excellent extender of titanium dioxide for improving its performance;
The coating containing HS-901B has good performance in water-preserving, fluidity,
viscosity. It can improve the property of paper such as whiteness, smoothness, opacity,
ink absorbency, printability and luster, especially the whiteness and ink absorbency.
[Application]：
Medium-quality paper-making such as thermal sensitive paper, decorating paper, coated
paper and paper board, etc.
[Physical specification]：
Specification HS-901B
Whiteness (%) 93.5%
Particle size (-2μm，%) 83.5-86
Residue on 325 mesh (%) ≤0.004
Oil absorption (g/100g) 60-70
pH 6.0-8.0
Water content (%) ≤1.0
Abrasion (mg/2000 times) ≤3.3
Refractivity 1.62
[Chemical specification] %
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO K2O NaO MnO
52±2 45±2 ≤0.5 ≤0.8 ＜0.5 ＜0.3 ＜0.1 ＜0.2 ＜0.004
White Kaolin also known as China Clay is the most gentle and pure clay there is.
Perfect for sensitive skin or dry skin. Kaolinite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Kaolin" redirects here. For the band, see Kaolin (band). For the Sailor Moon character,
see Death Busters#Kaolinite.
Kaolin
General
Category Mineral
Chemical
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
formula
Identification
White, sometimes red, blue or
Color
brown tints from impurities
Crystal habit Earthy
Crystal system triclinic
Cleavage perfect on {001}
Fracture Perfect
Mohs scale
2 - 2.5
hardness
Luster dull and earthy
Streak white
Specific gravity 2.16 - 2.68
α = 1.553 - 1.565, β = 1.559 -
Refractive index
1.569, γ = 1.569 - 1.570
[1][2]
References
Kaolinite is a clay mineral with the chemical composition Al 2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered
silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one
octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra.[3] Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as
china clay, white clay, or kaolin.
The name is derived from Chinese: 高陵/高嶺; pinyin: Gaoling or Kao-ling ("High Hill")
in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, China.[4] The English name is derived from the French
version of the word: "kaolin." [5] Kaolinite was first described as a mineral species in
1867 for an occurrence in the Jari River basin of Brazil.[6]
Kaolinite has a low shrink-swell capacity and a low cation exchange capacity (1-15
meq/100g.) It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate clay),
produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar. In
many parts of the world, it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct
rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours. Alternating
layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, USA.
Structural transformations
Kaolin-type clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air
at atmospheric pressure. Endothermic dehydroxylation (or alternatively, dehydration)
begins at 550-600 °C to produce disordered metakaolin, Al 2Si2O7, but continuous
hydroxyl loss (-OH) is observed up to 900 °C and has been attributed to gradual
oxolation of the metakaolin.[7] Because of historic disagreement concerning the nature of
the metakaolin phase, extensive research has led to general consensus that metakaolin is
not a simple mixture of amorphous silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), but rather a
complex amorphous structure that retains some longer-range order (but not strictly
crystalline) due to stacking of its hexagonal layers [7].
2 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 → 2 Al2Si2O7 + 4 H2O
Further heating to 925-950 °C converts metakaolin to a defect aluminium-silicon spinel,
Si3Al4O12, which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure:
2 Al2Si2O7 → Si3Al4O12 + SiO2
Upon calcination to ~1050 °C, the spinel phase (Si 3Al4O12) nucleates and transforms to
mullite, 3 Al2O3 · 2 SiO2, and highly crystalline cristobalite, SiO2:
3 Si3Al4O12 → 2 Si2Al6O13 + 5 SiO2
[edit] Occurrence

A kaolin mine in Ruse Province, Bulgaria

Kaolinite is one of the most common minerals; it is mined, as kaolin, in Brazil, Bulgaria,
France, United Kingdom, Iran[8], Germany, India, Australia, Korea, the People's Republic
of China, the Czech Republic, and the United States.
[edit] Predominance in tropical soils
Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the chemical
weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates - for example in tropical rainforest areas.
Comparing soils along a gradient towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the
proportion of kaolonite decreases, while the proportion of other clay minerals such as
illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Such climatically-
related differences in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in
the geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved.
[edit] Uses
Kaolin is used in ceramics, medicine, coated paper, as a food additive, in toothpaste, as a
light diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs, and in cosmetics. It is generally
the main component in porcelain.
It is also used in paint to extend titanium dioxide (TiO2) and modify gloss levels; in
rubber for semi-reinforcing properties; and in adhesives to modify rheology.[9]
Kaolin was also used in the production of common pipes for centuries in Europe and
Asia.
The largest use is in the production of paper, including ensuring the gloss on some grades
of paper. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, semi-
dry noodle or as liquid slurry.
Kaolinite can contain very small traces of uranium and thorium, and is therefore useful in
radiological dating. While a single magazine made using kaolin does not contain enough
radioactive material to be detected by a security-oriented monitor, this does result in
truckloads of high end glossy paper occasionally tripping an overly-sensitive radiation
monitor.[10] [11] [12]
Kaolinite has also seen some use in organic farming, as a spray applied to crops to deter
insect damage, and in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald.
In April 2008, the US Naval Medical Research Center announced the successful use of a
Kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate nanoparticle infusion in traditional gauze, known
commercially as QuikClot Combat Gauze.[13]
When heated to between 650 and 900 °C kaolinite dehydroxylates to form metakaolin.
According to the American National Precast Concrete Association this is a supplementary
cementitious material (SCM). When added to a concrete mix, metakaolin affects the
acceleration of Portland cement hydration when replacing Portland cement by 20 percent
by weight.
In ceramics applications, the formula is typically written in terms of oxides, thus the
formula for kaolinite is:
Al2O3 ▪ 2(SiO2) ▪ 2(H2O)
This format is also useful for describing the firing process of clay as the kaolinite loses
the 2 water molecules, termed the chemical water, when fired to a high enough
temperature. This is different from clay's physical water which will be lost simply due to
evaporation and is not a part of the chemical formula.
[edit] Medicinal and culinary uses
A folk medicine use is to soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later,
humans) in South America originally used it.[14]
Kaolin is, or has been, used as the active substance in liquid anti-diarrhea medicines such
as Kaomagma and Kaopectate. Such medicines were changed away from aluminium
substances due to a scare over Alzheimer's disease[citation needed], but have since changed
back to compounds containing aluminium as they are more effective.
Kaolin is known in traditional Chinese medicine by the name chìshízhī (赤石脂 ),[citation
needed]
literally "crimson stone resin".
In Africa, kaolin is sometimes known as kalaba (in Gabon[15] and Cameroon[16]), calaba,
and calabachop (in Equatorial Guinea). It is used for facial masks or soap[17] and is eaten
for pleasure or to suppress hunger.[16] Consumption is greater among women, especially
during pregnancy.[18]
This practice is also seen among African-American women in the Southern United States,
especially Georgia.[19] There, the kaolin is called white dirt, chalk or white clay.[19] The
product is commercially marketed by companies such as White Dirt of Georgia.
Tests For And Use Of China Clay Or Kaolin
The pigment, domestic or imported, is classed as hydrated silicate of alumina and should
therefore be insoluble in water, alkali or dilute acid solutions. It is decomposed, however,
by long boiling with strong sulphuric acid, forming alumina sulphate in solution and a
precipitate of silica. The finer the grade the more greasy the feel between the fingers,
while domestic kaolin always feels more rough, though it may be perfectly free from grit.
To test for fineness, spread it mixed with turpentine on a strip of dry glass, treating a
selected standard similarly. This test by permitting the turps to evaporate will also serve
to test whiteness or absence of discoloration. Some china clays or kaolins are more
opaque than others, and when the pigment is to be used as an extender for white paint, the
most opaque should be selected, while when used for reducing color that with less
opacity is best, as it does not absorb so much of the color, which is usually much higher
in cost than the clay. A simple test will determine this. Weigh out one drachm of each clay
to be compared, also for each sample of clay 3 Troy grains of ultramarine blue and on a
slab of marble or glass, mix the clay and blue with as many drops of oil as is necessary to
make a rub-out, comparing all on a strip of glass, side by side, the clay that is colored
most deeply by the blue being the least opaque, because it does not resist color as much
as that which is more opaque. If this test is carried out accurately it will also show which
of the clays requires most oil by noting the consistency of the rub-out.
China clay is not used to the extent it deserves in paint making, because of its great oil
absorption and on account of its becoming rather transparent when ground in oil. It
should not really be classed as an adulterant for the reason that it does not pay to use it as
such, as there is more oil required to mix and grind it than is the case in grinding some of
the pigments that are really adulterated. The average specific gravity of china clay or
kaolin is 2.25, and a gallon of bolted or pulverized dry clay packed will not weigh over 6
1/2 to 6 3/4 pounds. It requires 30 pounds, or nearly 4 gallons of linseed oil to mix 70
pounds dry china clay to a stiff paste, while 55 pounds of oil and 45 pounds of clay will
be about the right consistency to be spread with a brush. Wherever whiting is barred out
as an extender for heavy pigments for the reason that the presence of carbonate of lime
makes the paint subject to disintegration from contact with sulphur gases, or that the
alkalinity of whiting affects the color, as is the case with Chinese or Prussian blues, china
clay or kaolin will be the best pigment to replace it. It is really a better suspender for
heavy pigments than the ordinary grades of whiting and only its higher cost, and the fact
that it is so great an oil absorber, are against its more extended use. Bolted English china
clay has also been offered to the trade under the name of English kalsomine for use in
tints with colors that are not alkali proof, such as blues, greens and reds. Many liquid
fillers for soft woods, or in fact, most of them contain china clay as the only pigment,
while it has also been used in part as pigment for paste hardwood fillers along with some
other white mineral substances or with starch. It is not so long since, that it was the
custom to prepare the lower priced shade cloth by running muslin through a size prepared
by cooking equal parts by weight of cheap starch and china clay in water to a paste,
coloring same with aniline colors, and running the muslin so filled or painted over three
heated cylindrical rollers of a calender, thus obtaining a fine and fairly well wearing
finish on these low-priced shades.
China Clay Or Kaolin In Paint
When we use the terms china clay or kaolin, we refer only to the white earthy pigments
of silica and alumina, that are used in paints and colors. We pass by the species of earth
known as pipe clay, potters' clay or fire clay, for which there is no use in paint making,
because of their color and other special characteristics. While the general term for white
clay is kaolin, this name is used among our trade for the white clay mined in various parts
of the United States, principally in Alabama and South Carolina, but also in some
Northern localities. This will answer many purposes in the line of paint manufacture, but
where a really soft and very white material of this character is required the imported
article known as china clay, which is mined and prepared for export at Cornwall,
England, is preferred. Pigments equaling this English china clay are also found in other
countries, notably in Germany and France, but for commercial reasons hardly ever
imported into this market. G. H. Hurst, in his work on "Painters' Colors, Oils and
Varnishes," describes the origin, and also the manufacture of china clay, as it is being
carried on at the clay works at Cornwall, so that it will be unnecessary to devote space to
the subject here. All the white clays for use in paint must consist of silica and alumina
with some combined water, otherwise they will not fulfill their function. The texture
varies somewhat according to this composition, some being more unctuous than others. If
silica were not present in the pigment it would have no tooth whatever and with oil
produce a liverlike mixture. The china clay that by chemical analysis approaches closest
to the following composition may be considered best for general use in paint; 47 per cent
silica, Si02; 39 per cent alumina, AL203; 13 per cent water, H20 (allowing 1 per cent for
free moisture, magnesia, potash and iron). The color maker will, however, prefer the
pigment that is entirely free of iron oxide. Domestic kaolin will vary somewhat from this
analysis, generally consisting of more silica and showing appreciable fractions of one per
cent of iron oxide and lime. Still fairly large quantities are being used of the domestic
article in many special paints, where light weight per gallon is desirable. When china clay
is imported it comes in large casks, two to the long ton, and the clay is in lump form,
usually containing anywhere from 6 to 10 per cent moisture that has to be driven off
before it can be bolted for the use of the paint maker, hence the price of bolted China clay
is so much in advance over the quotation of the importer. Enormous quantities of this clay
are imported for industrial purposes, where it is used in the pulped form and in that case
the amount of moisture cuts a figure only as to its weight. The clay absorbs some
moisture in transit and on being stored in the open on wharves, hence the large
percentage of water usually found.
Kaolin - what it is:
The chief constituent of kaolin is the clay mineral kaolinite, a hydrous aluminium silicate,
Al4Si4O10(OH)8, formed by the decomposition of aluminium silicates, particularly
feldspar.
Kaolin - where it is found:
Kaolin is now mined primarily in Malaysia and in Cornwall, England. China clays were
first discovered in England in the 1740s. In England the china clays are found near St
Austell, on western flanks of Dartmoor and on the western and southern parts of Bodmin
Moor. The quarrying technique is unusual. High pressure hoses are directed at the wall of
the clay pits. The fine clay forms a slurry and is washed down. Most of the impurities are
left behind.
Kaolin - how it is used:
China clays have poor plasticity so they are often used in conjunction with additives -
usually ball clay and bentonite. As a general rule china clays are quicker to cast than
sedimentary clays. They are highly valued for their whiteness, hence their use in bone
china. Shrinkage of clays fired at 1300ºC is about 12%.
 CHINESE ORIGINS
Kaolin (Chinese kauling, "high ridge"), or china clay, a pure, soft, white clay of variable
but usually low plasticity that retains its white colour when fired.
The name derives from the hill—in Jiangxi Province, south-eastern China—from which
the clay was first obtained. It was the Chinese who, in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, first
developed the techniques for using kaolin to make porcelain. Europeans began importing
Chinese porcelain in the 14th century, but it was not until the early 18th century that they
were able to reproduce its much-prized hardness, whiteness, and translucency for
themselves.
A common hydrous aluminum silicate mineral found in sediments, soils, hydrothermal
deposits, and sedimentary rocks. It is a member of a group of clay minerals called the
kaolin group minerals, which include dickite, halloysite, nacrite, ordered kaolinite, and
disordered kaolinite. These minerals have a theoretical chemical composition of 39.8%
alumina, 46.3% silica, and 13.9% water [Al2Si2O5(OH)4], and they generally do not
deviate from this ideal composition. They are sheet silicates comprising a single silica
tetrahedral layer joined to a single alumina octahedral layer. Although the kaolin group
minerals are chemically the same, each is structurally unique as a result of how these
layers are stacked on top of one another. Kaolinite is the most common kaolin group
mineral and is an important industrial commodity used in ceramics, paper coating and
filler, paint, plastics, fiberglass, catalysts, and other specialty applications. See also Clay
minerals; Silicate minerals. kaolinite (kā'əlĭnīt), clay mineral crystallizing in the
monoclinic system and forming the chief constituent of china clay and kaolin. It is a
hydrous aluminum silicate commonly formed by the weathering and decomposition of
rocks containing aluminum silicate compounds; feldspar is a chief source. Kaolinite has
the same chemical composition as dickite and nacrite (both of which are also clay or
kaolin minerals) but differs from them in origin, in optical properties, in reaction to heat,
and in certain other physical properties. Kaolinite is the basic raw material for ceramics,
and large quantities are also used in the manufacture of coated paper.
Porcelain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Fine China" redirects here. For the band, see Fine China (band).
This article is about the ceramic material. For other uses, see Porcelain (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)
Northern Song celadon porcelain, 10th century, China.

Soft-paste porcelain Swan tureen, 1752-6, Chelsea.

Flower centerpiece, 18th century, Spain.

Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating raw materials, generally including clay
in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 °C (2,192 °F) and 1,400 °C
(2,552 °F). The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from the
formation of glass and the mineral mullite within the fired body at these high
temperatures.
Porcelain derives its present name from old Italian porcellana (cowrie shell) because of
its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell. [1] Porcelain can informally be
referred to as "china" in some English-speaking countries, as China was the birth place of
porcelain making.[2] Properties associated with porcelain include low permeability and
elasticity; considerable strength, hardness, glassiness, brittleness, whiteness, translucence,
and resonance; and a high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock.
For the purposes of trade, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities
defines porcelain as being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before
glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable
thickness) and resonant." However, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and
has "been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which
have only certain surface-qualities in common" (Burton 1906).
Porcelain is used to make table, kitchen, sanitary, and decorative wares; objects of fine
art; and tiles. Its high resistance to the passage of electricity makes porcelain an excellent
insulator. Dental porcelain is used to make false teeth, caps, crowns and veneers.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Scope, materials and methods
o 1.1 Scope
o 1.2 Materials
o 1.3 Methods
 2 Categories of porcelain
o 2.1 Hard paste
o 2.2 Soft paste
o 2.3 Bone china
 3 History
o 3.1 Chinese porcelain
o 3.2 European porcelain
 3.2.1 Meissen
 3.2.2 Soft paste porcelain
 3.2.3 Other developments
 4 As an electric insulating material
 5 As a building material
o 5.1 Types porcelain
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 External links
[edit] Scope, materials and methods
[edit] Scope
The most common uses of porcelain are the creation of artistic objects and the production
of more utilitarian wares. It is difficult to distinguish between stoneware and porcelain
because this depends upon how the terms are defined. A useful working definition of
porcelain might include a broad range of ceramic wares, including some that could be
classified as a stoneware.
[edit] Materials
Further information: Pottery
Chinese porcelain from the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735-1796)
Clay is generally thought to be the primary material from which porcelain is made, even
though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word
"paste" is an old term for both the unfired and fired material. A more common
terminology these days for the unfired material is "body", for example, when buying
materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor.
The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral kaolinite is often a
significant component. Other materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash,
steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster; further information on these formulations is given
at "soft-paste porcelain".
The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity.
Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity; short clays are less cohesive
and have lower plasticity. In soil mechanics, plasticity is determined by measuring the
increase in content of water required to change a clay from a solid state bordering on the
plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is also used less
formally to describe the facility with which a clay may be worked. Clays used for
porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays.
They wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce
large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which these clays
can be worked is very narrow and the loss or gain of water during storage and throwing
or forming must be carefully controlled to keep the clay from becoming too wet or too
dry to manipulate.
[edit] Methods
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Please improve this section if you can. (February 2008)
Korean celadon incense burner from the Goryeo period
The following section provides background information on the methods used to form,
decorate, finish, glaze, and fire ceramic wares.
Forming. The relatively low plasticity of the material used for making porcelain make
shaping the clay difficult. In the case of throwing on a potters wheel it can be seen as
pulling clay upwards and outwards into a required shape and potters often speak of
pulling when forming a piece on a wheel, but the term is misleading; clay in a plastic
condition cannot be pulled without breaking. The process of throwing is in fact one of
remarkable complexity. To the casual observer, throwing carried out by an expert potter
appears to be a graceful and almost effortless activity, but this masks the fact that a
rotating mass of clay possesses energy and momentum in an abundance that will, given
the slightest mishandling, rapidly cause the workpiece to become uncontrollable.
Glazing. Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to
render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative
purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. Great detail is given in the glaze
article. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares
of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain.
Decoration. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that
include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier
wares, modern porcelains are often bisque-fired at around 1000 degrees Celsius, coated
with glaze and then sent for a second glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1300 degrees
Celsius or greater. Another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the
unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation.
A porcelain doll from the Czech Republic
Firing. In this process, green (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high temperatures in
a kiln to permanently set their shapes. Porcelain is fired at a higher temperature than
earthenware so that the body can vitrify and become non-porous.
[edit] Categories of porcelain
Porcelain can be divided into the three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste, and bone,
depending on the composition of the paste, the material used to form the body of a
porcelain object.
[edit] Hard paste
Main article Hard-paste porcelain
Some of the earliest European porcelains were produced at the Meissen factory in the
early 18th century; they were formed from a paste composed of kaolinite, quartz, and
alabaster and fired at temperatures in excess of 1,350 °C (2,462 °F), producing a
porcelain of great hardness and strength. Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste
was changed and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar, allowing the pieces to be fired at
lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other forms of silica) continue to
provide the basic ingredients for most continental European hard-paste porcelains.
[edit] Soft paste
Main article Soft-paste porcelain
Its history dates from the early attempts by European potters to replicate Chinese
porcelain by using mixtures of china clay and ground-up glass or frit, soapstone and lime
were known to have also been included in some compositions. As these early
formulations suffered from high pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at raised
temperature, they were uneconomic to produce. Formulations were later developed based
on kaolin, quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite and other feldspathic rocks. These were
technically superior and continue in production.
[edit] Bone china
Main article Bone China
Although originally developed in England to compete with imported porcelain, Bone
china is now made worldwide. It has been suggested [by whom?]that a misunderstanding of an
account of porcelain manufacture in China given by a Jesuit missionary was responsible
for the first attempts to use bone-ash as an ingredient of Western porcelain (in China,
china clay was sometimes described as forming the bones of the paste, while the flesh
was provided by refined porcelain stone)[citation needed]. For whatever reason, when it was
first tried it was found that adding bone-ash to the paste produced a white, strong,
translucent porcelain. Traditionally English bone china was made from two parts of bone-
ash, one part of china clay kaolin and one part china stone (a feldspathic rock), although
this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources.[3]
[edit] History
[edit] Chinese porcelain
Main article: Chinese ceramics

A Chinese porcelain-ware displaying battles between dragons, Kangxi era (1662-1722),

Qing Dynasty.
Porcelain is generally believed to have originated in China. Although proto-porcelain
wares exist dating from the Shang Dynasty about 1600 BCE, by the Eastern Han Dynasty
(100-200 CE) high firing glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain, and
porcelain manufactured during the Tang Dynasty period (618–906) was exported to the
Islamic world where it was highly prized. [4] Early porcelain of this type includes the tri-
color glazed porcelain, or sancai wares. Historian S.A.M. Adshead writes that true
porcelain items in the restrictive sense that we know them today could be found in
dynasties after the Tang,[5] during the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties.
By the Sui ( about 580 AD ) and Tang ( about 620 AD ) dynasties, porcelain had become
widely produced. Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to
spread into other areas; by the seventeenth century, it was being exported to Europe.
Korean and Japanese porcelain also have long histories and distinct artistic traditions.
[edit] European porcelain
These exported Chinese porcelains of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were held
in such great esteem in Europe that in the English language china became a commonly–
used synonym for the Franco-Italian term porcelain. Apart from copying Chinese
porclelain in faience (tin glazed earthenware), the soft-paste Medici porcelain in 16th-
century Florence was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with little success.
The European search for the secret of porcelain manufacture ended in 1708 with the
discovery by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus and Johann Friedrich Böttger of a
combination of ingredients, including Colditz clay (a source of kaolinite), calcined
alabaster, and quartz, that produced a hard, white, translucent porcelain. It appears that in
this discovery technology transfer from East Asia played little part.
[edit] Meissen

Meissen porcelain - 19th Century pair of candelabras and a clock.

Tschirnhaus and Böttger were employed by Augustus the Strong and worked at Dresden
and Meissen in the German state of Saxony. Tschirnhaus had a wide knowledge of
European science and had been involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain
manufacture when in 1705 Böttger was appointed to assist him in this task. Böttger had
originally been trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical research, it was his
claim that he knew the secret of transmuting dross into gold that attracted the attention of
Augustus. Imprisoned by Augustus as an incentive to hasten his research, Böttger was
obliged to work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was
eventually assigned to assist Tschirnhaus. One of the first results of the collaboration
between the two was the development of a red stoneware that resembled the red
stoneware of Yixing.
A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white European porcelain was
produced in January 1708. At the time, the research was still being supervised by
Tschirnhaus; however, he died in October of that year. It was left to Böttger to report to
Augustus in March 1709 that he could make true white porcelain. For this reason, credit
for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than
Tschirnhaus.[6]
The Meissen factory was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze
suitable for use with Böttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures greater
than 1,350 °C (2,462 °F) to achieve translucence. Meissen porcelain was once-fired, or
green-fired. It was noted for its great resistance to thermal shock; a visitor to the factory
in Böttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot being removed from the kiln
and dropped into cold water without damage. Evidence to support this widely disbelieved
story was given in the 1980s when the procedure was repeated in an experiment at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[citation needed]
[edit] Soft paste porcelain
Main article: Soft-paste porcelain
The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass (frit) were called
Frittenporzellan in Germany and frita in Spain. In France they were known as pâte
tendre and in England as "soft-paste";[7] they appear to have been given this name because
they do not easily retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to slump in the
kiln under high temperature, or because the body and the glaze can be easily scratched.
Experiments at Rouen produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important
French porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud factory before 1702. Soft-paste factories
were established in Chantilly in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain
factory was established in 1740, moving to larger premises at Sèvres[8] in 1756.
Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals,
which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout
the whole of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.[9]
The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Royal Society
in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas
Frye took out a patent on a porcelain containing bone ash. This was the first bone china,
subsequently perfected by Josiah Spode.
In the fifteen years after Briand's demonstration, half a dozen factories were founded in
England to made soft-paste table-wares and figures:
 Chelsea 1743 (Thomas Briand and Charles Gouyn)
 Bow 1744
 St James's 1748 (Charles Gouyn)
 Bristol porcelain 1748
 Longton Hall 1750
 Derby 1757 (Sprimont and Duesbury)
 Lowestoft porcelain 1757 (Robert Brown)
[edit] Other developments
William Cookworthy discovered deposits of china clay in Cornwall, making a
considerable contribution to the development of porcelain and other whiteware ceramics
in the United Kingdom. Cookworthy's factory at Plymouth, established in 1768, used
Cornish china clay and china stone to make porcelain with a body composition similar to
that of the Chinese porcelains of the early eighteenth century.
[edit] As an electric insulating material
porcelain insulator for medium high voltage
Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use at high voltage, especially in outdoor
applications. Examples are: terminals for High voltage cables, bushings of power
transformers, insulation of high frequency antennas and many other cases.
[edit] As a building material

Dakin Building, Brisbane, California using porcelain panels

Demonstration of the translucent quality of much porcelain.

Porcelain can be used as a building material, usually in the form of tiles or large
rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced to a number of
recognised international standards and definitions.[10][11] Manufacturers are found across
the world[12] with Italy being the global leader, producing over 380 million square metres
in 2006[13]. Historic examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles can be found
in several European palaces including ones at Capodimonte, Naples, the Royal Palace of
Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace of Aranjuez.[14] and the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing
in China. More recent noteworthy examples include The Dakin Building in Brisbane,
California and the Gulf Building in Houston, Texas which, when constructed in 1929, had
a seventy-foot long porcelain logo on its exterior. [15] A more detailed description of the
history, manufacture and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the article “Porcelain
Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning.”[15]

Haloxylon salicornicum is a desert plant that contains several alkaloids. From the aerial
parts a new piperidyl alkaloid, haloxynine, was isolated and characterized on the basis of
mass spectrometry, 1H and 13C NMR. A GLC/MS analysis revealed the presence of 17
additional known alkaloids of which piperidine, halosaline, anabasine, hordenine, N-
methyltyramine, haloxine and aldotripiperideine had been previously reported in this
genus. Among the 18 identified alkaloids, ten alkaloids were recorded for the first time
from this plant and the genus Haloxylon. Haloxynine, halosaline, haloxine, anabasine,
and smipine figure as major alkaloids with a relative abundance of more than 5% of total
alkaloids. Some of these alkaloids are known be strong agonists at nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors and it is thus likely that they serve as chemical defence compounds against
insects and mammalian herbivores.