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Vibration Control Book 07 PDF
Vibration Control Book 07 PDF
by Brian McLauchlan
© B. McLauchlan TAFE SI 2006
Authors Note: These notes are provided for student use in National
Module EA 7766L The notes are not to be reproduced in any form
without the author’s written permission.
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
f........................... ..frequency, Hz
ff .............................forcing frequency, Hz
fn ............................natural frequency, Hz
m............................mass, kg
x.............................displacement in meters
v .............................velocity in m/sec
a .............................acceleration in m/sec2
y.............................position in meters
Table of Contents
Vibration - Measurement........................................................ 13
Vibration Isolation................................................................. 43
Balancing Of Machinery.......................................................... 67
Balancing Of Machinery.......................................................... 67
Appendix ............................................................................. 78
Vibration - Concepts
1.1 Introduction
Figure one shows this model with a spring constant of 400 N/m
and a mass of 4 kg . If the mass is displaced down, then released,
the mass will oscillate at a frequency that is independant of the
amount of initial displacement. This frequency is called the
NATURAL FREQUENCY.
1 k
fn =
2π m
Our system in figure one thus has a natural frequency of 1.6 Hz.
Note that the angular frequency, ϖ, is related to the frequency f by
the factor 2 π, so that this equation can be written as:
k
ω = 2πf so ω=
m
If our simple system is set in motion we may measure the
displacement over a period of time. We will find that the
displacement repeats after a time called the PERIOD, which is the
inverse of frequency . In the case of our example in figure one, the
frequency is 1.6 Hz and so the period is 0.625 seconds.
x = A sin ( ϖ t )
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
time
X = A sin ( ϖ t )
where
The equations for each can be written as shown below. ( Note: see
appendix A for details of the derivation of these equations.)
X = A sin(ωt ) displacement
•
X = Aω cos(ωt ) velocity
••
X = − Aω 2 sin(ωt ) acceleration
10
8
V 6
i 4
b
r 2
a 0
t -2
i
o -4
n -6
-8
-10
time
Displacement Velocity Acceleration
In figure 1.3, each of the above equations has been plotted for one
cycle, with the displacement as the reference for time zero. For
our vibrating spring - mass system this diagram shows that :
ii.at 1/4 cycle later the velocity has reduced to zero with
displacement maximum and acceleration maximum in the other
direction. The mass has stopped at the peak of a cycle.
1.4 Units
DISPLACEMENT m , mm , um
We will make use of these units but must first consider further the
problem of our vibrating spring mass system.
So far we have caused the spring mass system to vibrate only at its
natural frequency. The mass is displaced and then released causing
a series of oscillations. What happens if the system is pushed by a
force that also oscillates ?
Figure 1.4 shows the system acted on by an external force causing
displacement of the base, that has a periodic nature.
x(t)
x'(t) m
0.1
0.01
0.1 1 10
Frequency Ratio
A similar situation applies if the mass in our system has the forcing
frequency applied to it directly. Consider a small diesel engine.
When operating, the rotating and reciprocating parts of the engine
will cause a vibration at the running speed of the engine. In our
simple model the engine is the mass and provides also the forced
vibration. We wish to isolate the vibration of the engine from the
mounting base of the engine.
1.6 Damping
ccritical = 2 km
Damping greater than critical will have a ratio greater than 1.0.
Damping less than critical, will have a ratio less than 1.0. Damping
causes the response at natural frequency to be reduced but causes
the shape of the response curve to alter at other points. This will be
discussed in detail in section
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.00
1.0
Damping
Ratio
1.0
0.10 0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.01 0
0.1 1 10
Frequency Ratio
Vibration - Measurement
2.1 Introduction
10
8
V 6 Peak to peak
i
Peak
4 RMS
b
r 2
a 0
t -2
i
o -4
n -6
-8
-10
time
The equations of motion specify the PEAK amplitude (see 1.3) but
when measuring our measuring device could be constructed to
measure any of PEAK, PEAK to PEAK or RMS amplitude values.
Many measuring systems measure RMS (Root Mean Square) values
because this value is proportional to the power in the vibrations of a
system.
The vibration that has been described so far, that has a single
frequency and is sinusoidal can also be described as harmonic
periodic vibration. Harmonic is an alternative term for sinusoidal,
and periodic means repeating regularly.
A sinusoid is able to be described precisely by knowing its frequency
and amplitude.
Amplitude
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
-5
-10
-15
time
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
-5
Amplitude
-10
-15
time
Consider the motion of any form of vehicle used for transport, such
as cars, trains or aircraft. It is rare that any of these vehicles will
experience purely periodic vibrations. In fact much design effort is
expended to avoid certain periodic vibration that may result in
resonance and consequent damage due to excessive vibration
amplitude.
Random vibration may have a signal that is like that of figure 2.6.
This shows the complex nature of the motion of a component
experiencing this type of vibration.
Amplitude
Frequency
Figure 2.2 Frequency Spectrum Of Harmonic Vibration
Amplitude
f1 f2 Frequency
Time
Amplitude
f1
f2 Frequency
Figure 2.7 shows how the signal, which is varying in time, is broken
up into components which can be shown on the frequency
sprectrum graph.
Frequency
Mean or average
Spread
Vibration Amplitude
Like the other signals we have dealt with, we are commonly also
interested in the frequency content of the random vibration
signal.Fortunately, Fourier analysis is applicable to random signals
in the same way as other data. The Fourier analysis of a random
signal results in an infinite number of sinusoidal components of
different amplitudes and frequencies. The resulting spectrum is
theoretically a continuous curve rather than single line values.
Figure 2.9 shows the type of curve that could result from this type
of analysis.
Amplitude
Frequency
2.5.3 Filtering
Figure 2.10 Low Pass, High Pass And Band Pass Filters
Notes: c.i. - confidence interval,this means that all data are within the error limit
specified with 95% confidence. (this means that there is a 95% probability that the
error will be no greater than that listed)
Length of data record - means how long the recording of the data must be, with
operating conditions constant, to give enough time for the analysis.
Example:
This table shows that for 95% confidence that if I require the
accuracy of the data to be no worse than +/- 0.54 dB, and I set a
maximum frequency of 1000 Hz on the analyser, I will require 256
averages. These 256 averages will take 102.4 seconds of data or
102.4/60 = 1.7 minutes.
The table has some important consequences. The time limits often
cause problems for data recording at low frequency. For instance,if
the analyser is now used at 100 Hz full scale setting,a recording of
17 MINUTES is required for the highest accuracy!
( 1024/60 = 17)
This is because the sample data may represent the signal frequency
measured or multiples of that signal at higher frequency.
time time
3.1 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts a small amount of the
energy of the quantity to be measured into another form of
energy, usually electrical. This conversion is to allow for ease of
measurement as typically it is easier to record and analyse electrical
signals.
Output
Slug
Input
Electronics
Mass
Piezocrystal
Base
Connector
The metal foil type is more linear and much easier to handle than
the silicon type.For permanent measurement situations however,
the silicon type has the advantage of giving higher sensitivity.
Mass
Connector
Cantilever Beam
Strain Gages Base
They are usually larger than an equivalent piezo electric type with
the exception of some special micro types designed for very high
level acceleration measurements.
Servo Accelerometers
Transducer
Conditioning Amplifier Meter or Other
Measuring Device
3.5 Calibration
Calibrator
Transducer
DVDT
Accelerometer
Angle to provide desired static acceleration due to gravity
Pendulum
Accelerometer
Centrifuge
Accelerometer
Error = e 2 1 + e 2 2 + e 2 3 +......+ e 2 n
the en are the errors for each part of the measurement (ie each
instrument )
Error = 12 + 15
. 2 + 32 + 0.42
= +/- 3.5 %
• chart recorders
• tape recorders
• continuous analysis
• digital recorders
• computers
b.Printers - some printers can make a chart like the pen recorders.
More frequently they are used to give a permanent record of
vibration levels at various times during a measurement. Useful for
long term studies to give hard copy that can be plotted later.
TAFE Mechanical Engineering
39
© B. McLauchlan TAFE SI 2006
allows direct input to computer via a digital output port. This saves
a digitising process which is otherwise needed for computer data
processing.
3.8.5 Computers
Computers have been used for many years for data analysis.
Special input electronics modules have been available for
multichannel measurement and analysis. In recent years, the
development of high quality sound cards for PC and laptops have
provided a relatively low cost data entry system.
3.8.6 Calibration
Vibration Isolation
All machinery has some vibration. This fact has already been used
to advantage in machine condition monitoring. In many cases
however we wish to either isolate the machine vibration from other
equipment or from people or isolate the equipment from vibration.
As we have seen already, the vibration of a spring mass system can
be expressed in the form of a frequency response curve. (see
figure 4.1).
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.00
1.0
Damping
Ratio
1.0
0.10 0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.01 0
0.1 1 10
Frequency Ratio
The response curve shown in figure 4.1 has two axes. The
horizontal axis is the ratio between the natural frequency and the
applied ( "forcing ") frequency. The vertical axis is labelled
TRANSMISSIBILITY.
This means that force caused by the vibration of the machine when
operating (ie at the forcing frequency) will be reduced to 0.04 of the
original at the machine foundation or base. The transmissibility is
0.04 or a (1 - 0.04) x 100 = 96% reduction in force level.
m m
T = G/F T= X/Y
k
ω=
m
F= kx
F
k=
x
so,
mg
k=
x static
mg
ω=
mx static
or
g
ω=
x
a) conventional mounting
Centre of Gravity
a)Horizontal spacing:
b)Lateral loading:
Series Parallel
K
K K K K
K total = K + K + K + K
K
Figure 4.7 shows that springs in series decrease the spring rate
whereas the same springs in parallel increase the spring rate
(compared to the rate of a single spring)
4.4.1 Materials
wire mesh
25
Metal Springs
2.5 10
Rubbers
0.25
Cork
0.025 100
1 Temperature of operation
2 Ozone
3 Sunlight
TAFE Mechanical Engineering
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© B. McLauchlan TAFE SI 2006
4 Liquids eg oils
AIR SPRINGS Used for high isolation at low frequency and in some
cases where vibration amplitude is very small. The air spring
system can provide a constant hieght with varying load while
maintaining the required isolation performance.
Although more complex and costly than other systems, it is often
the only choice for high performance isolation.
4.5 Damping
f nd = f n 1 − ξ 2
where
fnd= natural frequency with damping
ξ = damping ratio
There are two major areas of concern for the human effects of
vibration:
Figure 5.1 The Human Body as a Spring – Mass System (Coerman et al)
Most of the testing for human vibration sensitivity has been done by
subjecting volunteers to varying sinusoidal vibration and recording
their response. This method does not completely establish the
response of the body to a complex vibration, such as multiple axis
vibration, but does give an indication of trends. This means that the
effects of random vibration, for instance, will not always follow the
same sensitivity curves Recent work (1997) has begun to address
this problem to get more accurate data..
For whole body vibration, the vibration may enter the body while in
a standing or seated position. The vibration may be horizontal,
vertical or lateral. The human body has differing sensitivity in each
of these directions due to differing stiffness in each plane. This
means that muscle effort is required to restrain the body parts,
leading to fatigue. The vibration may even interfere with the
organs' function, such as distortion of vision by vibration of the eye.
Excessive levels of vibration can lead to tissue damage or illness.
For example, oscillations from earth moving machinery may cause
spinal injury.
Due to the differing uses for vibration criteria they been frequently
considered in separate categories of comfort limits and exposure
limits.
These limits have been set to indicate the maximium levels that
humans can be exposed to in industrial situations. In using these
limits, it should be noted that the fatigue level will be higher and so
task performance will reduce. If these limits are to be used, they
should be considered as infrequent exposures as in an emergency
situation.
5.5 Instrumentation
In the first case, the RMS value from the instrumentation is directly
compared to the curves. The second case may utilise computer
calculation to speed the weighting and assessment process.
Where vibration is steady, the first method may give the most
rapid result. If vibration is unsteady, for example, random vibration
in a vehicle, an averaging process may be needed to ensure the
correct exposure is determined. This may be achieved by measures
at various levels that are typical of the environment and summing in
proportion to the time exposed at each level. This is equivalent to
the Leq method used for noise.
An ISO standard has been developed which forms the basis of the
AUSTRALIAN STANDARD. The Australian Standard also includes
reccommendations for medical recording of the effects of vibration
exposure to the hand arm. This is because of the relatively limited
experience in Australia with this disease. The standard specifies the
postition for measuring vibration levels as an axis system related to
the human skeleton at the wrist.
5.8 Instrumentation
Balancing Of Machinery
F = mrω 2
where F represents the rotating force due to imbalance. The other
factors are m , the mass at radius r that is unbalanced , and w is
the angular velocity. Note that the unbalance force increases in
proportion to m or r but increases as the square of ω. Thus as
operating speeds are increased the need for balancing becomes
rapidly more important.
Notice that the force is rotating at the shaft speed so the frequency
of vibration due to unbalance is expected to be:
Real rotors may have unbalance in two planes that is of the same
mass but exactly 180 degrees out of alignment. Such a rotor is in
STATIC balance but will still give an out of balance force at each
bearing when run. This will be in the form of a couple formed by
the two out of balance forces. Such a rotor is not DYNAMICALLY
balanced.
It can be seen that for any of these situations, the out of balance
force is always radial and rotates at the shaft running speed. This is
what allows us to detect unbalance by vibration measurements at
the bearings.
Fu = mrω 2
Where m = unbalanced mass in grammes
Fu = Meω 2
where :
M = mass of the rotor in kg
e = eccentricity of the rotor from rotation axis
Meω 2 = mrω 2
or
mr
e= g .mm / kg
M
This gives the units referred to in ISO 1940. There is some concern
in industry however that the balance quality grades were developed
some years ago and reflect the need and technology of low to
medium speed machines. It has been suggested that the ISO
standard be used as a guide to orders of magnitude and attempts
made to balance to as high a standard as possible, for a given
application.
k From the diagram measure Vf from the center of the first circle to
the intersection of the A1 , A2 , A3 circles.
l Calculate the magnitude of the balance mass by:
Vf
mbalance = mtrial
Vi
m Place the balance mass at the same radius as that used for the
trial mass and in the direction of the vector Vf
n Check run the machine to ensure adequate balance
or
kg mm/sec
m = ------ x
r/sec mm
Vi
m balance = x mtrial
At
Vibration Specification
Manufacturing :
Type Of Vibration Specification For: Example:
Product vibration quality control electric motor
Product vibration human body exposure helicopter
Product vibrationh human hand exposure power tools
Maintenance :
Type Of Vibration Specification For: Example:
Machine vibration repair quality after overhaul
Machine vibration condition monitoring any machine
Machine vibration human body exposure
Machine vibration human hand exposure
Equipment purchase :
Type Of Vibration Specification For: Example:
Machine vibration performance criterion pump quality
Machine vibration human body exposure tractor
purchase
Machine vibration human hand exposure powertool
purchase
Appendix
X = A sin(ωt ) displacement
.
dx
V = = Aω cos(ωt ) velocity
dt
d2x
A= = − Aω 2 sin(ωt ) acceleration
dt 2
1 + [2ξ (ω / ω n )]
2
T=
[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + [2ξ (ω / ω )]
n
2 2
n
2
ξ = damping ratio
Vibration Exercises
If the frequency for this vibration is 1000 Hz and A = 0.01 mm, find
the value of x ( the displacement) when :
a. t = 0.0 sec
b. t = 0.00025 sec
c. t = 0.00050 sec
d. t = 0.00075 sec
e. t = 0.0010 sec
x = A sin ( ϖ t )
x = A ϖcos (ϖ t )
x = -A ϖ2 sin (ϖ t )
320 N peak
a. T = 0.4
b. T = 0.06 T is transmissibility
c. T = 0.03
(Answer: a. 2.2, b. 6, c. 8)
Find:
a. natural frequency
b. k
a. natural frequency
b. system spring constant
c. spring constant for each spring if a total of four equally loaded
springs support the machine.
12.SELECTION OF TRANSDUCERS
We are told that a peizo - electric accelerometer has a "mounted
resonance frequency" of 18 kHz. Is this accelerometer suitable for
measurement of vibration of a machine that is known to have
significant vibration at 3kHz?
13.ERROR DETERMINATION
When measuring vibration on a machine,instruments were
used with the following errors:
transducer +/- 1%
amplifier +/- 1.2%
tape recorder +/- 3.5%
FFT analyser +/- 0.5%
The recorded data was analysed with the FFT analyser set on 100
Hz full scale. A recording of 5 minutes duration is available for
analysis. What is the expected amplitude error?
14.DIGITAL SAMPLING
Data analysis of our vibration measurements will be made with a
computer fitted with an analog to digital converter. The intended
analysis is of amplitude distribution and frequency.The frequency
analysis will be carried out by a FFT program available for the
computer.
The data is recorded on an FM tape recorder at a tape speed of 38.1
mm/sec. This speed has a linear frequency response to 1kHz. We
are only concerned with data up to 500 Hz so the tape recorder is
adequate for the purpose. Can we digitise this data? What
precautions should we take to ensure correct analysis? What
sample frequency should be chosen for digitising ?
15. CALIBRATION
A servo accelerometer is to be calibrated by the static method. (ie
using the earths' gravitational field for a reference value) If the
accelerometer can measure a maximum of 0.5g,it cannot be
calibrated by tilting through 90 degrees. Find the angle,measured
from the horizontal,that provides a 0.5 g calibration for this
accelerometer.
18. The system in the first exercise has a vibration of +/- 50mm at
2 Hz applied to the spring. Find the magnitude of vibration of the
mass. Assume zero damping.
22. What would be the level of vibration for the same exposure
time and frequency as question 21, but considering instead the
comfort limit.
CALIBRATION
The process of comparing the measuring system with a known
standard value to check accuracy
DAMPING
Loss of energy in a system that prevents continuous motion
DAMPING RATIO
Ratio of the actual amount of damping to a standard value
FFT
Abbreviation for Fast Fourier Transform
FILTER
An electronic device that allows some frequencies to pass through
while restricting or eliminating others. Types of filter are :band
pass,high pass and low pass
FREQUENCY
The rate at which a periodic wave repeats itself. Measured in Hertz
(Hz)
g
A common way of measuring acceleration for human effects
evaluations. "g" = 9.8 m/s2 (acceleration due to gravity)
REYNAUDS' DISEASE
Damage to human tissues and circulatory system resulting in VWF
and sometimes amputation
SEGMENTAL
Refers to vibration that is applied to the bone structure of the hand
and arm
SIGNAL
A signal is an information carrying wave. This term may describe
the actual acoustic wave or its electrical analog as measured by a
transducer
SPECTRUM
The frequency content of vibration can be expressed graphically as
a spectrum
TRANSDUCER
A device for converting energy from the parameter being measured
into convenient form for measurement. Often the energy measured
is converted to electricity
TRANSMISSIBILITY
A ratio that expresses the amount of force or displacement
transmitted in a spring mass system
VWF
Vibration White Finger or Reynauds disease (see above)
WAVELENGTH
The length between successive similar features of a wave, such as
from a peak to peak. Measured in meters.
WEIGHTING
A band pass filter that reduces the level of signal at some
frequencies while maintaining or increasing others. Used to
measure with a single value, the effect of the signal on humans or
machines.
WHOLE BODY
Vibration that is applied to the whole human body rather than just a
portion is called Whole Body vibration. Typically it is found in
transportation vehicles.