Principles of Foundation Engineering 7th Edition SI Units

EAA 305 Environmental, Hydraulic and Geotechnical Engineering
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
EAA 305 – HYDRAULIC LABORATORY
FRICTION LOSS ALONG A SMOOTH PIPE
1.0 OBJECTIVES
Using the apparatus for friction along a smooth pipe, determine:

a) The relationship between the hydraulic gradient and mean velocity of flow for
both laminar and turbulent flows.
b) The critical Reynolds Number (Rn).
c) The friction factor (f) and Rn relationship for laminar and turbulent flow.
2.0 THEORY
Darcy’s Equation for head loss in friction in circular pipe is
!"!!
h! = !!" …………………… (1)
where,
hf = the head loss in friction in pipe
D = diameter
L = length
f = friction factor
v = mean velocity of flow in pipe
NHMS
For laminar flow,
𝟔𝟒
𝒇 = 𝑹 …………………… (2)
𝒏
and hydraulic gradient is proportional to v
hf α v …………………. (3)
L
In the case of a smooth pipe, the friction factor, f is independent of relative roughness
for turbulent flow. The hydraulic gradient for turbulent flow is proportional to vn.
hf α vn …………………..(4)
L
Von Karman’s relationship for friction factor, f for turbulent flow in hydraulically
smooth pipe is given by
𝟏 𝑽𝒇
√𝒇
= 𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑹𝒏 𝟐.𝟓𝟏
……..……… (5)
whereas the Blasius Equation is
f = 0.079 Rn-0.25 ....... ………………(6)
NHMS
3.0 PROCEDURE
1. Set up the apparatus on the hydraulic bench and check that the base plate is in
the horizontal position and the manometers are in the vertical position.
2. Connect the inlet to the supply hose from the bench.
3. Open the bench supply valve. Please ensure that the needle of the valve is at its
minimum.
4. Control the isolating tap to isolate the water manometer that can cause
maximum deflection in the mercury manometer (for closed needle valve
position, the mercury in two columns of the manometer should stay at the same
level) for maximum discharge rate.
5. Note the water temperature at frequent intervals and use the average
temperature for the computation.
6. Air trapped in the piezometer tubes should be removed by manipulating the
bleed valve.
7. Obtain the manometer readings at h1 and h2 and determine the amount of flow
volume in a measuring cylinder. Please record the time taken in order to
compute the flow rate.
8. Operating the needle valve may reduce discharge. For every test, please
measure the manometer readings at h1 and h2 and determine the time needed to
collect the known volume of flow in the measuring cylinder.
9. A minimum of 12 readings for the full range of the discharge is required in the
experiment.
10. For the lower range of the flow rates, the isolating tap may be used to isolate
the mercury manometer and measure the readings of h1 and h2. Caution: please
ensure that there are no air bubbles in the manometer and the connecting tubes.
NHMS
Figure 1: Apparatus for measuring friction loss along a pipe
4.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS
h1 = head in the upstream manometer

h2 = head in the downstream manometer
Length of pipe between piezometer tappings, L = 0.524 m
Diameter of the pipe, D = 0.003 m @ 3 mm
Cross sectional area of the pipe, A = 7.06 x 10-6m2
Temperature of water:
1) ------------ ºC
2) ------------ ºC
3) ------------ ºC
Mean water temperature = ------------- ºC
NHMS
Volume of water collected and manometer readings should be recorded in Table 1.

Determine the value of u, i, Rn and f.
*Values of hydraulic gradient:
!! ! !!
i= for water manometer reading.
!
!".! (!! !!!)

i= for mercury manometer reading
!
Table 1: Recorded values of discharge and manometer and computed values of

velocity, Reynolds number and friction factor.
Serial V T u h1 h2 i Rn f
No. (ml) (s) (m/s) (mm) (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NHMS
5.0 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. Plot i versus u on a double log graph paper and determine the gradient of the
lines that represent laminar and turbulent flow. Verify Equation (3) and
determine value of n in the Equation 4. A point of shift from one line to the
other will give the velocity value in which the critical Reynolds Number can
be computed. These values may be shown on the graph.
2. Compute the f value from column (9) of Table 1 using the Equation (1). Plot f
versus Rn. Use Equation (2) and (6) in order to determine laminar and
turbulent flows respectively. Equation found in the experimental data may be
written on the graph paper itself.
NHMS

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
PELTON IMPULSE TURBINE
1.0 OBJECTIVE
Using the Pelton wheel apparatus:
(i) Obtain the characteristic curve between power / torque and the speed in
rotation per minute (rpm).
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The Pelton Wheel is a hydraulic turbine, in which one or more water jet
impinges tangentially onto buckets mounted around a wheel. The force produced by
the jet impact generates a torque that causes the wheel to rotate, thus producing
power. The name ‘Pelton’ derives from L.A. Pelton, an American engineer who
performed notable research in order to determine the best shape of the buckets.
Although the concept is very simple, some very large machines of high efficiency
have been developed. Power outputs of more than 100 MW, with efficiencies of
around 95%, are not uncommon. On a small laboratory model, however, the output
may be just a few watts. The efficiency will therefore be very much smaller, because
losses in bearings and by windage are proportionally much higher than in a large,
powerful turbine.
3.0 THEORY
The Pelton Wheel requires a source of water in order to run. If the head of water is
known, along with the flow rate, then it is possible to deduce the best size of wheel to
NHMS
use, how fast it should rotate to obtain the maximum efficiency, and what power it is
likely to develop.
The velocity in the jet can be estimated by using the known fixed head. The
diameter of the jet can then be found from the known flow rate. A suitable wheel
diameter can be chosen in relation to the jet size; typically the wheel would have a
diameter of 10 times that of the jet. The best speed of rotation may then be selected,
such that the speed of the buckets is approximately half hat of the jet speed.
The power delivered in the jet can be calculated from the speed and cross-
sectional area. The power developed by the Pelton wheel will be less than this, in the
ratio of the wheel’s efficiency, which may be estimated by reference to the known
performance of existing machines of comparable size and output.
Depending on the head and flow rate available, the size and speed of the Pelton
wheel obtained in this way may prove to be impracticable or uneconomic.
Fortunately, other types of water turbine are available to suit a wide variety of
circumstances. The Pelton wheel is usually chosen when the available head is high,
but the flow rate is comparatively low.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
1. Pelton impulse turbine model

2. Optical tachometer or stroboscope
5.0 PROCEDURE
1. Close the spear valve and switch on the water supply.

2. Slowly open the spear valve, allowing the jet to drive the Pelton wheel. Fully
open the valve.
3. Increase the load on the wheel by adjusting the knob above the spring balance
(s) at desired intervals. At each interval record the speed (using an optical
NHMS
tachometer), and both spring balance forces. This can then be equated to the
torque by:
T = (F1-F2) Rb
Where :
Rb Brake wheel radius (0.025 m)
F1 Load reading on the spring balance (right-hand balance as you
face the wheel).
F2 Load reading on the spring balance (left-hand balance as you
face the wheel).
4. Plot the measured speed against the calculated torque (as shown in Figure 3).
5. Calculate the power of the turbine from :
2πNT
P=
60
Where :
N = Speed (rev/min)
T = Torque (Nm)
P = Power (W)
From these results, plot the power curve, as shown in Figure 3.

6. Repeat the above experiment using different spear valve positions.
NHMS
Figure 1: Apparatus for Pelton Impulse Turbine Test
Figure 2: Pelton wheel layout
NHMS
Figure 3: Power and torque characteristics of the Pelton Turbine
6.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS.
Travel of the spear : 6-7 mm

Diameter of the nozzle outlet : 10 mm
Listed below are positions of the spear with its corresponding nozzle area.
Table 1 : Nozzle area details

Position of spear Areat at nozzle
(Number of turns or mm) (mm2)
Closed 0
½ turn or 0.75 mm 9.4
1 turn or 1.50 mm 18.3
1 ½ turns or 2.25 mm 26.5
2 turns or 3.00 mm 34.4
2 ½ turns or 3.75 mm 41.1
3 turns or 4.50 mm 47.7
3 ½ turns or 5.25 mm 53.5
4 turns or 6.00 mm 58.7
4 ½ turns or 6.75 mm 63.3
NHMS
Table 2: Data obtained to plot power and torque characteristics of Pelton turbine
Pressure = 0.25 bar
Brake wheel radius, Rb = 0.025 m
Serial Load Rotational Torque, T Power, P

No. (N) speed, N (N.m) (W)
F1 F2 F (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pressure = 0.3 bar

F1 F2 F (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
NHMS
Pressure = 0.35 bar


F1 F2 F (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pressure = 0.40 bar

F1 F2 F (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
NHMS
7.0 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS
Plot the graph between power (W)/torque (N.m) and rotational speed (rpm) for
different pressure where the graph represent characteristic performance curve for
Pelton Impulse Turbine.
NHMS

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this experiment are:

a) To determine the coefficient of discharge, Cd for the flow under the sluice
gate.
b) To verify the relationship for the initial and sequential depth.
c) To determine the head loss at hydraulic jump.
d) To verify the specific force before and after the hydraulic jump is the
same.
2.0 THEORY
Figure 1: The sketch for flow under the sluice gate
NHMS
The relationship of flow rate under the sluice gate is

Q = C d bYg 2 gYo ……………..(1)
Where
Cd = coefficient of discharge
b = flume width (30 cm in this case)
Yo and Yg (refer to the sketch above).
The initial measurement (Y2) and sequential measurement (Y3) are related to:
!! ! !
!!
= ! 1 + 8𝐹!! − 1 ……………..(2)
The loss of energy at the jump as:

3
⎛ Y − Y ⎞
ΔH = ⎜⎜ 3 2 ⎟⎟ ………(3)
⎝ 4Y3Y2 ⎠
The specific force for the cross section of channel:
Y2 q 2
Fs = + ………(4)
2 gy
It has to be the same for the section 2 and section 3, giving:
2 2
Y2 q2 Y q2
+ = 3 + ………(5)
2 gY2 2 gY3
3.0 EQUIPMENT SET UP
1. Glass sided tilting flume.

2. Adjustable sluice gate
3. Hook/Pointer gauges mounted on carrier
NHMS
4.0 PROCEDURE
1. Please ensure that the under sluice is properly clamped onto the flume and
it is in the vertical plane (check with the level).
2. Using the weir operating gear, lower the tipping weir towards the
downstream end of the flume.
3. Turn on the power switch for the flume.
4. Please ensure that the flume is in horizontal position (slope indicator
should point at 0-0)
5. Close the operating flow control valve. The red round spot under the
circular glass indicator indicates the closed position.
6. Start the pump.
7. Slowly, open the hand operated flow control valve in order to allow the
water to enter the flume.
8. Adjust the inflow and the tailgate to create a hydraulic jump in the centre
of the working section.
9. Wait until the steady flow conditions is established for a particular values
of Yo and Yg. Determine the values of Y1, Y2 and Y3.
10. Repeat step 9 for another set values of Yo and Yg.
Figure 2: Apparatus for measuring the flow under a sluice
NHMS
5.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS
Table 1 : Recorded depth and discharged data

Serial H Q Yg Yo Y1 Y2 Y3
No. (mm) (1/s) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
Note :
1. H is the head loss in the orifice meter.
2. Q is the flow rate in l/s corresponding to H as read from the calibration
curve enclosed.
3. Flume width, b = 0.3 m
NHMS
Table 2 : Computation for Cd

Serial Q Yg Yo Y1 Y1 Q
Cc = Cd =
Yg bY g 2 gYo
No. m3/s) (m) (m) (m)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1
2
3
4
5
Table 3 : Computations for sequential depth

Seriel Q q Y2 q Y3 Y3 Yc
No. V2 = V (computed) (observed)
Y2 Fn2 =
(m3/s) (m2/s) (m) gY2 (m) (m) (m)
(m/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1
2
3
4
5
Note :
1. q = Q/b where b = 0.3 m
2. Y3 in column (7) is obtained from Equation (2).
1/ 3
⎛ q 2 ⎞
3. Compute Yc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and verify Y2<Yc<Y3.
⎝ g ⎠
NHMS
Table 4 : Computations for head loss in jump and specific force
Serial q Y2 H2 Y3 H3 ΔH = H 2 − H 3 ΔH Fs2 Fs3

No. (computed)
(m2/s) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1
2
3
4
5
Note :
q2
1. H 2 = Y2 + 2
2gY2
q2
2. H 3 = Y3 + 2
2gY3
3. ΔH in column (8) is obtained from Equation (3)
2
Y2 q2
4. Fs 2 = +
2 gY2
2
Y3 q2
5. Fs 3 = +
2 gY3
6.0 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS
1. Plot Q versus Yo and determine Cd from the slope of the best fitting straight line
for the plot.
ΔH ΔH Y
2. Calculate and plot against 3 .
Y2 Y2 Y2
NHMS

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEMS
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The apparatus for losses in piping systems is used in order to determine:

a) Relationship between the head loss in friction hf and flow rate, Q.
b) Relationship between friction factor, f and the Reynolds Number, Rn
c) Head loss constants, kb for the following bends
i) 90º mitre bend
ii) 90º regular elbow bend
iii) 90º bend with 50 mm radius
iv) 90º bend with 100 mm radius
v) 90º bend with 150 mm radius.
d) The head loss constants, kv for fully open gate valve and globe valve and
also the relationship between percent flow rate and head loss constants for
both the valves.
e) The head loses in sudden expansion and sudden contraction.
2.0 THEORY
The Darcy-Weisbach head loss, hf, in a circular pipe due to friction as

fLv 2 ---------------------------- (1)
hf =
2 gD
NHMS
In general, it may be expressed as

n
hf α Q ------------------------------- (2)
For turbulent flow, n should be close to 2 (more likely between 1.70 to 1.85). For a
smooth pipe with a given lower value of n, the Darcy‘s friction factor f can be
computed by
h f . 2 gD
f = --------------------------------- (3)
Lv 2
Blasius equation for smooth pipe is
f = 0.0079 Re −0.25 for 104 < Re < 105 -------------- (4)
Head loss in bends is given by
V2
hL = k b -------------------------------- (5)
2g
Where the head loss constant (kb) depends on the angle of the bend and the bend
radius / pipe radius ratio
Head loss due to valve is given by
V2
hL = k v -------------------------------------(6)
2g
Where the head loss constant kv depends on the type of the valve and its opening.
Head loss in sudden expansion is given by
(v1 − v2 ) 2
hL = --------------------------------------- (7)
2g
Where v1 = velocity before the expansion

v2 = velocity after the expansion
NHMS
Increase in head after the expansion is given by
2 2
v1 v2 (v1 − v 2 ) 2
h2 − h1 = − − --------------------- (8)
2g 2g 2g
Head loss in sudden contraction is given by
V2
hL = k c ------------------------------------------ (9)
2g
Where kc = head loss constant in sudden contraction

V2 = velocity in the contracted section of the pipe
Decrease in head after the contraction will be given by
2 2
V d V
h1 − h2 = 2 [1 − ( 2 ) 4 ] + k c 2 -------------------------------- (10)
2g d1 2g
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental for conducting the experiment is shown in Figure 1. Flow in the
dark blue pipe takes place when the gate valve is opened and the globe valve is
closed. Flow in the light blue circuit takes place when the gate valve is closed and the
globe valve is fully or partly open. Both the circuits are supplied with water from the
same hydraulic bench.
A Straight pipe (13.7mm)
B 90º sharp mitre bend
C Proprietary 90º bend
D Gate valve
E Sudden Expansion (13.7mm / 26.4mm)
F Sudden Contraction (-26.4mm / 13.7mm)
G Smooth 90º bend 52mm radius
H Smooth 90º bend 102mm radius
I Smooth 90º bend 152mm radius
J Glove valve
L Straight pipe (26.4mm)
NHMS
The components of the piping systems in each of the circuit are as follows:
• Dark Blue Circuit ;- 1. Gate Valve

2. Standard elbow bend
3. 90º mitre bend
4. Straight pipe
• Light Blue Circuit ;- 1. Globe gate

2. Sudden contraction
3. Sudden expansion
4. 90º bend 150 mm radius
Manometer tappings on straight pipe are at 0.914 m and the same distance is
maintained for manometer tapping in all categories of bends. The straight line loss is
subtracted from the total measured loss for each category of the bend in order to
determine the loss exclusively due to the bend geometry.
Identification of the manometer tube numbers with various components of the piping
system is as follows:
Unit of the piping system Manometer tube number

Regular elbow 90o bend 1,2
Straight pipe 3,4
90o mitre bend 5,6
Sudden expansion 7,8
Sudden contraction 9,10
100 mm bend 11,12
150 mm bend 13,14
50 mm bend 15,16
NHMS
Figure 1: Apparatus for measuring the head loss in pipe system
4.0 PROCEDURE
1. Set up the apparatus besides a hydraulic bench and connect the hydraulic
bench supply to the inlet of the apparatus and connect the outlet end hose to
the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench.
2. Close the globe valve, open the gate valve fully and let the water flow in the
dark blue circuit by turning on the pump switch and open the outlet valve at
the hydraulic bench.
3. Allow water to flow for two to three minutes in order to get a steady state
condition.
4. Record the time for collecting pre-assigned volume of water in the volumetric
tank of the hydraulic bench.
5. Record the manometer readings on the mercury for gate valve (Table 1
column 3 & 4).
6. Release the air bubbles trap by manipulating the air manifold on the water
manometers. Record the readings of the manometer 1 and 2 for the regular 90º
elbow end (Table 1 column 5 & 6), manometer 3 and 4 for the straight pipe of
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26.4 mm diameter and 0.914 m length (Table 1 column 7 & 8 ) and

manometer 5 and 6 for the 90º mitre bend (Table 1 column 9 & 10 ).
7. Slowly, close the gate valve and repeat step 3 to 5 at least 5 times with
different opening positions of the gate valve.
8. Close the gate valve and open the globe valve fully.
9. Let water to flow for two to three minutes in order to maintain a steady rate
conditions.
10. Record the time for collecting pre-assigned volume of water in the volumetric
tank of the hydraulic bench.
11. Record the readings of the mercury manometer for globe valve and reading for
water manometer 7 and 8 for the sudden expansion (Table 2 column 8 & 9), 9
and 10 for sudden contraction (Table 2 column 10 & 11), 11 and 12 for 150
mm radius bend (Table 2 column 12 & 13), 13 and 14 for 100 mm radius bend
(Table 2 column 14 & 15) and 15 and 16 for 50 mm radius bend (Table 2
column 16 & 17)
12. Close the glove valve and repeat step 9 to 11 at least 5 times with different
opening positions of the globe valve.
13. Before switch off the pump at the hydraulic bench, close both gate and globe
valves. This procedure is to prevent the air bubbles from entering the system
and also to save time before starting a new set of experiment.
5.0 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. Based on the data recorded in Table 1 and 2, calculate the flow rate, velocity
of flow, kinetic head, head loss at various pipe fittings and straight pipe. Enter
the result in Table 2 until Table 4 under appreciate column.
2. Plot the Reynolds Number (Re) and the frictional factor (f) on the graph log
scale.
Note: The difference between the readings of the mercury manometer for head
loss in the gate valve and the globe valve is multiplied by 13.6 to get the
respective head loss values in Table 3 and 4.
NHMS
INFORMATION
1. Pipe material = copper tube

2. Pipe diameter = 0.0137 m
3. Pipe cross section area = 1.474 x 10-4 m2
4. Pipe diameter after expansion = 0.0264 m
5. Pipe diameter after contraction = 0.0137 m
6. Pipe cross section area for 0.0264m diameter = 5.474 x 10-4 m2
7. Distance between straight pipe and manometer tapping = 0.914 m
8. Radius for the 90º bend = 0.0127 m
9. 3 x 90º smooth bend (radius 0.0508m, 0.1016m, and 0.1524m)
10. Initial water temperature =
11. Final water temperature =
12. Min water temperature =
13. Water kinematics viscosity for the min water temperature = m2/s
NHMS

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EAA 305 Environmental, Hydraulic and Geotechnical Engineering

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 305 – HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

FRICTION LOSS ALONG A SMOOTH PIPE

Using the apparatus for friction along a smooth pipe, determine:

Darcy’s Equation for head loss in friction in circular pipe is

For laminar flow,

and hydraulic gradient is proportional to v

whereas the Blasius Equation is

f = 0.079 Rn-0.25 ....... ………………(6)

Figure 1: Apparatus for measuring friction loss along a pipe

4.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS

h1 = head in the upstream manometer

Mean water temperature = ------------- ºC

Volume of water collected and manometer readings should be recorded in Table 1.

*Values of hydraulic gradient:

!".! (!! !!!)

Table 1: Recorded values of discharge and manometer and computed values of

5.0 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 305 – HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

PELTON IMPULSE TURBINE

4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

1. Pelton impulse turbine model

1. Close the spear valve and switch on the water supply.

From these results, plot the power curve, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 1: Apparatus for Pelton Impulse Turbine Test

Figure 2: Pelton wheel layout

Figure 3: Power and torque characteristics of the Pelton Turbine

6.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS.

Travel of the spear : 6-7 mm

Table 1 : Nozzle area details

Serial Load Rotational Torque, T Power, P

Serial Load Rotational Torque, T Power, P

Pressure = 0.35 bar

Serial Load Rotational Torque, T Power, P

Serial Load Rotational Torque, T Power, P

7.0 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 305 – HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE.

The objectives of this experiment are:

Figure 1: The sketch for flow under the sluice gate

The relationship of flow rate under the sluice gate is

The loss of energy at the jump as:

The specific force for the cross section of channel:

It has to be the same for the section 2 and section 3, giving:

3.0 EQUIPMENT SET UP

1. Glass sided tilting flume.

Figure 2: Apparatus for measuring the flow under a sluice

5.0 DATA RECORDED AND CALCULATIONS

Table 1 : Recorded depth and discharged data

Table 2 : Computation for Cd

Table 3 : Computations for sequential depth

Table 4 : Computations for head loss in jump and specific force

Serial q Y2 H2 Y3 H3 ΔH = H 2 − H 3 ΔH Fs2 Fs3

6.0 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 305 – HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEMS

The apparatus for losses in piping systems is used in order to determine:

The Darcy-Weisbach head loss, hf, in a circular pipe due to friction as

In general, it may be expressed as

Blasius equation for smooth pipe is