SFTE Reference Handbook 2013 3rd Edition 06 17 13 PDF

Flight Test Engineering
Reference Handbook
Third Edition
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Society of Flight Test Engineers

Reference Handbook
Third (2013) Edition
Corporate support supplied by

McDonnell Douglas/Boeing (2nd Edition CD’s)
and
The National Test Pilot School
Contributing Authors
Al Lawless (sections 1-8, 10-12, 15, 18)
Greg Lewis (section 2.6)
Bill Norton (sections 9, 13)
Dan Hrehov (section 14)
Steven Arney (section 16)
John Minor (section 19)
David Kidman, Christopher Moulder, Craig Stevens (section 17)
Edited by
Lee Gardner & Darcy Painter 1998-2006
Harold Weaver 2006-2013
The SFTE Technical Council continually seeks comments and new content
Contact tech-council@sfte.org
Page - ii
Publication Policy
Copyright (C) 2013 by Society Of Flight Test Engineers
All rights reserved. This Technical Handbook is for the exclusive use of the Society of Flight Test
Engineers individual and corporate members. The technical information contained herein may not be
reproduced by any other individual or organization in any form without written permission from the
Society of Flight Test Engineers. The Society reserves the exclusive right of publication. For further
information concerning the publication policy, contact:
Society of Flight Test Engineers

44814 N. Elm Avenue
Lancaster, California 93534 USA
Phone (661) 949-2095
Fax: (661) 949-2096
www.sfte.org
Please submit comments or additions to SFTE Technical Council at the above address or email
tech-council@sfte.org
Page - iii
SFTE Reference Handbook
Quick Index
Section Title
1 General Information
2 Mathematics
3 Earth and Atmosphere
4 Pitot Statics
5 Aerodynamics
6 Axis Systems and Transformations
7 Mass Properties
8 Motion/Vibration Analysis
9 Material Strength (Loads)
10 Reciprocating Engines
11 Propellers
12 Fixed-Wing Performance Standardization
13 Acoustics
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
15 Handling Qualities
16 Rotary Wing
17 Gas Turbine Propulsion
18 Radio Communications
19 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Page - iv
SFTE
Reference Handbook
Complete Table of Contents
Section Title
1.1 Unit Conversions
1.2 Greek Alphabet
1.3 Greek Symbols Used for Aircraft
1.4 Common Subscripts
1.5 Common Abbreviations
1.6 Sign Conventions
1.7 Thermodynamic Relations
1.8 Mechanics Relations
1.9 International Phonetic Alphabet and Morse Code
2 Mathematics
2.1 Algebra
2.2 Geometry
2.3 Trigonometry
2.4 Matrix Algebra
2.5 Vector Algebra
2.6 Statistics
2.7 Standard Series
2.8 Derivative Table
2.9 Integral Table
2.10 Laplace Transform Table

3.1 Universal Constants
3.2 Earth Properties
3.3 General Properties of Air
3.4 Standard Atmosphere
3.5 Sea States
3.6 Sunrise and Sunset Times
3.7 Crosswind Components
3.8 Geodetic Measurements
3.9 Temperature Compensated Barometric Altitude
Page - v
Section Title
4 Pitot Statics
4.1 Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Equations
4.2 Scale Altitude (Compressibility) Correction
4.3 Subsonic Relations between Compressible and
Incompressible Dynamic Pressure
4.4 Supersonic Airspeed and Mach Equations
4.5 Total Temperature Equation
4.6 Altimeter Equation
4.7 Position Error Test Methods
4.8 Position Error Certification Requirements
4.9 PEC Correction Process Flow Chart
4.10 Airspeed/Altitude/Mach Graphic Relation
4.11 Effect of Errors on Calibrated Airspeed and Altitude
5 Aerodynamics
5.1 Dimensional Analysis Interpretations
5.2 General Aerodynamic Relations
5.3 Wing Design Effects on Lift Curve Slope
5.4 Elements of Drag
5.5 Aerodynamic Compressibility Relations
5.6 Drag Polars

6.1 Earth Axis System
6.2 Aircraft Axis System
6.3 Euler Angles
6.4 Flightpath Angles
6.5 Axis System Transformations
7 Mass Properties
7.1 Abbreviations and Terminology
7.2 Longitudinal and Lateral cg Measurement
7.3 Vertical cg Measurement
7.4 Moment & Product of Inertia Measurement
8.1 Recurring Abbreviations
8.2 First Order Motion
8.3 Second Order Motion
8.4 Complex Plane
8.5 Parameter Conversions
8.6 Vibration Nomograph

9.1 Terminology
9.2 Material Stress and Strain
9.3 V-n Diagram
9.4 Strain Gauges
Page - vi
Section Title
10.2 Reciprocating Engine Modeling
10.3 Reciprocating Engine Power Standardization
10.4 FAA Approved Engine Temp. Corrections
11 Propellers
11.2 Propeller Geometry
11.3 Propeller Coefficients
11.4 Efficiency and States
11.5 Propeller Theory
11.6 Propeller Modeling
11.7 Propeller Flight Test

12.2 Standardization Techniques
12.3 Takeoff Distance
12.4 Landing Distance
12.5 Climb/Descent/Acceleration
12.6 Level Turn Performance
12.7 Reciprocating Engine Cruise Performance
12.8 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance
13 Acoustics
13.2 Velocities, Spectrum, and Reference Levels
13.3 Pressure, Intensity
13.4 Weighting Curves
13.5 1/3 Octave Center Frequencies
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Abbreviations
14.3 Terms
14.4 Fundamentals
14.5 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
14.6 Testing
14.7 Lightening
14.8 High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF)
14.9 Precipitation Static (Pstatic)
14.10 Reference Material
15.1 Cooper-Harper Rating Related Figures
Page - vii
Section Title
16 Rotary Wing
16.1 Principal Aero Derivatives
16.2 Forward Flight Static And Dynamic Stability

17.1 Turbine Engine Basics
17.2 Propulsion System Analysis
17.3 Turbine Engine Operation
17.4 Additional Information
18 Radio Comunications

19.1 Electromagnetic Waves
19.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
19.3 Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation
19.4 Optical Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation
19.5 Atmospheric Transmission Windows
Page - viii
Section 1 General Information

Unit Conversion Website Link http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/.
Prefix Multipliers
Angles
Angular Acceleration
Angular Velocity
Area
Density
Electrical Quantities
Energy / Work
Force
Illumination
Inertia
Length
Linear Acceleration
Mass
Power
Pressure
Temperature
Time
Torque
Velocity
Viscosity
Volume
1.2 Greek Alphabet

1.3 Greek Symbols used for Aircraft
1.6 Sign Conventions
1.7 Thermodynamic Relations
Page 01 - 1

(references 1.1, 1.2)
Prefix Multipliers
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
Multiply by To Obtain
(Common FTE conversions in boldface)

Angles circles 1 circumferences
circles 12 signs
circles 21,600 minutes
circles 2π radians
circles 360 degrees
degrees .01111 quadrants
degrees 3600 seconds
degrees 60 minutes
mils (Army) .05625 degrees
mils (Navy) .05729 degrees
quadrants 90 degrees
radians 57.2958 degrees
revolutions 360 degrees
sphere 4π steradians #
#solid angle measurement
Angular rev/min2 0.001745 rad/sec2

Acceleration
Angular cycles/sec 6.2814 rads/sec

Velocity rads/sec 0.1592 rev/sec (cycles/sec)
rads/sec 9.549 rpm
rad/sec 57.296 deg/sec
rpm 0.01667 rev/sec
Page 01- 2
Area acres 43,560 ft2

ares 100 m2
barn 10-28 m2
centares 1 m2
circular mils 7.854 x 10-7 in2
cm2 100 mm2
ft2 144 in2
ft2 0.09290304 m2
in2 6.452 cm2
in2 106 mils2
m2 10.76 ft2
section 2,589,988.1 m2
st. mile2 27,780,000 ft2
st. mile2 2.590 km2
township 93,239,572 m2
yd2 9 ft2
yd2 0.8361 m2
Density * grams/cm3 0.03613 pounds/in3

3
grams/cm 62.43 pounds/ft3
kg/m3 16.018463 pounds/ft3
3
slugs/ft 515.4 kg/m3
pounds/in3 * 1728 pounds/ft3
slugs/ft3 1.94 grams/cm3
* Converting between force and mass (e.g. kg force to kg mass
or pound force to pound mass) uses g = 32.174 ft/sec^2
Electrical amperes 0.1 abamperes

Quantities amperes 1.0365x10-5 faradays/sec
amperes 2.998x109 statamperes
amperes.cicmil 1.973x105 amperes/cm2
ampere-hours 3,600 coulombs
ampere-hours 1.079x1013 statcoulombs
ampere turn/cm 1.257 gilberts/cm
ampere turn/cm 1.257 oersteds
coulombs 0.1 abcoulombs
coulombs 6.243x1018 electronic charges
coulombs 1.037x10-5 faradays
coulombs 2.998x109 statcoulombs
faradays 26.8 apmere-hours
farads 10-9 abfarads
farads 106 microfarads
farads 8.986x1011 statfarads
gausses 1 maxwells/cm2
Page 01 - 3
Electrical gausses 6.452 lines/in2

Quantities gilberts 0.7958 ampere turns
Cont. henries 109 abhenries
henries 1.113x10-12 stathenries
maxwells 1 lines
oersteds 2.998x1010 statoersteds
ohms 109 abohms
ohms 1.113x1012 statohms
ohm-cm 6.015x106 circ mil-ohms/ft
volts 108 abvolts
volts 0.003336 statvolts
Energy / Btu 1.055x1010 ergs

Work Btu 1055.1 Joules (N-m)
Btu 2.9302x10-4 kilowatt-hours
Btu 251.99 calories (gram)
Btu 778.03 foot-pounds
calories 4.1868 watt-seconds
calories 3.088 foot-pounds
electron volt 1.519x10-22 Btu
ergs 1 dyne-centimeters
ergs 7.376x108 foot-pounds
foot-pounds 1.3558 Joules (N-m)
foot-pounds 3.766x10-7 kilowatt-hours
foot-pounds 5.051x10-7 horsepower-hours
hp-hours 0.7457 kilowatt-hours
hp-hours 2546.1 Btu
Joules 0.23889 calories
Joules 1 Newton-meters
Joules 1 watt-seconds
Joules 107 ergs
kilowatt-hours 3.6x106 Joules
thermies 4.1868x106 Joules
watt-second 0.73756 foot-pounds
Force dynes 3.597x10-5 ounces

kilogram force 9.80665 Newtons
kilopond force 9.80665 Newtons
kip 4,448.221 Newtons
Newtons 0.224808931 pounds
Newtons 100,000 dynes
Page 01- 4
Forc eounce 20 pennyweights

Cont. ounces (troy) 480 grains
pennyweights 24 grains
pound 12 ounces
pounds 32.174 poundals
pounds 4.4482216 Newtons
pounds 5760 grains
quintals (long) 112 pounds
quintals (met.) 100 kilograms
stones 14 pounds
tons (long) 2,240 pounds
tons (metric)* 1.102 tons (short)
tons (short) 2000 pounds
Fuel gal 5.8 lbs (U.S. AV gas)

gal 7.5 lbs ( U.S. oil)
Liter (jet A) 0.812 kilograms
Liter (jet A) 1.794 pounds
Note: Fuel densities are temperature dependent
Illumination candles 1 lumens/steradian

candles/cm2 π lamberts
candlepower 12.566 lumens
foot-candles 1 lumens/ft2
foot-candles 10.764 lux
foot-lamberts 1 lumen/ft2
lamberts 295.72 candles/ft2
lamberts 929.03 lumens/ft2
lumens 0.001496 watts
lumens/in2 1 fots
lumens/m2 1 lux
lux 1 meter-candles
lux 0.0001 fots
meter-candles 1 lumens/m2
millilamberts 0.2957 candles/ft2
millilamberts 0.929 foot-lamberts
milliphots 0.929 foot-candles
milliphots 0.929 lumens/ft2
milliphots 10 meter-candles
Page 01 - 5
Length angstroms 10-10 meters

astronmcl units 1.496x1011 meters
cable lengths 120 fathoms
caliber 0.01 inches
cubit 0.4572 meters
fermi 10-15 meters
fathoms 6 feet
feet 12 inches
furlongs 40 rods
hands 4 inches
inches 2.54 cm
kilometers 3281 feet
kilometers 0.53996 nautical miles
leagues (U.S.) 3 nautical miles
light years 5.88x1012 statute miles
links (engnr’s) 12 inches
links (srvyr’s) 7.92 inches
meters 3.28084 feet
meters 39.370079 inches
microns 0.16 meters
mils 0.001 inches
nautical miles 1.15078 statute miles
nautical miles 1,852 meters
nautical miles 6,076.115486 feet
paces 0.762 meters
parsec 1.9163x1013 statute miles
perch 5.0292 meters
pica (printers) 0.0042175176 meters
point (printers) 0.0003514598 meters
pole (=rod) 5.0292 meters
skein 109.728 meters
statute miles 5,280 feet
statute miles 1.609344 kilometers
statute miles 8 furlongs
yards 3 feet
Page 01- 6
Linear feet/sec2 1.09728 kilometers/hr/sec

Acceleration feet/sec2 0.3048 meters/sec2
feet/sec2 0.6818 mph/sec
g 32.174049 feet/sec2
g 9.80665 meters/sec2
gals (Galileo) 0.01 meters/sec2
knots/sec 1.6878 feet/sec2
meters/sec2 3.6 kilometers/hr/sec
mph/sec 0.447 meters/sec2
mph/sec 1.609 kilometers/hr/sec
Mass* carats 200 milligrams

grams 0.035274 ounces
grains 6.479891x10-5 kilograms
hndrdwght long 50.80 234544 kilograms
hndrdwght shrt 45.359237 kilograms
kilograms 0.06852 slugs
kilograms 6.024x1026 atomic mass units
kilograms 2.2046 pounds
ounces (avd)* 28.349523125 grams
ounces (troy)* 31.1034768 grams
pounds (mass) 1 pounds (force)
pounds (mass) 0.45359237 kilograms
pounds (mass) 0.031081 slugs
scuples (apoth) 0.0012959782 kilograms
slugs 32.174 pounds
slugs 14.594 kilograms
tons (long) 1016.047 kilograms
tons (assay) 0.02916 kilograms
tons (metric) 1000 kilograms
tons (short) 907.1847 kilograms
Page 01 - 7
Moments gram-cm2 0.737x10-7 slug-ft2

2
of pound-ft * 0.031081 slug-ft2
2
Inertia* slug-in 0.0069444 slug-ft2
2
slug-ft 1.3546 kg-m2
2
slug-ft 32.174 pound-ft2
slug-ft2 12.00 pound-inch-sec2
2
slug-ft 192.00 ounce-inch-sec2
Power btu/min 0.01758 kilowatts

calories(kg)/min 3087.46 foot-pounds/min
ergs/sec 7.376x10-8 foot-pounds/sec
ft(lbs)/min 2.260x10-5 kilowatts
ft(lbs)/sec 0.07712 btu/min
ft(lbs)/sec 1.356 watts
hp 550 ft(lb)/sec
hp 33,000 ft(lbs)/min
hp 10.69 calories (kg)/min
hp 745.7 watts [J/sec]
hp (metric) 735.5 watts
hp 1.1014 horsepower (metric)
kilowatts 1.341 horsepower
watts 107 ergs/sec
watts 1 Joules/sec
Pressure atmospheres 14.696 pounds/in2

atmospheres 29.92 inches of Hg
atmospheres 76 cm of Hg
bars 1,000,000 dynes/cm2
bars 29.52 inches of Hg
barye 0.1 Newtons/m2
dynes/cm2 10 Newtons/m2
inches of H2O 5.20237 pound/ft2
inches of Hg 70.72619 pounds/ft2
inches of Hg 0.491154 pounds/in2
inches of Hg 13.595 inches of H2O
kiloPascals 100 bars
hectoPascals 1 millibars
millibars 0.02953 inches of Hg
mm of Hg 0.019337 pounds/in2
Page 01- 8
Pressure mm of Hg 133.32 Newtons/m2

Cont. Pascals 1 Newton/m2
pieze 1000 Newtons/m2
pounds/ft2 0.01414 inches of Hg
pounds/ft2 47.88 Newtons/m2
pounds/in2 2.036 inches of Hg
pounds/in2 27.681 inches of H2O
pounds/in2 6894.75728 Pascal
torrs 133.32 Newtons/m2
Temperature Kelvin = oC+273.15o

Rankin = oF + 459.67o
o
Centigrade = [oF − 32o] 5/9
o
Fahrenheit = (9/5)oC + 32
Time days (solar) 24 hours

days (sidereal) 23.934 hours
days (solar) 1.0027 days (sidereal)
hours 60 minutes
minutes 60 seconds
months (sdrl) 27d + 7hr +43min +11.47sec
months (lunar) 29d +12hr +44min + 2.78sec
year 365.24219879 days
Torque * foot-pounds 1.3558 Newton-meters

foot-pounds 0.1383 kilogram-meters
ounce-inches 72.008 gram-centimeters
pound-inches 1129800 dyne-centimeters
Velocity inches/sec 0.0254 meters/sec

knots 1.68781 feet/sec
km/hr 0.621371 mph
km/hr 0.9113 feet/sec
Knots (kts) 1.15078 mph
Knots (kts) 1.852 km/hr
Knots (kts) 0.51444 meters/sec
meters/sec 3.281 ft/sec
meters/sec 3.6 km/hr
meters/sec 196,85 feet/min
mph 1.466667 feet/sec
Page 01 - 9
Viscosity centistokes 10-6 m2/sec

ft2/sec 0.0929 m2/sec
pound sec/ ft2 47.880258 Newton secs/ m2
poise 0.1 Newton secs/ m2
rhe 10 m2/Newton second
Volume acre-feet 43,560 ft3

acre-feet 1,233 m3
acre-feet 3.259x105 gals (U.S.)
barrels 31.5 gals (U.S.)
board-feet 144 in3
bushels 1.244 ft3
bushels 32 quarts (dry)
bushels 4 pecks
3
cm 0.001 liters
cm3 0.03381 fluid ounces
3
cm 0.06102 in3
cord-feet 4x4x1 ft3
cords 128 ft3
cups 0.5 pints (liquid)
dram (fluid) 3.69669x10-6 m3
ft3 0.0283167 m3
ft3 1728 in3
3
ft 28.32 liters
3
ft 7.481 gals (U.S.)
gals (Imperial) 1.2009 gals (U.S.)
gals (Imperial) 277.42 in3
gals (U.K.) 4546.1 cm3
gals (U.S.) 231 in3
gals (U.S.) 0.003785 m3
gals (U.S.) 3.785 liters
gals (U.S.) 4 quarts (liquid)
gals (U.S.) 0.0238095 barrels (U.S.)
gils 7.219 in3
hogshead 2 barrels
in3 16.39 cm3
liters 0.02838 bushels
liters 0.9081 quarts (dry)
liters 1.057 quarts (liquid)
liters 1000 cm3
liters 61.03 in3
m3 1.308 yd3
Page 01- 10
Volume m3 1000 liters

Cont. m3 264.2 gals (U.S.)
3
m 35.314667 ft3
mil-feet (circ.) 0.0001545 cm3
ounces (U.K.) 28.413 cm3
ounces (U.S.) 29.574 cm3
pecks 8 quarts (dry)
pecks 8.81 liters
perches 0.7008 m3
perches 24.75 ft3
pints (dry) 33.60 in3
pints (liquid) 28.88 in3
pints (liquid) 4 gals
quarts (dry) 1.164 quarts (liquid)
quarts 2 pints
register tons 100 ft3
shipping ton (U.S.) 40 ft3
shipping ton (Br.) 42 ft3
steres 1000 liters
tablespoons 0.0625 cups
teaspoons 0.3333 tablespoons
Page 01 - 11
1.2 Greek Alphabet
Α α Alpha
Β β Beta
Γ γ Gamma
Δ δ Delta
Ε ε Epsilon
Ζ ζ Zeta
Η η Eta
Θ θ Theta
Ι ι Iota
Κ κ Kappa
Λ λ Lambda
Μ μ Mu
Ν ν Nu
Ξ ξ Xi
Ο ο Omicron
Π π Pi
p ρ Rho
Σ σ Sigma
Τ τ Tau
Υ υ Upsilon
Φ φ Phi
Χ χ Chi
Ψ ψ Psi
Ω ω Omega
Page 01- 12
1.3 Greek Symbols Used for Aircraft
α angle of attack (degrees or radians)

ατ tail angle of attack
β angle of sideslip (degrees)
γ flight path angle relative to horizontal
γ specific heat ratio (1.4 for air)
δ relative pressure ratio (Pa/Po)
δa aileron deflection angle
δr rudder deflection angle
δe elevator deflection angle
ε downwash angle at tail (degrees)
ζ damping ratio
η efficiency
θ body axis/pitch angle
θ relative temperature ratio, Ta/To
ι angle of incidence
ιF thrust angle of incidence
ιT horizontal tail angle of incidence
λ pressure lag constant
Λ wing sweep angle
μ coefficient of absolute viscosity = ρν
μ Mach cone angle
ν kinematic viscosity = μ/g
π nondimensional parameter
ρ density
ρa ambient air density
ρo standard atmospheric density (slugs/ft3 )
σ air density ratio (ρα /ρο)
σcr critical density
τ shear stress (pounds per square inch) psi
τR Roll Mode Time Constant (sec)
φ bank angle (degrees)
ψ aircraft heading (degrees)
ω frequency
ω rotational velocity (radians per second)
ωd damped natural frequency
ωn natural undamped frequency
Page 01 - 13

a aileron
a ambient
alt at test altitude
avg average
c calibrated
e elevator
e equivalent
E endurance leg of mission
F final
I initial
i inbound leg of mission
i indicated
ic instrument corrected
l subscript for coefficient of rolling moment
m mission conditions
m pitching moment
n yawing moment
O outbound leg of mission
o sea-level standard day
o sea level
r reserve leg of mission
r rudder
S standard day
s standard day at altitude
SL sea level
T True
t test day
Page 01- 14

a lift curve slope
a linear acceleration (ft/sec2 or m/sec2)
a speed of sound
A/A air-to-air
a/c aircraft
AAA anti aircraft artillery
AC aerodynamic center
ac alternating current
ACM air combat maneuvering
A/D analog to digital
ADC air data computer
ADC analog-to-digital converter
ADF automatic direction finder
ADI attitude direction indicator
AFMC Air Force Materiel Command
AFOTEC Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center
A/G air-to-ground
AGL above ground level
AHRS attitude heading reference system
AM amplitude modulation
AOA angle of attack
AOED age of ephemeris data
APU auxiliary power unit
AR air refuel (mode of flight)
AR aspect ratio = b2 / S
ARDP advanced radar data processor
ARSP advanced radar signal processor
ASPJ airborne self protection jammer
ATC air traffic control
avg average
ax longitudinal acceleration
ay lateral acceleration
AZ azimuth
b span of wing (feet)
B/N bombadier/navigator
bbl barrel
BHP brake horsepower
BICOMS bistatic coherent measurement system
BID bus interface device
BIT built-in test
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption
Btu British thermal unit
BW bandwidth
o
C degrees centigrade...see T
c brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
Page 01 - 15
c speed of light in a vacuum

(186,282 miles/sec = 299,792,500 [m/s])
c mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) of a wing
C/A coarse acquisition
C/No carrier to noise ratio
CADC central air data computer
CARD cost analysis requirement document
CD coefficient of drag
CD i induced drag coefficient
CD o zero lift drag coefficient
(also parasitic drag coefficient for symmetric
wing)
CDI course deviation indicator
CDMA code division multiplex access
CDR critical design review
CDRL contracts data requirement list
CDU control display unit
CEA circular error average
CEP circular error probable
Cf coefficient of friction
CFE contractor furnished equipment
CFT conformal fuel tank
cg center of gravity (normally in % MAC)
CH hinge moment coefficient
cine cinetheodolite
Cl rolling moment coefficient, airfoil section lift co
efficient
CL lift coefficient
CLHQ closed loop handling qualities
Clp roll damping coefficient
Clr roll moment due to yaw rate coefficient
Cm pitching moment coefficient
CM moment coefficient
cm centimeters
cos cosine
cot cotangent
Clβ (dihedral) rolling moment due to sideslip
Clδa aileron power coefficient
Cmq pitch damping coefficient
Cmα longitudinal static stability coefficient
Cmδe elevator power coefficient
Cn yawing moment coefficient
Cnr yaw damping coefficient
cnst constant
Cnβ directional stability coefficient
Cnδa adverse yaw coefficient
Cnδr rudder power coefficient
COTS commercial, off–the-shelf
Page 01- 16
CP center of pressure
CP propeller power coefficient
CPU central processing unit
cr wing root chord
CRM crew resource management
ct wing tip chord
CTF combined test force
CY calendar year
CY side force coefficient
CYβ side force due to sideslip coefficient
CYδr side force due to rudder coefficient
D diameter
D drag
D/A digital/analog
DAC digital to analog converter
DAPS data acquisition and processing system
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
db decibel
DC direct current
deg degrees
DG directional gyro
DGPS differential GPS
DMA Defense Mapping Agency
DME distance measuring equipment
DoD Department of Defense
DOP dilution of precision
DSN defense switched network
DT development test
DTC data transfer cartridge
DTIC Defense Technical Information Center
e Oswald efficiency factor
e natural mathematical constant = 2.718281828459
E energy
E lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD, L/D)
EAS equivalent airspeed
EC electronic combat
ECCM electronic counter countermeasures
ECM electronic countermeasures
ECP engineering change proposal
ECS environmental control system
EGT exhaust gas temperature
EL elevation
ELINT electronic intelligence
ELV expendable launch vehicle
EM electromagnetic
Emax maximum lift-to-drag ratio
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMI electromagnetic interference
EMP electromagnetic pulse
Page 01 - 17
EO electro optical
EOM equations of motion
EPR engine pressure ratio
EPROM electrically programmable read only memory
Es specific energy
ESA European Space Agency
ESD Electronic Systems Division
ESHP equivalent shaft horsepower
ETA estimate time of arrival
ETE estimate time en-route
EW early warning
EW electronic warfare
o
F degrees Fahrenheit
f frequency...hertz (originally cycles per second)
F.S. fuselage station
Fa aileron force
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
FCF functional check flight
FDC flight data computer
Fe elevator force
Fex excess thrust
Fg gross thrust
FL flight level
Flip flight information publication
FLIR forward-looking infra red
FM frequency modulation
FMC fully mission capable
FMS flight management system
FMS foreign military sales
Fn net thrust
Fn/δ corrected thrust parameter
FOM figure of merit
FOT&E follow-on test & evaluation
FOUO for official use only
FOV field of view
fpm feet per minute
fps feet per second
FQT formal qualification test
Fr rudder force
FRD functional requirements document
FRL fuselage reference line
FRL force, rudder, left
FRR force, rudder, right
FRR flight readiness review
FSD full scale development
FSI full scale integration
ft feet
ft-lb English unit of work...foot-pound...
Page 01- 18
fwd forward
FY fiscal year
g acceleration due to gravity at altitude
G gravitational constant = 6.6732x10-11 [N m2/kg2]
GAO Government Accounting Office
GCA ground control approach
GCI ground controlled intercept
GDOP geometric dilution of precision
GMT Greenwich mean time
go standard acceleration due to gravity
(sea level, 46 deg latitude)
GPS global positioning system
GS ground speed
GSI glide slope indicator
h % MAC
H altitude
HARM high-speed anti-radiation missile
Hc calibrated altitude
(assumed to be pressure altitude in flight test)
HD density altitude
HDDR high density digital recorder
HDOP horizontal dilution of precision
HF high frequency
Hg mercury
Hi indicated altitude
hm stick-fixed maneuver point (%MAC)
h'm stick-free maneuver point (%MAC)
hn stick-fixed neutral point (%MAC)
h'n stick-free neutral point (%MAC)
hp horsepower
hr hour
hrs hours
HSI horizontal situation indicator
HUD head-up display
HV host vehicle
Hz hertz
I/O input/output
IAS indicated airspeed
IAW in accordance with
ICAO International Civilian Aviation Organization
ICU interface computer unit
ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile
IFF identification friend or foe
IFR instrument flight rules
ILS instrument landing system
IMC instrument meteorological conditions
IMN indicated Mach number
IMU inertial measuring unit
in inch
Page 01 - 19
INS inertial navigation system

INU inertial navigation unit
IOC initial operational capability
IOT&E initial operational test & evaluation
IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geographics
I x , Ix , Iz moments of inertia
Ixy, Ixz, Iyz products of inertia
J joules energy, (Newton-Meter)
J propeller advance ratio
J&S jamming and spoofing
JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff
K Kelvin (absolute temperature)
K temperature probe recovery factor
K, k1 constants
KCAS knots calibrated airspeed
KEAS knots equivalent airspeed
kg kilogram, metric unit of mass
KIAS knots indicated airspeed
KISS keep it simple, stupid
km kilometer
KTAS knots true airspeed
kt knots
L Lift (lbs)
l length
L rolling moment
L/D Lift-to-drag ratio
LANTIRN low altitude navigation and targeting IR for night
lat lateral
lb pound
lbf English unit of force, often just lb (pound)
lbm English unit of mass, often just lb (slug)
LCC life cycle cost
LCD liquid crystal display
LED light emitting diode
LLH latitude, longitude, height
ln natural log, log to the base e
LO low observables
Log common log, to the base 10
LOS line of sight
lt distance from cg to tail's aerodynamic cent
Lδa rolling moment due to aileron deflection
M moment (ft-lbs)
M Mach number
m mass
m meter (length)
M pitching moment
MAG magnetic
MAP manifold pressure
Page 01- 20
mb millibar
MCA minimum crossing altitude
Mcr critical Mach number
Md drag divergence Mach number
Mac mean aerodynamic cord
MGC mean geometric chord
MHz megahertz
mHZ millihertz
Mic instrument-corrected Mach number
MilSpec military specification
MIL-STD military standard (publication)
min minute (time)
Mm millimeters
MOA memorandum of agreement
MOE measure of effectiveness
MOP measures of performance
MOU memorandum of understanding
MP manifold pressure
MSL mean sea level
MTBF mean time between failures
MTTR mean time to repair
MX maintenance
N newton (force)
N rotational speed (RPM)
n load factor (g's)
N yawing moment
N1 low pressure compressor speed
N2 high pressure compressor speed
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
NADC Naval Air Development Center
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NAV navigation
NED North, East, Down
NM, nm nautical mile (6080 feet)
NOE nap-of-the-earth
NOFORN not releasable to foreign nationals
NOTAM notice to airmen
NRC National Research Council (Canada)
NWC Naval Weapons Center
Nx longitudinal load factor (g's)
Ny lateral load factor (g's)
Nz normal load factor (g's)
OAT outside air temperature
OAT on aircraft test
OEI One engine inoperative
OPR Office of Primary Responsibility
OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense
OT&E operational test & evaluation
p aircraft roll rate (degrees/sec)
Page 01 - 21
P pressure (N/m2 ,pounds per square inch)

Pa ambient pressure
PCM pulse code modulation
P-code precision code
PD pulse Doppler
PDM pulse duration modulation
PGM precision guided munitions
PIO pilot induced oscillations
Piw total thrust horsepower required
Pk probability of kill
PLF power for level flight
Po standard atmospheric pressure (2116.22 lb/ft2 )
POC point of contact
Pp pitot pressure
ppm parts per million
Prop propeller
Ps static pressure
PS pulse search
psf pounds per square foot
psi pounds per square inch
PT total pressure
PW pulse width
Q or q dynamic pressure = 0.5ρV 2
q aircraft pitch rate
Q engine torque
qc impact pressure (Pt − Pa)
o
R degrees Rankine = oF + 459.67
R perfect gas constant = 8314.34 [J/kmol K]
r aircraft yaw rate (degrees/sec)
R earth radius
R range
R&D research and development
R&M reliability and maintainability
R/C rate of climb
rad radians
Radar radio detection and ranging
RAF resultant aerodynamic force
RAM radar absorbing material
RAT ram air turbine
RCS radar cross section
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless)
REP range error probable
RF range factor
RLG ring laser gyro
rms root mean square
RNG range
ROC rate of climb
ROC required obstacle clearance
RPM revolutions per minute (a.k.a. N)
Page 01- 22
R/T receiver/transmitter
RTO Rejected/refused takeoff
RTO responsible test organization
S wing area (ft2 or m2)
Sa horizontal distance between liftoff and specified
height or between specified height and touch
down.
SA selective availability
SA situational awareness
SE specific endurance
sec seconds (time or angle)
SFC specific fuel consumption
Sg ground roll distance
SHP shaft horsepower
SI international system of units
SIGINT signal intelligence
sin sine
SL sea level
SLAM standoff land attack missile
SLR side-looking radar
S/N serial number
S/N signal -to-noise ratio
SOF special operations forces
SOW stand-off weapon
SR specific range
SRB safety review board
ST tail area
std standard
ST total takeoff or landing distance (Sa + Sg)
STOL short takeoff and landing
STOVL short takeoff and vertical landing
T period of oscillation
T temperature
t thickness
T, t time (sec)
t/c thickness-to-chord ratio
Ta ambient temperature
TACAN tactical air navigation
tan tangent
Tas standard temperature at altitude
TAS true airspeed
TBD to be determined
TD touchdown
TED trailing edge down
TEL trailing edge left
TEMP test and evaluation master plan
TER trailing edge right
TEU trailing edge up
Page 01 - 23
TF terrain following
THP Thrust Horsepower
THPalt horsepower available at altitude
THPmax maximum horsepower available
THPmin minimum horsepower required
THPSL horsepower required at sea level
TIT turbine inlet temperature
TM telemetry
TMN true Mach number
T/O takeoff
To standard sea level temperature (59.0 oF, 15 oC)
TO technical order
TRB technical review board
TRD technical requirements document
TRP technical resources plan
TSFC thrust specific fuel consumption
TSPI time, space, position information
Tt total temperature
TV television
T/W thrust to weight ratio
TWT track while scan
TWT traveling wave tube
u velocity along aircraft's x-axis
UAV uninhabited aerial vehicle
UHF ultra high frequency
UPT undergraduate pilot training
USA US Army
USAF US Air Force
USCG US Coast Guard
USMC US Marine Corps
USN US Navy
UT universal time
UV ultraviolet
v velocity along aircraft's lateral axis
VH horizontal tail volume coefficient
VV vertical tail volume coefficient
V1 takeoff decision speed
V2 takeoff safety speed
VA design maneuvering speed
VAC volts AC
Vb buffet airspeed
VB design speed for max gust intensity
Vbr velocity for best range
Vc calibrated airspeed
VD design diving speed
VDC volts DC
VDOP vertical dilution of precision
Ve equivalent velocity
VFE maximum flap extended speed
Page 01- 24
VFR visual flight rules

Vg ground speed
VHF very high frequency
Vi indicated airspeed
Vic indicated airspeed corrected for instrument error
Viw velocity at sea level std day and std weight
VLE max speed with landing gear extended
VLO max speed while operating landing gear
VLOF lift off speed
VLSIC very large scale integrated circuit
Vmc minimum directional control speed
VMC visual meteorological conditions
Vmca minimum directional control speed in the air
Vmcg minimum directional control speed on the
ground
Vmo/Mmo maximum operating limit speed
Vmu minimum unstick speed
VNE never exceed velocity
Vno max structural cruising speed
Vopt optimum velocity for endurance flight
VOR VHF omni-directional range
VORTAC VHF omni-directional range Tactical Air Navi
gation
VPmin velocity for minimum power
VPmin,SL velocity for minimum power at sea level
VR rotation speed
VS stall speed
VS0 stall speed in landing configuration
VS1 stall speed in some defined configuration
VSTOL vertical/short takeoff and landing
VT true airspeed
VTOL vertical takeoff & landing
VVI vertical velocity indicator
VW wind velocity
VX speed for best angle of climb
VY speed for best rate of climb
W weight
w component of velocity along aircraft's Z-axis
WDL weapon data link
W/δ weight-to-pressure ratio
Wf fuel weight
WGS-84 World Geodetic System, 1984
WI watch item
WOD word of day
WOW weight on wheels
WPT waypoint
wrt with respect to
Page 01 - 25
W& f
, corrected fuel flow parameter
δ ϑ
W/S wing loading
Wf fuel flow (lb/hr)
x aircraft longitudinal axis,
a line running through the nose & tail
Xac distance from leading edge to aerodynamic cen
ter
Xlink cross link
y aircraft lateral axis, a line running the wingtips
Y force along y-axis
Y-code encrypted P-code
z aircraft vertical or yaw axis,
a line perpendicular to the longitudinal and lat
eral axes
ΔHic altimeter instrument correction
ΔHpc altimeter position error correction
ΔPp pitot pressure error
ΔPs static pressure error
ΔVc scale attitude correction to airspeed
ΔVic instrument correction to airspeed indicator
ΔVpc correction for airspeed position error
∞ infinity, or freestream conditions
Page 01- 26
1.6 Sign Conventions (reference 1.8)

Editor’s note There is near unanimous agreement on most sign conventions except for pilot inputs and control
surface deflections. Although individual organizations generally are consistent in-house, confusion often arises
when trying to mathematically translate inputs & deflections from one organization to another. This section
documents the generally accepted “body axes” sign conventions then discusses the rationale for several view-
points addressing the “inputs & deflections” debate. Below is the SFTE sign convention.
Wind Axes Sign Convention

Winds are listed according to the direction they are coming from. Airports refer winds to magnetic North while
winds at altitude are typically referred to true North. Headwind is true airspeed minus ground speed. (Vw=VT-
Vg).
Body Axes Sign Convention

The generally accepted body axes sign convention is based on the establishment of a three-dimensional axis sys-
tem with the following properties:
1. It is right-handed orthogonal
2. Its origin is at the vehicle's reference center of gravity (defined by builder).
3. The axis system moves with the airframe.
x
Typical Aft view, looking forward
+
Fuselage Buttock
Reference line = 0
Station
+ +
Waterline
x y
z z
Page 01 - 27
Translational displacements, rates, accelerations, & forces are positive along the positive body axes di-
rections. In spite of the simplicity of this logic, it is important to recognize that lift and normal load factor are
positive in the negative z direction and the drag is positive in the negative x direction.
Angular displacements, rates, accelerations & moments, are positive according to the “right hand rule” (a clock-
wise rotation while looking in the direction of the positive axis) as shown in the figure.
The body axes, forces & translations along them, and moments & rotations about them are shown with
arrows indicating the positive direction.
Angular displacements, rates, accelerations & moments, are positive according to the “right hand rule” (a clock-
wise rotation while looking in the direction of the positive axis) as shown in the figure.
The body axes, forces & translations along them, and moments & rotations about them are shown with
arrows indicating the positive direction.
Page 01- 28
Angle of attack is positive clockwise from the projection of the velocity vector on the xz plane to the
reference x body axis. The angle of sideslip is positive clockwise from the xz plane to the velocity vector (wind
in the pilot’s right ear).
Aircraft true heading is the angle between true North and the projection of the x-body axis onto the hori-
zontal plane. Mag. heading refers to mag North
The velocity vector is measured relative to the air mass while the flightpath is measured relative to the
ground. They are equivalent only when winds are zero.
Flightpath heading angle (ground track heading) σg, is the horizontal angle between true North and the projec-
tion of the flightpath on the horizontal plane. Positive rotation is from north to east.
Flightpath elevation angle; γ, is the vertical angle between the flightpath and the horizontal plane. Posi-
tive rotation is up. During a descent, this parameter is commonly known as glide path angle.
Flightpath bank angle; μ, is the angle between the plane formed by the velocity vector and the lift vector and the
vertical plane containing the velocity vector. Positive rotation is clockwise about the velocity vector, looking
forward.
Fuselage reference station (FRS), Water line (WL), and Buttock line (BL) are reference coordinates es-
tablished by the design group.
Page 01 - 29
Summary of Generally Accepted Body Axes Sign Convention
Parameter Name Symbol Positive Direction
Translational Measurements
Longitudinal axis x from ref cg towards nose
Lateral axis y from reference cg towards right wing tip
Vertical axis z from reference cg towards vehicle bottom

(body axis)
Longitudinal velocity u along +x axis
Lateral velocity v along +y axis
Vertical velocity w along +z axis
Long. acceleration ax along + x axis
Lateral acceleration ay along +y axis
Vertical acceleration az along +z axis
Longitudinal load factor Nx along +x axis
Lateral load factor Ny along +y-axis
Normal load factor Nz along –z axis
Longitudinal force Fx along the +x axis
Lateral force Fy along the +y axis
Normal force Fz along the + z axis
Drag force D along the –x axis
Side force Y along the + y axis
Lift Force L along the –z axis
Page 01- 30
Summary of Generally Accepted Body Axes Sign Convention
Parameter Name Symbol Positive Direction
Angular Measurements
Bank angle φ right wing down
Pitch angle θ nose-up
Heading ψ 0 North, +Eastward
Angle of attack α normal flight attitude
Angle of sideslip β “wind in the right ear”
Roll rate p right wing down
Pitch rate q nose up
Yaw rate r nose right
Roll moment L right wing down
Pitch moment M nose up
Yaw moment N nose right
Flightpath bank angle μ right wing down
Flightpath elevation γ climb
Flightpath heading σg 0 true North, + East-

ward
Discussion of “Input & Deflection“ Conventions
The debate regarding proper inputs and deflections stems from the user’s viewpoint. From the body axis
convention above, flight testers recognize that a climbing right turn generates positive angular measurements.
Logically then, pull, right roll and right yaw pilot inputs and subsequent surface deflections should also be posi-
tive. The traditional flight tester’s convention follows as “All input forces & displacements, surface deflections,
and motions that cause a climbing right turn are positive.”
Due to differential nature of aileron deflections, they require more discussion. The flight tester’s logic
implies (but does not dictate) positive deflections are right aileron up and left aileron down. It is, however,
equally acceptable to assign downward (or upward) deflection as positive for both ailerons and calculate the dif-
ference between the two as a measure of rolling moment.
Page 01 - 31
The rationale within the wind tunnel community is also logical: any control surface deflection that in-
creases lift is positive. From this, positive deflections are trailing edge down (TED) for each: trailing edge flap,
stabilizer, elevator, stabilator, rollervator, ruddervator, canard, aileron, flaperon, and all their tabs. Leading edge
flap down is also positive. Similarly, since side force is positive to the right, then positive rudder and rudder tab
deflections are trailing left (TEL). The only exception to this straightforward logic is for spoilers and speed
brakes that extend only in one direction: this deflection is positive even though it might decrease the lift.
Since the above rationale defines downward deflection as positive for both ailerons, a measurement of
rolling moments requires calculation of the differential aileron deflection. This rationale does not, however, spe-
cifically dictate whether a “positive” differential deflection should generate right wing down (RWD) or left wing
down (LWD) moments. Differential aileron can be calculated as either.
δ aR − δ aL δ aL − δ aR
δa = or δa =
2 2
Selection of the RWD convention is obvious from the flight tester’s viewpoint since deflections that
generate right rolls are positive. An alternative interpretation is that a positive differential aileron deflection is
one that lifts the positive (right) wing lifts more than the left (LWD).
Another common convention for ailerons is one that gives the same sign to both ailerons for any input.
The “right hand screw” convention is opposite to the flight tester’s convention, but may be more common:
δaR = +TED, δaL = +TEU.
The above wind tunnel rationale dictates only the polarity for individual control surface deflections, and
leaves open the sign convention debate about controller (inceptor) input forces & displacements. One approach
is that positive inputs should generate positive motions while an alternate approach is that positive inputs gener-
ate positive surface deflections. Only the flight tester’s convention states that positive inputs yield positive mo-
tions and deflections. All approaches are mathematically connected to the hinge moment sign convention dis-
cussed below.
The simplest control surface hinge moment convention is that all positive hinge moments (generated by
the pilot and the aerodynamics) move the surface in a positive direction, i.e., positive input forces yield positive
deflections. This has different implications for the different sign conventions:
• According to the above flight tester’s sign convention, a positive pull force is required to generate a positive
(TEU) elevator deflection (positive stick force generates a climb).
• According to wind tunnel sign convention, a positive push force is required to generate a positive (TED) ele-
vator deflection (positive stick force generates a dive).
The alternate viewpoint defines a positive inceptor hinge moment as one that opposes the aerodynamic mo-
ments. In other words, a positive inceptor hinge moment moves the surface to a position which generates posi-
tive aerodynamic hinge moments or “positive input forces & displacements generate negative surface deflec-
tions.”
Page 01- 32
Based on the above background, the SFTE technical council proposes the following standard convention for in-
ceptor & surface forces & deflections:
• Due to its widespread use and its simple & robust nature, use the wind tunnel convention for control surface
deflections.
• Due to widespread test pilot & FTE familiarity and logical nature, use the flight tester’s convention that pos-
itive inceptor forces & displacements generate a climbing right turn.
• A fallout from these conventions is that positive inceptor hinge moments generate positive aerodynamic
hinge moments (negative surface deflections).
• Consistent use of the above logic requires that the calculated value for aileron deflection be negative for
right wing down moments. Similarly, differential ruddervator deflections generating nose right yawing mo-
ments should have negative values.
Conventions for Positive Control Surface Deflections
SFTE/
Parameter Symbol Flight Test
Wind Tunnel
Horizontal Stabilizer δi TEU TED
Elevator δe TEU TED
Elev. Tab δet TED
δeL , δeR TEU TED

Stabilators or Rollerva-
tors,
δe = (δeR + δeL )/2
average:
differential:
Δδe = (δeR - δeL)/2
δvL , δvR TEU TED

Elevons
average: δv = (δvR + δvL)/2
differential
Δδv = (δvR - δvL)/2
δfR , δfL TED

Flaperons or trailing
edge flap
average: δf = (δfR + δfL)/2
differential:
Δδf = - (δfR - δfL)/2 = (δfR - δfL)/2
Page 01 - 33
Conventions for Positive Control Surface Deflections (Cont’d)

SFTE/
Wind Tunnel
δcL , δcR TED

Canards
average: δc = (δcR + δcL)/2
differential
Δδc = - (δcR - δcL)/2 = (δcR - δcL)/2
δlefL , δlefR TED

Leading edge flap
Average: δlef = (δcR + δcL)/2
Differential:
Δδlef = - (δcR - δcL)/2 = - (δcR - δcL)/2
δrvL , δrvR TEU TED

Ruddervators
Average: δ rv = (δrvR + δrvL)/2
Differential:
Δδ rv = - (δrvR - δrvL)/2
δaRTEU, δaL TEDor {δ

δaL , δaR δaR, δaL TED
aR, δaLTED}
Ailerons
Aileron Tab δat = (δaR +δaL)/2 δat TED
Average:
δa = - (δaR -δaL)/2} = (δaR -δaL)/2 *
δsL , δ sR Extended
Spoilers average:
Differential: δs = (δsR +δsL)/2
Δds = (δsR -δsL)/2 = - (δsR -δsL)/2
Rudders δrR , δrL TER TEL

Average:
δr = (δrR +δ r L)/2
Rudder tab δrt TEL
Speed brake δsb Extended
Conventions for Positive Inputs and Hinge Moments
SFTE/
Wind Tunnel
Stick/Wheel
Fe Pull
Long Force
Stick/Wheel
Fa Right
Lateral Force
Pedal Force Fr Right pedal push
Stick/Wheel
δse Aft
Long. deflectn
Page 01- 34
Conventions for Positive Inputs and Hinge Moments (Cont’d)
Parameter Symbol Flight Test SFTE#
Stick/wheel δsa Right

Lat. deflection
Pedal deflection δpR, δpL Right pedal push
Aerodynamic Hinge Chδ positive moments

Moments Chα generate
Chδο positive deflections
Chδtab
Inceptor ChFe + moments generate + moments generate

Hinge Moments ChFa + deflections - deflections
ChFr
*The wind tunnel rationale does not inherently define the polarity for control surface differential deflections.
#The wind tunnel rationale does not specify a convention for positive inputs or hinge moments. Historically,
Dutch, U.S. and some British aircraft use a climbing right turn, while it is a diving left turn for Canadian, Aus-
tralian, and some British aircraft.
The SFTE Technical Council recognizes that several combinations of the above possibilities are currently in use
around the world, and invites comments, additions, or corrections to the above summary and proposal. Alt-
hough SFTE does not expect all organizations to adopt this standard, it still provides a cornerstone for
reference purposes
Page 01 - 35
1.7 Thermodynamics Relations (references 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6)
A Process is an event with a redistribution of energy within a system.
A Reversible process is one that can be reversed such that the system returns to its original state (form, location
& amount).
An Irreversible process cannot return to its original state due to heat flow from higher to lower temperatures,
fluid turbulence, friction, or inelastic deformation. The change in entropy is non-zero.
An Isothermal process is one in which the temperature of the fluid is constant.
An Adiabatic process is one in which heat is not transferred to or from the fluid.
Work is the energy transfer by way of changing mechanical energy.
Heat is the energy transfer from one body to another by virtue of a temperature difference between them.
An Isentropic process has constant entropy.
Conduction is the energy transfer from a warmer body by tangible contact (transfer of some internal molecular
kinetic energy).
Convection is the repositioning the energy of a fluid without state changes or energy transformations (e.g. heat-
ed air moving from one room to another room).
Radiation is the energy transmission through space.
Page 01- 36
A = area
C = compressibility factor
C = speed of sound
E = u = specific internal energy (e.g. Btu /lb)
H = specific enthalpy ≡ E + PV (e.g. Btu/lb)
J = Joule’s equivalent 107 ergs = 778 ft-lb/Btu
Q = energy supplied to a system or region as heat (e.g. Btu/lb)
P = absolute pressure (e.g. lbs/ft2)
V = specific volume (e.g. ft3/lb)
W = work (+ if entering)
V = velocity
Δ = change ( final – initial value)
Z = altitude
dE + PdV
S = specific entropy ≡ ∫ T
for a reversible process
R = gas constant for each gas (for air = 287 J/[kg K] = 53.35 ft-lb/lbmR)
R = R[M] = universal gas constant

= 8.314 kJ/[kmol K] = 1545 ft lb/[lbmol R]
M = molar mass (for air = 28.97 kg/kmol)
N = number of moles
ρ = density
The First Law of Thermodynamics shows that the net amount of energy added to a system equals the net
change in energy within the system (Principle of Conservation of Energy): W + Q = (E2 - E1)
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy increases during any irreversible process:
S2>S1
Ideal Gas Equation of State (a.k.a. Perfect gas law):

PV=RT, P = ρRT, PV = mRT, PV = nRT
δ = σθ where δ Pa/Po, σ = ρa/ρo, θ = Ta/To
Page 01 - 37
Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature of a given mass of gas is held constant, then the volume and pres-
sure vary inversely.
Charle’s Law states that when a volume of a given mass is held constant, then the change in pressure of the gas
is proportional to the change in temperature.
Real Gas Relation: PV = CRT
for reversible processes
W = −∫ PdV
Q = ∫ TdS
for reversible adiabatic process

γ
P1 ⎡V2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
P2 ⎣ V1 ⎦
γ −1
T1 ⎡V2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
T2 ⎣ V1 ⎦
γ −1
T1 ⎡ P1 ⎤ γ
=⎢ ⎥
T2 ⎣ P2 ⎦
γ
P1 ⎡ ρ1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
P2 ⎣ ρ2 ⎦
Steady Flow Energy Equation
2 2
V1 V2
Q + H1 + + Z1 = W + H 2 + + Z2
2g 2g
Bernoulli Equation:
2 2
ΔP V 2 − V 1
+ + ΔZ = 0
ρg 2g
Page 01- 38
Flow per Unit Area:
W γ P M
=
A R T ⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞ γ +1
⎜1 + M ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2(γ − 1)
Velocity of sound in a perfect gas:
c = γgRT
Development of Specific Heat Relations
∂H specific heat at constant pressure

cp ≡ (for air = 1004.76 J/[kg oK])
∂T P
∂u specific heat at constant volume

cv ≡
∂T v
(for air = 717.986 J/[kg oK])
cp
κ= γ ≡ = ratio of specific heats
cv
Enthalpy equation in differential form is: dH = du +d(PV)

Substituting definitions and ideal gas law gives
cp dT = cv dT + Rdt or cp = cv + R
κ R
Rearranging gives c p = R and cv =
κ −1 κ −1
Development of Poisson’s Equation:
1) From the 1st law: W+Q = E2-E1
2) Substitution for each term gives T dS – P dV = du
3) Divide through by T: dS = du/T + P dV/T
4) Recall du = cv dT and PV = RT
5) Substitution gives dS = cv dT/T + R dV/V
6) Assume constant specific heat and integrate:
T2 V
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 2
T1 V1
Page 01 - 39
7) Assuming a reversible adiabatic process

T2 V
cv ln = − R ln 2
T1 V1
κ −1
R to get: T2 = ⎛⎜ V1 ⎞⎟
8) Substitute cv = T1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠
κ −1
9) Differentiate H: dH = du + P dV + V dP
10) Substitution into step #2: T dS = dH-V dP
T2 P
11) Integrate: s2 − s1 = c p ln + R ln 2
T1 P1
T2 P
12) Assuming a reversible adiabatic process: c p ln = − R ln 2
T1 P1
κ −1
13) Substitute c p = R κto get: T2 = ⎛⎜ P2 ⎞⎟

κ
κ −1 T1 ⎜⎝ P1 ⎟⎠
κ
P ⎛V ⎞
14) Combine steps #8, #13 to 2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ get: or PVκ = const.
P1 ⎝ V2 ⎠
Page 01- 40
Abbreviations
a = linear acceleration = dV/dt

ar = centripetal (radial) acceleration
aT = tangential acceleration
F = force
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/s2 = 9.80 meters/s2)
G = moment
H = angular momentum = Iw
H = height
Hp = horsepower (Hp = 550ft-lbs/sec)
I = rotational moment of inertia (see section 10)
J = impulse = change in momentum
k = radius of gyration
m = mass
Nr = radial load factor = ar/g
P = power = dW/dt
L = linear momentum = mV
Q = moment (a.k.a. torque)
r = radius
S = distance, displacement
s = seconds
t = time
V = true inertial velocity
Vo = initial inertial velocity
W = work = FS = ½ m [V2 - Vo2]
q = angular displacement
Vol = volume
ω = angular velocity (radians/second)
ώ = angular acceleration
Page 01 - 41
Newtons Laws
st
1 law (law of inertia):
“Every body persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed on it.
2nd Law:
“ The change in motion is proportional to the motive force impressed and is made in the direction of
the straight line in which that force is impressed” (motion defined as velocity x quantity of matter or
linear momentum, mV).
dF = dmV/dt = (dm/dt) + (dV/dt)
For constant mass in rectilinear motion: F = ma
For constant mass distribution in curvilinear motion: G = ω& I
3rd Law:
“Every action has an equal and opposite reaction; or, the mutual attraction of two bodies upon each
other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.[opposite directions]”
Planar Kinetics, Work, Power and Energy

Rectilinear motion Curvilinear motion
displacement S angular displacement θ
velocity V = dS/dt angular velocity ω = dθ/dt
acceleration a = dV/dt angular acceleration = ω& d ω /dt
inertia m rotational inertia I = ∫ r 2 dm
momentum L = mV angular momentum H = I ω& ω
force F = ma torque Q=I
work W= ∫ FdS work W= ∫ Qdθ

power P = FV power P=Qω
kinetic energy ½ mV2 kinetic energy ½ I ω2
potential energy mgH n/a
Page 01- 42
Planar Kinematics at Constant Acceleration
Rectilinear motion Curvilinear motion

V = Vo + at ω = ωo + t
ω&
V2 = Vo2 + 2aS ω 2 = ω o2+2 θ
S = Vot + ½ at2 θ = ω ot + ½ ω& t2
S = ½(V + Vo)t θ = ½( ω + ω o)t
S = (V 2 −V02 ) / 2a θ = (ω2 −ω02 ) / 2ω&
−V0 + V02 + 2aS −ω + ω02 − 2ω&θ
t= t= 0
a ω&
2(S −V0t) 2(θ −ω0t)
a= ω& =
t2 t2
Curvilinear motion with constant acceleration and radius:

r = V2/gNr
V = ωr
NR = ar/g
ω = gNr/V
&
ω& = V R
ar = rω2 = V2/r
a r = ω& r
Aircraft in level turn:
Nzw = load factor normal to flight path

r = turn radius
Ω = turn rate (rad/sec)
2
V
r =
g (N zw )2 −1
g (N )2 −1
ω = zw
V
⎛ωV ⎞
N zw = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +1
⎝ g ⎠
V= inertial velocity
Page 01 - 43
Page 01- 44
Gyroscopic Motion
(reference 1.7)
for bodies spinning about an axisymmetric axis
ψ& = spin rate

φ& = precession rate
θ& = nutation rate
Iz = moment of inertia about spin axis

It = transverse moment of inertia about the spin point
(perpendicular to spin axis)
Icg = moment of inertia about the cg (perpendicular to spin axis)
Mx = moment about spin point (acting along plane that defines θ)
. .
For steady precession (constant θ, φ , ψ )
∑M x (
= − I tφ& 2 sin θ cos θ + I zφ& sin θ φ& cos θ + ψ& )
For torque free motion (gravity is only external force)
I cg − I z &
ψ& = φ cosθ
Iz
note that Icg>Iz yields regular precession
while Icg<Iz yields retrograde precession
Page 01 - 45
Section 1.9 International Phonetic Alphabet and Morse Code

A Alpha •▬
▬●●●
B Bravo
C Charlie ▬•▬•
D Delta ▬••
E Echo ●
F Foxtrot ••▬•
G Golf ▬▬•
H Hotel ••••
I India ••
J Juliet •▬▬▬
▬•▬
K Kilo
L Lima •▬••
M Mike ▬▬
N November ▬•
▬▬▬
O Oscar
P Papa •▬▬•
Q Quebec ▬▬•▬
R Romeo •▬•
S Sierra •••
T Tango ▬
U Uniform ••▬
V Victor •••▬
W Whiskey •▬▬
X X-ray ▬••▬
Y Yankee ▬•▬▬
Z Zulu ▬▬••
1 One •▬▬▬
2 Two ••▬▬▬
3 Three •••▬▬
4 Four ••••▬
5 Five •••••
6 Six ▬••••
7 Seven ▬▬•••
8 Eight ▬▬▬••
9 Niner ▬▬▬▬•
0 Zero ▬▬▬▬▬
Page 01- 46
Section 1 References
http://www.onlineconversion.com/
1.1 Anon., “Weight Engineers Handbook”, Society of Weight Engineers, P.O.Box 60024 Los Angeles, CA
90060,1976.
1.2 Anon., “Aeronautical Vestpocket Handbook”, United Technologies Pratt & Whitney Canada, 1000 Ma-
rie Victorin Blvd. E. P.O.B. 10 Longueuil, Quebec Canada J4K 4X9.
1.3 Jones, J. P., Hawkins, G.A., “Engineering Thermodynamics” John Wiley & Sons, 1960.
1.4 Esbach, Ovid W., “Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1963.
1.5 Potter, M.C., Somerton, C.W., “Engineering Thermodynamics” Shaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill,
Inc.,1993.
1.6 Abbott, M. M., Van Ness, H. C., “Thermodynamics”, Shaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
1989.
1.7 Halliday, D., Resnick, R., “Fundamentals of Physics”, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
1.8 Roberts, S.C., Chapter 3 Aircraft Control Sytems , “Aircraft Flying Qualities Testing”, National Test
Pilot School, 1997. P.O.B. 658, Mojave, CA, 93501.
1.9 Unit Conversion Website Link http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/.
Page 01 - 47
NOTES
Page 01- 48
Section 2 Mathematics
2.1 Algebra
Laws
Identities
Equations
Interest & Annuities
2.2 Geometry
2.3 Trigonometry
Graphs
Identities
Oblique Triangle Laws
2.4 Matrix Algebra
2.5 Vector Algebra
2.6 Statistics
2.7 Standard Series
2.8 Derivative Table
2.9 Integral Table
2.10 Laplace Transform Table
2.11 References
Page 02 - 1
Section 2.1 Algebra

(reference 2.1)
LAWS
commutative: a+b = b+a

ab = ba
associative: a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
distributive: a(b+c) = ab+ac
IDENTITIES
exponents: axay = ax+y
(ab) x = axbx
(ax)y = axy
amn = (am)n
if a0 = 1 a≠0
x
1 ⎛1⎞
a−x = x = ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝a⎠
ax
= a x− y
ay
x
ab = [ a ][ b ]
x x
a
x
y
=
y
ax = ( a)y x
1
= a
y y
a
a
x
y
= ax =
y
( a)
y x
a = a (1 / x ) + (1 / y ) = x+ y
x y xy
a a
a + b = a + b + 2 ab
Page 02 - 2
logarithms: if M, N,b are positive and

logbb = 1
logb1 = 0
log b MN = log bM + log b N
log b [M/N] = log b M – log b N
log b Mp = p log b M
logb [1/M] = -log b M
1
M =
q
log b log b M
q
logc M
logbM = logcM logbc =
logc b
examples: log 6.54 = .8156,

log 6540 = log (6.54 x 103) = .8156 +3 = 3.8156
log .654 = log (6.54 x 10-1) = .8156 -1 = 9.8156 -10
log .000654 = log (6.54 x 10-4) = .8156 -4 = 6.8156 -10
calculate 68.31 x .2754: log 68.31 = 1.8354

log .2754 = -.56
1.8354 +(-.56) = 1.2745
log-1 1.2745 = 18.81
calculate [.6831]1.53: log .6831 = -.1655

1.53 x (-.1655) = -.253
` log-1[-.253] = .5582
calculate [.6831]1/5: log .6831 = -.1655

1/5 x(-.1655) = -.0331
log-1 (-.0331) = .9266
solve for x in .6931x = 27.54: log[.6931x] = log 27.54

x log [.6931] = log 27.54
x = log 27.54 /log [.6931]
=1.44/[-.1655] = -8.701
Page 02 - 3
EQUATIONS
Quadratic Equation: for ax2 + bx + c =0

(has two roots, both real or both complex)
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x1, 2 =
2a
Cubic Equation: for y3 + py2 + qy + r = 0

(has three roots, all real or one real & two complex)
let y = x –(p/3) to rewrite equation in form of x3 + ax + b = 0
where a = (3q –p2)/3 and b = (2p3 – 9pq – 27r)/27
let b b2 a3
A=3 − + +
2 4 27
b b2 a3
and B=3 − − +
2 4 27
then x1 = A +B
x2 = -(A + B)/2 + {[-3]1/2/2}(A – B)
x3 = -(A + B)/2 - {[-3]1/2/2}(A – B)
special cases…
if (b2/4 + a3/27 <0), then the real roots are

x1,2,3 = 2[-a/3]1/2cos(φ/3 + 120ok)
where k = 0,1,2
and cosφ = +[(b2/4)/(-a3/27)]1/ 2 if b<0
or cosφ = -[(b2/4)/(-a3/27)]1/ 2 if b>0
if (b2/4 + a3/27 >0) and a>0, the single real root is

x = 2[a/3]1/2 cot(2φ)
where tan(φ) = [tan(ψ)]1/3
and cot(2ψ) = +[(b2/4)/(-a3/27)]1/ 2 if b<0
or cot(2ψ) = -[(b2/4)/(-a3/27)]1/ 2 if b>0
Page 02 - 4
if (b2/4 + a3/27 =0), the three real roots are

x1 = -2[-a/3]1/2, x2 =x3 = +[-a/3] /2 1if b>0
or x1 = +2[-a/3]1/2, x2 =x3 = -[-a/3]1/2 if b<0
Quartic (biquadratic) Equation: for y4 + py3 + qy2 + ry + s = 0

let [y = x-(p/4)] to rewrite equation as x4 + ax2 + bx + c =0
let l, m, n denote roots of the following resolvent cubic…
t3 + at2/2 + (a2 –4c)t/16 – b2/64 = 0
the roots of the quartic are
x1 = +[l]1/2 + [m]1/2 + [n]1/2
x2 = +[l]1/2 - [m]1/2 - [n]1/2
x3 = -[l]1/2 + [m]1/2 - [n]1/2
x4 = -[l]1/2 - [m]1/2 + [n]1/2
Page 02 - 5
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES

(reference 2.3)
Amount:
P principal at i interest for n time accumulates to amount An:
simple interest: An = P(1 + ni)
at interest compounded each n interval: An = P(1 + i)n
at interest compounded q times per n interval: An = P(1 + r/q)nq
where r is the nominal (quoted) rate of interest
Effective Interest:
The rate per time period at which interest is earned during each pe riod is called the effective rate i.
i = (1 + r/q)q -1
Solve above equations for P to determine investment required now to accumulate to amount An
True discount , D = An – P
Annuities:
rent R is consistent payment at each period n
let s ≡ (1 + i ) − 1
n
n
i
1 − (1 + i ) − n
and let rn ≡
i
then An = Rsn
log( An + R) − log R
or n=
log(1 + i)
present value of an annuity, A is the sum of the present values of all the future payments. A = Rrn
Monthly interet rate = MIR = (annual interest rate) /12
Month Term = # months in loan
Monthly payment = [amount financed]* [MIR/(1-{1+MIR}-#months)]
Final value (FV) of an investment is a function of the initial principal invested (P), interest rate (r –expressed as .05 for 5%,
.1 for 10% etc.), time invested (Y- typically years), and compounding periods per year (n – typically =1 for yearly or =12 for
monthly).
FV = P (1 + r / n)Yn
Page 02 - 6
Section 2.2 Geometry

General definitions:
A = area
a = side length
b = base length
C = circumference
D = diameter
h = height
n = number of sides
R = radius
V = volume
x, y, z = distances along orthogonal coordinate system
β = interior vertex angle
triangle: A = bh/2
sum of interior angles = 180o
rectangle: A = bh
sum of interior angles = 360o
parallelogram (opposite sides parallel):

A = ah = absin β
trapezoid (4 sides, 2 parallel):

A = h(a+b)/2
pentagon, hexagon, and other n-sided polygons:

A = {(na2)cot (180o/n)}/4
R = radius of circumscribed circle = {a csc(180o/n)}/2
r = radius of inscribed circle = {a cot(180o/n)}/2
β = 180o –(360o/n)
sum of interior angles = n180o-360o
Page 02 - 7
circle: A = πR2
C = 2πR = πD
perimeter of n-sided polygon inscribed within a circle
= 2nRsin(π/n)
area of circumscribed polygon = nR2tan(π/n)
area of inscribed polygon = {nR2sin(2π/n)}/2
equation for a circle with center at (h,k): R2 = (x-h)2 + (y-k)2
ellipse: f = semimajor axis

g = semiminor axis
e = eccentricity = ([f2-g2]1/2)/f
A = πef
equation for ellipse with center at (h,k):
(x-h)2/f2 + (y-k)2/g2 = 1 if major axis along x-axis
or (y-k)2/f2 + (x-h)2/g2 = 1 if major axis along y-axis
distance from center to either focus = [f2-g2]1/2
latus rectum = (2g2)/a
parabola: p = distance from vertex to focus

e = eccentricity = 1
equation for parabola with vertex at (h,k), focus at (h+p,k):
(y-k)2 = 4j(x-h) if (j>0)
equation for parabola with vertex at (h,k), focus at (h,k+p):
(x-h)2 = 4j(y-k) if (j<0)
p
Focus
Vertex
Directrix
Page 02 - 8
hyperbola: p = distance between center and vertex

q = distance between center and conjugate axis
e = eccentricity = ([p2+q2]1/2)/p
equation for hyperbola centered at (h, k):
(x-h)2/p2 – (y-k)2/q2 = 1 if (asymptotes slopes = +/- q/p)
or (y-k)2/p2 – (x-h)2/q2 = 1 if (asymptotes slopes = +/- p/q)
p
asymptotes
q
sphere: A = 4πR2
V = 4πR3/3
equation for sphere centered at origin: x2+y2+z2 = R2
torus: A= 4π2Rρ
V = 2π2Rρ2
ρ = smaller radius
Page 02 - 9
Section 2.3 Trigonometery

For any right triangle with hypotenuse h, an acute angle α, side length o opposite from α, and side length a ad-
jacent to α, the following terms are defined:
sine α = sin α = o/h
cosine α = cos α = a/h
tangent α = tan α = o/a = sin α /cos α
cotangent α = cot α = ctn α = a/o = 1/tan α = cos α /sin α
secant α = sec α = h/a = 1/cos α
cosecant α = csc α = h/o = 1/sin α
exsecant α = exsec α = sec α -1 h
versine α = vers α = 1-cos α o
α
coversine α = covers α = 1-sin α
haversine α = hav α = (vers α )/2 a
also defined are the following…

hyperbolic sine of x = sinh x = (ex – e-x)/2
hyperbolic cosine of x = cosh x = (ex + e-x)/2
hyperbolic tangent of x = tanh x = sinh x/cosh x
csch x = 1/sinh x
sech x = 1/cosh x
coth x = 1/tanh x
IDENTITIES
Pythagorean Identities:
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
1 + tan2 α = sec2 α
1+ cot2 α = csc2 α
Half Angle Identities:

sin [α/2] = +/- [(1 - cos α)/2]1/2
(negative if [α/2] is in quadrant III or IV)
cos [α/2] = +/- [(1 + cos α)/2]1/2
(negative if [α/2] is in quadrant II or III)
tan [α/2] = +/- [(1 - cos α)/(1+cos α)]1/2
(negative if [α/2] is in quadrant II or IV)
Page 02 - 10
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2α = 2sin α cos α
cos 2α = 2cos2 α –1 = 1-2sin2 α = cos2 α - sin2 α
tan 2α = 2tan α /[1-tan2 α]
n –Angle Identities:
sin 3α == 3sin α – 4sin3 α
cos 3α = 4cos3 α – 3cos α
sin nα = 2sin (n-1)α cos α – sin (n-2)α
cos nα = 2cos (n-1)α cos α – cos (n-2)α
Two-Angle Identities:
sin (α+β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
cos (α+β) = cos α cos β – sin α sin β
tan (α+β) = [tan α + tan β]/[1- tan α tan β]
sin (α-β) = sin α cos β - cos α sin β
cos (α-β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan (α-β) = [tan α - tan β]/[1+ tan α tan β]
Sum and Difference Identities:

sin α + sin β = 2sin [(α+β)/2] cos [(α-β)/2]
sin α – sin β = 2cos{(α+ β)/2] sin {(α- β)/2]
cos α+ cos β = 2cos [(α+β)/2] sin [(α-β)/2]
cos α -cos β = -2cos [(α+β)/2] sin [(α-β)/2]
tan α + tan β = [sin (α + β)]/[cos α cos β]
cot α + cot β = [sin (α + β)]/[sin α sin β]
tan α - tan β = [sin (α - β)]/[cos α cos β]
cot α - cot β = -[sin (α - β)]/[sin α sin β]
sin2 α – sin2 β = sin (α+β) sin (α-β)
cos2 α – cos2 β = -sin (α+β) sin (α-β)
cos2 α – sin2 β = cos (α+β) cos (α-β)
Page 02 - 11
Power Identities:
sin α sin β = [cos (α-β) - cos (α+β)]/2
cos α cos β = [cos (α-β) + cos (α+β)]/2
sin α cos β = [sin (α+β) + sin (α-β)]/2
cos α sin β = [sin (α+β) - sin (α-β)]/2
tan α cot α = sin α csc α = cos α sec α = 1
sin2 α = [1-cos2α]/2
cos2 α= [1+cos2α]/2
sin3 α = [3 sin α– sin 3α]/4
cos3 α = [3 cos α + cos 3α]/4
sin4 α = [3 - 4cos 2α + cos 4α]/8
cos4 α = [3 + 4cos 2α + cos 4α]/8
sin5 α = [10sin α –5sin 3α +sin5α]/16
cos5 α = [10cos α + 5cos 3α + cos5α]/16
OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
(no right angle, angles A,B,C are opposite of legs a,b,c)
Law of Sines: a/sin A = b/sinB = c/sinC
Law of Cosines:
B
2 2 2
a = b + c – 2bc cos A c a
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C A C
-1 2 2 2
C = cos [(a +b -c )/2ab] b
Law of Tangents:
[a-b]/[a+b] = [tan ({a-b}/2]/ [tan ({a+b}/2]
Projection Formulas:
a = b cos C + c cosB
b =c cos A + a cos C
c = a cos B + b cos A
Mollweide’s Check Formulas:

[a-b]/c = [sin ({A-B}/2)]/ cos (C/2)
[a+b]/c = [cos ({A-B}/2)]/ sin (C/2)
Page 02 - 12
Section 2.4 Matrix Algebra

(reference 2.5)
Matrix multiplication can be defined for any two matrices only whe the number of columns of the first is equal
to the number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication is not defined for other matrices.
[A][B] = [C]
[aim][bmj] = [cij]
The product of a pair of, 2 × 2 matrices is:
⎡a11 a12 ⎤ ⎡b11 b12 ⎤ ⎡ a11b11 + a12b21 a11b12 + a12b22 ⎤

⎢a =
⎣ 21 a22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣b21 b22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣a21b11 + a22b21 a21b12 + a22b22 ⎥⎦
The identity (or unit) matrix [I] occupies the same position in matrix algebra that the value of unity does in ordi-
nary algebra. That is, for any matrix
1 0 L 0
0 1 L 0
I =
M M O M
0 0 L 1
[A]: [I][A] = [A][I] = [A]
The identity [I] is a square matrix consisting of ones on the principle diagonal and zeros everywhere else; i.e.:
a ⋅ α−1 = α1−1 = α0 = 1
In the same way, the matrix [A]-1 is called the inverse matrix of [A] since:
[A][A]-1 = [A]-1[A] = [A]0 = [I]
Page 02 - 13
Cofactors and Determinates
a 11 a 12 L a 1n
a 21 a 22 L a 2n
A = a ij =
M M O M
a n1 a n2 L a nn
The signed minor, with the sign determined by the sum of the row and column, is called the cofactor of aij and is
denoted by:
Aij = (−1)i+j Μij
The value of the determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the
elements of any single row or column and their respective cofactors.
Arbitrarily expanding about the first row of a 3 x 3 matrix gives the

determinant:
a22 a23 a a22 a a22
|A| = a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13 = a11 ( +1) + a12 ( −1) 21 a13 ( +1) 21
a32 a33 a31 a32 a31 a32
which expands to give the final solution:
|A| = a11(a22 a33 − a23 a32) − a12(a21 a33 − a23 a31) + a13(a21 a32 − a22 a31)
Page 02 - 14
There is a straightforward four-step method for computing the inverse of a

given matrix [A]:
Step 1 Compute the determinant of [A]. This determinant is written |A|. If the determinant is zero or does
not exist, the matrix [A] is defined as singular and an inverse cannot be found.
Step 2 Transpose matrix [A]. The resultant matrix is written [A]T.
Step 3 Replace each element aij of the transposed matrix by its cofactor Aij. This resulting matrix is de-
fined as the adjoint of matrix [A] and is written Adj[A].
Step 4 Divide the adjoint matrix by the scalar value of the determinant of [A] which was computed in
Step 1. The resulting matrix is the inverse and is written [A]-1.
Example: Given the following set of simultaneous equations, solve for

x1, x2, and x3.
3x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = y1
− x1 + x2 + 4x3 = y2
2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = y3
This set of equations can be written as: [A] [x] = [y]
⎡ 3 2 − 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ y 1 ⎤
⎢− 1 1 4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ y 2 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 2 −3 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y 3 ⎥⎦
and solved as follows: [x] = [A]−1 [y]
Thus, the system can be solved for the values of x1, x2, and x3 by computing the inverse of [A].
Step 1. Compute the determinant of [A]. Expanding about the first row
|A| = 3(4 + 12) − 2 (−4 −8) −2 (3 − 2)
|A| = 48 + 24 −2 = 70
Page 02 - 15
Step 2. Transpose [A]. ⎡ 3 −1 2 ⎤

[A ] = ⎢⎢ 2 − 3 ⎥⎥
T
1
⎢⎣ − 2 4 4 ⎥⎦
Step 3. Determine the adjoint matrix by replacing each element in [A]T by its Cofactor.
⎡ 1 −3 2 −3 2 1 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎢ 4 4 −2 4 −2 4 ⎥
⎡16 − 2 10 ⎤
⎢ −1 2 3 2 3 −1 ⎥ ⎢
adj [A] = ⎢− − = 12 16 −10⎥⎥
⎢ 4 4 −2
4 − 2 4 ⎥⎥ ⎢
⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦
⎢ −1 2 3
2 3 −1 ⎥ ⎣
⎢ −
⎣ 1 −3 2 −3 2 1 ⎥⎦
Step 4. Divide by the scalar value of the determinant of [A] which was computed as 70 in Step 1.
⎡16 −2 10 ⎤
1 ⎢
[A ] − 10 ⎥⎥
−1
= 12 16
70 ⎢
⎣⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦
if y1 = 1, y2 = 13, and y3 = 8
⎡x1 ⎤ ⎡16 −2 10 ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥ = 1 ⎢12 16 −10⎥⎢13⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ 70⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢x3 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
1
x1 = (16 − 26 + 80 ) = 70 = 1
70 70
1
x2 = (12 + 208 − 80 ) = 140 = 2
70 70
1 210
x3 = (1 + 169 + 40 ) = =3
70 70
Page 02 - 16
Cramer’s Rule
Given matrices A{x} = {b}

If the det (D) of a matrix (A) exists, and Dr is the det of the matrix obtained from A by replacing the rth column
of A by the column {b}, then the solution to (1) is xr = Dr/D r = 1,2,…,n
Example of Cramer’s Rule
⎡ 1 0 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 6 ⎤
⎢− 3 4 6 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 30 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ − 1 −2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 2⎤ ⎡6 0 2⎤
A = ⎢⎢ − 3 4 6 ⎥⎥ A1 = ⎢⎢ 30 4 6 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 1 − 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 −2 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 6 2⎤ ⎡ 1 0 6 ⎤
A 2 = ⎢⎢ − 3 30 6 ⎥⎥ A 3 = ⎢⎢ − 3 4 30 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 1 8 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 1 −2 8 ⎥⎦
det ( A1 ) − 40 − 10 det ( A2 ) 72 18 det ( A3 ) 152 38

x1 = = = , x2 = = = , x3 = = =
det ( A) 44 11 det ( A) 44 11 det ( A) 44 11
Page 02 - 17
Section 2.5 VectorAlgebra

(reference 2.5)
Addition
A+B B
A A
A+B
B A+B +C
B +C
A+B C
A
. B
Subtraction
−B
A
A−B
Page 02 - 18
mA = A m Commutative
m(nA ) = (mn)A Associative
(m + n)A = mA + nA Distributive
m(A + B ) = mA + mB Distributive
P(x,y,z)
A
a x i$ a z k$ y
a y $j
A = a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
Dot Product
A = a x2 + a y2 + a z2
A ⋅ B = A cosθ
Page 02 - 19
θ
B
A cos θ
iˆ⋅iˆ = ˆj⋅ ˆj =kˆ⋅kˆ =1 iˆ⋅ ˆj = ˆj⋅kˆ =kˆ⋅iˆ=0
Vector Product
i$ $j k$
ay az ax az a ay
A × B = ax ay az = i$ + ( −1) $j + x k$
by bz bx bz bx by
bx by bz
A x B = A B sin θ
U = A×B
u$
A θ
B
i$ × i$ = $j × $j = k$ × k$ = 0
i$ × $j = k$ $j × k$ = i$ k$ × i$ = $j
$j × i$ = − k$ k$ × $j = − i$ i$ × k$ = − $j
Page 02 - 20
Vector Differentiation
d (A + B ) dA dB
= + Distributi ve derivative
dt dt dt
d (A ⋅ B ) dB dA
= A⋅ + ⋅B Dot product derivative
dt dt dt
d (A × B ) dB dA
= A× + × B Cross product derivative
dt dt dt
dB df (t )
d
dt
[ f (t )B ] = f (t )
dt
+
dt
B Scalar vec tor product derivative
The first derivative of a position vector is a vector tangential to the trajectory with a magnitude equal to the speed of the
particle.
Motion of a point using two reference systems.
Reference A can be considered the inertial frame while Rotation of the B reference relative to the A reference must be con-
sidered when observing motion wrt the A reference system.
z Reference A
y r Trajectory C
x R
ω P
z ρ
Reference B
y V
x
Note: Unit vectors are along the B system axes. Subscripts denote reference system. Reference B can be equivalent to a
maneuvering aircraft.
ρ = x iˆ + yˆj + z kˆ
⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = x& iˆ + y& ˆj + z&kˆ
⎝ dt ⎠ B
⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜
⎝ dt ⎠ A
( ⎝
&
)& &
⎟ = x& iˆ + y& ˆj + z&kˆ + ⎛⎜ x iˆ + yˆj + z kˆ ⎞⎟
⎠
Page 02 - 21
& & &

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ = x ω × iˆ + y ω × ˆj + z ω × kˆ = ω × xiˆ + ω × yˆj + ω × zkˆ )
(
= ω × xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ = ω × ρ)
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +ω × ρ
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ B
The velocities of the particle P relative to the A and to the B references are, respectively:
⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
VA = ⎜ ⎟ VB = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ B
These velocities can be related by noting that: r = R + ρ
Differentiating with respect to time for the A reference,
⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dR ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = V A = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠A ⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ A
The term ( ddtR )A is the velocity of the origin of the B reference relative to the A
() ( )
reference, R& . The term dρ can be replaced with the above equation,
dt A
and denoting ( )
dρ
dt B
simply as VB the above expression then becomes :
V = V + R& + ω × ρ
A B
The term is the “transport velocity” and is the only velocity R& + ω × ρ if
point P is rigidly attached to reference B.
Page 02 - 22
To get acceleration wrt A, differentiate:
⎛ dV ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞ ••
⎡d ⎤
a A = ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + R + ⎢ (ω × ρ )⎥
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠A ⎣ dt ⎦A
⎛ dV ⎞ ••
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dω ⎞
use product rule to get... a A = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + R + ω × ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ×ρ
⎝ dt ⎠A ⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ A
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
where ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +ω ×ρ B
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ B
⎛ dVB ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞
and similarly ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + ω × V
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠B
Combining gives the acceleration of point P relative to reference A

⎛ dV ⎞ ••
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dω ⎞
a A = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + ω × VB + R + ω × ⎜ ⎟ + ω × (ω × ρ ) + ⎜ ⎟ ×ρ
⎝ dt ⎠ B ⎝ dt ⎠ B ⎝ dt ⎠ A
( ) B
( )
Noting that dVB is aB ; dρ is VB ; and ( dω ) is ω& , rearranging terms gives :
dt dt B dt A
••
a A = aB + 2(ω × VB ) + R + (ω& × ρ ) + ω × (ω × ρ )
where ω × (ω × ρ ) is the centripetal acceleration,
2(ω × VB ) is the Coriolis acceleration, and

••
R + (ω& × ρ ) + ω × (ω × ρ ) is the transport acceleration and is the only acceleration if point P is rigidly attached to reference B.
Page 02 - 23
Motion of a point using one reference system.

Reference A can be considered the inertial frame while
The body can be equivalent to a maneuvering aircraft.
ω
z
ρ
a
P
y
x
ρ& = ω × ρ
••
ρ = ω × (ω × ρ ) + ω& × ρ
ρ& = Vb − Va
Vb = Va + ω × ρ
ab = a a + ω × (ω × ρ ) + ω& × ρ
Page 02 - 24
Section 2.6 Statistics (reference 2.6)

Definitions:
Population: The set of all possible observations
Sample: Any subset of a population
Homogeneous Sample: The sample comes from 1 population only
Random Sample: Equal probability of selecting any member of the population Independence (of events A and B): P(A
and B) = P(A)*P(B)
1 n
Sample and Population Mean (Average value): μ=x= ∑ xi
N i =1
Mode (Most commonly occurring value in a sample)

Median (middle value, 50th percentile. Half of the sample values are greater and half are smaller)
Deviation (from the mean value): d i = xi − x
1 N
Population Variance (from the mean value): σ2 =
N
∑d
i =1
i
2
1 N
Population Standard Deviation (from the mean value): σ=
N
∑d
i =1
i
2
1 N 2
Sample Standard Deviation (from the mean value): s= ∑ di
N − 1 i =1
Discrete Probability Distributions:

Binomial: N independent events, each having probability p of success, and1-p of failure. For example, tossing a fair
coin N times where p = the probability of getting a head on any toss. If the random variable x indicates the number of
heads in N=2 tosses, then P(x=0) = 1/4, P(x=1) = 1/2, P(x=2) = 1/4. If N=4, then the probabilities are illus trated in the
following graph:
Page 02 - 25
0.6
0.4
0.2 P(x=X)
0
0 1 2 3 4
As N approaches infinity ...
0 .4
0.3 5
0 .3
0.2 5
0 .2
0.1 5
0 .1
0.0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
So, the binomial distribution is the discrete case of the Normal distribution.
Continuous Distributions: As the number of samples increases and the width of the Discrete sample intervals shrink to
zero, discrete distributions become continuous.
P(x=X) = 0
Must talk about intervals, e.g. P(a < x < b)
−( x−μ )2
1
The Normal Distribution: f ( x) = e 2σ 2
2πσ
Page 02 - 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-5
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
-4 -5
.7
-4 -4.7
.4
-4 -4.4
Normal Distribution:
.1
-3 -4.1
.8
-3 -3.8
.5
-3 -3.5
.2
-2 -3.2
.9
-2
.6 -2.9
-2 -2.6
.3
-2 -2.3
-1
.7 -2
-1
.4 -1.7
-1
.1 -1.4
-0
.8 -1.1
-0 -0.8
.5
-0 -0.5
.2
0. -0.2
1
0. 0.1
4
0. 0.4
7
0.7
1
Page 02 - 27
1. 1
3
Normal Probability Mass Function
Normal Cumulative Distribution Function

1. 1.3
6
1. 1.6
9
2. 1.9
2
2. 2.2
5
2. 2.5
8
3. 2.8
1
3.1
3.
4
3. 3.4
7
3.7
4
4
4.
3
4.3
4.
6
4.6
4.
9 4.9
Third Edition 2013
The Standard Normal Distribution:
μ = 0, σ = 1
x−μ 1
z= , dz = dx
σ σ
− z2
b 1
P (a < z < b) = ∫ e 2
dz
a 2π
Error Probable: An error budget that would contain half of the population data points. Assumes that events are independ-
ent and identically distributed (iid). Also assumes N is large (greater than 30), or population is normally distributed.
0.4
0.35
0.3
±0.674σ
0.25
0.2
0.15
AREA = 0.5
0.1
0.05
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
Circular Error Probable – the 2 Dimensional Case (X error and Y error):
If σ x < σ y and σ x
σ y ≤ 0.28 then CEP = 0.562σ x + 0.615σ y
σy
If σ x > σ y and
σ x ≤ 0 .28 then CEP = 0.615σ x + 0.562σ y
Otherwise CEP = 0 . 5887 (σ x + σ y )
Page 02 - 28
Confidence Intervals: In practice, we take a sample from population. The sample mean and variance will differ from the
population mean and variance. Confidence Intervals express how certain we are that the population statistics lie in a region
around the sample statistics.
Central Limit Theorem: Given a population Normally distributed, ( μ , σ )

2
then the distribution of successive sample means from samples of n observations
(μ , σ
2
Approaches a Normal distribution with parameters )
n
We want 1- α level of confidence that a region around our sample mean
value contains the actual population mean.
AREA = 1 − α
P( − z1−α < x < z1−α ) = 1 − α
0 .4 2 2
0 .3 5
0 .3
0 .2 5
0 .2
0 .1 5
0 .1
0 .0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
AREA = α 2 AREA = α 2
x−μ
z=
σ
N
σ σ
P ( x − z1−α < μ < x + z1−α ) = 1−α
2 N 2 N
Page 02 - 29
If n < 30, we must use Student’s T Distribution instead of the Standard Normal
s s
P ( x − t n ,1−α < μ < x + t n ,1−α ) = 1−α
2 n 2 n
Determining Sample Size: For the population mean to fall into an interval defined by
σ σ
( x − z1−α ) < μ < ( x + z1−α )
2 N 2 N
σ
μ − x ≤ z1−α
2 N
Where μ − x is the accuracy desired (or the error that can be tolerated).
Since the sample size decision must be made prior to the test, an estimate must be made for the population standard devia-
tion. Using the estimate we can solve for N
2
z1−α σ
N≥ 2
error
Hypothesis Testing: Begins with an assumption (hypothesis), usually about the underlying population distribution of some
measured quantity or computed error. Select values for the hypothesis and alternate hypothesis(es) that partition the sample
space. Collect N samples of the population test statistic or parameter. There are two types of errors: Type 1 errors reject
the hypothesis when it is true; Type II accept the hypothesis when in is false.
0 .4
O n e - S id e d T e s t
0 .3 5
0 .3
0 .2 5
0 .2
α
0 .1 5
0 .1
0 .0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
R e je c t S y s te m A c c e p t S y s te m
z0
Page 02 - 30
0.4
Two-Sided Test
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
α
2
0.1
0.05
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
5
Reject System Accept System Reject System
-z0 z0
0.08
Type I and Type II Errors
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04 β
0.03
α
0.02
0.01
0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Page 02 - 31
Large Samples, Unknown Variance use: s = ∑x 2

− nx 2
for σ
n −1
x − μ′
z′ =
σ
n
( μ − μ ′)
z′ = z +
σ
n
x−μ
t=
Small Samples, Unknown Variance use: s
n −1
x − μ′
t′ =
s
n −1
μ − μ′
t′ = t +
s
n −1
Adjusting α and β
Adjust the size of the Error we wish to Detect Change the sample size n
Page 02 - 32
H0 : Tj = 0, ∀j
Normal Equations:
n k n k n k n k
∑∑ X =∑∑m + ∑∑t
i =1 j =1
ij
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
j = nkm+ n∑t j , but ∑t j = 0
j =1 j =1
n k
so ∑∑ X ij =nkm
i =1 j =1
n n n
∑ X = ∑m + ∑t
i =1
ij
i =1 i =1
j = nm + nt j
m is the least squares estimate of

tj is the least squares estimate of Tj
n k n n
SS r ( m , t j ) = m ∑ ∑ X ij + ∑ t j ∑ X ij
i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1
Assuming H 0 is True, the model is :

X ij = μ + ε ij
n k
SS r ( m ′) = m ′∑ ∑ X ij
i =1 j =1
Between Treatments : SS r ( m , t j ) − SS r ( m ′)
n k
SS e = ∑ ∑ X ij2 − SS r ( m , t j )
i =1 j =1
SS t
( k − 1)
Test Statistic is : Fk −1,( n −1) k =
SS e
(( n − 1) k )
Page 02 - 33
2.7 Standard Series

(reference 2.4)
Taylor’s
f (x) = f (a) + f '(a)

x−a
+ f ''(a)
(x−a) + f '''(a) (x−a) +...f (n−1)(a) (x−a) +R
2 3 (n−1)
1 2! 3! (n−1)! n
Maclaurin’s (Taylor series with a = 0 ):
x
f (x) = f (0) + f ' (0) + f ' ' (0)
(x) + f ' ' ' (0) (x) +...f (n−1) (0) (x) + R
2 3 (n−1)
1 2! 3! (n −1)! n
Binomial:
(a + x)n = an + nan−1x + n(n −1) an−2x2 + n(n −1)(n −2) an−3x3 +....
2! 3!
[x < a ]
2 2
Exponential:
( x ln a ) 2 ( x ln a ) 3
a x = 1 + x ln a + + + ....
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
ex = 1+ x + + + + ....
2! 3! 4!
1 x x2 x4
(e + e − x ) = 1 + + + ....
2 2! 4!
1 x −x x3 x5
(e − e ) = x + + + ....
2 3! 5!
x 4 x6 x8
e−x = 1 − x2 + − +
2
....
2! 3! 4!
Logarithmic:
1 1
ln x = ( x − 1) − ( x −1)2 + ( x −1)3 − .... [0 < x < 2]
2 3
( x −1) 1 x − 1 2 1 x − 1 3 ⎡ 1⎤
ln x = − ( ) + ( ) − .... ⎢⎣ x > 2 ⎥⎦
x 2 x 3 x
⎡ x − 1 1 ⎛ x − 1 ⎞3 1 ⎛ x − 1 ⎞5 ⎤
ln x = 2⎢ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ....⎥ [0 < x]
⎢⎣ x + 1 3 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ 5 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Page 02 - 34
Trigonometric:
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + .....
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + .....
2! 4! 6!
x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7 62 x 9 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
tan x = x + + + + + ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
3 15 315 2835 ⎣ 4⎦
−1
sin x = x +
1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7
+ +
2 3 2 ⋅ 4 5 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 7!
+ ...... [x 2
]
<1
−1 x3 x5 x7
tan x = x − + − + ......
3 5 7
[x 2
]
≤1
x2 x4
ln sin x = ln x − − −
x6
6 180 2835
[
− ...... x 2 < π 2 ]
x 2 x 4 x 6 17 x8 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
ln cos x = − − − − ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
2 12 45 2520 ⎣ 4⎦
x 2 7 x 4 62 x 6 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
ln tan x = ln x + + + − ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
3 90 2835 ⎣ 4⎦
x 2 3x 4 8 x 5 3x 6
e = 1+ x + −
sin x
− + + .....
2! 4! 5! 6!
x 2 4 x 4 31x 6
e = e(1 − +
cos x
− + .....)
2! 4! 6!
x 2 3x 3 9 x 4 37 x 5 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
e = 1+ x + +
tan x
+ + + ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
2! 3! 4! 5! ⎣ 4⎦
Page 02 - 35
Section 2.8 Derivative Table

[x is the independent variable; u and v are dependent on x; w is dependent on u; a and n are constants; log is
common logarithm; ln is logarithm to the base e]
da
=0
dx
d ( ax )
=a
dx
dx n
= nx n −1
dx
d (u + v ) du dv
= +
dx dx dx
d (uv ) dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
d (u / v ) 1 ⎛ du dv ⎞
= 2 ⎜v −u ⎟
dx v ⎝ dx dx ⎠
dw dw du
=
dx du dx
du n du
= nu n −1
dx dx
d ln x 1
=
dx x
d ln u 1 du
=
dx u dx
d log u log e du
=
dx u dx
Page 02 - 36
de x
= ex
dx
da x
= a x ln a
dx
da u du
= a u ln a
dx dx
du v v −1 du dv
= vu + u v ln u
dx dx dx
d sin x d sin u du
= cos x or = cos u
dx dx dx
d cos x d cos u du
= − sin x or = − sin u
dx dx dx
d tan x d tan u du
= sec 2
x or = sec 2
u
dx dx dx
d sec x d sec u du
= sec x tan x or = sec u tan u
dx dx dx
d cot x d tan u du
= − csc 2
x or = − csc 2
u
dx dx dx
d sin − 1 x 1 d sin − 1 u 1 du
= or =
dx 1− x2 dx 1− u2 dx
d cos − 1 x −1 d cos − 1 u −1 du
= or =
dx 1− x 2 dx 1− u 2 dx
−1 −1
d tan x 1 d tan u 1 du
= or =
dx 1+ x2 dx 1 + u dx
2
d cot − 1 x −1 d cot − 1 u − 1 du
= or =
dx 1+ x2 dx 1 + u 2 dx
Page 02 - 37
Section 2.9 Integral Table

x is any variable, u is any function of x, a & b are arbitrary constants.
The constant of integration, c, has been omitted from this table

but should be added to the result of every integration.
Fundamental Integrals
∫ adx = ax
∫ af ( x)dx = a ∫ f ( x)d x
∫ (u + v)dx = ∫ ud x + ∫ vdx
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
udv du
∫ dx
dx = uv − ∫ v
dx
dx
x n +1
∫ x dx = , n ≠ −1
n
n +1
∫x
−1
dx = ln x
dx
∫ w(u )dx = ∫ w(u ) du u
dx 1 x
∫a 2
+x 2
= tan −1
a a
dx x
∫ a2 − x2
= sin −1
a
dx
∫ x ±a
2 2
= ln( x − x 2 ± a 2 )
1⎛ u⎞
∫ a 2 − u 2 du = ⎜ u a 2 − u 2 + a 2 sin −1 ⎟
2⎝ a⎠
du 1 u
∫u 2
+a 2
= tan −1
a a
a>0
Page 02 - 38
Expressions containing exponential and logarithmic functions
dx
∫ x
= ln x
∫ e dx = e
x x
e ax
∫ e dx =
ax
a
ax b ax
∫ b dx =
a ln b
∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x
bu
∫ b du = ln u
u
e ax
∫ = ( ax − 1)
ax
xe dx
a2
xb ax b ax
∫ = −
ax
xb dx
a ln b a 2 (ln b ) 2
∫ x e dx =
2 ax
a3
(
e ax 2 2
a x − 2ax + 2 )
∫ ln axdx = x ln ax − x
x2 x2
∫ x ln axdx = 2
ln ax −
4
3
x x3
∫ = −
2
x ln axdx ln ax
3 9
∫ (ln ax ) dx = x(ln ax )
2 2
− 2 x ln ax + 2 x
∫ x ln ax = ln (ln ax )
dx
xn 1 e y dy
∫ ln ax dx =
a n +1 ∫ y
y = ( n + 1) ln ax
Page 02 - 39
Expressions containing trigonometric functions
∫ sin xdx = − cos x

∫ cos xdx = sin x
∫ tan xdx = − ln(cos x)
∫ cot xdx = ln(sin x)
∫ sec xdx = ln(sec x + tan x)
∫ csc udu = ln(csc u − cot u )
1 1
∫ sin udu =
u − sin u cos u
2
2 2
1 1
∫ cos udu = 2 u + 2 sin u cos u
2
∫ csc udu = − cot u

2
∫ tan udu = tan u − u

2
∫ cot udu = − cot u − u

2
1
∫ sin axdx = − a cos ax
x sin 2ax
∫ sin axdx =
−
2
2 4a
dx 1 ax
∫ sin ax = a ln tan 2
dx 1
∫ sin 2 ax = − a cot ax
dx 1 ⎛ π ax ⎞
∫ 1 ± sin ax = m a tan⎜⎝ 4 m 2 ⎟⎠
1 2
∫ sin x cos xdx = 2 sin x
Page 02 - 40
Section 2.10 Laplace Table

time domain f(t) frequency domain F(s)=L{f(t)}

1 (step function) 1/s (s>0)
t 1/s2 (s>0)
(n − 1)!
t n−1 sn (s>0)
1 −3
t πs 2 (s>0)
2
1 −1
t πs 2
(s>0)
(1)(3)(5)...(2n − 1) π − n − 1 2
tn-1/2 (n=1,2,…) s
2n (s>0)
1
eat
s−a (s>a)
1
teat (s − a )2 (s>a)
(n − 1)!
tn-1eax (n=1, 2, …) (s − a )n (s>a)
a
sin at
s + a2
2
(s>0)
s
cos at (s>0)
s + a2
2
a
ebt sin at (s?b)
(s − b )2 + a 2
s−b
ebt cos at (s>b)
(s − b )2 + a 2
2 as
x sin ax
(s 2
− a2 )2 (s>a)
x cos ax
s2 − a2 (s > 0)
(s 2
+ a2 )
2
sinh at
a (s > a )
s − a2
2
Page 02 - 41
s
cosh at (s > a )
s − a2
2
s sin b + a cos b
sin (at + b)
s2 + a2
s cos b − a sin b
cos(at + b)
s2 + a2
e at − e bt 1
a −b (s − a )(s − b )
ae at − be bt s
a −b (s − a )(s − b )
δ (impulse function) 1
1
square wave, period =2c
(
s 1 + e −cs )
1 − e − cs
( )
triangular wave, period = 2c
s 2 1 + e −cs
at for 0 ≤ t < c (
a 1 + cs − e − cs )
sawtooth wave, period = c
(
s 2 1 − e cs )
2 abs
sin at sin bt
[ ][
s 2 + (a + b ) s 2 + (a − b )
2 2
]
1 − cos at 1
a2 (
s s + a2 2
)
at − sin at 1
a3 2
(
s s + a2 2
)
sin at − at cos at 1
2a 3 (s 2
+ a2 ) 2
Page 02 - 42
Section 2.11 References
2.1 Burington, Richard S., “Handbook of Mathematical Tables and Formulas”, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1973.
2.2 Ayers, F., Moyer, R., “Trigonometry”, Schaum’s Outline series, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1990.
2.3 Esbach, Ovid W., “Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1963.
2.4 Hudson, Ralph G., “The Engineers’ Manual”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1944.
2.5 Jones, G., Chapter 14, Vectors and Matrices , from “Chapter 14, Vectors and Matrices , from “ Flying
Qualities Testing, Vol II” , National; Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
2.6 Flying Qualities Testing, Vol II”, 1997, National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
2.7 Lewis, G., Chapter 2, Data Analysis , from “Crew station Evaluation and Data Analysis, Vol IV”, 1997,
National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
Page 02 - 43
NOTES
Page 02 - 44
Section 3 Universe/Earth/Atmospheric
Properties
3.1 Universal Constants

Newtonian Gravity
3.2 Earth Properties

Centrifugal relief from gravity
Altitude effect on gravitational acceleration
Actual gravitational pull on an aircraft
Gravity influence on cruise performance
3.3 General Properties of Air

Composition of air
Viscosities of Air
Psychrometric Chart
3.4 Standard Atmosphere

Divisions of the Atmosphere
Altitude Definitions
Atmosphere Assumptions
Standard Day Sea Level Conditions
1976 Standard Atmosphere Equations
Standard Atmosphere Graph & Tables
3.5 Sea States
3.6 Sunrise and Sunset Times
3.7 Crosswind Components
3.8 Geodetic Measurements
3.9 References
Page 03 - 1
Section 3 Recurring Nomenclature
Hp = pressure altitude. The pressure associate with geopotential altitude on a standard day.
T = absolute temperature (Rankin or Kelvin)
TR = absolute temperature, Rankin scale
To = standard day seal level absolute temperature
P = ambient pressure
Po= standard day seal level ambient pressure
ρ = ambient density
ρ ο= standard day seal level ambient density
δ = P/Po = atmospheric pressure/std day sea level pressure
θ = T/To = atmospheric absolute temp / std day sea level absolute temp
σ = ρ /ρ ο = atmospheric density/std day sea level density
g = acceleration due to gravity
go = standard earth acceleration due to gravity
ao = speed of sound at std day sea level temperature
Page 03 - 2
Section 3.1 Universal Constants (reference 3.1)
Avogadros number, No 6.022169 x 1023 molecules/mole

Boltzmann constant, k 1.380 x 10-23 J/oK
electron charge, e 1,602 x 10-19 coulomb
electron mass, me 9.109 x 10-31 kg
gas constant, R 8.31434J/oK mole
gravitational constant, G 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
neutron mass, mn 1.674 x 10-27 kg
Planck constant, h 6.625 x 10-34 J sec
proton mass, mp 1.672 x 10-27 kg
speed of light in a vacuum, c 2.998 x 108 m/sec
unified atomic mass constant, mu 1.660 x 10-27 kg
volume of ideal gas (std temp & press) 2.241 x 10 m3/mol
Newtonian Gravity
The gravitaional field (g) near any mass can be calculated as
GM
g=
(RA )2
where G is the universal gravitational constant and RA is the absolute distance from the center of mass M
Page 03 - 3
Section 3.2 Earth Properties (references 3.9.2, 3.9.3 )
Std Earth gravitational acceleration, go = 9.8066 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2

mass = 5.9722 × 1024 kg = 13.22 x 1024 lb
rotation rate, ω = 7.292115 × 10−5 rad/sec
average density = 5.522 g/cm3 = 344.7 lb/ft3
radius average, Ravg = 6,367,444 m = 3956.538 st. miles = 20,890,522 ft
radius at the equator (Re) is 6,378,137 m (±2)
radius at the poles Rp = 6,356,752 [m]
radius as a function of latitude, φ (assumes perfect ellipsoid):
− 12
⎡⎛ cosφ ⎞2 ⎛ sin φ ⎞2 ⎤
R = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ Re ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Rp ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Centrifugal Relief from Gravity
The earth's "normal" gravity field includes both the Newtonian Law and a correction for the centrifugal force
caused by the earth's rotation. The centrifugal relief correction is
ΔCR = −
V2 (R ω ) = R ω 2
=− x
2
x
Rx Rx
where ω is the earth’s rotation rate and Rx is the perpendicular distance from the earth's axis to the surface and
can be calculated as Rx =R cos φ (see figure below).
Rx
φ = deg latitude
R
For any centrifugal relief calculations associated with aircraft performance, it is sufficiently exact (g ±0.00004
m/s2) to use the average earth radius. An aircraft flying eastward contributes to centrifugal relief while a west-
bound aircraft diminishes it.
Page 03 - 4
The International Association of Geodesy publishes the following equation (accurate to 0.005%) to calculate
local sea level gravity including the effects of centrifugal relief for any point fixed to the earth's surface
(
g lsl = 9.780327 1 + 0.00530224 sin 2 φ − 0.000058 sin 2 2φ )[ ]
m
s2
The above equation is tabulated below for quick reference.
Latitude Normal glocal

(deg) (m/s2) (ft/s2)
0 9.780327 32.088
15 9.783659 32.098
30 9.792866 32.188
45 9.805689 32.171
60 9.818795 32.214
75 9.828569 32.249
90 9.832185 32.258
The standard acceleration (go) corresponds to a latitude of 46.0625°.

glsl at the equator and the poles varies ±0.27% from go.
Altitude Effect on Gravitational Acceleration

RA is the sum of the earth's local radius and the geometric distance (hG) above the surface: RA = R + hG
Gravitational acceleration at any geometric altitude:
hG g alt
2
(1000 ft) g lsl ⎛ R ⎞
g alt = g sls ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
0 1
⎝ R + hG ⎠
10 0.99904
20 0.99809
40 0.99618
60 0.99428
80 0.99238
100 0.99049
Page 03 - 5
Actual Gravitational Pull on an Aircraft

Adding a centrifugal relief correction due to the aircraft’s velocity, a complete calculation for its gravita-
tional acceleration is
2 2
⎡ R ⎤ ⎛ VG sin σ ⎞
g A/C [ ]
= g lsl + ω R cos φ ⎢
2
⎥ − ⎜⎜ ω + ⎟⎟ (R + hG ) cos φ
⎣ R + hG ⎦ ⎝ R + hG ⎠
where VG = ground speed and σ = ground track angle (0° = true North, 90° = East, etc.).
Gravity Influence on Aircraft Cruise Performance

Even at the same altitude, changes in gravity due to latitude or centrifugal relief directly alter the required lift,
drag, and fuel flow. For example, with sufficiently precise instrumentation, data collected heading West could
show about 0.5% more drag and fuel flow than data collected heading East (centrifugal relief effect). After deter-
mining test and standard (or mission) values for g, flight test values for CL, CD, drag, and fuel flow can be cor-
rected to standard as follows:
N zω ⎡ g std ⎤
C Lstd = C Lt std
⎢ ⎥
N zωt ⎣ g A / C ⎦
C Dstd =
(C )Lstd
2
πA Re
[
Δ D = D std − Dt = qS C Distd − C Dit ]
W& f std = W& f t + ΔD ⋅ TFSC
where Nz = normal load factor,

CL = lift coefficient, CD = drag coefficient,
AR = aspect ratio, e = Oswald efficiency factor,
ΔD change in drag force,
TSFC = thrust specific fuel consumption, and
W& f std = standard day fuel flow
Page 03 - 6
Section 3.3 General Properties of Air (reference 3.9.1)
Gas constant, R = 53.35 ft lb/R lbm = 287.074 J/kg K

= 1716 lb(ft)/slgs(R) = 3089.7 lb(ft)/slgs(K)
Speed of sound = ao(θ) ½

= 49.02 (TR)1/2 ft/sec
= 33.42 (TR)1/2 miles/hr
= 29.04 (TR)1/2 knots
= 20.05 (TR)1/2 m/sec
Density, ρ = .0023769 slug/ft3 = 1.225 kg/m3 (at 15o C)
Specific weight, gρ = .07647 sec2/ft4
Specific heat capacity at 59oF (=To)

at constant pressure, cp = .240 BTU/lb R = 1004.76 J/kg K
at constant volume, cv = .1715 BTU/lb R = 717.986 J/kg K
specific heat ratio, γ = {cp / cv } =1.4
Normal Composition of clean, dry atmospheric air near sea level
Nitrogen, N2 78.084 % by volume

Oxygen, O2 20.948 %
Argon, A 0.934 %
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.031 %
Neon, Ne 0.002 %
total 99.9988 %
plus traces of helium, kryton, xenon, hydrogen, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ammonia, carbon monoxide, and iodine.
Viscosities of Air
7.3025 x10 −7 (TR )
3/ 2
Coefficient of Viscosity, μc = lb/ft sec

TR + 198 .72
Page 03 - 7
Kinematic viscosity, v = μc ft2/sec

gρ
⎡ ⎛ 734 .7 ⎞ ⎤
Absolute Viscosity, lb μ = ρv = ⎢.317 (TR ) 3 / 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ x10 −10 sec/ft2
⎣ ⎝ R
T + 216 ⎠⎦
Atmospheric Viscosity (U.S. Standard Atmosphere)
Pressure Altitude Kinematic Viscosity Absolute Viscosity

ft υ ( ft2/sec) μ (lb sec/ft2)
0 1.572 x 10-4 3.737 x 10-7
5,000 1.776 3.638
10,000 2.013 3.538
15,000 2.293 3.435
20,000 2.625 3.330
25,000 3.019 3.224
30,000 3.493 3.115
35,000 4.065 3.004
40,000 5.074 2.981
45,000 6.453 2.982
50,000 8.206 2.983
55,000 10.44 2.985
60,000 13.27 2.986
70,000 21.69 3.005
80,000 35.75 3.043
90,000 58.53 3.080
100,000 95.19 3.118
150,000 1066 3.572
200,000 6880 3.435
Page 03 - 8
Psychrometric Chart for Seal Level Barometric Pressure
Page 03 - 9
Page 03 - 10
Section 3.4 Standard Atmosphere
Divisions of the Atmosphere
Page 03 - 11
Constantly changing atmospheric conditions cannot be duplicated at will to provide the exact environment in
which a flight takes place. A standard atmosphere provides a common basis to relate all flight test, wind tunnel
results, aircraft design and general performance. Several models of “standard atmosphere” exist with minor dif-
ferences based on mathematical constants used in the calculations.
Geometric altitude, hG , is defined as the height of an aircraft above sea level (also called tapeline altitude)
Absolute altitude, ha, is defined as the height of an aircraft above the center of the earth: (geometric altitude +
radius of the earth).
Geopotential altitude, h, is required because g changes with height.If potential energy is calculated using sea
level weight (WSL = mgo) instead of actual weight (W = mg), then the altitude must be lower.
W hG = WSL h
Pressure altitude, Hp is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day pressure would be found
Density altitude is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day density would be found
Temperature altitude is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day temperature would be found
Assumptions on which the standard atmosphere is built
1. The air is dry (only 0.4% per volume of water vapor)
2. The air is a perfect gas and obeys the equation of state,

P = ρgRT
where R = 53.35 ft lb/oR lbm
3. The gravitational field decreases with altitude
4. Hydrostatic equilibrium exists (Δp= −ρgoΔh)
Page 03 - 12
Standard Day Sea Level Atmospheric Conditions
Po = 2116.22 lb/ft2 = 14.696 lb/in2 = 29.921 in Hg

= 1013.25 HPa (mb) = 101325 Pa
To = 288.15 K = 518.67 R = 59 oF = 15 oC
ρo = 0.0023769 slgs/ft3 = 0.07647 lbm/in3 = 1.255 kg/m3 (at 15o C )
ao = 1116.45 ft/sec = 661.478 KTAS = 761.14 mph = 340.294 m/sec
go = 32.174 ft/sec2 = 9.80665 m/sec2
L = standard temperature lapse rate = 0.0019812 K /ft
1976 U.S Standard Atmosphere Equations

Troposhere - below 36,089 ft (11,000 m) < 22636 Pa
θ = 1 − (L/Το ) h = 1-(6.8755856 x 10-6) h
σ = θn-1
δ = θn
where n = 5.255876, h = geopotential altitude (ft)
Stratosphere- between 36,089 ft and 65,616 ft (20,000 m) the standard day temperature is a constant 216.65 K,
therefore:
θ = 0.751865
[h − 36 , 089 ]
σ = . 297076 e .− 0 .000048063
[h − 36 , 089 ]
δ = . 223361 e .− 0 .000048063
The above relations characterize the standard atmosphere table in this handbook. They may be re-written to
solve for pressure altitude (Hp) for any ambient pressure. Below the tropopause (ambient pressure greater than
472.683 psf or 22632 Pa)
Hp [ft] = [1-(Pa/Po)0.1902632]/[6.8755856 x 10-6]
In the troposphere (ambient pressure between 114.347 and 472.683 psf or between 5475 and 22632.1 Pascal)
Hp [ft] = 36089+[ln(Pa/Po)+1.498966]/ 0.000048063
Page 03 - 13
SFTE Refere
ence Handbook Third Edittion 2013
1976
6 U.S. Stand
dard Atmosph
heric Graph
Pa
age 03 -14
Page 03 - 15
Page 03 - 16
Standard Atmosphere Calculator Website Link

http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/
Page 03 - 17
Page 03 - 18
Section 3.5 Sea States

(ref 3.3) Sea Stale
International Swell Scale
Wave Height,
Code Sea
Crest to Trough (ft)
0 Calm 0
1 Smooth Less than 1
2 Slight 1-3
3 Moderate 3-5
4 Rough 5-8
5 Very rough 8-12
6 High 12-20
7 Very high 20-40
8 Mountainous 40+
9 Confused, Used as additional description 1-8
Code Swell In Open Sea
0 None low
1 Short or average
2 Long
3 Short Moderate height
4 Average
5 Long
6 Short heavy
7 Average
8 Long
9 Confused, Used as additional description 1-8
Page 03 - 19
0:00
23:00 72 deg
22:00 70 deg
60 deg
21:00 50 deg
20:00 40 deg
30 deg
19:00 20 deg
18:00
17:00
16:00 Sunset Times
15:00
14:00
13:00
12:00 Subtract 4 minutes per degree longitude east of Prime Meridian (+4 if west)
UTC time
11:00
Page 03 - 20
10:00
9:00
8:00
Sunrise Times
Section 3.6 Sunrise Sunset Times
7:00
6:00
5:00
4:00
3:00
2:00
1:00
0:00
19/ 2/ 16/ 30/ 13/ 27/ 13/ 27/ 10/ 24/ 8/ 22/ 5/ 19/ 3/ 17/ 31/ 14/ 28/ 11/ 25/ 9/ 23/ 6/ 20/ 4/ 18/
Third Edition 2013
Dec/ Jan/ Jan/ Jan/ Feb/ Feb/ Mar/ Mar/ Apr/ Apr/ May/ May/ Jun/ Jun/ Jul/ Jul/ Jul/ Aug/ Aug/ Sep/ Sep/ Oct/ Oct/ Nov/ Nov/ Dec/ Dec/
Section 3.7 Crosswind Components
40
Crosswind Components
X-wind = (wind speed)*(sin Ψ)
35
30
Headwind Component
25
20
15
10
40
35
30
25
20
5 15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Crosswind Component
Page 03 - 21
Section 3.8 Geodetic Measurements

Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System

ECEF Earth Centered Earth Fixed coordinate system
GPS Global Positioning System
INS Inertial Navigation System
WGS84 World Geodetic System 1984
a Earth’s semi-major axis radius
b Earth’s semi-minor axis radius
D Great circle distance between two points
e eccentricity of the Earth square
f Earth’s flatness factor
h geodetic height
N radius of curvature in prime vertical
P radius of curvature in prime vertical
→ Vector from earth center extending to coordinates

r Earth’s radius
X ECEF x coordinate
Y ECEF y coordinate
Z ECEF z coordinate
φ Geodetic latitude
ϕ Angle between the two → vectors originating at the Earth’s center and extending to their respective

coordinates at the start and end points.
λ Geodetic longitude
ψ Runway heading with respect to true North.
Page 03 - 22
Earth Modeling
The Geodetic System defines the location of any point relative to the earth using latitude, longitude and height
(Figure 3.8-1, point P). Longitude and latitude are expressed in degrees, minutes, seconds. Longitude lines extend
180 degrees from the Prime Meridian, run north to south, and converge at the poles. Latitude lines are parallel
to the equator and extend 90°.
Figure 3.8-1 Geodetic Coordinate System
The 1984 world geodetic system, WGS84, models the earth’s surface as an oblate spheroid - an ellipsoid rotated
about its semi-minor axis. In this model, used by global positioning systems, the earth’s semi-major axis, a is
6,378,137.0 meters and the semi-minor axis, b is 6,356,752.314 meters.
The flatness factor (f) is defined as:

For the WGS84 model, f =1/298.257223563
Because the earth is not perfectly spherical, there are various methods for defining latitude. Unlike the geocentric
latitude which uses the earth’s center for determining a point’s latitude, the geodetic latitude (used herein) is the
angle between the equatorial plane and a line normal to the reference ellipsoid. Figure 3.8-1 exaggerates this with
a normal line being well offset from the earth’s center. This definition leads to a degree of latitude being longer at
the pole than at the equator: 111,694 m (60.3 nm) vs. 110,574 m (59.7 nm).
The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane passing through the point,
both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
Mathematically, the geodetic surface is a smooth ellipsoid modeling the earth’s surface. Clearly, the topography
(actual surface height) deviates from this model whenever land is above or below sea level. Less evident is that
the actual sea level also deviates from the geodetic model due to local changes in the earth’s gravity. Specifically,
Page 03 - 23
mass variations caused by changes in earth density and topography, such as mountains or trenches, change local
gravity vectors and therefore sea level relative to the ellipsoid.
Reference to Mean Sea Level (MSL) served as the traditional way to express topographic or bathymetric height.
Geodesists once considered the sea in balance with the earth's gravity and formed a perfectly regular figure. MSL
is usually described as a tidal datum that is the arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a 19-
year (Metonic) cycle. This definition averages out tidal highs and lows caused by the changing effects of the
gravitational forces from the moon and sun. MSL defines the zero elevation (vertical datum) for a local area.
Because the sea surface conforms to the earth's gravitational field, MSL also has slight hills and valleys similar to
the land surface but much smoother. Zero elevation as defined by one nation is often not the same zero elevation
defined by another, thus locally defined vertical datums differ from each other.
The Geoid is the equipotential surface in the earth’s gravity field that coincides most closely with the mean sea
level extended continuously under the continents. In other words, it approximates the level of any non-flowing
water connected (actually or theoretically) to the seas by waterway or via trenches or tunnels. The geoid surface
undulates relative to the geodetic ellipsoid and is perpendicular to the local gravity vector – as seen with a plumb
line. Similarly, a spirit level defines the local surface parallel to the geoid, which is tangent to the local horizon.
Because the geoid is an equipotential surface, it is the best datum for measuring potential energy and is the true
zero surface for measuring elevations. Previously, there was no way to accurately measure the geoid, so heights
were measured relative to the similar MSL. EGM96 (Earth Gravity Model 1996) represents the best geoid model
currently available and shows smoothly changing surface undulations ranging from +85 to -107 meters relative to
the WGS84 ellipsoid.
The geoid surface cannot be directly observed, thus heights above or below it can't be directly measured. Instead
the geoid surface is modeled mathematically using gravitational measurements. Although for practical purposes,
at the coastline the geoid and MSL surfaces are assumed to be essentially the same, at some spots the geoid can
actually differ from MSL by several meters.
Figure 3.8-2 Height Comparisons
Ellipsoidal height (h) is the same as geodetic height and is the geometric distance between an object and the
earth ellipsoid (Figure 3.8-2). This may be a GPS output.
Geoid height (N) is the height of the geoid above or below the ellipsoid. Some GPS devices output this
undulation value in the data stream.
Page 03 - 24
Orthometric height (H) is the geometric distance along a gravitational force line from a given point P to the
geoid. This is essentially the conventional height measurement because the geoid approximates MSL- the
traditional method for determining height.
Modern GPS units typically include a geoid model (e.g. EGM-96) that provides N (geoid height over the WGS
ellipsoid) at the current position. Such a unit can provide the height above geoid. If GPS height output is only
available relative to the ellipsoid (h), then traditional Orthometric height (H) above the geoid can be obtained by
subtracting the geoid height above the ellipsoid. [http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0703/geoid1of3.html]
ECEF Transformations
For the purpose of performance, navigation, or noise analysis, flight testers may require distances between two
points (the shortest being along the great circle arc) and the average heading of that arc. Calculating these from
typical Geodetic System Lat/Long inputs requires conversion to the Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF)
coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.8-3.
Figure 3.8-3 Earth Centered Earth Fixed Coordinate System
The ECEF coordinate system is a Cartesian system with the origin at the earth’s center. In this system, the X-axis
is defined by the intersection of the Prime Meridian and equatorial planes. The Z-axis goes through the North
Pole. The Y-axis completes a right-handed orthogonal system by a plane 90 degrees east of the X-axis and its
intersection with the equator.
Page 03 - 25
Geodetic System (lat/long/height) data converts to ECEF as follows:
x = (N + h)∙cos(φ)∙cos(λ)
y = (N + h)∙cos(φ)∙sin(λ)
z = (N∙(1-e2) + h) ∙sin(φ)
where,
x = ECEF coordinate parallel to the X-axis
y = ECEF coordinate parallel to the Y-axis
z = ECEF coordinate parallel to the Z-axis
φ = geodetic latitude
λ = geodetic longitude
h = height above geodetic (ellipsoid) surface
N = Normal radius of curvature; distance from earth axis to any point on the geodetic surface at that latitude
(extension of r to axis shown in Figure 3.8-3).

1 ∙
where,
a = semi-major axis radius (6,378,137 m; 20,925,647 ft)

e2 = eccentricity squared; 1 2 ∙ = 0.00669438002290 (Earth, per WGS84).
Also useful is
M = Meridian radius of curvature; distance from earth axis to any point on the geodetic surface at that longitude.
1

1 ∙ .
Page 03 - 26
Great Circle Calculations
Any plane passing through the center of a spheroid traces a Great Circle around the perimeter of that spheroid.
The shortest distance between two points on the surface is that portion of the great circle arc encompassing both
points (Figure 3.8-3).
Figure 3.8-3 Great Circle Arc
Except when moving around the equator, navigating along a great circle route has the characteristic of
intercepting longitude lines at different angles. In other words, the heading (or bearing) changes along the route.
Analysis shows bearing change along a great circle route:
• Is never greater than the longitude difference between the end points.
• Approaches the value of the longitude change as the final latitude approaches a pole (regardless of
initial latitude).
• Is smallest when the final latitude is at the equator

(for this case, bearing change ≈ longitude change x initial latitude/100).
Page 03 - 27
Calculate the great circle distance (D) between points (subscripts 1 and 2) as
,
→ ∙→ ∙ cos ∙ ∙ ∙

∙ ∙ ∙

∙
∙
where
P = distance from earth center to any point (including height above the spheroid surface).
→ = Vector from the Earth’s center to point P.

ϕ = Angle between the two → vectors

<http://www.movable-type.co.uk/scripts/latlong.html> provides equations an online tool for calculating great

circle initial & final bearings (headings).
For shorter distances typical of local flight testing, the Great Circle model matches the following
Two-dimensional approximations.
Distance North-South (Northing): dy = N ∙ sin(∆φ)
Earth’s radius East-West: r = N∙cos(φ)
Distance East-West (Easting): dx = r ∙sin(∆λ)
2-D distance between two points:

Heading between two points (relative to true north) ψ = arctan (dy/dx)
An error analysis of the above 2-D heading approximation shows it consistently lies between the initial
and final headings transpiring during great circle navigation and is closest to the final heading. This
occurs when considering up to 10 degrees longitude change and is therefore sufficiently accurate for
lesser changes that arise in flight testing (e.g. radial from a navigation transmitter).
An error analysis of the above 2-D distance approximation shows accuracy within 0.6% of the great
circle distance when changing latitude and longitude 1 degree, and within 3% when changing latitude
and longitude 10 degrees. It is accurate to within 0.4% when changing only latitude or longitude 10
degrees.
Page 03 - 28
Local Distance Transformation
Latitude φ, longitude λ, and height (typical GPS output data) can be transformed into rectangular (X,Y,Z)
coordinates. The following presents a method for applying this to two different coordinate systems, both with the
X-Y axes defining the horizontal plane. This is useful when working with local distances associated with typical
flight testing such as noise measurement, local navigation, or field performance.
Figure 3.8-4a shows a case where the X-Y coordinate system aligns with the latitude & longitude grid. Figure 3.8-
4b shows a case where the X-Y coordinate system aligns with a runway, with Y=0 defining the centerline. In both
cases, a designated primary reference datum [φ0, λ0], such as the runway centerline threshold, coincides with
X=0, Y=0. With the example shown in Figure 3.8-4b, the opposite end of the runway centerline [φ1, λ1],
coincides with X= runway length and Y= 0.
Figure 3.8-4: Local X-Y Coordinate System Aligned with (a)φ,λ Grid; (b) Runway
Because each degree of latitude change is not always exactly 60 nm and because the spacing between degrees of
longitude changes markedly with latitude, converting from degrees latitude & longitude change to distance
requires scaling factors. First select equatorial distances for each degree change
φ_scale{φ=0} = 110,574 m = 362,776.6 ft = 59.70518 nm
λ_scale{φ=0} = 111,319.5 m = 365,221.4 ft = 60.10772 nm
Use average latitude to calculate latitude and longitude scaling factors
∅_scale#∅$%& 56_789:;#∅$%&<∙=>?∅
∅_scale 1.3 λ_scale
*
'() * ∙+, -./0 () * ∙?@A* -./
Calculate X and Y components of distances aligned with the latitude & longitude grid (Figure 3.8-4a)
Y = φ _scale·(φ 1 - φ 0)
X = λ_scale·(λ1 - λ0)
The 2-D local (vice great circle) distance between any two points on the X-Y plane is
D = (X2 + Y2)1/2
Page 03 - 29
For field performance work, it is preferable to align X & Y with the runway as shown in Figure 3.8-4b. To convert
from grid-aligned to runway-aligned coordinates, apply a rotation matrix that ensures X remains positive when
going from point [φ 0, λ0] towards [φ 1, λ1]. The rotation angle, ψ, is positive counter-clockwise from true East to
the direction of the runway. [Note: do not confuse ψ with runway heading measured relative to magnetic north].
The function
ψ = atan2(X, Y)
returns rotation angles from - π to π, so that rotating to headings between 90° and 270° results in
negative rotation angles.
For any point [φ, λ], calculate runway-aligned X & Y distances using
X = φ _scale·( φ - φ 0)·sin(ψ) + λ_scale·(λ - λ0)·cos(ψ)

Y = φ _scale·( φ - φ 0)·cos(ψ) – λ_scale·(λ - λ0)·sin(ψ)
This provides a right-handed rectangular coordinate system where X is positive from [φ 0, λ0] towards [φ1, λ1]
and Y is positive left of the runway centerline (Figure 3.8-4b).
For multiple tests from a given runway, it is convenient to define the following
constants from the above equations
K1 = φ _scalesin(ψ)
K2 = λ_scalecos(ψ)
K3 = φ _scalecos(ψ)
K4 = λ_scalesin(ψ)
The overall conversion from [φ, λ] to [X, Y] then reduces to
X = K1·( φ - φ 0) + K2·(λ - λ0)

Y = K3·( φ - φ 0) – K4·(λ - λ0)
Calculating aircraft height Z above the X-Y plane requires defining where the X-Y plane lies. An analyst may
define Z=0 at some arbitrary height (i.e. GPS altitude at the beginning of a maneuver) and consider only changes
from that reference.
For field performance, it is typical to use the runway altitude as the reference. Because runway altitudes vary
however, height should be surveyed and modeled or tabulated as a function runway centerline position, H{X}.
For best accuracy, the runway survey accounts for GPS antenna height above the surface. Airplane height above
the X-Y plane (Z) is then
Z = ζ – H{X}
where ζ is the test GPS antenna’s altitude.
Note: Analysts can determine Z using either Orthometric height above the geoid (H) or above the
.
geodetic surface (h) – as long as the runway surface model H{X} uses the same reference
Page 03 - 30
3.9 Temperature Compensated Barometric Altitude

Background: Pressure altitude is the geopotential height above mean sea level (MSL) associated with
atmospheric pressure on a theoretical standard day. Geopotential height is almost identical to geometric (a.k.a.
tapeline) altitude, as seen in page 03-5. Altimeters set at 29.92 in Hg (or 1013 HPa) display pressure altitude. An
altimeter’s baro-set knob allows pilots to bias the pressure vs. altitude relation so it matches sea level pressure for
non-standard conditions. Matching the local altimeter setting (known as setting QNH in many parts of the world)
adjusts the altimeter so it displays nearly the same altitude above MSL for non-standard pressure conditions. The
correct setting is critical for terrain & obstacle clearance when the pilot’s visibility is low.
Note: When operating well above terrain and obstacles, it is more critical to ensure all aircraft use the same
altimeter setting so they de-conflict with each other. Because chances are high that pilots might not know of or
properly re-set the altimeter numerous times during high altitude flights, aviation authorities established
transition altitudes. When climbing above the transition altitude, all pilots must set altimeters to read pressure
altitude (baro setting at 29.92 or 10113 HPa, known as QNE or standard baro setting). Different countries use
different transition altitudes (e.g. 18,000 ft MSL in U.S. and Canada; 14,000 ft MSL in Japan; 3,000 ft MSL in
The Netherlands). Regardless of the transition altitude, pilots and air traffic controllers refer to altitudes above it
as a “Flight Level.” Flight level is abbreviated as FL and is quoted in hundreds of feet above MSL. For example
operating at 36,000 ft (always pressure altitude above MSL) is abbreviated as FL360.
Although the long-used practice of matching the local altimeter setting has been sufficiently safe in the vast
majority of operations, it in fact does not account for temperature deviation from standard conditions. Extreme
temperature deviations cause a classic mechanical altimeter to display an MSL altitude erring by hundreds of feet.
Modern technology allows calculating and displaying a more accurate altitude that corrects for temperature
deviations. The following equation yields temperature-compensated altitude which better estimates geometric
altitude above MSL, hG. Calculations require knowledge of aircraft’s baro and pressure altitudes and the terminal
airport’s temperature and pressure altitude. In lieu of pressure altitudes, calculations allow for implementing the
field elevation (depicted on airport approach plates, etc.) and so-called baro bias. Baro bias is the displayed
altitude shift when switching from local to standard altimeter setting.
hG = Hb + [(Tapt – T0)/L – Hpapt]ln[1 + L(Hp – Hpapt)/(T0 + L*Hpapt)]
where
hG = temperature-compensated altitude
Hb = baro altitude (displayed when altimeter is set to local value)
Tapt = airport temperature (Kelvin)
T0 = standard day sea level temperature = 15 deg C = 288.15 K
L = standard temperature lapse rate = -0.0065 K/m = -.0019812 K/ft
Hpapt = airport pressure altitude ( = airport field elevation – baro bias)
Hp = aircraft pressure altitude ( = Hb – baro bias)
Note: ensure altitude units are consistent with lapse rate units.
Page 03 - 31

In lieu of the pilot adjusting the baro set knob to determine baro bias, it may be calculated using
Baro bias = Hb ‐ Hp = Hb – (29.92.1903 – PA.1903)/.00001313 [ft]
where
PA = ambient pressure = {altimeter setting [in Hg].1903 – Hb(.00001313)}1/.1903
Flight testers can use the above to verify the aircraft’s temperature compensation system is working correctly.
Data analysts can use these equations to more precisely determine geometric height above the ground –
potentially useful for performance or pitot-static flyby testing.
3.1 Anon., “Aeronautical Vestpocket Handbook” ,Part No. P&W

079500, United Technologies Pratt & Whitney, Canada, 1990.
3.2 Lawless, Alan. R. et al, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers”, National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658,
Mojave CA, 93501, 1999.
3.3 Denno, Richard R., et al “AIAA Aerospace Design Engineers Guide” ISBN 0-930403-21-5, AIAA, 1987.
3.4 Global Positioning System Overview, Peter H. Dana, Department of Geography, University of Texas
at Austin, 1994. (www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html)
3.5 Charles D Ghilani, Penn State College of Engineering, 2008 (http://surveying.wb.psu.edu/sur351/georef/

Ellip4.htm) <www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html>
3.6 Standard Atmosphere Calculator Website Link http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/.
3.7 Movable Type Scripts. <http://www.movable-type.co.uk/scripts/latlong.html>

[Calculate distance, bearing and more between Latitude/Longitude points]
Page 03 - 32

Section 4 Pitot Statics
4.1 Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Equations

4.2 Subsonic Scale Altitude (Compressibility) Correction Chart
4.3 Subsonic Relations Between Compressible and Incompressible Dynamic Pressure
4.4 Supersonic Airspeed and Mach Equations
4.5 Total Temperature Equation
4.6 Altimeter Equation
4.7 PEC Test Methods
4.7.1 Tower Fly-by
4.7.2 Ground Course Method
4.7.3 Trailing Bomb, Cone Method
4.7.4 GPS Methods
4.8 Postion Error Correction Certification Requirements
4.10 Airspeed/Altitude/Mach Graphic Relations
Editor's Note
In an effort to reduce confusion and conflict regarding pitot and static pressure nomenclature, SFTE
has elected to change two definitions and symbols since the first edition of this handbook was released.
Henceforth, ΔPs shall indicate static pressure ERROR (ΔPs = Ps – Pa) and ΔPT shall indicate total (i.e.
pitot) pressure ERROR (ΔPT = Pp – PT). This nomenclature eliminates the ΔPp symbol and confusion
as to whether it indicates position error or pitot error.
Page 04 - 1
Section 4 Common Nomenclature

a = speed of sound
ao = speed of sound at sea level on a std day
M = Mach number
Pa =ambient pressure
Po = ambient pressure at sea level on a std day
(=2116.2 lb/ft2 = 29.92 in Hg)
Pp = pitot pressure corrected for instrument error only
Ps = static pressure (indicated at static port)
PT = total pressure
q = incompressible dynamic pressure
qc = compressible differential pressure (PT-Pa)
qcic = instrument corrected differential pressure (= Pp-Ps)
Ta = ambient temperature (absolute scale)
To =ambient temperature at sea level on a std day
(=288.15 oK = 15 oC = 518.7 oR = 59 oF)
TT = total temperature (absolute scale)
Vc = calibrated airspeed
Ve = equivlent airspeed
Vg = ground speed
Vi = indicated airspeed
Vic = instrument corrected airspeed
VT = true airspeed
ΔHic = altimeter instrument correction
ΔHpc = altimeter position error correction
ΔPD = dynamic pressure error (= PT-ΔPs)
ΔPT = total (pitot) pressure error (= PP - PT)
ΔPs =static pressure error (= Ps - Pa)
ΔVic = airspeed instrument correction
ΔVpc =airspeed position error correction
δ = pressure ratio between ambient and sea level std (= Pa / Po)
θ = temperature ratio between ambient and sea level std (= Ta / To)
ρo =ambient density at sea level on a std day (=.002377 slg/ft3)
σ = density ratio between ambient and sea level std (= ρa /ρo)
γ = ratio of specific heats (= 1.4 for air)
Page 04 - 2
Section 4.1 Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Equations

True Airspeed
1
  γ −1
 2
 2 γ Pa   PT − Pa  γ 
VT =   + 1 − 1  
γ − 1 ρ a   Pa  
  
Equivalent Airspeed
(= VT equation with assumption of std day sea level density)
 2

Pa   PT − Pa 7  ρa
Ve = 7  + 1 − 1  = V T = VT σ
ρ o   Pa   ρo
 
Calibrated Airspeed
(= Ve equation with assumption of std day sea level pressure)
1
  γ −1
 2
2γ Po   PT − Pa  γ 
Vc =   + 1 − 1  
γ −1 ρo   Po  
  
ඨ7 ൬ቂP +1ቃ
Po qc .2857
-1൰
ρo o
Applying British units (lb/ft2) and converting from ft/sec to knots yields
2
 P − Pa 7 (kts)
Vc = 1479  T + 1 − 1
 2116 
Mach Number
γ −1
  q 
2

2  PT − Pa  γ 7
+ 1  − 1 = 5  + 1 − 1 

V
M = T =  c
a 
γ − 1  Pa     Pa  
   
Page 04 - 3
Section 4.2 Scale Altitude (Compressibility ) Correction
The name comes from the fact that although the equivalent airspeed equation does correct for compressibility,
the sea level pressure assumption used for calibrated airspeed makes the compressibility correction valid only
for that (sea level) pressure. Above sea level, the calibrated airspeed must be re-scaled for pressure effects on
compressibility. The mathematical method for determining Ve from Vc is to first solve the calibrated airspeed
equation for qc
⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
qc = Pο ⎢⎜⎜ o c + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Next, substitute this value and the ambient pressure (Pa) into the equivalent airspeed equation. (qc = PT - Pa )
⎛ 2
⎞
Pa ⎜ ⎡ qc ⎤ 7 ⎟
Ve = 7 ⎜ ⎢ + 1⎥ − 1⎟
ρo ⎜ ⎣ Pa ⎦ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The adjacent chart does this graphically for all subsonic airspeeds.
Ve = Vc +ΔVc
Page 04 - 4
Vc, Knots Calibrated Airspeed
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0 0.3 Mach 0.4 Mach
0.5 Mach
0.6 Mach
-5
0.7 Mach
0.8 Mach
-10
0.9 Mach
-15
1.0 Mach
ΔVc (kts),
Page 04 - 5
ΔV c =V e -V c
-20 Below subsonic

equations use knots
for airpseeds and
pascals for pressures
(q c , P a )
Correction to be added to Vc to obtain Ve (equivalent airspeed)

-25
q c =([(V c /1479.2)^2+1]^3.5-1)*101325
V e =4.647*(P a *[(qc /P a +1)^0.28571-1])^0.5
-30
Subsonic Scale Altitude (Compressibility) Correction

Third Edition 2013
Section 4.3 Subsonic Relations Between Compressible and Incompressible Dynamic Pressure
For constant density (incompressible) flow Bernoulli’s equation reduces to
2 2q
VT = (PT − Pa ) =
ρa ρa
Where incompressible dynamic pressure q is defined as PT-Pa .

As airflow speed increases, its density at the stagnation point increases thereby increasing the sensed pressure.
The ratio between compressible & incompressible dynamic pressure can be written as a function of Mach num-
ber
⎡ M2 M4 M6 ⎤
qc = q ⎢1 + + + + ........⎥
⎣ 4 40 1600 ⎦
True dynamic pressure q (as used in modeling) is defined in dimensional analysis as:
q = /2 ρaVT = /2 ρoVe
1 2 1 2
This value for q should not be confused with compressible (a.k.a. impact or differential) pressure, qc (= PT -Pa)
⎛⎡q 2
⎞
⎜ c + 1⎤ − 1⎟
7
1 P
q = ρo 7 a ⎜⎜ ⎢ P ⎥ ⎟⎟
2 Po ⎣ ⎦
⎝ a
⎠
Page 04 - 6
1.30
Dynamic Pressure : Compressible Dynamic Pressure

1.25 vs.
Mach Number
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
Poly. (qc/q)
1.00 Poly. (q/qc)
Page 04 - 7
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
M
Third Edition 2013
Section 4.4 Supersonic Airspeed and Mach Equations

PT’ denotes pitot pressure behind shock wave
True Airspeed
γ⎡ ⎤ γ −1
⎡γ + 1 ⎛V ⎞ ⎤
2 γ − ⎢ ⎥
P ' T − Pa q 1
⎢ 1 ⎥
= c = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1
Pa Pa ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2γ ⎛ V ⎞ 2 γ − 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎥
⎣γ +1⎝ a ⎠ γ +1⎦
Equivalent Airspeed (valid if qc/Pa >0.892929158)

7
⎡ V ⎤
166.92⎢ e ⎥
qc
= ⎣ ao δ ⎦ − 1
2
Pa ⎡ Ve ⎤
⎥ − 1)
2.5
(7 ⎢
⎣ ao δ ⎦
Calibrated Airspeed (valid if Vc>ao)
7
⎡V ⎤
166.92⎢ c ⎥
qc
= ⎣ ao ⎦ − 1
2
Po ⎡V ⎤
(7 ⎢ c ⎥ − 1) 2.5
⎣ ao ⎦
Mach Number
qc 166.92[M ]
7
= −1
Pa (7[M ]2 − 1) 2.5
Page 04 - 8
Section 4.5 Total Temperature Equation
Since stagnation exists at the probe, it absorbs the energy of the air
ρ PTV ρT PT VT TT
Temperature Probe
V2 γ Ps γ Pp
Apply Bernoulli: + ⋅ = ⋅
2 γ −1 ρs γ −1 ρ p
also P
/ρ = RT and a2 = γRT
TT ⎛ γ −1⎞ 2
∴ = 1+ ⎜ ⎟M
Ta ⎝ 2 ⎠
Use K ( probe recovery factor) to account for heat losses:
TT ⎡ K(γ −1) 2 ⎤
= 1+ M ⎥
Ta ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦
During position error flight testing, measure Ti

From Vc and Hpc determine M
Ti + ∆Tic = TT = Tα + Tα KM 2
plot Ti ~ M 2
TT
γ −1
Ta slope= Ta K
2
2
M
Page 04 - 9
Section 4.6 Altimeter Equation

-6 5.256
Pa = Po (1-6.87535 x 10 H) below 36,089 ft
-.00004806[H-36,089]
Pa = Po (.22335) e above 36,089 ft
Hi Indicated pressure altitude (29.92” Hg)

∆ Hic Instrument error correction
Hic Altimeter corrected of instrument error
∆ Hpc Position error correction
Hc Calibrated pressure altitude
Page 04 - 10
Section 4.7 Position Error Test Methods
4.7.1 Fly-by
As depicted below, the flyby method originally used some sort of viewing platform with surveyed distances and
a grid or other device for determining the aircraft’s relative angle above the platform’s altimeter. This infor-
mation combined to give the aircraft’s actual pressure altitude. Modern methods replace the tower system with a
radar altimeter or GPS unit to determine tapeline height above the flyby line (Hg). This geometric height is con-
verted to a pressure altitude change using a temperature correction. When added to the aircraft’s pressure alti-
tude on the runway, this change provides the actual pressure altitude during the flyby (Actual Hc = runway pres-
sure altitude + Hg(Ts/Tt).
Assumptions
1. No errors in total head.
2. Constant height runs
3. Surveyed course
 T 
Actual H c = H ctower +  D tanθ ⋅ s 
 Tt 
∆H pc = Actual H c − (H i + ∆H ic )
∆ PS = − ρ g ∆ H pc
∆ PS = q c − q cic
∆ PS = 1 ρ 0V c − 1 ρ 0V ic (low Mach only)
2 2
2 2
Solve for V c
∆ V pc = V c − V ic
See flowchart for high mach or ∆PT ≠ 0 cases.
Page 04 - 11
Error Analysis
(sea level ft)

Cumulative Height Error 30 knot
to 1.0
speed knot
ir 0.5
20 A
pee d to
Air s
10
Vic (knots)
100 200 300 400
Note: A check on basic instrument calibration is easily accomplished using a “ground block” where a parked test aircraft
compares altimeters with tower. Any error can be treated as a bias.
This altitude-based Test method determines altimeter corrections and therefore static error directly. Accurately converting
this static source error to an airspeed correction also requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ).
This can be determined either through direct comparison with a calibrated noseboom pitot pressure or from one of the air-
speed-based methods that directly yield airspeed corrections (pace, ground course, GPS). In lieu of these options, the pitot
error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence in the calculated value for airspeed correction.
Page 04 - 12
Section 4.7.2 Ground Course Method
Vi
+ Δ V ic ΔS
= V ic Vi
+ ΔV pc Ti
= Vc
÷ σ
= VT
ΔS
=
ΔT
Fly known course at constant Vi

Elapsed time = ΔT ,∴VT = ΔS
ΔT
Use H i and Ti to compute Ve = VT ( σ ) = Vc for low altitude.
Correct Vi for instrument error corrections (ΔVic ) using
Vic = Vi + ΔVic
ΔV pc = Vc − Vic
To determine altimeter error assume ΔPT = 0
1 ρ 0 [Vc2 − Vic2 ] = + ΔPS
2
ΔPS = + ρgΔH
ΔPS − ΔPT
If ΔPT ≠ 0, then ΔH pc = +
ρg
Page 04 - 13
Error resulting from a 1/2 sec timing error

3
Airspeed Error (kts) 0.5 sec
e
rs
timing
u
co
error
ile
e
u rs
m
2
co
2
i le
3m
e
o urs
ile c
1 5m
0
50 100 150 200 250
Airspeed (kts)
Error resulting from wind changes
3
Wind speed increasing from 10 kts to 15 kts
Airspeed Error (kts)
between runs in opposite directions

2
1kt wind, 180o direction change

1
0
50 100 150 200 250 Airspeed (kts)
This airspeed-based Test method determines airspeed corrections directly. Accurately converting this airspeed
error to a static source error requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ). This can be
determined using one of the altitude-based methods that directly yield altitude corrections (tower fly-by, trailing
cone or bomb). In lieu of these options, the pitot error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence
in the calculated values for static pressure error and altimeter. correction
Page 04 - 14
Section 4.7.3 Trailing Cone/Bomb Method
Static holes
Psref
1. Measure PS (ref) away from pressure field of aircraft

2. Cone is used to stabilize static line
3. No speed limitations
4. Inexpensive—can be trailed on landing
5. Consider lag effects during rapid altitude changes
ΔPS = ΔPS A / C − ΔPS REF

ΔPS
ΔH pc = + = altimeter correction
ρg
ΔPT − ΔPS = ΔPD = qic − qc assuming ΔPT = 0, M < .2
If pitot errors do exist, then they must be included in calculations for ΔVpc (see flowchart)
Using a trailing cone during stall testing may give airspeed errors due to lag errors during the deceleration.
This altitude-based Test method determines altimeter corrections and therefore static error directly. Accurately converting
this static source error to an airspeed correction also requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ).
This can be determined either through direct comparison with a calibrated noseboom pitot pressure or from one of the air-
speed-based methods that directly yield airspeed corrections (pace, ground course, GPS). In lieu of these options, the pitot
error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence in the calculated value for airspeed correction.
Page 04 - 15
4.7.4 GPS Methods
• The attraction
~ no aircraft modification required
» no trailing cone or aircraft plumbing mod
» no flight test boom
~ no limitation on speed or altitude
» can be done down to near stall,
» any altitude
~ easy data reduction
» no correlation with pace aircraft, ground

radar, or other references required
Various methods available, all assume steady winds and ambient temperature. You must determine wind speed
and direction to calculate VT and T0 and to ensure steady winds existed during test series.
GPS accuracies are variable. Know tolerances before accepting GPS as a truth model.
If exact (± 10º ) winds are calculated inflight, you can fly one pass directly into/away from the wind
VT = VG + VHeadwind
This airspeed-based Test method determines airspeed corrections directly. Accurately converting this airspeed
error to a static source error requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ). This can be
determined using one of the altitude-based methods that directly yield altitude corrections (tower fly-by, trailing
cone or bomb). In lieu of these options, the pitot error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence
in the calculated values for static pressure error and altimeter. correction
Graphs in Section 4.11 separately show the effect of measurement errors in ΔPT, air temperature, or true air-
speed on ΔVC calculations . The last chart (Page 04-29) shows how each knot of accumulated ΔVC uncertainty
affects the ΔHC uncertainty at various altitudes and temperatures.
Page 04 - 16
Flying four legs instead of three allows four separate calculations of wind speed & direction to confirm stable
winds at that test airspeed. If several real-time calculations of winds confirm constant direction and velocity,
then testing may be shortened by flying only one pass directly into or away from the wind. If this is done, an
end-of-test wind calibration must be performed to confirm steady winds throughout the test series. To mini-
mize temperature and wind variations, testing should be accomplished within a relatively small area.
Horseshoe Track GPS Method
• Horseshoe track method

~ f ly three legs with each perpendicular ground tr acks,
noting GPS ground speed on each
~ determine true airspeed by solving three equations in
three unknowns
• Practical problem
~ need to fly close to the ground, tracking perpendicular
ground refer ences
VW
c
VG3 VT
VT
VG1
VT
VW
VW VG2 b
a
⎛ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
True airspeed : VT =
1 ⎜V1 + V22 + V32 + V12 × ⎜ V32 ⎟ ⎟
2 ⎜ ⎜V ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
2 2
⎛ V − V ⎞ ⎛ V − V ×V V ⎞
Wind velocityVW = ⎜ 1 3 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 1 3 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(V − V ×V V )
Wind directionψ W = tan -1 2 1 3 2
(V1 − V3 )
Page 04 - 17
Horseshoe Heading GPS Method
• Horseshoe Heading Method

∼ Fly three legs with perpendicular headings, noting GPS ground speed on each
∼ Determine true airspeed by solving three equations in three unknowns
W
c
VT VG3
VG1
VT VG2 Angle a = ψ
Angle b = 90 + ψ
VW
VT b Angle c = 180 - ψ
a VW
⎡ − VG21 + 2VG22 − VG23 ⎤

Wind direction ψ = tan ⎢ -1
⎥
⎣ VG23 − VG21 ⎦
1
⎡ ⎛ − VG21 + 2VG22 − VG23 ⎞
2 ⎤ 2
Wind velocity VW = 1 ⎢VG23 + VG21 ±

2⎢
(V2
G3 + VG21 )
2
+ / − ⎜⎜
sin ψ
⎟⎟ ⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Whichever Works
VG23 + VG21
True airspeed VT = − VW2
2
The “Windbox” method consists of flying four legs instead of three. The extra leg provides a fourfold increase
in wind calculations to improve result confidence. The “Orbis” method extends this advantage by collecting
data at every heading throughout a level turn.
Page 04 - 18
Cloverleaf Method
(Microsoft Excel spreadsheet adapted from Doug Gray, NSW Australia)
Fly three legs with approximately 90-120 degree difference between headings.
~ Can be accomplished in a broad turn as with the horseshoe method, or
~ Directly over a single point (cloverleaf maneuver).
Accurate results require
~ Identical values for indicated airspeed (and TAS) for all legs.
~ Constant winds throughout data collection (single W/S vector in figure).
~ Approx. 10 seconds stable ground speed, Vg, (G/S in figure) during each leg.
Aircraft heading results for each leg entail an airborne compass swing.
Inputs for each 3-leg data set

Vg1 Vg2 Vg3
Trk1 Trk2 Trk3
Intermediate calculations
X1 = Vg1*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk1)/180)
Y1 = Vg1*COS(PI()*(360-Trk1)/180)
X2 = Vg2*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk2)/180)
Y2 = Vg2*COS(PI()*(360-Trk2)/180)
X3 = Vg3*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk3)/180)
Y3 = Vg3*COS(PI()*(360-Trk3)/180)
M1 = -(X2 -X1)/(Y 2-Y1)
M2 = -(X3 -X1)/(Y3 -Y1)
B1 = (Y1 +Y2)/2 -M1*(X1 +X2)/2
B2 = (Y1 +Y3)/2 -M2*(X1 +X3)/2
VWx = (B1 -B2)/(M2 -M1)
VWy = M1* VWx +B1
Results
Aircraft true airspeed = VT = [(X1 - VWx)2 +(Y1 - VWy)2] 0.5
Total wind speed = Vw = [(VWx 2 + VWy 2)]0.5
Wind direction = ψw = Psiw = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy, VWx)),360)
1st leg a/c heading = ψ1 = Psi1 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy -Y1, VWx -X1)),360)
2nd leg a/c heading = ψ2 = Psi2 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy –Y2, VWx -X2)),360)
3rd leg a/c heading = ψ3 = Psi3 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy -Y3, VWx -X3)),360)
Page 04 - 19
Section 4.8 Position Error FAR 23/25.1323 and .1325/JAR Certification

Requirements
100
50
30 V ( kts )
ic
Δ H pc 0
100 200 300
-30
-50
1.3 V
S0
-100 1.8 V S 1
Maximum error at sea level must be less than ± 30 ft/100 kts between 1.3 VSO and 1.8 VSI
VSO = Full flap, gear down, power off, stall speed
VSI = Stall speed in a specific configuration
12
10
8
6
4
VFE
2
ΔV pc V ic ( kts )
0
( kts ) 200
-2 100 300 400
-4
-6 V MO / M MO
or V NE
-8
1.3 VS 0
-10
-12 166.7 kts
Errors must be equal to or less than +3%

of Vc or +5kts whichever is greater
Page 04 - 20
Mil Spec P-26292 C (USAF)

Landing configuration: ΔH pc ± 30 ft.
.03
.02
Air data computer
.01
ΔPS Mach number
0
q .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
-.01 Compensation req.
-.02
Page 04 - 21
Pitot-Static Calibration Flow Chart, written by Al Lawless
Std Sea Level Conditions Tο = 15o C = 288.15 K = 518.7 R Mach qc ≡ PT − Pa ; qcic ≡ Pp − Ps
VT V
aο = 1116.45 ft/s = 661 KTAS = 761.14 mph = 340.3 m/s M≡ = T Δ PT ≡ P P − PT ; Δ P s ≡ P s − P a
a ao θ
Temperature Pο = 2116.22 lb/ft 2 = 29.92 in.Hg = 101325 Pa ΔPT , ΔPs , = total & static errors
K = o C + 273 . 15 q 2
3 3 M (< 1) = 5[( c + 1) 7 − 1] Common definitions:
ρο = .0023689 slg/ft = 1.225 kg/m Pa
R =o F + 459.67 Pa = true ambient pressure,
o 5 g = 32 .17 ft/sec 2 = 9.80665 m/sec 2 PT = true total pressure,
C = [o F − 32] Ps = instrument-corrected static press.
o 9 9
SUPERSONIC EQUATIONS PP = instrument-corrected pitot press.
F = o C + 32
5 7
Calculations require consistent units Altitude ⎡ V ⎤ Ve
TTi 166.92 ⎢ e ⎥ Can replace with M Airspeed
(e.g. ft/s, lb/ft2) for all inputs & outputs. qc ao δ
ft/s = knots x 1.68781 = mph x 1.4666
Hi
= ⎣ ao δ ⎦
−1
2 Vi
m/s = knots x .51444 = ft/s x .30386 Pa or replace Ve with Vc and
2 .5
⎡ Ve ⎤
knots = .54 x Km/hr = mph x .869 (7 ⎢ ⎥ − 1) δ
+ ΔTic Pa = lb/ft2 x 47.88 = lb/in2 x .3325 + ΔH ic ⎣ ao δ ⎦ replace Pa with Po + ΔVic
TT Sign Convention
. ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
Note that SFTE sign convention qcic = Po ⎢⎜⎜ o ic + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Vic
TT Slope=.2TaK H ic stipulates ΔPT and ΔPs are errors to
Ta
.. . ⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
be subtracted while ΔHpc and ΔVpc
are corrections to be added.
M2 ΔV pc = Vc − Vic
+ ΔV pc
ΔPs P ⎛ q 2 ⎞
Page 04 - 22
Δ H pc = H c − H ic + ΔH pc ΔH pc = Vc = 7 o ⎜⎜ [ c + 1] 7 − 1 ⎟⎟
TT K ρa g ρ ο ⎝ Pο ⎠ If using known Vc
Ta = 2 3 .5
+
1 .2 KM ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞ ⎤
If using known pressure alt. qcic + ΔPs − ΔPT = qc qc = Po ⎢⎜⎜ o c + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
Hc ⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦ + ΔVc
T HG = geometric (tapeline) altitude ΔPs
ΔH c ≈ ΔH G s Ts = std temp at test altitude (abs.)
Ta Ta = test day ambient temp (abs.) ΔPT often ≈ 0 for fixed-wing A/C in normal flight. Ve
T Exact solution requires multiple tests or noseboom with PT reference.
θ= a
To Pa
δ= = [1 − 6.876 ×10−6 × H c ]5.25 Subsonic ΔVc from scale altitude
Note: Must use Pο (a.k.a. compressibility) correction chart,
<36,088 ft (<11,000 m)
absolute temperatures or from ΔVc = Ve - Vc where ÷ σ
(K or R) when −.00004806 [ H c −36 , 088 ]
δ =.223358 e
calculating θ. P ⎛ q 2 ⎞
a 7
>36,088 ft (>11,000 m) Ve = 7 ⎜ [ c + 1] − 1 ⎟⎟
ρ ο ⎜⎝ Pa ⎠
If using known VT
ρa δ − Vheadwind
σ = = ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
P ⎛ q 2 ⎞
ρo θ VT = 7 a ⎜⎜ [ c + 1] 7 − 1 ⎟⎟ qc = Pa ⎢⎜⎜ a T + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
ρ a ⎝ Pa ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ Pa 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
VG
Third Edition 2013
Airspeed: KEAS and KCAS
KEAS=100 150 200 250 300 350 400
60000 450
55000 500
KCAS=100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
550
50000
600 600
45000
650 650
700
40000
700
750
35000 750 800
800 850
30000 900
850
950
Altitude (Feet)
25000 900
Page 04 - 23
1000
950
20000 1000
15000
4.10 Airspeed/Altitude/Mach Graphic Relation
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Mach Number
Third Edition 2013
50 KEAS=8.5 psf q
100 KEAS=33.9 psf Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Number Relations
150 KEAS=76.2 psf
60,000 0.2M 0.4M 0.6M 0.8M 1.0M
Dark fairings denote constant Mach number
200 KEAS=135.4 psf q Dashed colored fairings denote constant KTAS @ ISA.
55,000
White fairings denote const. KEAS & dynamic pressure (q)
50,000 50 KTAS
Velocity conversions
kts* 1.68781 = ft/sec 100 KTAS
250 KEAS=211.6 psf q
45,000 kts * 1.852 = Km/hr 150 KTAS
kts * 1.15078 = mph 200 KTAS
250 KTAS
40,000 A. Lawless 300 KTAS
350 KTAS
Pressure conversions 400 KTAS
35,000
psf * 144.0 = psi
450 KTAS
psf * 47.88 = Pa
350 KEAS=414.7 psf q 500 KTAS
psf * .1414 = in. Hg
30,000 550 KTAS
600 KTAS
Page 04 - 24
25,000 650 KTAS
20,000 450 KEAS=685.6 psf
Hc, Pressure Altitude (ft)

15,000
500 KEAS = 846.4 psf q
550 KEAS = 1024.1 psf

10,000
600 KEAS =1218.8 psf

5,000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
(33.9 psf qc) (138 psf qc) (319.5 psf qc) (590.8 psf qc) (970.5 psf qc) (1484.5 psf qc)
(8.4 psf qc) (76.9 psf qc) (218.5 psf qc) (443 psf qc) (765.7 psf qc) (1208.8 psf qc) (1802.3 psf qc)
Calibrated Airspeed (KCAS)
Third Edition 2013
Calibrated Airspeed Correction per PSF Total Pressure Increase
2.0
Δ Vc (kts) = Δ PT*{ -[2.715E-13]*Vc^5 + [5.75E-10]*Vc^4 - [4.75E-07]*Vc^3 + [ 1.934E-04]*Vc^2 - [0.04047]*Vc + 4.01}
1.8
Δ PT effects are essentially linear if Δ PT <3psf
1.6
1.4
1.2
Valid at all subsonic airspeeds

1.0
0.8
Page 04 - 25
0.6
Δ Vc = (Vc @ [+1Δ PT] - Vc)

0.4
0.2
0.0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650
Calibrated Airspeed, KCAS
Third Edition 2013
Calibrated Airspeed Correction per Degree Above ISA
True Airspeed, VT
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Press. Altitude
Hc
-0.5
54K'
Page 04 - 26
Stratosphere Approximation
ΔVc= VT* [2.649E-8*Hc(ft) -0.00239]*[#deg C above ISA] 45K'
-0.6 (any consistent units for VT and Vc, accurate to +/- .025 Δ Vc)
Troposphere Approximation 36,089'
ΔVc = Vc @ [ISA +1] - Vc @ ISA

-0.7 ΔVc= VT*[8.357E-9*Hc(ft) -0.00174]*[#deg C above ISA] 27K'
(any consistent units for VT and Vc, accurate to +/- .02 Δ Vc)
18K'
Stratosphere
-0.8
ΔVc= [{1.7909E-16*Hc^2 - 8.543E-12*Hc + 6.6136E-7}*VT^2 + {2.3388E-8*Hc + 9K'
0.001973}*VT]*[#deg Cabove ISA]
0
-0.9 Troposphere
ΔVc = [{2.0287E-16*Hc^2 - 2.779E-11*Hc}*VT^2 + {1.6641E-8*Hc + 0.00172897}*VT]*[#deg C
above ISA]
-1.0
Third Edition 2013
0
Calibrated Airspeed Correction per KTAS Increase
Pressure Altitude
1.00
9K'
0.90
18K'
0.80
27K'
0.70
0.60 36,089'
0.50
45K'
Page 04 - 27
0.40
54K'
0.30
Δ Vc = (Vc @[VT+1] - Vc @VT)

0.20 Δ Vc (kts) = Δ VT*{[-2.061E-21*Hc^3 - 7.645E-17*Hc^2 + 1.676E-11*Hc]*VT^2
+ [1.01E-18*Hc^3 - 1.16E-13*Hc^2 + 3.358E-9*Hc]*VT
0.10 + [3.608E-7*Hc^2 -1.891E-6*Hc + 1]}
0.00
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
True Airspeed, KTAS
Third Edition 2013
Altimeter Correction per Knot Airpseed Correction
ISA ΔHpc = ΔVpc{[(-1.184E-18]*Hc^3 + (4.004E-14)*Hc^2 + (-1.533E-09)*Hc - 0.000105]*Vc^2
+ [(-5.034E-15)*Hc^3 + (1.502E-10)*Hc^2 + (-5.019E-06)*Hc - 0.06421]*Vc }
Non-ISA:
Troposphere ΔHpc =[ISA ΔHpc]*[1+{3.1059E-08*Hc + 0.00344}*(deg C above ISA)]
Stratosphere ΔHpc =[ISA ΔHpc]*[1+0.004616*(deg C above ISA)]
200
Valid at all subsonic airspeeds Pressure Altitude (ft)
180 54000
36089
160
27000
18000
140
45000
120 9000
Page 04 - 28
0
100
80
ΔHpc /ΔVpc, (ft/kt)

60
40
20 Solid fairings denote ΔHpc @ ISA conditions

Dashed fairings denote ΔHpc @ [ISA + 20 deg C]
0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650
KCAS
Third Edition 2013
Section 5 Aerodynamics
5.1 Dimensional Analysis Interpretations

Dynamic Pressure, Force Coefficients
5.2 General Aerodynamic Relations

Continuity Equation, Conservation of Energy Equation, Resultant Aerodynamic Force
5.3 Wing Design Effects on Lift Curve Slope

Aspect Ratio, Leading Edge Flap, Boundry Layer
Control & Trailing Edge Flap Effects
5.4 Elements of Drag

5.4.1 Skin Friction Drag
Viscosity, Reynolds Number Effects
5.4.2 Pressure Drag
5.4.3 Interference Drag
5.4.4 Induced Drag
5.5 Aerodynamic Compressibility Relations

Prandtl/Glauert, Total vs Ambient Property Relations for Adiabatic Flow, Normal Shock Rela
tions
5.5.1 Oblique Shocks
Oblique Shock Relations, Mach Cone Angle
5.5.2 Supersonic Isentropic Expansion Relations
Prandtl-Meyer Function
5.5.3 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Airfoil Approximations
5.6 Drag Polars

5.6.1 Drag Polar Construction and Terminology
Simple Drag Polar Equation Limitations
5.6.2 Complicating Effects
Airflow Separation, Reynolds Number, Wing Camber or Incidence Angle, Mach Number,
Propeller Slipstream, and Trim Drag Effects
5.6.3 Drag Polar Analysis
Optimum Aerodynamic Flight Conditions
5.7 References
Page 05 - 1
5.0 Recurring Terminology
a slope of lift curve, dCL/dα

a.c. aerodynamic center, location along the chord where pitching moments about this center do not change
with angle of attack (25% MAC for airfoils in subsonic flow, 50% MAC for airfoils in supersonic
flow)
AOA angle of attack
AR aspect ratio = [wing span]2/ [reference wing area] = b2/S
B wing span
bt horizontal tail span
C coefficient, a non-dimensional representation of an aerodynamic property
c wing chord length Camber maximum curvature of an airfoil, measured at maximum distance between
chord line and amber line, expressed in % of MAC.Camber line theoretical line extending from an air
foil’s leading edge to the trailing edge, located halfway between the upper and lower surfaces.
CD drag coefficient
CDi induced drag coefficient
CDo,CDpe parasitic drag coefficient
cf friction coefficient
Chord straight-line distance from an airfoil’s leading edge to its trailing edge.
CL lift coefficient
Cp pressure coefficient = Δp/q
e Oswald efficiency factor
l distance traveled by flow, or characteristic length of surface
M Mach number
MAC mean aerodynamic chord, chord length of location on wing where total aerodynamic forces can be
concentrated.
MGC mean geometric chord, the average chord length, derived only from a plan form view of a wing (similar
to MAC if wing has no twist and constant cross section & thickness-to-chord ratio).
P pressure
Preq’d power required
q dynamic pressure = ½ ρa VT2 = ½ ρo VT2
R gas constant
Rn,Re Reynolds number
S reference wing area, includes extension of wing to fuselage centerline.
St horizontal tail surface area
SW wetted area of surface
T temperature
V true velocity
Ve equivalent velocity
α angle of attack
αi induced angle of attack
δ depth of boundary layer, or surface wedge angle
μ viscosity, or wave angle
ν flow turning angle
θ shock wave angle
ρ density
Page 05- 2
•Perfect Fluid
~ incompressible, inelastic, and non-viscous
~ used in flow outside of boundary layers at M < .7
•Incompressible, inelastic, viscous
~ used for boundary layer studies at M < .7
•Compressible, non-viscous, elastic fluid
~ used outside boundary layers up to M = 5
Page 05 - 3
5.1 Dimensional Analysis Interpretations (ref 5.2)
Aerodynamic force = F
• F = f (ρ, μ, T, V, shape, orientation, size, roughness, gravity)

• For aircraft ignore R, K & hypersonic effects
F Aerodynamic
Force
α l
Angle of Attack ength
Chord L
eam
estr
Fre V
• Initially assume similar body orientations, shapes & roughness.
• Dimensional Analysis reveals four non-dimensional (π) parame-

ters:
F
Force Coefficient π =
1
ρV 2l 2
ρVl
Reynolds Number π =
2 μ
V
Mach Number π =
3 a
V
Froude Number
π =
4 lg
Page 05- 4
A closer look at the force coefficient:
F F
CF = ⇒1 2
ρV l
2 2
2 ρV S
where 1/2 ρaVT2 = 1/2 ρoVe2 =dynamic pressure, q

dimensions of reference wing area, S are the same
A feel for q
• Kinetic energy of a moving object = ½ mVT2
• Block of moving air kinetic energy = ½ ρ (volume) V T2
• Dividing through by volume yields KE per volume of moving air = ½ ρ V T2
• "Dynamic pressure” or “q” = potential for converting each cubic foot of the
airflow's kinetic energy into frontal stagnation pressure
• Feel q by extending your hand out the window of a moving car
A feel for coefficients

• C F = (F /S)/q = the ratio between the total force pressure and the flow 's dy-
namic pressure
• Lift is the component of the total force perpendicular to the free stream flow
• Drag is the component along the flow
• Break total into lift and drag coefficients:
L F
D
α
V
ive
relat
Page 05 - 5
• Froude number is not significant in aerodynamic phenomena
• Recall that forces are aslo a function of angle of attack, shape & surface roughness, therefore
Froude number is not significant in aerodynamic phenomena
Recall that forces are also a function of angle of attack, shape

& surface roughness
CL,CD= f [M, Re, α] for a given shape, roughness

L
Lift Coefficient C
CL max Re
M Effects are exaggerated
Angle of Attack
To compare test day and standard day aircraft or to match wind tunnel
CF data to actual aircraft; the shape, roughness, M, Rn and α must be
equal for both aircraft
LA
qM LM
qA
SM
SA
LA L
= CL = M
qASA qM SM
Page 05- 6
5.2 General Aerodynamic Relations (refs 5.1, 5.2, 5.10)
Lift & Drag forces can be described using two approaches:

1) Change in momentum of airstream, F = d{mv]/dt
2) “Bernoulli” approach which requires the continuity and conservation of energy equations
Continuity Equation
Fluid M ass in = Fluid Mass out
ρ 1V 1A 1 = ρ 2V 2A 2
For subsonic (incompressible) flow ρ 1 = ρ 2
V 1A 1 = V 2A 2
Conservation of Energy (Bernoulli) Equation:

Potential + Kinetic + Pressure = constant
(changes in Potential energy are negligible)
Energy per unit volume is pressure then
Dynamic Pressure + Static Pressure = Total Pressure
1
2 ρ V 2 + p s = constant
1
2 ρV 2 + p s = pt
• This classic approach only applies in the “potential flow” region and not in the boundary layer where energy
losses occur
Page 05 - 7
• Pressures around a surface can be calculated or measured from tests and converted into pressure coefficients,
cp = (plocal-pambient)/dynamic pressure = Δp/q
• cp values can be mapped out for all surfaces
CP
-1.0 Upper surface
100%
x
0 c
Lower surface 1.0
1.0
• Summation of all pressures perpendicular to surface yield the pitching moments and the “Resultant Aero-
dynamic Force” which is broken into lift and drag components
RAF - Resultant
Lift Aerodynamic Force
Center of
Pressure
Drag
Angle of attack
α
Freestream Velocity V
• Lift & drag forces are referred to the aerodynamic center (ac) where the pitching moment is constant for rea-
sonable angles of attack.
• Pitching moments increase with airfoil camber, are zero if symmetric.
• Aerodynamic center is located at 25% MAC for fully subsonic flow and at 50% MAC for fully supersonic
flow.
Page 05- 8
5.3 Wing Design Effects on Lift Curve Slope (refs 5.1, 5.2, 5.10)
Aspect Ratio Effect

• Pressure differential at wingtip causes tip vortex
Resultant Flow Low
Pressure
Free stream High flow
airflow
• Vortex creates flow field that reduces AOA across wingspan
Tr
x ai l
o rt e Rear view in g
i pv tip
in gt vo
l
Upwash T ra i r te
x Upwash
Downwash
• Local AOA reductions decrease average lift curve slope
CL 2D wing = wind tunnel

airfoil extending to walls
g
in
ao
W
Coefficient of lift
(infinite aspect ratio).

2D
ing
W
CL 3D a
ao = Lift curve slope for
an infinite wing
a = Lift curve slope for

Δα a finite wing
Angle of
zero lift
same α2D α3D
Freestream Angle of attack, α
dCL a
• Above relationship estimated as a= = 57o.3ao
dα 1+ πAR
Page 05 - 9
Trailing Edge Flap Effects
Basic Section
Plain Flap Split Flap
Slotted Flap Fowler Flap
3.0
Cl er
owl ed
F ott
Section Lift Coefficient
2.5
Sl lit
2.0 Sp
ain
1.5
Pl
n
1.0 io
e ct
0.5 si cS
Ba
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Section Angle of Attack, α
Page 05- 10
Leading Edge Flap Effects
Fixed Slot Automatic Slot
Slat
3.0
Cl
2.5
Fixed Slot
2.0
1.5
Basic Section
1.0
0.5
0 5 10 15 20
Boundary Layer Control Effects
Boundary layer control Boundary layer control

by upper surface suction by flap augmentation
Cl 3.0
2.5
High Suction
2.0
Low Suction
1.5
Basic Section
1.0 No Suction
0.5
0
5 10 15 20 25
Page 05 - 11
5.4 Elements of Drag (refs 5.1, 5.2, 5.10)
Total
TotalDrag
Drag
Induced
InducedDrag
Drag Parasite
ParasiteDrag
Drag Wave
WaveDrag
Drag
Interference
InterferenceDrag
Drag Profile
ProfileDrag
Drag
Skin
SkinFriction
FrictionDrag
Drag Pressure
PressureDrag
Drag
• Skin friction shear stress is a function of velocity profile at surface
ayer
ar y l Velocity proflile through
o f bound the boundary layer
e
r edg
Oute dv
dy
Surface
δ
dy
⎛ dv ⎞
Shear stress ℑ w = μ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ y = 0
• Viscosity (μ) increases with temperature (ref 5.9)

1 .5
⎛T ⎞
n
⎛T ⎞
Sutherland law: ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (To + S ) Power law: μ = μ o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
μ = μo ⎝ o ⎠
T ⎝ To ⎠
(T + S )
Where To = 273.15 K = 518.67 R.
For air: S =110.4 K = 199 R; n=.67
For air at 273 K: μo= 1.717x10-5 [kg/m s] = 3.59x10-7 [slug/ft s]
Inserting air values (TK=Kelvin and TR=Rankin) into Sutherland law
gives
1.5 1.5
TK ⎡ kg ⎤ TR ⎡ s lg ⎤
μ = 1.458x10−6 = 2.2 10−8
TR +199 ⎢⎣ s ⋅ ft ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥ x
TK +110.4 ⎣ s ⋅ m⎦
Page 05- 12
Reynolds Number Effects (ref 5.10)
• Laminar boundary layers have

more gradual change in
velocity near surface than
Thickness
turbulent boundary layers.
• High Reynolds numbers help
propagate turbulent flow.
Laminar Turbulent
⎛ dv ⎞
Shearing stress ℑw = μ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ y =0
ℑw ℑw
Skin friction coefficient Cf = =
1
2 ρ ∞V∞ 2 q∞
1.328
Laminar boundary layer Total C f =
(Re L )1/ 2
.455 0.074
Turbulent boundary layer Total C f = ≈
(log Re L )2.58
(Re L )1/ 5
0.010
0.008
0.006
Cf Transition
0.004
0.003 Turbulent
0.002 ReL based on total

Laminar
length of flat plate
0.001
105 106 107 108 109 1010
ρ∞ V ∞ L
Reynolds number, ReL μ∞
• Depth of boundary layer (δ) depends on local Reynolds number (Rex) and whether the flow is turbulent or
laminar.
5 .2 x
δ lam =
ρ V x Inertia Forces Re x
Re x = ∞ ∞ ≡
μ∞ Viscous Forces . 37 x
δ turb = .2
x= distance traveled to point in question Re x
Page 05 - 13
5.4.2 Pressure Drag
• Ideal frictionless flow has no losses and leads to zero pressure drag
• Real fluids have friction and energy losses along surface
• Energy losses negate total pressure recovery, lead to decreasing total pressure along surface
Airfoil Airfoil
leading trailing Ideal fluid
edge edge Real fluid
ρ
Pressure distribution greatly modified
Separation occurs near here in real fluid case

0
(a) Airfoil upper surface static presure distributions Distance along flow
• Imbalance of pressures on surfaces causes pressure drag
Equal and opposite

Parallel to freestream
(a)
Shoulder
(b) Ideal fluid air foil (no pressure drag)
Sum of horizontal pressures = 0
Net downstream force = Pressure drag
(b)
Shoulder
(c) Real fluid airfoil (net pressure drag) more

drag pressure than thrust pressure
Page 05- 14
• Profile streamlining reduces pressure drag
Separation point Relative

R =105 Flat plate (Broadside) drag force
length = d
V1 CD = 2.0
Separation point
R =105
Cylinder diameter = d
V1 CD = 1.2
Separation point
R =105
Streamline body
V1 thickness = d
CD = 0.12 Same
total
R =104 Separation point drag
Cylinder
d diameter =
V1
10 CD = 1.2
Separation point
R =107
Cylinder diameter = d Larger
100 x CD = 0.6
Skin-friction drag
V1 Pressure drag
5.4.3 Interference Drag
• Occurs with multiple surfaces approximately parallel to flow
• Caused by flow’s interference with itself or by excessive adverse pressure gradient due to rapidly decreasing
vehicle cross section
• Most severe with surfaces at acute angles to each other
• Effects often reduced by fillets around contracting surfaces
Page 05 - 15
5.4.4 Induced Drag
• Wingtip vortex reduces local AOA at each station along wing
• Local lift vector is perpendicular to local AOA
• Local lift vector is therefore tilted back relative to freestream lift
• Induced drag defined as rearward component of local lift vector
Induced Drag
Lift
(⊥ to freestream) Local lift force
(⊥ to local freestream)
Local R
elative
Wind
Local Downwash
Angle of Attack, α Chord
Freestream relative wind
Induced Drag ( Di ) = Lift ( L ) sin α i = Lα i
Induced Drag (Di ) = L(α i )

CL
For elliptical lift distributions α i =
πAR
⎛ C ⎞
∴ Di = L⎜ L ⎟ but L = qSC L
⎝ πAR ⎠
2
Di C L
C Di = = = induced drag coefficient
qS πAR
Oswald efficiency factor, e, accounts for losses in excess of those predicted above (due to uneven downwash and
changing interference drag effects).
2
CL
∴ C Di =
πA R e
Page 05- 16
5.5 Aerodynamic Compressibility Relations (reference 5.8)
Prandtl/Glauert Approximation
Approximates Mach effects on aerodynamics below critical Mach
1
C Pcompressib le = C Pincompress ible
1− M 2
Total vs Ambient Property Relations for Adiabatic Flow
TT γ −1 2
=1+ M Isentropic flow not required
T 2
γ
PT ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
= ⎢1 + M ⎥ Isentropic (shockless) flow required
P ⎣ 2 ⎦
1
ρT ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1 Isentropic flow required
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
Normal Shock Relations

Assumes isentropic flow on each side of the shock
Assumes flow across shock is adiabatic
Property changes occur in a constant area (throat)
P2 1 − γ + 2γM12
=
P1 1+ γ
ρ 2 ⎡ 2 + (γ − 1)M 12 ⎤
−1
=
ρ1 ⎢⎣ (γ + 1)M 12 ⎥⎦
T2 ⎡1 − γ + 2γM 12 ⎤ ⎡ 2 + (γ − 1)M12 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
1+ γ ⎦ ⎣ (1 + γ )M1 ⎦
2
T1 ⎣
2
M12 +
γ −1
M 22 =
2γ
M2 −1
γ −1 1
Normal shock summary

PT1 > PT2 ρT > ρT
1 2
TT1 = TT2 M1 > M 2
P1 < P 2 ρ <ρ
1 2
T1 < T 2 s1 < s 2
Page 05 - 17
5.5.1 Oblique Shocks
Oblique Shock Description
δ = surface turning angle
θ = shock wave angle
Subscript 1 denotes upstream conditions
Subscript 2 denotes downstream conditions
Oblique Shock Relations

• Calculate P2/P1, T2/T1, and ρ2/ρ1 across oblique shocks by using normal shock equations and substituting M1
sinθ in place of M1
• Calculate total pressure loss across oblique shock as
• Calculate relation between Mach number and angles as
1
γ
PT2 ⎧⎪ ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2γ γ − 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
1−γ
= ⎨⎢ + ⎥
2
sin 2
θ − ⎬
PT2 ⎪ ⎣ γ + 1 (γ + 1)M 12 sin 2 θ ⎦ ⎢⎣ γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎥⎦ ⎪
M 1
⎩ ⎭
2
M 12 sin 2 θ +
γ −1
M 22 sin 2
(δ − θ ) = 2γ
M 2 sin 2 θ − 1
γ −1 1
Page 05- 18
Oblique Shock Turning Angle as a Function of Wave Angle
• Two θ solutions exist for every M1 & δ combination

These represent the strong and weak shock solutions
Weak shocks normally occur in nature
• There is a minimum Mach number for each turning angle
• The wave angle of a weak shock decreases with increased Mach
• For a given Mach number, θ approaches μ as δ decreases
Mach Cone Angle
Minimum Wave Angle

μ = sin−1 (1/Μ)
Page 05 - 19
5.5.2 Supersonic Isentropic Expansion Relations
• The wave angle μ determines where the lower pressure can be felt and thus where the flow can be accelerat-
ed
• As the flow accelerates, a new wave angle forms and the subsequent lower pressure further accelerates the
flow
• Results in a series of Mach waves forming a “fan” until the flow turns and accelerates so that it is parallel to
the new boundary
Page 05- 20
Prandtl-Meyer Function
Shows flow’s required turning angle (ν) to accelerate from one Mach number to another
γ + 1 ⎡ −1 γ − 1 2 ⎤
νM =
γ −1 ⎣
⎢ tan
γ +1
(M − 1)⎥ − tan −1 M 2 − 1
⎦
• If upstream Mach (M1) =1, then ν1 = 0, and equation directly relates downstream Mach (M2) to surface turn-
ing angle (Δν)
• If M1>1, determine M2 as follows:
Calculate upstream ν1 from above equation
Calculate ν2 = ν1 + Δν
Reverse above equation to obtain corresponding M2
• Above equation is tabulated in NACA TR 1135 and is plotted below
Example: Flow initially at M1 = 2.0 accelerates through an ex-

pansion corner of 24 deg. Exit Mach number is 3.0
Page 05 - 21
5.5.3 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Airfoil Approximations
• Determine surface static pressures by calculating changes through obliques shocks and expansion fans
• Ackert approximations for thin wings are based on
ΔP 2δ
Cp = ≅ ±
q M 2
−1
• Double wedge airfoil approximations
t
4α
CL ≅ c
M 2
−1
2
4α 2
4 ⎛ t⎞
CD ≅ + ⎜ ⎟
M 2
−1 M 2
−1 ⎝ c ⎠
• Biconvex wing approximations
t
c
4α
CL ≅
M 2 −1
2
4α 2
⎛t⎞
5 . 33
CD ≅ + ⎜ ⎟
M 2 −1 M −1 ⎝ c ⎠
2
Page 05- 22
5.6 Drag Polars (ref 5.2)
5.6.1 Drag Polar Construction and Terminology

CL = lift coefficient
CD = drag coefficient
CDi = induced drag coefficient
CDo = parasitic drag coefficient
AR = aspect ratio
e = Oswald efficiency factor
l = length flow has traveled
Swet = wetted area of surface
S = reference wing area
Simple Drag Polar Equation Limitations

• No separated flow losses
• Symmetric Camber
• Applies at one Mach, Altitude, cg
C L2
C D = C Do + = C D o + C Di
πA Re
CL
“Polar” form of
simple drag polar
CDo CD
CD
Linearized form of 1
m=
simple drag polar πA Re
CDo
C L2
Page 05 - 23
5.6.2 Complicating Factors
Actual Drag
CL Parabolic Curve
Airflow Separation Effects
CLbreak
CD
Drag Polar Equation Accounting for Flow Separation:
C D = C Dmin +
(C L − C Lmin )
2
(
+ k 2 C L − C Lbreak )
πA Re
• Delete last term if CL<Clbreak
• Determine k2 from flight test
Reynolds Number Effects (refs 5.4, 5.11)

• Calculate length ReL and friction coefficient (cf ) for each surface as
ρVl ⎡ δ ⎤ ⎡T + 110 ⎤ (TK = Kelvin,

ReL = = 7.101×106 M ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ K l
μ ⎣θ ⎦ ⎣ 398 ⎥⎦ l= total length, ft)
⎧⎪ 1.328 ⎫⎪ ⎡ .074 1700⎤

cf = ⎨ [
⎬ 1 + 0.1305M
2
]
−0.12
laminar,or = ⎢ − ⎥ transition
⎣ (ReL )
.2
⎪⎩ ReL ⎪⎭ ReL ⎦
or c f = 0.455{log ReL }
− 258
{1 + 0.144M }2 −0.65
turbulent
• In general, cf decreases as Rn increases (unless transitioning from laminar to turbulent flow)

• Friction drag = cf q Swet for each component (Swet = wetted area)
• Correct from test day to standard day aircraft drag coefficient by summing differences of each component’s
drag change
ΔC D =
( )
Σ c f s − c f t S wet
S
Page 05- 24
Wing Camber or Incidence Angle Effects
1.25
7
6
1.00
CL 5
4
0.75 3
2
0.50
=1
AR
0.25
Note slight increase in

drag as lift decreases 0.00
towards zero
-0.25
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
CD
CD
Linearized drag po- m= 1
πARe
lafor aircraft with
wing camber and/or
incidence CDmin
CD pe
(− CL2) 0 C Lmin CL2
Revised drag polar equation accounting for wing camber or incidence
CD = CDmin +
(C L − C Lmin )2
πA Re
• Generally not necessary since most flight occurs above CLmin
Page 05 - 25
Mach Number Effects Altitude = 30,000 ft Μ ≤ 0.85

cg = 25% MAC
• Aircraft with No external stores
low parasitic drag
coefficients and
high fineness ratios
pay a relatively 0.9
Lift Coefficient, CL
small “wave drag” 0.95
penalty. 1.0
Modern fighter-type aircraft 1.3 1.5
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Drag Coefficient
0.7
Altitude = 30,000 ft Μ ≤ 0.6
cg = 25% MAC
• With external 0.6
Multiple external stores
stores, same air- 0.8
craft pays larger 0.5
Mach penalty
Lift Coefficient
0.85
0.4
0.9
0.95 1.0
0.3
1.3
0.2
1.5
0.1
0
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Propeller Slipstream Effects

• a.k.a “scrubbing” drag
• Propwash increases flow speed over surface within slipstream
• More drag is created by higher q and vorticity.
• Function of prop speed and power absorbed (Cp)or thrust (CT)
• Problem should be addressed in airframe or propeller models
Page 05- 26
Trim Drag Effects (reference 5.4)
e = wing Oswald efficiency factor

et = tail Oswald efficiency factor
b = span, bt = tail span
x = wing ac-to-cg distance
l= wing ac-to tail ac dist.
Lw LT
x
W 2 ⎧⎪ 2 ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎤ ⎫
Δ C Dtrim = 2 ⎨
π q Sb e ⎪ lW
2
[x0 − x1 ] + 12 ⎢1 + S e ⎜⎜ b
l ⎢ S t et ⎝ bt
⎟⎟ [
⎥ x 02 − x12 ]⎪⎬
⎩ ⎣ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Δ C D trim x ⎡x⎛ b ⎞ e
2
⎤
Trim drag change relative to = ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2⎥
total induced drag: Δ C Di l ⎢⎣ l ⎝ bt ⎠ et ⎥⎦
ΔCDtrim
CDi 2
11 ⎛ b⎞ e
9 13 ⎜ ⎟ = 13
0.5
⎝ bt ⎠ et
7
5 0.4
11
0.3
Plot of above
equation
0.2 9
0.1
x 7
0
l -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-0.1
5
-0.2
Page 05 - 27
5.6.3 Drag Polar Analysis
⎡ C L2 ⎤ ⎡ W 2 ⎤
D = q SC D = q S ⎢ C D o + = 1
ρ oV e2 S ⎢ C D + 2 ⎥
⎣ π A Re ⎥⎦ 2
⎢⎣
o
π A Re (12 )
ρ oV e2 S ⎥⎦
• For a given configuration (CDo, S, AR, e)
W 2 first term = parasitic drag,

D = k1Ve2 + k2
Ve2 second term = induced drag
• For any given weight, D = f(equivalent airspeed) only
Total Drag
Induced Drag
Parasitic Drag
Min drag Min drag per velocity Ve
• Minimum total drag occurs when Dinduced = Dparasitic

same as speed where CDi = CDo
occurs at max CL /CD ratio (same as max L/D ratio)
• Minimum drag/velocity occurs at min slope of Drag vs V curve
same as speed where 3CDi =CDo
occurs at max CL 1/2 /CD ratio
Power required = drag x true airspeed
Ve Ve3 W2
Preq = DVT = D = k1 + k2
σ σ σ Ve
Minimum total Preq’d occurs when Pinduced = Pparasitic

• same as speed where CDi = 3CDo
• occurs at max CL 3/2 /CD ratio
Minimum power/velocity occurs at min slope of Preq’d vs V curve
• same as speed where CDi =CDo
• occurs at max CL /CD ratio
Page 05- 28
Optimum Aerodynamic Flight Conditions
Gliders/ Engine-Out Flight

• Max range (minimum glide slope) occurs at max CL/CD
same as condition where CDo = CDi if drag polar is parabolic
• Min sink rate (minimum power req‘d) occurs at max CL3/2 /CD ratio same as condition where 3CDo = CDi if
drag polar is parabolic
Reciprocating Engine Aircraft (assuming constant BSFC & prop η)

• Max range (minimum power/velocity) occurs at max CL/CD ratio
• Max endurance (minimum power req‘d) occurs at max CL3/2 /CD
same as condition where 3CDo = CDi if drag polar is parabolic
Turbine Jet Engine Aircraft (assuming constant TSFC)

• Max range at constant altitude (minimum drag/velocity)
occurs at max CL 1/2 /CD ratio
same as condition where CDo = 3CDi if drag polar is parabolic
• Best cruise/climb range (maximum [M x L/D] ratio)
occurs at max CL/CD 3/2 ratio
same as condition where CDo = 2CDi if drag polar is parabolic
• Best endurance (minimum drag)
occurs at max CL/CD ratio
CL d: CDi = 3 CDo
CL L
c: CDi = CDo = =
CD max
D max
b: CDi = CDo /2
a: CDi = CDo /3
CDo CD
To calculate optimum speed V2 for config- 1
⎛ CDo ⎞ 4 ⎛ W ⎞ 2
1
uration2 & weight2 based on optimum
V2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟ ⎜
2
⎟ V1
speed V1 at configuration1 & weight1 ⎝ CDo2 ⎠ ⎝ W1 ⎠
Page 05 - 29
5.7 References
5.1 Roberts, Sean “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chapter 3, Subsonic Aerodynamics, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave, CA, 1999
5.2 Lawless, Alan R., et al, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chptr 4, Drag Polars, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave ,CA, 1999
5.3 Hurt Hugh H., “Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators“, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,
1959.
5.4 McCormick, Barnes W., “Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics“, Wilet &Sons, 1979
5.5 Stinton, Darryl, “The Design of the Aeroplane“, BSP Professional Books, Oxford, 1983
5.6 Roskam, Jan Dr., “Airplane Design, Part VI“, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp. 1990
5.7 Anon, “Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow” NACA Report 1135, 1953
5.8 Lewis, Gregory, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chapter 6, Supersonic Aerodynamics, National Test
Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1999
5.9 White, Frank M. “Fluid Mechanics” pg 29, McGraw-Hill, 1979, ISBN 0-07-069667-5.
5.10 Anderson, John D. Jr, “Introduction to Flight” pg 142, Mcraw-Hill, 1989, ISBN 0-07-001641-0.
5.11 Twaites, Bryan, Editor, “Incompressible Aerodynamics: An Account of the steady flow of incompressible
Fluid Past Aerofoils, Wings, and Other Bodies,” Dover Publications, 1960.
Page 05- 30
Section 6 Axis Systems and Transformations
6.1 Earth Axis Systems
6.2 Aircraft Axis Systems

Body, Stability, Wind, Principle
6.3 Euler Angles
6.4 Flight Path Angles
6.5 Axis System Transformations

Earth-to-Body, Body-to-Earth
6.6 References
Page 06 - 1
6.1 Earth Axis Systems (ref 6.6.1)
Both fixed-Earth and moving-Earth axis systems keep constant orientation with respect to the Earth. The Z-
axis point towards the center of the Earth.
• The origin of a fixed-Earth system does not move relative to the Earth. (such as a ground radar site)
• The origin of a moving Earth system does not move relative to its host (such as an aircraft inertial reference
unit) .
X
Moving XY plane is horizontal
Earth Y
Axes
Y
Z Fixed
X
Earth
Z Axes
.
Page 06 - 2
6.2 Aircraft Axis Systems (ref 6.6.2)
• The body axis system originates at the aircraft’s reference center of gravity. The +xb direction is towards
the front, the +yb direction is towards the right wing tip, and the +zb direction is towards the bottom of the
aircraft.
xb
p u
x is
xa
ya
xi s q
z axis
v
yb
r
w
zb
• The stability axis system is similar to the body axis system except that it is rotated about the y-axis through
the angle of attack (α)
xb
RW
xs
α
ys, yb zb
zs
Forces, velocities or accelerations along the stability axes are related to the body axes as follows
xb = xs cos α − zs sin α
zb = zs cos α + xs sin α
yb = ys
For cases where the z axis is defined positive upward (typical for normal-axis accelerometers)
xb = xs cos α + zs sin α
zb = zs cos α - xs sin α
Page 06 - 3
• The wind axis system is similar to the stability axis system except it is rotated about the zs axis through the
angle of sideslip (β).
The term “wind” refers to the fact that the freestream relative wind approaches the aircraft directly along the xw
axis. This dictates that the true airspeed also lies along the xw axis.
xs Forces, velocities or accelerations

xw along the wind axes are related to the
stability axes as follows
β
xs = xw cos β − yw sin β
ys = yw cos β + xw sin β
zs = zw
ys
yw xb
xs
RW
u α
VT xw
The geometric relations be-
tween body, stability and wind β
axis velocities are illustrated
here. v yb
w
zb
ω V
ω V if β is small, then sin α = , β=
sinα = , sinβ = VT VT
VT cosβ VT ω
if α is small, then α=
VT
Most aircraft sideslip vanes do not measure β directly. They measure the flanking angle, which is the projection
of the relative wind into the aircraft’s x-y plane. The difference between these two angles increases with angle
of attack. Ignoring upwash, boom bending, and body axis rate corrections, calculate true sideslip as a function
of vane α and β as follows:
βtrue = tan-1 [ tan(βvane ) cosα ]
Page 06 - 4
• Wind-Body Axis Transformations (ref 6.6.1)

Combining the two previous transformations, forces, velocities or accelerations along the wind axes are related
to the body axes as follows
⎡ xb ⎤ ⎡cos α 0 − sin α ⎤ ⎡cos β − sin β 0⎤ ⎡ xW ⎤

⎢y ⎥ = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ sin β cos β 0⎥⎥ ⎢y ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ W⎥
⎢⎣ zb ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin α 0 cos α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ zW ⎥⎦
After expansion, xb = cosα (xwcosβ – ywsinβ) - zwsinα

yb = xwsinβ + ywcosβ
zb = sinα (xwcosβ – ywcosβ) + zwcosα
The inverse transform, converting from the body to the wind axis system is
⎡ xW ⎤ ⎡ cos β sin β 0⎤ ⎡ cos α 0 sin α ⎤ ⎡ xb ⎤

⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢− sin β cos β 0⎥⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢y ⎥
⎢ W⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ b⎥
⎢⎣ zW ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− sin α 0 cos α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ zb ⎥⎦
After expansion,
xw = cosβ (xbcosα + zbsinα) + ybsinβ
yw = -sinβ (xbcosα+zbsinα)+ ybcosβ
zw = -xbsinα + zbcosα
Note that these equations apply to the sign convention with z+ down. If
sign convention (and instrumentation calibration) use z+ upward, then the
above equations become:
xw = cosβ(xbcosα - zbsinα) + ybsinβ
yw = –sinβ(xbcosα + zbsinα) + ybcosβ
zw = xbsinα + zbcosα
Page 06 - 5
• The Principle axes are those about which the products of inertia are zero. They can be equated to the axis
of “dumbells” which represent concentrated mass elements. Neglecting aerodynamic and gyroscopic ef-
fects, an aircraft rotating about one of its principle axes will not tend to cross-couple into motion about any
other axis.
x y
z z
Wind to Body Axes Matrix Transformation
Page 06 - 6
6.3 Euler Angles (ref 6.6.1)
Euler angles are expressed as yaw, pitch, and roll. The sequence: first yaw, then pitch, then roll; must be main-
tained to arrive at the proper orientation angles. The Euler angles are defined as follows:
ψ ≡ Yaw Angle: The angle between the projection of the vehicle xb- axis onto the horizontal reference
plane and some initial reference position of the Earth x-axis. Yaw angle equals the vehicle heading only
if the initial reference is North.
θ ≡ Pitch angle (in vertical plane) between xb and horizon.
φ ≡ Bank angle, the angle (measured in the y-z plane of the body-axis system) between the y-axis and the
horizontal reference plane. Also known at the roll angle, it is a measure of the rotation (about the x-axis)
to return the aircraft to a wings level condition.
+θ
−ψ
+φ
y
z
Earth Plane
Page 06 - 7
6.4 Flight Path Angles (ref 6.6.3)

Just as the Euler angles define the attitude of the aircraft with respect to the Earth, three flightpath angles
describe the vehicle's cg trajectory relative to the Earth (not the air mass).
σ = Flight path heading angle; also known as ground track heading, is the horizontal angle between some ref-
erence direction (usually North) and the projection of the velocity vector on the horizontal plane. Positive
rotation is from North to East.
γ = Flightpath elevation angle; the vertical angle between the flightpath and the horizontal plane. Positive rota-
tion is up. During a descent, this parameter is commonly known as glide path angle.
μ = Flightpath bank angle; the angle between the plane formed by the velocity vector and the lift vector and
the vertical plane containing the velocity vector. Positive rotation is clockwise about the velocity vector,
looking forward.
The first two parameters above are easily measured using ground-based radar, or onboard GPS or inertial refer-
ence systems. If only α, β, and the Euler angles are available, then assuming zero winds, the flightpath angles
can be calculated as
γ = sin−1[(sinθ cosα − cosθ cosφ sinα ) cosβ − cosθ sinφ sin β

cos φ sin β − sin φ sin α cos β
σ = sin −1[ ] +ψ
cos γ
cos θ sin φ cos β + (sin θ cos α − cos θ cos φ sin α ) sin β
μ = sin −1[ ]
cos γ
Technically, the above equations describe the velocity vector (angles relative to the air mass). If the air mass is
moving relative to the Earth, as is usually the case, the above equations do not describe the flight path.
Editor’s note: not knowing the difference between flightpath and velocity vector angles can cause considerable confusion
when analyzing data from different sources.
Page 06 - 8
6.5 Axis System Transformations (ref 6.6.2)
Transformation matrix for converting forces, velocities or accelerations from inertial (X, Y, Z) to body (x, y, z)
axes
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ 0 − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos ψ sin ψ 0⎤ ⎡X ⎤

⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ cos φ sin φ ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0
⎢ 1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ − sin ψ
⎢ cos ψ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢Y
⎢
⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − sin φ cos φ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ sin θ 0 cos θ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 0 1 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ Z ⎦⎥
Expanding gives:
⎡x⎤ ⎡ cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡X ⎤
⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ − cos θ sin ψ + sin φ sin θ cos ψ cos φ cos ψ + sin φ sin θ sin ψ sin φ cos θ ⎥⎥ ⎢Y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin φ sin ψ + cos φ sin θ cos ψ − sin φ cos ψ + cos φ sin θ sin ψ cos φ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦
The inverse of the above transform matrix converts

from the body axis to the inertial axis coordinate system
⎡ X ⎤ ⎡cos θ cos ψ − cos φ sin ψ + sin φ sin θ cos ψ sin φ sin ψ + cos φ sin θ cos ψ ⎤ ⎡x⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ cos θ sin ψ cos φ cos ψ + sin φ sin θ sin ψ − sin φ cos ψ + cos φ sin θ sin ψ ⎥⎥ ⎢ y⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − sin θ sin φ cos θ cos φ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
Acceleration Transformations
• Convert body-axis angular rates & linear accelerations into total
accelerations along body axes.
• Convert element (m1) location & rates into specific angular momentum
a x = u& + qw − rv
a y = v& + ru − pw
a z = w& + pv − qu
= r1 × [ω × r1` ] ⇒
H
m
ω
y
m1 ⎡H ⎤a
( )
⎢⎣ m ⎥⎦ l = p y + z − q ( xy ) − r ( xz )
2 2
r1 ⎡H ⎤ n
( )
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = q x 2 + z 2 − r ( yz ) − p ( xy )
⎣m⎦ y
⎡H ⎤n
( )
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = r x 2 + y 2 − p ( xz ) − q ( yz )
⎣m⎦k
x z
Page 06 - 9
Transformations between body axis rates and Euler angle rates
p = φ& − ψ& sin θ

q = θ& cos φ + ψ& cos θ sin φ
r = ψ& cos θ cos φ − θ& sin φ
φ& = p + tan θ ( q sin φ + r cos φ )
θ& = q cos φ − r sin φ
q sin φ + r cos φ
ψ& =
cos θ
Transformations from Euler & aerodynamic angles to the aircraft stability and wind axis angular rates.
Subscripts b, s, and w denote the body, stability and relative wind axis systems.
( p s , q s , rs , p w , q w , rw ) = f ( pb , qb , rb , α , β )
p s = pb cos α + rb sin α p w = p s cos β + q s sin β
q s = qb q w = q s cos β − p s sin β
rs = rb cos α − pb sin α rw = rs
Transformations from Euler angles to the three aircraft axis angular accelerations (ref 6.6.3)
( p& b , p& s , p& w , q&b , q& s , q& w , r&b , r&s , r&w ) = f (θ , θ&, θ&&, φ , φ&, φ&&,ψ ,ψ& ,ψ&&, α , α& , β , β& )
p& b = φ&& −ψ&& sin θ −ψ&θ& cos θ
q& = θ&& cos φ − θ&φ& sin φ + ϕ&& cos θ sin φ −ψ&θ& sin θ sin φ + ψ&φ& cos θ cos φ
b
r&b = ψ&& cos θ cos φ −ψ&θ& sin θ cos φ −ψ&φ& cos θ sin φ − θ&&sin φ − θ&φ& cos φ
p& s = p& b cos α + α&pb sin α + r&b sin α + α&rb cos α
q& s = q&b
r&s = r&b cos α − α&rb sin α − p& b sin α − α&pb cos α
p& w = p& s cos β − p s β& sin β + q& s sin β + q s β& cos β
q& = q& cos β − q β& sin β − p& sin β − p β& cos β
w s s s s
r&w = r&s
Page 06 - 10
6.6 References
6.6.1 Lawless, Alan R., Math and Physics for Flight Testers “Chapter 7, Axis Systems and Transformations”, National
Test Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1998.
6.6.2 Anon., Aircraft Flying Qualities, Chapter 4, Equations of Motion, USAF TestPilot School notes, AFFTC Edwards
AFB CA, March 1991.
6.6.3 Kalviste, Juri, Flight Dynamics Reference Handbook, Northrop Corp. Aircraft Division, April 1988.
Page 06 - 11
NOTES
Page 06 - 12
Section 7 Mass Properties
7.2 Longitudinal & Lateral Center of Gravity Measurement
7.3 Vertical Center of Gravity Measurement

7.4.1 Radius of Gyration
Aircraft moment of inertia summary
7.4.2 Parallel Axis Theorem Applications
determine modified moment of inertia,
determine modified products of inertia,
correct the moment of inertia to the actual cg axis
7.4.3 Measuring Roll Inertia, Ixb
7.4.4 Measuring Pitch Inertia, Iyb
7.4.5 Measuring Yaw Inertia, Izb
7.4.6 Measuring Axis of Inclination and Ixz
7.4.7 Guidelines for Spring Oscillation Method
7.4.8 Swing Method
7.5 References
Page 07 - 1
7.1 Abbreviations and Terminology Abbreviations
a perpendicular distance from the spring line of action to the oscillation axis (ft).
cg center of gravity
f measured frequency of oscillation (cycles/sec)
g Earth’s acceleration due to gravity (g = 32.172 ft/sec2)
h vertical component of the perpendicular distance from the cg to the oscillation axis.
Icg moment of inertia any axis passing through the cg
Ixb moment of inertia about aircraft body x-axis
Iyb moment of inertia about aircraft body y-axis
Izb moment of inertia about aircraft body z-axis
Ixz product of inertia in aircraft body x-z plane
Io moment of inertia about oscillation axis
Ko component of spring stiffness perpendicular to vehicle motion.
k spring constant (lb/ft)
Ktot total radius of gyration (includes effect of offset pivot)
L rolling moment
leff effective pendulum length
MAC mean aerodynamic chord
METO maximum power (except for takeoff)
m mass
N yawing moment
T period of oscillation
p roll rate
r yaw rate
ΔIte correction for test equipment mass (slug-ft2)
ΔIam equivalent moment of inertia contribution of the air
(slug-ft2)
δ tilt of spring assembly (measured positive if tilted nose-down relative to local horizontal).
ε inclination of principle axis (positive if tilted down).
φ angle between aircraft y-axis and line connecting aircraft cg with spring attach points.
ωd damped frequency of oscillation (rad/sec) =2πf
ωn natural frequency of oscillation (rad/sec)
Page 07 - 2
Terminology
Allowable cg range Documented on Type Certificate Data Sheet. May be different for takeoff vs landing.
Forward limit usually determined by control power limitations, aft limit usually deter
mined by stability requirements.
datum The manufacturer defined reference plane used for distance calculations.
empty weight Basic aircraft weight with only equipment on board. (without crew, passengers, or
fuel). This weight may or may not inlcude oil weight, depending on civil certification
date.
empty weight cg range The allowable cg locations for an empty aircraft. This is defined by the manufacturer to
help assure that a normally loaded aircraft will have an acceptable total cg location.
lateral Along the aircraft y-axis.
longitudinal Along the aircraft x-axis
maximum weight Maximum allowable weight. Usually implies takeoff weight, but may apply to landing
or in-flight weight. conditions after aerial refueling.
minimum fuel A calculated value that represents the minimum amount of fuel any airplane should
have while retaining appropriate flight reserves. Calculated as
min fuel [lbs] = 0.5METO [hp]
moment arm Distance between datum plane and cg of object.
moment Product of moment arm and force (weight)
tare The bias in weight scales due to test equipment weight or due to scale calibration errors.
useful load Maximum takeoff weight minus empty weight.
weighing point Location where aircraft is supported during the cg measurement.
Page 07 - 3
7.2 Longitudinal & Lateral Center of Gravity Measurement
Test set-up procedures for empty weight cg determination

1. Clean aircraft including any mud or water seepage.
2. Ensure all aircraft equipment in place.
3. Drain to only residual oil (for older aircraft that include only
residual oil as part of empty weight calculations) or fill to full oil (newer aircraft include full oil for cal-
culations).
4. Drain to residual fuel only.
5. Rig all equipment in a closed building to eliminate wind effects.
6 Calibrate scales.
7. Record tare (bias in scale readings, may be due to wheel chocks, jack stands, or other test equipment)
8. Place aircraft on scales and level according to manufacturer’s specifications.
9. Measure longitudinal and lateral distances between scale centers and datum. NOTE: distances behind
datum are positive, distances ahead of datum are negative.
10. Record each scale weight
Calculating longitudinal center of gravity

11. Subtract the tare from each scale reading to get the correct weight.
12. Multiply each scale’s corrected weight by its distance to the
datum. This product is the moment for each scale.
13. Sum the moments in step 12.
14. Sum the corrected weights.
15. Divide the total moment by the total weight [step 13/step 14] to
obtain the distance from the datum to the cg. Some aircraft use this distance for all cg references
(typically presented in inches).
16. Other aircraft refer cg location to a percent of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). In this case, subtract
the distance between the datum and the leading edge of the MAC from the distance in step 15.
17. Divide the distance in step 16 by the length of the MAC. This number is the fraction of the cg location
along the MAC.
18 To present the above fraction in terms of % MAC, multiply by 100.
Page 07 - 4
Example cg calculations
Datum #2
Datum #1
? in ? ? in
40 in 75 in
115 in
320 lbs 816 lbs right

810 lbs left
Example Using Datum at Main Landing Gear

Item Weight × Arm = Moment
Right wheel 816 lb × 0 = 0
Left wheel 810 lb × 0 = 0
Nose wheel 320 lb × -75 = -24,000 inlb
Total 1,946 lb × = -24,000 inlb
24,000
= 12.33 in (fwdof MWCL)
1,946
Example Using Datum at Prop Spinner

Item Weight × Arm = Moment
Right wheel 816 lb × 115 = 93,840
Left wheel 810 lb × 115 = 93,150
Nose wheel 320 lb × 40 = 12,800
Total 1,946 lb × = 199,790
199 ,790
= 102 .67 in
1,946
Example Lateral cg Calculation
Item Weight × Lat. Arm = Moment
Right wheel 816 lb × +70 = 57,120
Left wheel 810 lb × -70 = -56,700
Nose wheel 320 lb × 0 = 0
Total weight 1,946 lb × = 420
420
then = = . 216 in
1 , 946
Page 07 - 5
Correcting empty weight cg for changes in fuel, passengers,

equipment or stores.
1. Note aircraft empty weight & empty weight cg. Multiply these
values to obtain the empty weight moment.
2. Note the weight and moment arm for each item added to or subtracted from the aircraft (items subtracted are
listed as negative weights).
3. Multiply each item’s weight and arm to determine its moment.
4. Sum each item’s moment in step 3 with the aircraft empty weight moment.
5. Sum each item’s weight with the aircraft empty weight.
6. Calculate the new cg as [step 4/step 5].
Example cg corrections:
Given aircraft with empty weight = 1,075 lbs and cg @ 84 inches. Add pilot (170 lbs, @85.5”), fuel (75 lbs
@94”), and oil (15 lbs @ 31.7”).
Item Wt × Arm = Moment

Airplane (empty) 1,075 × 84 = 90,300.0
Pilot 170 × 85.5 = 14,535.0
Fuel 75 × 94 = 7,050.0
Oil 15 × 31.7 = 475.5
Total 1,335 × = 112,360.5
112 , 360 . 5
then = = 84 . 16 in
1,335
Given aircraft with empty weight = 1,220 lbs and cg @ 25 inches. Add radio (15 lbs, @ 65”), and replace 11 lb
generator with 14 lb generator at same 21.5” location (in front of datum-located on firewall).
Item Wt × Arm = Moment

Airplane (empty) 1,220 × 25.0 = 30,500.0
Radio 15 × 65.0 = 975.0
Generator (removed) -11 × -21.5 = 236.5
Generator (installed) +14 × -21.5 = -294.0
New empty weight 1,238 × = 31,417.5
31,417 .5
= 25.38 in the new cg (em pty)
1,238
Page 07 - 6
7.3 Vertical Center of Gravity Measurement
1. Drain or block landing gear struts to keep distances G, J, and V constant.

2. Level the fuselage and measure the weight on the nose wheel (Fo).
3. Tilt the aircraft at various (θ) measure nose wheel weight (F).
G J V
WL
F
SCALE
FLOOR
The change in nose wheel force can be written as
⎞
(FO − F ) = ⎡⎢V + BG ⎤⎥ ⎛⎜ W
⎟
⎣ C ⎦ ⎝ C cot θ + G ⎠
4. Plot (Fo-F) vs the term in 400 Fo-F
parenthesis.
300
5. Slope of line equals term in brackets.
6. Solve for V after measuring B, C, G,
⎡ BG⎤
Slope= ⎢V +
C ⎥⎦
200
and the slope. ⎣
• This method 100
applies to “gear
down” cg . -16 -12 -8 -4 4 8 12
• For “gear up” add the manufacturer's W/(C cot θ+G) [lb/in]
-100
prediction of the cg shift to this result.
-200
-300
-400
-500
Page 07 - 7
The moment of inertia about any axis of a body is the summation of the product of every element’s mass and
distance squared. Moments of inertia represent the resistance to rotational momentum changes.
(
I xb ≡ ∫ y 2 + z 2 dm ) d 2
d =x +z
2 2
≡ ∫ (x + z )dm
2 2 x
I yb
I zb ≡ ∫ (x 2
+ y )dm
2
m1
z
Products of inertia are also calculated about any body axes. They represent the symmetry of mass dis-
tribution (comparing opposing quadrants).
x
I xy = I yx ≡ ∫ xydm
(−) (+)
I yz = I zy ≡ ∫ yzdm (+) (−)
y
m1
I xz = I zx ≡ ∫ xzdm Ixy = (+)
• Aircraft moments and products of inertia are calculated using body axes as the reference system.
• Careful x axis
U
Documentation can yield P Fx
inertial G
x
predictions
within about G
1-5% of actual. y
Q
F
G y
z V
R
y axis
Fz
z axis
W
Page 07 - 8
7.4.1 Radius of Gyration
• Dimensions of all I terms are [slugs-ft2].

• Aircraft moments & products of inertia are generally assumed to be constant.
• For moments of inertia, mathematically replace I with the product of total mass times some constant with the
dimensions of square feet.
• This constant is called the “radius of gyration” (k)
• If all the mass were concentrated at this radius, it would have the same moment of inertia as the actual body.
( )
I x ≡ ∫ y 2 + z 2 dm = mk yz2
Aircraft moment of inertia summary
Izb is always the largest value.
Iyb> Ixb for fuselage-loaded aircraft
Ixb> Iyb for wing-loaded aircraft.
x y
z z
• Vehicle mass distribution can be represented with concentrated “dumbbell” masses.

• The lines connecting the opposing dumbbells are the principle axes.
• When the principle axis lies along some line different from the body axis, the products of inertia are non-
zero.
• If the orientation of the principle axes and the moments of inertia about theses axes are known, then the mo-
ments of inertia about any other axis system can be calculated.
Page 07 - 9
7.4.2 Parallel Axis Theorem Applications

Shows how to determine modified moment of inertia after some
component alterations. Example: Correct original aircraft roll inertia, Ixb, to a modified value that accounts for
the addition of wingtip fuel tanks.
I xbmod = I xb orig + ΔI x comp
• ΔIx comp is composed of two components
ΔI x comp = I x comp + mcomp r 2

• Ix comp is the moment of inertia of just the new component about an axis which is parallel to the aircraft axis
in question (this axis should run through the component’s cg).
• Ix comp can be determined analytically by summing the inertias of every mass element throughout the compo-
nent (documented for simple shapes in various engineering handbooks).
• Ix comp can be determined experimentally by “swinging,” (sect’n 7.4.8).
• Ix comp is usually much smaller than mcomp r2 and can often be omitted.
• mcomp is the component’s mass
• r is the distance from the axis in question to the component’s cg.
Similarly, the parallel axis theorem shows how to determine modified products of inertia after some compo-
nent alterations
I xz mod = I xz orig + [ I xz comp + mcomp xz ]
x and z are the distances from the component cg to the reference axes.
Moments of inertia are calculated about a set of reference axes which all intersect at the reference cg. In general,
however, the actual cg does not lie exactly at this reference cg. The parallel axis theorem shows how to correct
the moment of inertia to the actual cg axis. As an example, the rolling moment of inertia about the actual cg
(Ixcg) is calculated from the reference Ixb as follows.
I x cg = I xb − m[ y 2 + z 2 ]
where m = total mass

y = lateral distance between cg and aircraft x-axis.
z = vertical distance between cg and aircraft x-axis.
Page 07 - 10
7.4.3 Measuring Roll Inertia, Ixb (spring oscillation method)
1. Balance aircraft on prism-like “knife edges” that support wooden

cradles that conform to aircraft shape.
2. Attach springs (tension springs illustrated here) so they are parallel to
line a as shown.
a
h O
90 SPRING
A+B
CG
WL
OSCILLATION
AXIS
CRADLE
KNIFE
EDGE
A B
3. Allow aircraft to oscillate freely in roll after a small disturbance.

4. Use automatic recording to determine period of oscillations (T).
5. Calculate damped frequency as
2π
ωd =
T
6. Record peak magnitude of each oscillation.
7. Calculate ζ using transient peak ratio method (see “Motion Analy sis,” Section 8 of this handbook).
8. Calculate natural frequency as
ωd
ωn =
1− ζ 2
Page 07 - 11
Measuring Roll Inertia (continued)
9. Measure the spring’s stiffness (Ko)

Ko
10. Calculate inertia about oscillation axis (Io) as I o =
ωn2
11. Use parallel axis theorem to correct Io to a parallel axis passing through the cg.
12. Springs, cradles and attachments hardware will change the moment of inertia. Sum their total into a com-
bined “test equipment inertia” (ΔIte) and subtract this from the above result.
Combining steps 10-12 gives the complete moment of inertia equation

K o a 2 − mgh
I cg = − md 2 − ΔI te
ωn2
where h is the vertical distance between the cg and axis of oscillation and d is the total distance between the cg
and the axis of oscillation (d = h in the illustrated roll inertia test setup).
If automatic recording is not available...

Accomplish steps 1-3 as described for automatic recording case.
4. Use a stopwatch to time several oscillations and calculate ωd as before
5. Measure the spring’s rotational stiffness (Ko)
6. Approximate inertia using the damped frequency using
Ko
7. Use parallel axis theorem to correct Io to a parallel axis Io ≈
passing through the cg. ωd2
8. Correct for effects of test hardware moment of inertia (ΔIte).

9. To correct for errors in the Io approximation, apply an "additional mass correction" (ΔIam) which equates the
flate plate area damping effect to additional inertia. This correction is detailed in ref. 7.5.3.
K o a 2 − mgh
Combining steps 6-9 gives I cg = − md 2 − (ΔI te + ΔI am )
ωd2
Above methods can also be used to determine Iyb and Izb
Page 07 - 12
7.4.4 Measuring Pitch Inertia, Iyb (spring oscillation method)
1. Balance aircraft on knife edges as shown.
2. Attach spring perpendicular to line a. Only one spring is required since the aircraft cg is off-center. Spring
must be stiff enough to hold the aircraft in equilibrium as well as provide a restoring moment during oscilla-
tions.
CG
h
WL
a
d O
90
SPRING
OSCILLATION
AXIS
KNIFE
EDGE A B
Repeat steps 3-12 and apply the moment of inertia equation to determine Iyb
K o a 2 − mgh
I cg = − md 2 − Δ I te
ω n2
or, for an uninstrumented aircraft,

K o a 2 − mgh
I cg = − md 2 − (ΔI te + ΔI am )
ωd2
Page 07 - 13
7.4.5 Measuring Yaw Inertia, Izb (spring oscillation method)
1. Suspend aircraft as shown: fuselage reference line parallel with floor,

z-body axis coincides with the oscillation axis (h = d = 0).
For Izb test, set spring assembly tilt angle parallel to floor (δ = 0).
CRASH
RECOVERY RESTORING MOMENT
SLING
N
WL δ
L
A+B
OSCILLATION
AXIS
2. Ideal case is where the wing attach points are in line with the aircraft cg as shown. Springs are perpendicu-
lar to the AB line and are parallel.
WL
CG
AXIS
A B
Y
90 O
Page 07 - 14
Measuring Yaw Inertia (continued)
If not possible to rig wing attach points in line with the cg, then keep the springs parallel to each other and
measure the angle φ.
• Calculate Ko = k cos φ where k is the actual spring constant
CG
WL
O
90
B
AXIS
Y
Repeat steps 3-12 and apply the moment of inertia equation to determine Izb. Note that distances h and d are zero
for a properly suspended aircraft.
K oa 2
I cg = − Δ I te
ω n2
or, for an uninstrumented aircraft,
K oa 2
I cg = − (Δ I te + Δ I am )
ω d2
Page 07 - 15
7.4.6 Measuring Axis of Inclination and Ixz
• Inclination of principle axis (ε) is positive if it lies in the +xz plane as shown.
• Ixz positive if ε is positive.

-Z
CG
+X
+ε WL
+X-
FUSELAGE REFERENCE LINE
PRINCIPAL LONGITUDINAL AXIS
+Z
AXIS ORIENTATION
• From equations of motion
L = I x p& − I xz (r& + pq) + ( I z − I y )qr and N = I z r& − I xz ( p& − qr ) + ( I y − I x ) pq
• When forcing small motions about only the yaw axis, pq and qr are
negligible, giving
L = I x p& − I xz r& and N = I z r& − I xz p&
• If ε (and therefore Ixz ) is positive, then yawing to the right will

generate a left rolling moment.
• If ε and Ixz are negative, a right yaw will generate a right moment.
Page 07 - 16
Measuring Axis of Inclination and Ixz (continued)
1. Determine Ixz and ε by repeating yaw experiment for different spring

angles (δ). Use instrumentation to note for each δ.
2 Graphically determine the angle δo at which the restoring vector

produced by the springs completely counteracts the roll motion.
p&
Plot [tan δ] vs r& as shown.
+.02
+.01 p&
r&
0
Tangent of
Restoring Spring Assembly Angle
0.1 (tanδ)
-.02
-.03
-.04
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07
p&
3. Determine the point where equals zero. This occurs at tanδo.
r&
4. Calculate the product of inertia using I xz = I z tan δ o
5. Calculate the inclination of the principle axis using

2 I xz
tan 2ε =
I zb − I xb
p&
Note: Since the Ixz test objective is to interpolate to a condition where equals zero, only the ratio is necessary
r&
and the absolute magnitudes of the accelerations are not reuired. In other words, the roll acceleration sen-
sitivity can be increased to allow for easier measurement of the ratio.
Page 07 - 17
7.4.7 Guidelines for Spring Oscillation Method
• Use only small magnitude oscillations
• Keep size and radius of knife edges as small as practical.
• Springs are typically linear except around zero load. Best results
occur if springs are pre-loaded.
• Choose spring stiffness so oscillation frequency will be within

instrumentation limits.
• If using a hand recorded stopwatch, best spring stiffness gives about one cycle per second (f = 1).
∗ Estimate the desired spring rate using
k=
(I cg )
+ md 2 (2πf ) 2 + hmg
a2
• The purpose of instrumentation is to provide a means for measuring frequency and magnitude. Any of sev-
eral parameters will be sufficient, including angular displacement, rate or acceleration; or linear accelera-
tion.
Page 07 - 18
7.4.8 Swing Method
1. Suspend component as shown.
2. Measure pendulum length (l), component mass (m ), and the period of oscillation (T).
• The observed period is a function of the effective pendulum length.
2
g 2π l eff ⎛ T ⎞
ω= and T = = 2π or leff =⎜ ⎟ g
l eff ω g ⎝ 2π ⎠
• This effective length is the total radius of gyration leff = Ktot
• The total moment of inertia about the pivot point is the product of mass and radius of gyration squared. The
parallel axis theorem states that this also is the sum of the component’s moment of inertia about its cg plus
its mass times the distance between the pivot and the component’s cg.
I eff = mK tot2 = I cg + ml 2
3. Solving for the component’s moment of inertia about its own cg gives
2
2 2 2 2
⎡⎛ T ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
I cg = mK − ml = m ( K − l ) = m ( ⎢⎜ ⎟ g⎥ − l )
⎢⎣⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎥⎦
tot tot
Page 07 - 19
7.5 References
7.5.1 Lawless, Alan R. et al, “Special Topics and Aircraft Subsystems Flight Testing,” Chapter 1, Mass Prop-
erties, National Test Pilot School, Mojave, CA, 1999.
7.5.2 Bradfield, Edward N., "Experimental Determination of the Moments of Inertia, Product of Inertia, and
Inclination of the Principle Axis of Conventional Aircraft by the Spring Oscillation Method" FTC-TIM-
1001, AFFTC, Edwards AFB, CA, 1971.
7.5.3 Malvestuto, S. F., et al, "Formulas for Additional Mass Corrections to the Moments of Inertia of Air
planes" TN 1187, Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, Langley Field Virginia, 1947.
7.5.4 Lawless, Alan R., "Fixed Wing Flying Qualities Flight Testing" Chapter 7, Equations of Motion, Na
tional Test Pilot School Mojave CA, 1998.
Additional Reading
7.5.5 Tanner H.L., "Measurement of the Moments of Inertia of an Airplane by a Simplified Method"
NACA2201, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, Moffet Field, CA, 1950.
7.5.6 Woodward, C.R., et al "Handbook of Instructions for Experimentally Determining the Moments of Iner
tia of Aircraft by the Spring Oscillation Method" TB-822-F-2, ASTIA AD97104, Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory, Buffalo, New York, 1955.
Page 07 - 20
Section 8 Motion/Vibration Analysis

8.2.1 Elements of First Order Motion
8.2.2 First Order Motion Descriptive Parameters
8.2.3 Determining Descriptive Parameter τ

8.3.1 Elements of Second Order Motion
8.3.2 Second Order Motion Descriptive Parameters
8.3.3 Determining Descriptive Parameters
8.4 Complex Plane
8.6 Vibration Nomograph
8.7 References
Page 08 - 1
C 1/x number of cycles to achieve 1/x amplitude

D damping
D1,D2 peak-to-peak displacement (subsequent)
FV final value
F(t) forcing function
f frequency, cycles/sec = ω/(2π)
HCAR half cycle amplitude ratio (i.e., x2/x1, x3/x2, etc.)
Im imaginary axis
M mass
MP peak overshoot
Re real axis
rms root mean square
s1, s2 equation roots of second order
T period = 1/f = 2π/ωd (seconds)
Td delay time (i.e., time to 50% of FV)
Tr rise time (i.e., time from 10% to 90% of FV)
Tp time to peak amplitude
TPR transient peak ratio
Ts settling time (time to settle within x% of FV)
T 1/2 time to achieve 1/x amplitude
x displacement
x1,x2 peak displacements (subsequent)
v velocity
vo peak velocity
ε =ζωn /ωd = ζ/[1‐ζ2].5
φ phase lag (radians)
ζ damping coefficient (non-dimensional)
σ damping rate =ζωn = 1/τ
τ time constant =1/ζωn
ω frequency, radians/sec
ωd damped natural frequency (rad/sec)
ωn natural frequency (rad/sec)
Page 08 - 2
Found in classical aircraft roll and spiral modes. Named first-order because the motions are described by mathe-
matics using the first derivative of a parameter.
8.2.1 Elements of First Order Motion

• Mechanical analogy contains elements of mass, damping and
sometimes a forcing function.
• Example: Determine the vertical velocity of a diver as she hits the water at 10 ft/s (assume constant body
position & neutral buoyancy)
Summing vertical forces dV

∑ Fvert : M + DV = 0
dt
dV D
+ dt = 0
V M
dV D
∫ V = − ∫ M dt
−D −D
Since D & M are constant ln V = t +C = t + ln c
M M
−D
Vc = ce M (complementary solution)
t
Apply initial condition

V (t = 0 ) = 10 ft s ⇒
10 = C
−D t
VT = 10e M
Plot response over time V
10 D
M
• Exponential rate of decay described by D/M ratio
Page 08 - 3
• Example 2: Diver with 20 lb submerged weight releases from zero velocity at top of pool (quiescent condi-
tion).
Solve using Laplace analysis methods:
MV& + DV = 20 (step input)
20
M [sV (s ) − V (0)] + DV (s ) =
s
20 1
sV (s ) − V (0) + V (s ) =
D
M M s
⎛ D ⎞ 1 20 1 20
+ V (0) ⎧ 20 ⎫ V (0)
V (s )⎜ s + ⎟ = + V (0) V (s ) = s M
= ⎨ M D ⎬+
⎝ M ⎠ sM s + MD ⎩ s (s + )
M ⎭ s + MD
⎧ 20 ⎫ A B ⎧ 20 ⎫ A(s + MD ) Bs A(s + MD ) + Bs
usepartialfraction= ⎨ M D ⎬ = + ⎨
M
D ⎬
= + =
⎩ s(s + M )⎭ s s + M ⎩s (s + M ) ⎭ s(s + M ) s(s + M ) s(s + MD )
D D D
− D 20 −D − 20 20 D 20
let s = ; =B ⇒B = , let s = 0 : = A ⇒ A =
M M M M M M D
⎧ 20 − 20 ⎫ V
V (s) = ⎨ D + DD ⎬ + (0)D ,
⎩S s+ M ⎭ s+ M
⎧20 20 −(D )t ⎫ −(D )t 20 −(D )t
v(t ) = ⎨ − e M ⎬ + V(0)e M sinceV (0) = 0 then v(t ) = ⎡1− e M ⎤
⎩D D ⎭ D ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ −D
t⎤
Note that 20 is thesteadystate valuei.e. v(t ) = Vss ⎢1− e M ⎥
D ⎣ ⎦
This “force/damping” Vss

ratio is merely a scaling D
M
large
factor for the steady V D small
state. M
• Several methods can be used to describe the quickness of convergence toward steady state (i.e., time to
99.999 % of Vss, time to 1/2 Vss).
• By convention, we use a % that directly reflects the exponent.
• Establish a time constant τ based on D/M.
D 1 −M − τt
so
Dt
≡ e =e
M τ
− τt − ττ
when t = τ , then e =e = e −1 = 0.36788
so, after τ [( ) ] seconds have elapsed, V = V
D −1
M ss [1 − 0.36788 ] = 63 .212 %Vss
τ = time constant (time for parameter to reach 63% of its steady state value)
Page 08 - 4
8.2.2 First Order Motion Descriptive Parameters
1.0
x
.37 t
−
x(t ) = e −ζωnt
=e τ
.05
.02 t
τ 3τ 4τ
when t = 0.6931τ: x = e−.6931 = 0.5 (time to half amplitude)

when t = τ: x = e−1 = 0.37
when t = 3τ x = e−3 = 0.05
when t = 4τ: x = e−4 = 0.02
• If exponent > 0, then motion is divergent. x(t ) = ce mt

x where m > 0
• τ again describes the exponential rate of divergence.

• By convention, the “time to double amplitude” (t2) is usually applied as the evaluation metric.
• x(t2) = 2x(0) where x(0) = cem0
Therefore x 2 = 2 c
2 c = ce mt 2
2 = e mt 2
ln 2 = mt 2
0.6931
∴ Time to double amplitude = t 2 = 0.693τ
m
Page 08 - 5
8.2.3 Determining τ from Step Input Time History
Method #1
x
xss
τ = time to reach 0.632 xss
0.632 xss
t
τ
Method #2
1. Define xss
2. Measure x1 at some time t1
(
3. Calculate x2 = 0 .632 xss + .58x(t1 ) )
4. Find t2 corresponding to x2
5. t2 − t1 = τ xss
0 . 632 ( x SS + . 58 x ( t 1 ) ) = x q
x1
t1 t2 t
Method #3
x xss . t2
1. Pick any time t1.
2. Draw tangent at t1. Slope method
3. Note t2 where tangent intercepts xss. m
4. τ = t2-t1 x( t1 )
t
t1
Page 08 - 6
Method #4 When XSS is unknown use

Δt
τ =
⎛ A ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠
XSS
X3
A2
X2
A1
X1
t2- t1= t3- t2 =Δt
t1 t2 t3 time
− Δt
Method #5 When Xss is known, use τ =
⎡ X − X1 ⎤
ln ⎢ SS ⎥
⎣ X SS − X 2 ⎦
Linearity check: XSS

X3
Note parameter change be- A2
tween even time increments. X2
A1
X1
Plot parameter changes vs
elapsed time on semi-log
t2- t1= t3- t2 =Δt
scale
t1 t2 t3 time
Slope of line equals τ

Δ p1
Δ p2
Δp3
Δp
Δp4
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Page 08 - 7
Found in classical aircraft phugoid, Dutch roll and short period modes as well as noise filter and vibration test-
ing. Named second-order because the motions are described by mathematics using the second derivative of a
parameter.
8.3.1 Elements of Second Order Motion
Mechanical systems have elements of spring, mass, and usually damping. Forcing functions can be included
(see illustration).
K = spring stiffness (F/x)

x = displacement from equilibrium
M = mass
K F(t) = forcing function
D = damping
x
M
D
F(t) ∑F vert : M&x& + D x& + Kx = F (t )
Natural character is observed when system is allowed to move with no external input [F(t) = 0]
∑ Fvert : M&x& + Dx& + Kx = 0
Apply operator technique: let x = e st , x& = se st , &x& = s 2e st

(
⇒ e st Ms 2 + Ds + K = 0 )
Divide out est, since it never equals zero, the characteristic equation remains:
D K
Ms 2 + Ds + K = 0 or s2 + s+ =0
M M
The values of s that satisfy this equation are called the roots
[x = c e1
s1t
+ c2 e s 2 t ]
Solve for the roots using the quadratic equation
Page 08 - 8
8.3.2 Second Order Motion Descriptive Parameters
Solution (x) calculated as 2

−D K ⎛ D ⎞
x = c1e + c2 e
s1t s2t
where s1 , s2 = ±j −⎜ ⎟
2M M ⎝ 2M ⎠
Apply Euler’s identity for complex conjugate roots −D ⎛ K ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎞

x = Ae 2 M sin⎜
t
−⎜ + φ ⎟
⎜ M ⎝ 2M ⎟⎠
t
⎟
⎝ ⎠
• φ defines the phase shift.
• A defines the initial amplitude.
• The real part of the root [D/2M] defines the envelope of the motion.
• The imaginary part of the root identifies the damped frequency
K ⎛ D ⎞
2
of the oscillations, ωd (rad/sec). −⎜ ⎟

M ⎝ 2M ⎠
− ( 2M ) 2
ωd = K
M
D
• If damping is reduced to D = 0 then only [K/M]1/2 remains.

This is the undamped or “natural” frequency (ωη).
ωn ≡ K
M
• If ( 2DM )2 = MK then D is conisidered to be critical [just enough to prevent oscillations]
K
Dcrit = 2M = 2 KM
M
• For oscillatory motion, actual system damping is typically expressed as a fraction critical damping. Define
damping ratio as
D D
ζ≡ =
Dcrit 2 KM
Page 08 - 9
2
K ⎛ D ⎞
Combining ωd ≡ −⎜ ⎟
M ⎝ 2M ⎠
K D
with ωn ≡ and ζ=
M 2 KM
D
gives ωd ≡ ωn 1 − ζ 2 and = ζωn
2M
The values can be substituted to give
D ⎛ K ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎞
sin ⎜ +φ ⎟
− t
x = Ae 2M
−⎜ ⎟
⎜ M ⎝ 2M ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= Ae −ζωn t
sin (ωd + φ )
(
= Ae−ζωnt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 + φ )
ωd ω 1− ζ 1− ζ
where φ = tan −1 = tan −1 n = tan −1
ζωn ωn ζ
(
x = Ae −ζω nt sin ω n 1 − ζ 2 t + φ )
Frequency, ωd
φ
of Motion
Amplitude
Envelope
Damped
Phase
Shift
Initial
Α
x = Ae −ζωnt
x (
x = Ae−ζωnt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + φ )
t
x = Ae −ζωnt
−Α Τ
2π
=
ωd
Page 08 - 10
2
−D K ⎛ D ⎞
⎟ = −ζω n ± jωn 1 − ζ
2
Roots s1,2 = ±j −⎜
2M M ⎝ 2M ⎠
Possible Solutions:
if ( 2DM )2 then roots are and system response is
k Non-oscillatory
> Real and unequal ~ convergent if D > 0
x
t
m
~ divergent if D < 0 x
t
k Non-oscillatory x
= Real and equal ~ convergent if D > 0
m t
~ divergent if D < 0
Non-oscillatory
k Complex
< (purely imaginary if D = 0)
~ convergent if D > 0
m ~ neutral if D = 0
~ divergent if D < 0
• The various combination of K, M, and D and their effects on system response can be related to damping ratio
ζ as follows:
ζ>1 Real & unequal roots −ωn ⎛⎜ ζ + ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟t −ωn ⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟t

exponential, convergent x(t ) = c1e ⎝ ⎠
+ c2e ⎝ ⎠
ζ = ± 1 Real & equal roots

exponential, conv or div x(t ) = c1e−ζωnt + c2te−ζωnt
0 < ζ < 1 Complex pair roots

x(t ) = Ae−ζωnt sin(ωd t + φ )
sinusoidal, convergent
ζ = 0 Imaginary pair roots x(t ) = Asin(ωnt + φ )

sinusoidal, neutral
= A cosωnt
−1 < ζ < 0 Complex pair roots x(t ) = Ae−ζωnt sin(ωd t + φ )
sinusoidal, divergent
−ωn ⎛⎜ ζ + ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟t −ωn ⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟t
ζ<−1 Real & unequal roots x(t ) = c1e ⎝ ⎠
+ c2e ⎝ ⎠
exponential, divergent
Page 08 - 11
Damping ratio effect on second order system
Convergent Sinusoid
1.0
(x)t = e−0.3t sin (2.99t), ζ = 0.1, ωn = 3
Response of various
second order systems 0.5
to an impulse input.
X 0
Second-order sys-
-0.5
tems are oscillatory
if
-1.0
-1 > ζ > 1. 0 5 10 15 20
Time (sec)
Motion typically
described by Neutrally Damped Sinusoid
2
ωn and ζ (x)t = cos 3t , ζ = 0
1
T, ωd, ωn and ζ are

linked such that X 0
knowledge of any
two will yield -1
the other two.
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)
Divergent Sinusoid
400
(x)t = e+0.2t sin t, ζ < 0
200
0
X
-200
-400
0 10 20 30
Time (sec)
Page 08 - 12
2nd order system response to unit step input for underdamped systems
1 .6
1 .5
1 .4
1 .3
1 .2
1 .1
1 .0
0 .9
x 0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Normalized Time, ωn t
(0 > ζ > 1)
Page 08 - 13
Decay rates (for 0 < ζ <1) and Useful Insights

ln xx12 ln xx12
• Time to decay ζωn = ⇒ Δt =
t2 − t1 ζωn
ln 12 0.6931
Time to 12 amplitude ≡ Δt 1 = =
2
ζωn ζωn
ln 101 2.3026
Time to 101 amplitude ≡ Δt 1 = =
10
ζωn ζωn
ln x
Time to 1x amplitude ≡ Δt 1 =
x
ζωn
Δt Δtωd
• # cycles to 12 amplitude# cycles= =
T 2π
0.6931 ωd 0.6931 ωd 0.1103
# cycles to 12 amplitude ≡ C1 = = =
2
ζωn 2π 2π ζωn ε
2.3026 ωd 2.3026 ωd 0.3665
# cycles to 101 amplitude ≡ C 1 = = =
10
ζωn 2π 2π ζωn ε
ln x ωd
# cycles to 1x amplitude ≡ C1 =
x
2π ζωn
• Same analysisappliesfor exponential growth
x1 x2 x3
For same Δt = = etc
x2 x3 x4
2
x1 x1 x2 ⎛⎜ x1 ⎞⎟
Therefore = = ⇒ HCAR = full cycle amp ratio
x3 x2 x3 ⎜⎝ x2 ⎟⎠
ζωn (t2 −t1 ) ζωn (Δt ) ζωn (T2 ) ζωn ( )

2π
HCAR ≡ x1
x2
=e =e =e =e 2ωd
⎛ π ⎞ πζ
ζωn ⎜ ⎟
1− ζ 2 Note HCAR= f (only)
=e ⎝ ωn ⎠
=e 1− ζ 2
⇒ ln
x1
= πζ
⇒ζ =
(ln ) x1
x2
2 This can be applied in
graphical form
π +(ln )
1−ζ
2
2 (transient peak ratio
x2 2 x1
x2 method)
Page 08 - 14
8.3.3 Determining Descriptive Parameters
Time domain metrics

Mp
1.2
x(t)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
Td Tp Ts
Tr
time
Peak Value, MP: largest value
Final Value, FV: steady state value
Delay Time, Td: 50% of final value
Rise Time, Tr: 10% - 90% of FV
Peak Time, Tp: time to MP
Settling Time, Ts: time to reach some defined % of final value
% Overshoot, PO:
MP−1
1
×100% target value = unity
Page 08 - 15
Method #1 Basic Analysis
Note x(t ) = Ae −ζω nt sin (ω d t + 0 )

[ζω n ] and [ωd ] describe a time history
e − ζωnt
x
x1
t2
t1 t
x2
2π
T= ωd
1 2π ln x12
x
fd = ωd = ζω n =
T T (t 2 − t1 )
Easily measured values: can use any points on envelope
ln x1
x
ζω 2
(t 2 −t1 ) T ln xx12
Define ε ≡ n = =
ωd 2π
T 2π (t2 − t1 )
ζω ln x12
x
where (t2 − t1 ) = = ε = ln[x1 / x 2] / π

T
⇒ n =
2 ωd π
recallωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
ζωn ζ ζ2
ε= = ⇒ε2 = ⇒ ε 2 (1 − ζ 2 ) = ζ 2 ⇒ ε 2 = ζ 2 [1 + ε 2 ]
ωn 1 − ζ 2 1− ζ 2 1− ζ 2
ε2 ζωn ωd
ζ= ωn = =
1+ ε 2 ζ 1− ζ 2
= e ζω n (t2 −t1 )
x1
≡ Half - Cycle Amplitude Ratio ( HCAR )
x2
Page 08 - 16
Method #2 Transient Peak Ratio Analysis
1) Measure either D or x distances as shown. 120
110
x D1
D3
D2 Example D5
Calculation
D4
x1 D1 100
x5
t 90
x2 D2
80
0 50 100 150
Time (sec)
2) Note ratio of adjacent peak values (transient peak ratios). D2 117 − 86 31

First TPR : = = = 0.8378
3) Average several TPRs. D1 117 − 80 37
4) Use equation to find ζ: D3 112 − 86 26
Second TPR : = = = 0.8387
ζ=
(ln ) x1
x2
2
Third TPR :
D2 117 − 86 31
D4 112 − 90 22
= = = 0.8462
π + (ln )
2 x1 2 D3 112 − 86 26
x2
Average TPR = 0.8409
4a) Can use 1 .0
D1/D2 or x1/x2
0 .9
ratios in above equation.
0 .8
4b) In lieu of equation, use
adjacent look-up curve to find ζ. 0 .7
0 .6
4c) Time ratio method works better
with heavy damping. 0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 .0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.80
1.00
D am p in g R atio , ζ
Page 08 - 17
Method #3 Multiple TPR Analysis
0 .3 0
0 .2 8
0 .2 6
0 .2 4 2 m = 1
0 .2 2 3
4
0 .2 0
5
0 .1 8
Damping ratio,
6 ζ
0 .1 6 7
0 .1 4 8
9
0 .1 2 10
0 .1 0 12 11
14 13
0 .0 8
1 8 1 6 11 75
19
0 .0 6 20
0 .0 4
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.80
1.00
S u b s id e n c e r a tio , x m /x 0
To determine damping ratio

~ Use the m = 1 line when comparing the next ratio. Δx1 2.5
= = 0.56 ζ = 0.16
Δx0 4.5
Δx2 1.5
= = 0.60 ζ = 0.14
Δx1 2.5
Δx2 1.5
~ Use the m = 2 line for comparing every other =
Δx0 4.5
= 0.33 ζ = 0.16
peak ratio.
Δx3 1.0
= = 0.40 ζ = 0.14
Δx1 2.5
Page 08 - 18
Method #4 Time Ratio Analysis
• If the damping ratio is between 0.5 and 1.0 (two or less overshoots), then the time ratio method can be used to
determine frequency and damping ratio. Select a peak where the response if free.
• Note times for amplitude to reduce to 73.6%, 40.9%, and 19.9% of the peak value.
1.000
0.736
0.409
199
α time
t1
t2
t3
Input Response
• Form the time ratios t2/t1, t3/t1, and [t3-t2]/[t2-t1]
• Enter the next figure at the time ratio side to find ζ for each time ratio.
• This technique is valid if the system transfer function has no zeros.
• If recorded measurements are not available and if the number of overshoots is between 2 and 6, then
ζ ≈ 7 − #overshoots
10
Page 08 - 19
ωnΔt3
6.5 6.5
6.0 6.0
5.5 Δt3 5.5
5.0 Δt1 5.0
4.5 4.5
4.0 4.0
ωnΔ t2
3.5 3.5
3.0 Δt2
3.0
Δt1
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
Page 08 - 20
1.5 ωnΔt1 1.5
Δt1 Δt1 Δt2 − Δt1
Time Ratio, Δt3 , Δt2 , Δt3 − Δt2
Frequency Time Products (ωnΔt3), (ωnΔt2), (ωnΔt1)

Δt3−Δt2
1.0 Δt2−Δt1 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Third Edition 2013
Damping Ratio, ζ
Method #5 Maximum Slope Analysis
Maximum Slope Tanget Line

Δx1
Peak
Δx Peak
t
Δt
4.8
2 .0
4.4
1. 8
4.0
1 .6
ωnΔt
3.6
1.
4
3.2
o ,ζ
R a ti
1.
2
2.8
g
p in
1.0
m
2.4
Da
0.8
0.6
2.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32

Δx1/Δx
• Calcu- lation of ζ somewhat sensitive to Δx1 measurement
ω n Δt
ωn = not too sensitive to Δx1
•
Δt
• Best if 0.5 ≤ ζ ≤ 1.4
X pK
• Initial overshoot approximation: let (step inputs only) K≡ −1
X ss
1
⎡ ⎛ −1 ⎞
2
⎤2
⎢ ⎜ ln K ⎟ ⎥
π
ζ=⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎛ −1 ⎞
2 ⎥
⎢ 1+ ⎜ ln K ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎦⎥
Page 08 - 21
Method #6 Separated Real Root Analysis (when ζ>1)
1) Determine several steady state ΔX(t) values from time history
X(t) ΔX(t)
to t Response
2) Plot ΔX vs t on semi-log scale

ΔX(t)
ΔX '0
(Log Scale)
ΔX0
ΔX0
ΔX1
slope = 1/τ1 Plot
Semilog
ΔX2
t0 t t1 t2
3) After the faster root has decayed, the semi-log plot will be a straight line whose slope determines the slower
root (1/τ1)
t1 − t2
τ1 =
⎛ Δχ ⎞
ln⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ Δχ2 ⎠
4) Determine by extrapolating the straight line portion of the response to establish the values
⎛1⎞ Δ χ 0 & Δ χ 0'

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝τ2 ⎠
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛1 1⎞
⎛ Δχ ⎞ - ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ - ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
τ 2= τ 1 ⎜⎜ 0' ⎟⎟ τ τ2 ⎠ τ τ2 ⎠
and ζ = ⎝ 1 = ⎝ 1
1 1
ωn =
⎝ Δχ 0 ⎠ τ1 τ 2 2ωn 1 1
2
τ1 τ 2
Page 08 - 22
Method #7 Modified Separated Real Root Analysis
• Method #6 is sensitive to errors in determining steady state values

• Alternate method is to avoid need for steady state value
• Define ΔX(t) ≡ [ x(t+ ΔT) -x(t)] where ΔT is a time increment
1) From time history, measure ΔX values according to definition
X
ΔX (t3){ ΔT = (t1-to) = (t2-t1), etc.
ΔX (t2){
ΔX (t1){
to t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
t
2) Plot ΔX (t) vs time on semi-log scale
ΔX(t0)
ΔX '
0
ΔX 0
ΔX(t3)
Log ΔX(t)
ΔX(t4)
ΔX(t5)
ΔX(t6)
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
3) Use previous method to determine roots and characteristics
• Gross error will result if ζ is actually <1
• If ζ is near 1, check results using time ratio or slope method
Page 08 - 23
Method # 8 Frequency Sweep Analysis
Determine ωn and ζ using sinusoidal inputs.

• This “forced response” method most useful when damping is heavy.
• For a second order system, output/input amplitude ratio and phase shift are a function of input frequency.
180° 0.05
ζ=0 0.15
Phase Angle, φ
3 0.05
0.375
ζ = 1.0
90°
Kx
0.10
A
Amplification Factor F
0.15
0.25 0
2 1 2 3 4 5
0.375 ω
Frequency Ratio ω
0.50 n
0 1 2 3 4 5
ω
Frequency Ratio ω
n
• Amplitude ratio peaks at “resonant” frequency, ωr.

• Resonant peaks increase as ζ decreases below 0.707.
• Peak amplitude ratio “rolls off” as ζ increases above 0.707.
• Resonant frequency approaches natural fre
quency as damping decreases:
ωr = ωn[1 − 2ζ2].5
• Phase shift = 90° if excited at ωn, regardless of damping ratio.
ζ = 0.5(ω2 – ω1)/ωn
Page 08 - 24
Frequency Sweep Analysis (continued)
1. Using sinusoidal inputs excite system @ ω near ωn

output
2. Measure phase lag (φ) of
Input
Output input
45°
3. Excite system @ another ω near ωn
4. Again Measure phase lag φ

Input
120°
Output
5. Plot φ vs input frequency
ωn
0° ω
φ
-45°
-90°
-135°
-180°
6. ωn occurs at φ = 90°
Page 08 - 25
Linearity Check /Accuracy Improvement
1) On semi-log scale, plot ratio of initial amplitude to subsequent peak

amplitudes at each half cycle (points a-e).
2) Fair straight line (f) through these points.
10
a
Double or Half Amplitudes
m=0 b m=1
c
m=2 d m=3
1
e
m=4
TPR f
g
T/2 T 3T/2 2T
3) Draw line (g) parallel (f) intercepting the ordinate at TPR=1
4) Average TPR occurs at T/2 on line g
Page 08 - 26
8.4 Complex Plane
Begin with sum of forces in spring-mass-damper example

M&x& + Dx& + Kx = f (t )
let x = e st , find transient solution
(Ms 2
)
+ Ds + K e st = 0
Apply quadratic equation to
solve for roots s1, 2 = −D
2M ± ( 2DM )2 − MK
Recall previous analogy s1,2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1−ζ 2
m1 Imaginary
1
τ=
ζω n ζ = cos θ
− ζωn ωn 1 − ζ 2 = ωd Real
− 1τ − ωn 1 − ζ 2 = −ωd
1
− ± jω d
τ ωn
m2
Location of Roots on Complex Plane

1. Line of constant damping ratio ζ − varying C1/n and ωn
2. Line of constant ωn − varying ζ
3. Line of constant ωd and period (T)
4. Line of constant real part (ζωn) and time to damp (T1/n)
1
4
3 Imaginary
σ = ζωn = 1/τ = damping rate
2
Real
Page 08 - 27
Sample second order root plots and corresponding time histories
(time histories represent trends only)
Examples of “two real roots”
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e m1t
+ c2 e m2t
overdamped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1e m1t + c2 e m 2 t
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e − ζω n t
+ c 2 te − ζω n t
critically damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e mt + c 2 e mt
Page 08 - 28
More sample second order root plots and corresponding time histories
Examples of “imaginary roots”
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = A sin (ω n t + φ )
undamped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae − ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
lightly damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae − ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
moderately damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
negatively damped
Page 08 - 29
For conversion of accelerometer measurements.

• For magnitude conversion substitute 2πf for jω.
• Assumes linear spectra.
• Conversion factor should be squared for power spectra.
Acceleration to velocity
to convert from to multiply by
ft/s2 rms ft/s rms 1/jω
ft/s2 rms in/s rms 12/jω
ft/s2 rms in/s peak 16.97/jω
g rms in/s rms 386/jω
g rms in/s peak 545.8/jω
m/s2 rms mm/s rms 1000/jω
m/s2 rms mm/s peak 1414/jω
g rms mm/s rms 9806/jω
g rms mm/s peak 13865.7/jω
Acceleration to Displacement
to convert from to multiply by
ft/s2 rms in rms 12/(jω)2
ft/s2 rms in p-p 33.9/(jω)2
ft/s2 rms mil p-p 33.9 E 03/(jω)2
g rms in rms 386/(jω)2
g rms in p-p 1091.6 E 03/(jω)2
g rms mil p-p 1091.6 E 03/(jω)2
m/s2 rms mm rms 1000/(jω)2
m/s2 rms mm p-p 2828/(jω)2
m/s2 rms micron p-p 2828 E 03/(jω)2
E= engineering exponent (x10 __)

g = 32.174 ft/sec2
in= inches
mil = thousandths of an inch
mm = milimeters
p-p = peak-to-peak
rms = root mean square
Page 08 - 30
8.6 Vibration Nomographs
Vibration Nomograph equations
For British [V in inches/sec], [d in inches]
V = 386g / 2πf
d = 386g / (2πf)2
where 386 = earth's gravitational pull [in/sec2]
For metric [V in mm/sec] , [d in mm]
V = 9800g / 2πf
d = 9800g / (2πf)2
where 9800 = earth's gravitational pull [mm/sec2]
Page 08 - 31
Nomograph - British Units
Page 08 - 32
Nomograph - Metric Units
Page 08 - 33
8.7 References
8.7.1 Lawless, Alan R., Math and Physics for Flight Testers, “Chapter 9, Motion Analysis,” National Test
Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1999.
8.7.2 Ward, Don, Introduction to Flight Testing, Texas A&M, Elsevier, 1993.
8.7.3 Lang, George F., Understanding Vibration Measurements,

Application Note 9, Rockland Scientific Corporation, Rockleigh, New Jersey, December 1978.
8.7.4 The Fundamentals of Modal Testing, Application Note 243-3,

Hewlett-Packard Company,
Additional Reading
Hartog, J.P. Den, Mechanical Vibrations, Dover Publications, New York, New York, 1984.
Jacobsen, Ludik S. and Ayre, Robert S., Engineering Vibrations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, New York, 1958.
Meirovitch, Leonard, Elements of Vibration Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New
York, 1986.
Meirovitch, Leonard, Analytical Methods in Vibrations, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York,
New York, 1967.
Myklestad, N.O., Vibration Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, New York, New York, 1944.
Page 08 - 34
Section 9 Material Strength
9.1 Terminology
9.2 Material Stress and Strain
9.3 V-n Diagram
9.4 Strain Gauges
9.5 References
Page 09 - 1
Section 9 Abbreviations
A cross-sectional area (ft2)

DLL design load limit
E modulus of elasticity or Young’s Modulus (lb/ft2)
e strain (non-dimensional)
EK gage factor
GW gross weight
KU effective gust velocity (ft/sec)
L lift force
L length (ft)
Nzb normal load factor, along aircraft z-axis
P applied load (lb)
R unstrained resistance
ΔR change in resistance due to load
S wing area (ft2)
V flight speed
Vs stall speed
Ve equivalent airspeed
W aircraft weight
W/S wing loading
ν Poisson’s ratio
σ stress (lb/ft2)
σ air density (slugs/ft3)
Page 09 - 2
9.1 Loads Terminology
Annealing A heat treatment that eliminates the effects of cold working.
Brittleness Measure of a material's lack of ductility (by one definition breakage at five percent or less
strain implies brittleness.
Creep rate The rate at which a material continues to stretch when stress is applied at high temperature.
Cold Working Deformation of a metal below its recrystallization temp., thereby strengthening and reshaping
it.
Design Load Maximum loads expected in normal service.

Limit
Ductility Ability of a material to deform without breaking.
Durability Ability to resist cracking, corrosion, thermal degradation, delamination, wear, and the effects
of foreign object damage over time.
Elastic Deformation of the material that is recovered when the applied load is removed.
Deformation
Elasticity Ability of a material to return to its undeformed shape after all loads have been removed.
Endurance Limit The stress below which a material will not fail in a fatigue test.
Factor of Safety Ratio of the predicted failure stress to the maximum stress anticipated in normal operation
(DLL). For aircraft, the Factor of Safety is typically 1.5 DLL.
Fatigue The failure of a material when subjected to repeated loads less than the ultimate sustainable
load. This effect is presented in an S-N diagram such as
60
40
Stress
(S)
20
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Cycles to Failure (N)
Page 09 - 3
Fatigue life The number of cycles at a particular stress before a material fails by fatigue.
Hardness Resistance to plastic deformation resulting from impact loads.
Impact Energy The energy required to fracture a specimen when the load is suddenly applied.
Limit Stress The maximum stress where the Modulus of Elasticity remains constant (proportional limit).
Margin of Safety Any load-bearing capability greater that the ultimate load, calculated as
failure load as a factor of DLL - 1
1.5 DLL
Notch Sensitivity Measure the effect of a notch on impact energy
Plastic Permanent deformation of a material applied load. Plasticity Material deformation charac
Deformation teristics beyond its elastic limit.
Resilience A measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb elastically in a unit volume of the
material.
Rupture time The time required for a specimen to fail by creep at a particular temperature and stress.
Stiffness A qualitative of the elastic deformation produced.
Strain (e) The deformation of a material under an applied load.
Strength Ability to withstand external loads without failure.
Stress (σ) The ability of a material to react a force distributed over some area.
Thermal stress Stress resulting from expansion (strain) of a material subjected to heating.
Tempering A low-temp. heat treatment which reduces hardness.
Tensile strength The stress that corresponds to the maximum load in a tensile test.
Toughness Total energy absorbed before failure occurs (area under the stress-strain curve).
Transition Temperature The temperature below which a material behaves in a brittle manner in an impact test.
True Strain The actual strain produces when a load is applied.
Ultimate Stress The stress point at which additional load cannot be reacted.
Wing Loading Aircraft weight per wing area, W/S, a ready measure of air loads for steady level flight.
Yield Stress The stress applied to a material that just causes permanent plastic deformation.
Page 09 - 4
9.2 Material Stress & Strain
Stress (σ) is the ability of a material to react a force distributed over some area. In the simple axial load case
this can be presented as
σ = P/A
where P = the applied axial load

A = cross-sectional area over which the load is applied
Strain (e) is the deformation of a material under an applied load. In the basic form this can be presented as
e = ΔL/L
where ΔL is the change in dimension due to some load, and L is the original dimension
The stress-strain relationship is linear (proportional) for a large percentage of the applied load to the maximum,
as expressed by the Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)
E = σ/e
A typical stress & strain relationship for a material is illustrated as
ultimate stress
Stress (σ) ~ psi
fracture stress
Plastic
Range
yield stress
proportional
limit
Elastic
Range
E
maximum
strain
Strain (e) ~ inches/inches
Page 09 - 5
9.3 V-n Diagram
Flight Path Normal Load Factor (Nzw) can be expressed during level flight, as
Nzw= 1/cosφ = L/W
where CL = lift coefficient

Fn= net thrust
L = lift force = wing lift + thrust lift = CLqS +FnsinαF
q = dynamic pressure
S = wing area
W = gross weight
αF = incidence angle between thrust line and relative wind
φ = angle of bank
Body Axis Normal Load Factor (Nzb) is calculated as
Nzb = [Nzw-Nxbsinα]/cosα
where Nzb = load factor along aircraft body x-axis

α = angle of attack
For the simplified case of negligible thrust lift, the maximum achievable Nzb at any flight speed can be
calculated as
Nzb = (V/Vs)2
where both speed must be the same units

(i.e., true, equivalent, calibrated)
V = flight airspeed
Vs = stall speed
Page 09 - 6
A general normal load flight envelope (V-n diagram) would appear as

• The envelope typically varies with: asymmetric loading; aircraft configuration; for air loads other than along
the normal axis; and other structural, system, and safety considerations.
STRUCTURAL FAILURE AREA

12
POSITIVE ULTIMATE
11 11.25
STALL REGION
10 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
AREA
9
8
7.5
POSITIVE LIMIT
7 UNAVAILABLE
LIFT AREA
6 AREA OF
5 STRUCTURAL
VH
4
MAXIMUM THE DAMAGE
OR FAILURE
POSITIVE LIFT VL
Load Factor ~ nz
3 CAPABILITY ENVELOPE
2 LIMIT
AIRSPEED
1 575 KNOTS
Indicated Airspeed ~ knots
0
200 300 400 500 600
-1
-2 UNAVAILABLE
LIFT AREA NEGATIVE LIMIT
-3 -3.0
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL DAMAGE AREA
-4
NEGATIVE LIFT NEGATIVE ULTIMATE
-4.5
-5 CAPABILITY
STRUCTURAL FAILURE AREA
STALL REGION
• It is frequently desirable to correct measured (test) Nzb data to a standard weight or design gross weight
(GW) using the relationship
Nzb= (test Nzb)(Wt/Ws)
where Wt = test weight

Ws = standard weight
• The increase in load factor due to a vertical gust (Δn) is calculated as
Δn = 0.115mVe(KU)/(W/S)
where m = slope of CLα curve

Ve = equivalent airspeed (knots)
KU = effective gust velocity (fps)
W/S = wing loading (psf)
Page 09 - 7
9.4 Strain Gages
The three strain gage configurations most commonly used are
Unixial Gage Bi-axial Gage Rosette Gage
Strain (e) is measured using the electrical resistance measured via the strain gage in a material subject to load.
For the uniaxial gauge
K = (ΔR/R)/e
where K = gage factor (provided by manufacturer)

R = unstrained resistance
ΔR = change in resistance due to load
(+ΔR for tension)
• For the bi-axial gage oriented coincident with the principal axes (maximum strain), each leg of the gage is
analyzed as a uniaxial gage using the above equation for the principle strains. The
associated stresses are
σmax = E(emax + υemin)/(1 -υ2)

σmin = E(emin + υe max)/(1 - υ2)
where emax and emin are the measured principal strains in the appropriate legs of the bi-axial gage,
E is the Young’s Modulus of the material, ν is Poisson’s ratio for the material.
(ratio of compression and tension strains)
Page 09 - 8
• For the Rosette gage, the principal strains and stresses are derived as
e max, min = 0.5(e a + e c) ± 0.5 (e a − e c) 2 + (2e b − e a − e c) 2
σ m ax, min = E/2 [ (e a + e c )/(1 − u) ] ± (e a − e c ) 2 + (2e b − e a − e c ) 2 / (1 − u)
where e’s denote the strains in each of the three legs of the Rosette (+ is used for the maximum and - for the
minimum).
To accurately measure the very small resistance changes in a strain gage, a Wheatstone Bridge is typically used
A B
G
A= active or strain-measuring gage
B= temperature compensating (dummy) gage
D C C= D = internal resistance in instrument
G= galvanometer
Page 09 - 9
9.5 References
9.1 Dole, Charles E., Fundamentals of Aircraft Material Factors, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, California, 1987.
9.2 Norton, William J., Structures Flight Test Handbook, AFFTC-TIH-90-001, Air Force Flight Test Cen
ter, Edwards AFB, California, November 1990.
Additional Reading
Military Specification Airplane Strength and Rigidity - General Specification, MIL-A-8860.
Military Specification Airplane Strength and Rigidity, Sonic Fatigue, MIL-A-008893.
Page 09 - 10
Section 10 Reciprocating Engines
10.1 Recurring Abbreviations and Terminology
10.2 Reciprocating Engine Modeling

Graphic Power Model
Analytic Power Model
Fuel Flow Model
10.3 Reciprocating Engine Power Standardization

Partial Throttle Standardization
Full Throttle Standardization
10.4 FAA Approved Engine Temperature Corrections
10.5 References
Page 10 - 1
10.1 Recurring Abbreviations and Terminology

(references 10.5.1-10.5.5)
Abbreviations
BHP brake horsepower (measured at engine crankshaft)
BHPs brake horsepower at standard conditions
BHPt brake horsepower at test conditions
BHP alt brake horsepower at maximum altitude where test RPM and MP can be maintained.
BHPslmax maximum brake horsepower at standard sea level conditions (for any given RPM)
BHPc chart brake horsepower
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption (fuel flow/horsepower/ hour)
C manifold pressure correction factor
HP horsepower (= 550ft-lb/sec)
M freestream Mach number
MP manifold pressure, also MAP
SHP shaft horsepower (measured at propeller shaft)
P power output [ft-lb/sec or HP]
Pa ambient pressure
Pts standard day total (ram) pressure
Ptt test day total (ram) pressure
Q torque [ft-lbs]
q dynamic pressure
RPM revolutions per minute
Tct test day carburetor temperature (absolute)
Tcs standard day carburetor temperature (absolute)
Tas standard day ambient temperature (absolute)
Tat test day ambient temperature (absolute)
VT freestream true velocity
ΔBHPcat change in brake horsepower due to carb. temp. change
ΔBHPmp change in brake horsepower due to manifold pressure change
ΔMPΔt change in manifold pressure due to temperature change
Δt change between test and standard temperature (Tat-Tas)
ηr carburetor ram inlet efficiency
ρa ambient density
In Hg inches of mercury (manifold pressure)
Page 10 - 2
Terminology
Bore Piston diameter
Critical Altitude
The altitude at which a supercharged (or turbocharged) engine can no longer:
a) maintain sea level manifold pressure, or
b) maximum allowable horsepower.
Detonation
An operating condition where combinations of excessive temperature, high manifold pressure, and l
ow RPM cause explosive fuel burn, large internal pressure pulses, and subsequent engine damage.
Displacement
Total volume swept by all cylinders, measured in either cubic inches or liters.
Manifold Pressure
Pressure of fuel-air mixture passing through intake manifold, typically measured in absolute gauge
pressure (inches of mercury or lb/in2).
Mixture Ratio
Ratio of [fuel weight/air weight] passing through the intake manifold.
• This ratio must be between .05 and .125 to burn.
• Best power typically occurs at mixture ratio of 0.075 to 0.08.
• Best economy typically occurs at a ratio of .0625
• To provide sufficient cooling, the mixture ratio is usually greatly increased from best economy when
operating at very high or very low power settings (a.k.a. auto rich).
Reduction gear
Gearing between the engine crankshaft and propeller shaft that reduces the rotation speed going to the
propeller.
Stroke Linear distance traveled by piston.
Supercharger
A mechanically driven compressor that boosts the ambient air pressure to provide the engine with
higher power output.
Turbocharger
Also known as a turbo supercharger, it is similar to a super charger except that the compressor is
driven by engine exhaust pressure.
Page 10 - 3
10.2 Reciprocating Engine Modeling (ref 10.5.3)
For any given engine design, power output is primarily a function of the product of engine speed (RPM) and in-
take manifold pressure (MP). Smaller but significant effects are due to the fuel/air density (ρfa) and exhaust
back pressure (which is essentially ambient pressure, Pa). Less significant effects are due to the condition of the
engine itself and include such factors as ignition quality & timing, piston ring leakage, fuel grade, and oil viscos-
ity.
Engine models have various levels of sophistication which can account for the four most significant factors
listed above. Theses models can be presented graphically or analytically. Figure 10.2a shows a typical
graphic power model for determining reciprocating engine BHP.
1) The left-hand chart shows the fundamental relation between BHP and the product of RPM and MP. En-
ter with MP and RPM to obtain point “B” and the associated “base brake horse power” (BHPB) at sea level
standard day pressure and temperature.
2) Transfer this BHPB value to point “B1” on the ordinate of the right hand chart.
3) Enter the right hand chart with the same MP & RPM to obtain point “A” and the associated brake horse-
power at altitude (BHPA) .
4) Connect points B1 and A with a straight line.
5) Enter the abscissa at the test pressure altitude, locate point “C”, and read the corresponding “chart horse-
power” (BHPC). BHPC. is the sea level power corrected to the reduced back pressure con ditions at altitude. It
does not account for non-standard temperatures.
6) To correct for non-standard air temperature, subtract 1% from BHPC for each 60C warmer than test altitude
standard temperature. Conversely, add 1% to BHPC for each 60C cooler than standard. For convenience, the
lower right hand chart of Figure 10.2a illustrates standard temperature as a function of pressure altitude.
Page 10 - 4
Sea Level Performance Altitude Performance
220 220
M
28
RP
00
200 200 26
28
00 24
26
180 180 A 28 22
0 C
00
B 2 40 B RP
26
00 M
160 160
20
0 24 0
2 20 0
18
140 140
se 22
ui 00 00 16
Cr 20
Page 10 - 5
120 120 20 0
0 14
Brake Horsepower
0
1 80
100 100 18 0
0
80 40
0
-40
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
STD ALT Temp °F (Ts)
Figure 10.2a Engine Performance Chart for Continental IO360D

2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
22000
24000
26000
28000
30000
32000
34000
Sea Level
ABS, Dry Manifold Pressure (in. Hg.) Pressure Altitude, (ft)

Third Edition 2013
An analytic power model of a reciprocating engine should match the graphic model. Its principle application is
in automating the power determination process rather than manually performing graphic lookups.
1) The left hand chart shows that BHPB is a linear function of MP, but it is not necessarily a linear function of
RPM. Extrapolating the RPM curves towards low manifold pressure illustrates their convergence to a common
point. This left hand chart can be summarized with the equation
BHP B = [ a ( RPM ) 2 + b ( RPM ) + c ][ MP − e ] + d
a through e are determined from the graph or from separate engine tests.
2) In a similar fashion, calculate BHP A = [ a ( RPM ) 2 + b ( RPM ) + c ][ MP ]
3) Based on the direct relation between available power and density, calculate chart horsepower as
BHPC = BHPB [ BHP A − BHPB ][(1 − σ A ) /(1 − σ D )]
where σD is the standard atmosphere density ratio at the operating pressure altitude (Hc). For convenience, this
calculation is presented below for flight in the tropopause
σ D = [1 − 6 . 876 x10 − 6 H c ] 4 .2558 (Hc in feet)
σA is the density ratio corresponding to point A and is calculated as
BHP A
σ A = . 117 +
BHP sl max
where BHP is the full-throttle sea level power at the RPM in question. This value is located towards the
right side of the BHPB chart.
4) The final step in determining test day power (BHPt) is to correct for non-standard ambient absolute tempera-
ture (Ta)
T as
BHP t = BHP C
T at
where Tas is the standard absolute ambient temperature at the test altitude, and, below the tropopause, is calculat-
ed as Tas = 288.15-.0019812Hc .
Page 10 - 6
The fuel flow model is centered around the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) defined as
fuel flow ⎛ lb / hr ⎞
BSFC ≡ ⎜ ⎟
power ⎝ BHP ⎠
Figure 10.2b shows the basic effect of RPM & BHP on BSFC (ref 10.5.4).
• At any given BHP, operating at lower RPMs reduces mechanical friction and therefore BSFC.
• At any given RPM, operating at very low BHP increases the percentage of piston work overcoming friction
and therefore increases BSFC.
• Operation at high BHP also increases BSFC, but this is due to the fuel enrichment required to prevent deto-
nation at high loads.
1.05
0.90 2700 RPM

BSFC, (lbs/BHP-hr)
0.75
0.60 2200
0.45 1800
0.30
0.15
0
100 500 1000 1500 2000
Brake Horsepower, BHP
Figure 10.2b Effect of RPM and BHP on BSFC
The same effects can be modeled as shown in Figure 10.2c (ref 10.5.5).
• Not shown on these figures are the possible altitude and temperature effects. Flight testers rarely need to
validate these models throughout the engine’s working range. Instead, testers typically evaluate BSFC only
at the combinations of RPM and MP recommended by the manufacturer to give the desired power output.
Page 10 - 7
0.690 BSFC
100
0.680
0.660
0.640
0.620 90
0.600
0.580
0.560
80
0.540
70
wer
o
able p
il 60
Page 10 - 8
ava
imum
x
Ma
0 50
(supercharged engine) (load)
Percent Normal Rated Power
0.44
0.450
0.460 40
0.480 0.520
Figure 10.2c BSFC Curves for a Typical Supercharged Airplane Engine

0.500
30
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Mean Piston Speed, (hundreds of feet per minute)

Third Edition 2013
10.3 Reciprocating Engine Power Standardization (ref 10.5.4)
Correcting from test day to standard day power available uses one of
several methods, depending on the test conditions.
Some useful insights are summarized below.
• In all cases, test day RPM must equal standard day RPM. There are no corrections if this requirement is vio-
lated.
• The effect of density on power output at wide open throttle has been empirically shown to be
(ref. 10.5.6)
BHPalt = BHP sl max (1 .1324 σ − .1324 )
• The above correction is not typically applied to test data since test and standard day pressure altitudes (Hc)
are usually the same. Instead, most standardization requirements center around correcting to standard tem-
perature.
• Engine power is actually related to the carburetor air temperature. The difference between test and standard
day carburetor temperature equals the difference between test and standard day ambient temperature (Tct-Tcs
= Tat-Tas).
• With proper design, most of the freestream dynamic pressure (q) is converted into additional pressure at the
carburetor and is known as “ram” effect. Above the critical altitude (where full throttle operation does not
generate maximum manifold pressure), ram effect can be used to increase manifold pressure and therefore
power output.
The different power standardization methods are described below.
Partial Throttle Standardization. If the test engine is set at some partial throttle setting to achieve a specific
manifold pressure, then the same MP should be achievable on standard day with a slightly different throttle set-
ting. Calculate standard day power (BHPs) as
n
⎛T ⎞
BHPs = BHP t ⎜⎜ ct ⎟⎟
⎝ T cs ⎠
Tcs is the standard day carburetor absolute temperature = Tas-Tat +Tct

n is the power exponent, usually = 0.5
This correction does not address changes in back pressure,

so Hc test = Hc std std
Page 10 - 9
Full Throttle Standardization applies only if test and standard pressure altitude are equal. If the engine is op-
erated full throttle on a test day, then the change in ambient temperature would generate a power change due to
carburetor air temperature (ΔBHPcat) and manifold pressure changes (ΔBHPmp). Calculate standard day power
(BHPs) as
BHPs = BHPt + ΔBHPcat + ΔBHPmp
The first correction is another form of the previous constant MP correction
⎡⎛ T ⎞
n
⎤
ΔBHPcat = BHPt ⎢⎜⎜ ct ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ Tcs ⎠ ⎥⎦
The second (manifold pressure) correction accounts for two effects:

1) For supercharged engines, correct for the change in pressure ratio of the supercharger due to inlet temperature
changes.
2) For all engines operating below maximum MP, correct for the change in air inlet ram pressure ratio due to
flight Mach number changes.
⎛ MP ⎞
ΔBHPmp = BHPt ⎜⎜ s −1⎟⎟
⎝ MPt ⎠
MPt is the test manifold pressure.

MPs is the manifold pressure corrected to standard temperature and flight Mach number:
Pts
MPs = MPΔt
Ptt
MPΔt is the correction of manifold pressure due to changes in ambient temperature and is approximated as
Δ MP Δ t = MP t C Δ t
C is a constant depending upon the pressure ratio (P2/P1), carburetor air inlet temperature, and whether or not the
fuel is vaporized during process.
• If only the air is compressed, or if the inlet temperature is measured after fuel vaporization, then determine C
using Figure 10.3a .
• If the fuel is injected after the temperature is taken but before the charge is compressed, then determine C
using Figure 10.3b.
• By use of Figures 10.3a and 10.3b, any combination of induction processes for air only or for a fuel air mix-
ture may be evaluated.
Page 10 - 10
Δt is the difference between test and standard day carburetor air temperature and was previously described as the
change in ambient air temperature
Δt = Tat-Tas
Pts/Ptt is the ratio between standard and test day total (ram) inlet pressures at the standard and test Mach num-
bers. The first step in determining this ratio is to recognize
Pts
Pts Pa
=
Ptt P tt
Pa
Pa is the pressure altitude and must be the same for test and standard days. Calculate Ptt/Pa using test Mach
number and the equation
Pt
Pa
[(
= η r 1 + .2 M 2 )
3 .5
]
−1 +1
ηr is the carburetor inlet ram efficiency and is usually between 0.7 and 0.75. A more exact value may be calcu-
lated as
Pt ( actual ) − Pa
ηr =
Pt (theoretica l ) − Pa
Calculate Pts /Pa using the same equations and standard Mach number.
• This last calculation may be iterative because standard Mach number cannot be exactly determined from the
drag polar until power output is known.
• This correction is not normally made unless the flight Mach number is above 0.6 and the power change
causes a speed change of more than 3 knots.
• To get a feel for the dynamic pressure change (and therefore ram effect change) due to Mach number
change, recall
⎡ lb ⎤ 1
q ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ρ aVT2 = 1481δM 2
⎣ ft ⎦ 2
The final standard day power curves are presented in a form similar to that shown in Figure 10.3c
Page 10 - 11
0.007 1.43
Carburetor Air Temperature

0.006 1.67
-50°
0.005 0° 2.00
°C For 1% Correction
Correction Factor, C
50°
0.004 2.50
0.003 3.33
0.002 5.00
Note: This chart may be used
where air only is compressed or
0.001 where inlet temperature is 10.00
measured after fuel vaporization.
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Pressure Ratio, (P2/P1)
Figure 10.3a - Manifold Pressure Correction When Temperature is Measured After Fuel Vaporization
0.005 2.00
Carburetor Air Temperature
-50°C
0.004 2.50
°C for 1% Correction
Correction Factor, C
0°C
0.003 50°C 3.33
0.002 5.00
Note: This chart may be used

0.001 only where fuel is injected after 10.00
temperature is taken and before
charge is compressed
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Pressure Ratio, P2/P1
Figure 10.3b—Manifold Pressure Correction When Temperature is Measured Before Fuel Injection
Page 10 - 12
30
20
M 10
RP
tcs (°C)
5 00 M 0
,2 P
Hg 0 0R
” 0 -10
40 g ,2
”H
30 -20
-30
40”Hg, 2500 RPM
M ilitary Power
Low Blower
40
MPs (“Hg)
30
30”Hg, 2000 RPM
Cruising Power 20
Low Blower
10
4 0” H g, 2 50 0 R P M 1000
30”H g, 2
BHPs
000 R P M
600
200
36 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0
Pressure Altitude, Thousands of feet

Figure 10.3c Example Standard Day Supercharged Engine Performance Data
Page 10 - 13
10.4 FAA Approved Engine Temperature Corrections
The intent is to ensure that the critical engine parts, (i.e., cylinder head and cylinder barrel) do not exceed the
engine manufacturer’s specified limits during worst-case climb operating conditions on a 100 oF hot day.
Test procedures are detailed in AC 23-A. The basic idea is best illustrated with the single-engine airplane proce-
dure:
1) Trim in level flight at the lowest practical altitude with at least 75% maximum continuous power. Allow
2) temperatures to stabilize.
2) Increase engine power to takeoff rating and climb at a speed not greater than Vy (best climb speed).
Maintain takeoff power for one minute.
3) At the end of one minute, reduce engine power to maximum continuous and continue climb for at least
five minutes after temperatures peak or the maximum operating altitude is reached. Flight manual lean
ing procedures should be used.
Correct the peak test day cylinder barrel temperature (Tbt) to hot day conditions (Tbh) as follows
Tbh = Tbt+0.7[100-0.0036Hc-Tat]
Correct the peak test day cylinder head or other temperature (Tht) to hot day conditions (Thh) as follows
Thh = Tht+100-0.0036Hc-Tat
Hc is the pressure altitude in feet

Tat is the outside air temperature in degrees F
This method is known to be quite conservative More satisfactory temperatures may be achieved by actually test-
ing during hot weather.
Page 10 - 14
10.5 References
10.5.1 Roberts, Sean C. “Light Aircraft Performance,” Flight Research Inc. Mojave, CA, 1982.
10.5.2 Lawless, Alan R, “Fixed Wing Aircraft Performance Testing” Chapters 3 and 4, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave CA, 1996.
10.5.3 Baughn, J. W., “A Method for computing Brake Horsepower from the Performance Charts of Recipro-
cating Aircraft Engines,” AIAA- 94-2148-CP, from 7th Biennial AIAA Flight Test Conf., 1994.
10.5.4 Herrington, R. M. Major, USAF, et al, “Flight Test Engineering Handbook,” USAF Technical report
No. 6273, AFFTC, Edwards AFB, CA, May 1951.
10.5.5 Chatfield, C. H., et al, “The Airplane and its Engine,” McGraw Hill, 1949.
10.5.6 Gagg, R.F., and Farrar, E.V., “Altitude Performance of Aircraft Engines Equipped with Gear-Driven
Superchargers,” SAE Transcripts, Vol 29, pg 217-223, 1934.
10.5.7 anon., “Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Air planes,“ U.S. Department of Transportation
Advisory Circu-lar 23-8A, 1989.
Additional Reading and Second Generation References
10.5.8 Smith, H. C., and Dreier M. E., “A computer Technique for the Determination of Brake Horsepower
Output of Normally Aspirated Reciprocating Aircraft Engines,” SAE paper No. 770465,
March 1977.
10.5.9 Hamlin, B., “Flight Testing Conventional and Jet-Propelled Airplanes,” The Macmillan Co., New York,
NY, 1946.
10.5.10 Operators Manual for Series IO-360 Aircraft Engines, form No. X-30032, FAA Approved March 1979.
Page 10 - 15
NOTES
Page 10 - 16
Section 11 Propellers
11.4 Propeller Efficiency and States
11.6 Propeller Modeling Examples

Static Thrust Chart, In-Flight Charts,
Blocking Correction Factor Charts,
Tip Compressibility Factor Charts
11.8 References
Page 11 - 1
Abbreviations 100 , 000 1 .0 ⎛ b ⎞ 3

AF activity factor = 16 ∫
. 15
⎜ ⎟ x dx
⎝ D ⎠
B number of blades
b blade section width (feet)
BHP brake horsepower (measured at engine crankshaft)
CLD blade section design lift coefficient
1 .0
CLi integrated design lift coefficient = 4∫
. 15
(C LD )x 3 dx
CP power (absorbed) coefficient
CT thrust coefficient
D propeller diameter (feet)
fc ratio of speed of sound at standard day sea level to speed of sound at operating condition
1
HP horsepower (1 HP = 550 ft-lb/sec) fc =
θ
G.R. gear ratio, propeller speed/engine speed
J Propeller advance ratio =VT/nD (nondimensional)
M aircraft Mach number
N propeller speed, revolutions per minute (RPM)
n propeller speed, revolutions per second
Ne engine speed, RPM
Pa ambient pressure
P power output (ft-lb/sec)
Q torque (ft-lb)
q dynamic pressure
T thrust
Ta absolute ambient temperature
R blade radius at propeller tip (feet)
r radius at blade element (feet)
SHP shaft horsepower (measured at propeller shaft)
T propeller thrust (pounds)
VT freestream velocity (ft/sec)
VK freestream velocity (knots)
x fraction of propeller tip radius, r/R
Vtan tangential velocity
VR resultant velocity
Vtip tip speed
α local angle of attack
β local blade twist angle, measured between chord and plane of rotation, same as θ (degrees).
ΔM Mach number adjustment for effect of blade camber
φ propeller disk angle of attack
η isolated propeller efficiency.
ηcomp composite prop efficiency (includes tip and blockage corrections)
θ 3/4 propeller blade twist angle at x =3/4 (degrees), same as β 3/4
σ ratio of operating density to sea level standard density = ρa/ρo.
ω propeller rotation speed (radians/second)
Page 11 - 2
Terminology
blade aspect ratio measured as [R / max blade width].
effective pitch actual advance per revolution.
experimental pitch necessary advance to generate zero thrust.
geometric pitch (p) advance per revolution if blade element moves

according to β (i.e., with no slip).
reduction gear gearing between the engine crankshaft and prop shaft that reduces the propeller rotation
speed .
right-handed moves clockwise (viewed from the slipstream).
solidity fraction of prop disk covered by blade area = 2πR/Bb.
total width ratio (TWR) measured as [WR x B]
thickness ratio (TR) blade thicknessmeasured locally or at .75R to represent entire prop.
width ratio (WR) calculated as {b @ .75R } / D
Page 11 - 3

δr
• δr is the width of any element along blade radius.
r
R
• x = r/R, the local fraction of prop tip radius
• Prop blade chord extends from leading edge to trailing edge.

• Blade twist angle θ, measured between rotation plane and local chord.
• Relative wind is the resultant velocity (VR), comprised of aircraft
forward speed and tangential speed at radial location along blade.
V T2 + (2 π rn )
2
VR =
VT VT VT 1 VT
φ = tan -1
= tan -1
= tan -1
: φ tip = tan -1
rω r 2π n xD π n π nD
• Angle φ is measured between plane of rotation and local VR
1 VT 1 VT J
α x = θ x − φ = θ x - tan -1 = θ x - tan -1 = θ x − tan -1
π r 2n π xDn πx
• Αdvance ratio (J) is defined as J = VT/nD.

• Local angle of attack at any fraction of radius(αx) is measured between the local chord line and relative wind
• Lift and drag are perpendicular and parallel to VR, respectively
• Thrust (T) and torque (Q) are perpendicular and parallel to the plane of rotation, respectively.
Page 11 - 4
Integrating lift and drag along a blade gives the thrust (T) and torque (Q). Multiply by number of blades (B) to
determine total T and Q.
c
(C L cos φ − C D sin φ )dr
R2
T = qB ∫
R1 sin 2 φ
cr
(C L sin φ + C D cos φ )dr
R2
Q = qB ∫
R1 sin 2 φ
T
Thrust Coefficient, CT ≡
ρn2D 4
Q
Torque Coefficient, CQ ≡
ρn2D 5
P Q ×ω Q × 2π n Q
Power Coefficient, CP ≡ = = = 2π = 2π C Q
ρn3D 5 ρn3D 5 ρn3D 5 ρn 2 D 5
CQ CT
.008 .08
Typical effect of advance ratio on

thrust and torque coefficients
.006 .06
CQ
.004 .04
CT
.002 .02
0 0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Advance Ratio
Page 11 - 5
11.4 Propeller Efficiency and States
Propeller efficiency (η)

Pout Thrust × VT C ρn 2 D 4 × VT 1 CT VT CT
η≡ = = T 2 5 = = J
Pin Q ×ω CQ ρn D × 2πn 2π CQ nD CP
η Cp
0.8 .04 η
0.6 .03
Cp
0.4 .02
0.2 .01
V
ND
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Windmill
Propeller State State
Brake State
Propeller state: positive thrust & efficiency, power supplied by engine.

Brake state: negative thrust & efficiency, power supplied by engine.
Windmill state: negative thrust & η, power supplied by freestream.
Efficiency of constant speed prop

Efficiency, η
20º 25º
15º
10º Fixed-pitch blade twist at .75R
Propeller Advance Ratio, J
Page 11 - 6
Simple momentum theory describes pressure jump (ΔP) across

propeller disk .
• The downstream velocity increment (v1) is twice the velocity
increment at the disk (v) .
• Thrust (ΔP) = ΔP x disk area TVT VT
• Froude’s momentum theory: efficiency = η ≡ T (V + v) = V + v
T T
V V+v V + v1
p p' p' + Δp
Δp Atmospheric Pressure
v1 Free stream Velocity

v
Blade element theory tends to be more complex and may include corrections for tip swirl losses, Mach effects,
nacelle blockage, etc. Below is a comparison of typical calculated and measured thrust distribution.
Thrust
Calculated
Measured
Radius
Page 11 - 7
11.6 Propeller Modeling
• For a specified propeller geometry; CT , CP, J, and blade angle (θ) are interrelated such that knowledge of
any two defines the other two.
• Calculate propeller efficiency as η = JCT /CP .
• Models assume isolated conditions, i.e., without nacelle blockage.
• Models assume negligible Mach effects at propeller tips.
• Different models required for static and “in-flight” conditions.
Determine static CT and CP using “Static Thrust Chart” (ref 11.2)

3.2
2 blades / 80 AF
2.8
2.4
Integrated design CL
2.0
0.3
Optimum CT/CP
0.5
1.6 0.7
1.2
C T
C P
.8
.4
Advance Ratio, J
0
0 .04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24
∼ Separate charts exist for each combination of AF and # of blades (B).

∼ Enter chart at appropriate J & Cli
CT SHP
Static Thrust = Tstatic = 33,000 where N = Propeller RPM Determine isolated propeller in-flight effi
C P ND
ciency (η) from the appropriate “Flight Charts.” They are typically presented in one of two forms.
Page 11 - 8
1.0
0.9
0.06
Cp =
0.08 0.12
0.8 0
0.1 2
0.1
0.14
0.16 0.0
8
0.18
1.7 0.20
0.40875SHP
2
Cp =
ρ n3 C
0.2 p =0
Page 11 - 9
0.24 .06
Propeller Efficiency (7p)

0.26
0.6 0.62V
J=
0.28
30
n
C.
=
SHP = 0.00381 x (n) x Torque (lb - ft)
p
C
V True airspeed, knots
0.5 n Propeller rotational speed, %
zell T10282HDB-4R 3-blade, constant speed, feathering propellers.

Above example for AiResearch TPE331-3U-303G engines and Hart-
ρ Mass density of air
0.4
0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
Advance Ratio (J)
Third Edition 2013
The other “in-flight η” format also requires calculation of CP and J. Below is a typical flight chart published by
Hamilton Standard (Ref 11.2). This applies to a propeller with 2 blades, AF= 80, and CLi =0.5
3.0
.80 5
85
.7
η =3.
.8
2.8
.90
.91
2.6
8.5o
.92
η=
2.4
52.5o
91
2.2
90
89
88
50.0o
2.0
87 6
8 5
8
Advance Ratio, J
2 Blades/ 80AF/0.5 CLi
.80
2.0
η=
1.8
o
47.5
1.6
45.0o
1.4
42.5o
θ3/4=40.0o
1.2
37.5o
35.0o
70
0.8
65
60
55
.50
ηx
0.6
45
40
35
30
0.4
θ 3/4
0.2
32.5o
30.0o
@
27.5o
22.5o
20.0o
17.5o
10.0o
25.0o
15.0o
12.5o
0
0
.28
.12
.32
.16
.04
.36
.24
.20
.08
CP
Page 11 - 10
A body correction factor (FBC) should be applied to account for reduced efficiency due to body flow blockage
immediately behind the propeller. Two examples follow.
Society of British A ircraft Constructors, Ltd.

S/A = [body diam eter/Prop dia] 2
U se body diam eter @ 3/4 prop diam eter behind disk
1.00
.98
.96 S /A = .141
S /A = .146
F BC S /A = .153
.94 S /A = .160
S /A = .167
.92
S /A = .175
.90 S /A = .184
S /A = .193
S /A = .199
.88
0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Advance Ratio
Page 11 - 11
Hamilton Standard also publishes a generalized nacelle blocking correction for typical scoop and annual inlet
nacelles used on typical turboprops.
2.8
ANNULAR
ANNULAR
2.4
SCOOP
2.0
Advance ratio, J
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.04
FBC
Page 11 - 12
To determine if tip compressibility corrections are appropriate, find the maximum integrated design lift coeffi-
cient, CLimax from the graph below.
∼ Enter at flight Mach number, and move across at appropriate NDfc.
1
fc =
θ
∼ If CLimax is below calculated Cli , then corrections are required.
1.0
Approximate integrated design CL
to avoid compressibility losses
0.9
0.8
0.7
Aircraft Mach Number
00
= 14,0
x fC
ND
0.6
0
00
15, 00
6,0
1
0
,00
0.5
17
0
8,00 00
1 ,0
19
=
xf C
0.4
0
ND
,50
19
0
,00
0.3
20
50
0,2
=2
C
xf
0.2
ND
0.1
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
L
Maximum Integrated Design C
Page 11 - 13
If tip compressibility corrections are necessary, then the first step is to

• Determine the Mach number adjustment for the effect of blade camber (ΔM) from the figure below.
0.06
0.04
0.02
ΔM
0
-0.02
-0.04
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Integrated Design CL , CLi
• Next, add ΔM from above to flight Mach number to get Meff.

• Enter adjacent generalized compressibility correction chart to determine propeller efficiency tip factor
(Ft)
• Calculate composite propeller efficiency as
ηcomp = η x Ft x FBC
• Calculate in-flight thrust as
η comp SHP 326 η comp SHP
T = =
VT KTAS
Page 11 - 14
1.0
0.9
.30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70
0.8
Ft
0.7
Page 11 - 15
Meff = M +ΔM
0.6
M = airplane Mach number
ΔM = adjustment for blade camber
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6
Advance Ratio, J
Third Edition 2013

The best method for determining ηcomp is to instrument the prop shaft and/or engine mounts to measure thrust
and torque.
Slip Rings
Calculate efficiency as
TVT
η comp =
Q ω
Page 11 - 16
As an alternate, the incremental drag method requires an accurate

engine power model, a load cell and a small drag device.
• Trim the aircraft at test RPM, VT , & altitude. Note SHP required.
• Repeat above test with drag device and load cell attached. Note the power requirement change (ΔSHP ) and
load cell drag (ΔD).
VT
η p . BHPAC = D
550
η p . BHPAC + ΔD =
VT
(D + ΔD )
550
Load Cell
• Calculate aircraft drag and prop efficiency as
ΔD (SHP ) VT D
D= η =
ΔSHP 550 (SHP )
• This technique assumes the same η for both tests and is valid if J is constant and the CP change is small.
The drag device must therefore be small enough to not violate this assumption, yet large enough for the
change in SHP to be measurable on engine instruments.
Page 11 - 17
11.8 References
11.8.1 Roberts, Sean, “Light Aircraft Performance for Test Pilots and Flight Test Engineers,” Flight Research
Inc., Mojave CA, 1982.
11.8.2 anon., Hamilton Standard Propeller Efficiency Charts (a.k.a.Redbook), PDB 6101.
11.8.3 Von Mises, Richard, “Theory of Flight,” McGraw-Hill, 1945.
Page 11 - 18
Section 12 Fixed-Wing Performance Standardization

12.2 Standardization Techniques
Difference Method, Ratio Method
12.3 Takeoff Distance
12.3.1 Empirical Standardization Method
12.3.2 Takeoff Distance Prediction
direct approximation of takeoff ground roll,
total takeoff distance
12.4 Landing Distance
12.4.2 Landing Distance Prediction
direct approximation of landing ground roll,
direct approximation of the landing air distance,
exact prediction of landing performance,
fixed time increment approach
12.5 Climb/Descent Acceleration
. 12.5.1 Climb/Descent/Acceleration Prediction
12.5.2 Correcting to Standard Climb Rate
12.5.3 WAT Limits
12.6 Level Turn Performance
12.6.1 Sustained Level Turn Performance Prediction
12.6.2 Sustained Level Turn Performance Correction
12.6.3 Level Limit Turn Performance Correction
12.7 Reciprocating Engine Cruise Performance
12.7.1 Power Standardization
12.7.2 Fuel Flow Standardization
12.7.3 Endurance Optimization and Prediction
12.7.4 Range Optimization and Prediction
12.8 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance
12.8.1 Thrust Standardization
12.9 References
Page 12 - 1
12.1 Recurring Abbreviations (references 10.5.1-10.5.5)
a acceleration
BHP brake horsepower
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption (fuel flow per horsepower per hour)
CD drag coefficient
CDiOGE induced drag coefficient out of ground effect
CDiIGE induced drag coefficient in ground effect
cg center of gravity
CL lift coefficient
CLIGE lift coefficient in ground effect
CLOGE lift coefficient out of ground effect
D drag
Fn net thrust
Fg gross thrust
Fe ram thrust
Fex excess thrust
F/δ corrected thrust
g reference acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/sec²)
GECL ground effect correction factor for lift coefficient
GECD ground effect correction factor for drag coefficient
H, h geopotential altitude
Hc pressure altitude
L lift
LW lift of the wing
M Mach number
m mass
Nxw longitudinal load factor along flight path (wind axis)
Nzw, nz load factor normal to flight path
P power output
Pa ambient pressure
Po std ambient pressure sea level (2116.22 lb/ft² = 29.921 in Hg)
Piw standard day sea-level power required
Pm mission-day power required
Ps specific excess power
Ps standard power required
Pt test-day power required
q dynamic pressure
Page 12 - 2
R range
R/C rate of climb
Rn Reynolds number
RF range factor
S reference wing area
Sa horizontal air distance
Sg ground roll
SLD total landing distance
SR specific range
STO total takeoff distance
T ambient air temperature (absolute)
T thrust
To ambient temperature sea level standard (288.15 °K=15.0 °C)
V inertial speed
Vc calibrated airspeed
Ve equivalent airspeed
Viw standard day sea-level true airspeed
VT true airspeed
VTt test true airspeed
VTs test true airspeed
Wt test weight
Ws weight standard
W& f
Fuel Flow
W& f iw standard day sea-level fuel flow
α angle of attack
β sideslip angle
δ ambient air pressure ratio
σ ambient air density ratio
ιT thrust incidence angle
γ flightpath angle
φ bank angle
μ rolling coefficient of friction
ω turn rate (rad/sec)
Page 12 - 3
12.2 Standardization Techniques (ref 12.5)

Performance data is usually corrected to “standard” conditions which are specified values of weight, alti-
tude, cg and Mach number. The process also corrects data to some standard ambient air temperature, usually defined
by the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere. In some cases the data is corrected to “standard hot” day or “standard cold”
day conditions which are a specified increment relative to the true standard conditions.
The standardization process usually relies on models of drag, thrust (or power), fuel flow, and propeller effi-
ciency if appropriate. The overall principle is to collect test data as near as practical to standard conditions (+/-10%)
and correct the results to standard using the models. Even with a 10% modeling error, correcting test data that is 10%
from standard leads to only 1% total error in the standardized results.
The most common of the two standardization methods is the
difference method which adds a correction to the test day parameter. This correction is the difference between the
model predictions for standard and test conditions:
Ps = Pt + (Ps’ - Pt’) (Eq’n 12.1)
where
Ps = standardized parameter
Pt = test day parameter
Ps’ = standard day parameter predicted by models
Pt’ = test day parameter predicted by models
The parameter of interest can be one of the basic modeling values such as thrust, drag, power, or fuel flow. The
parameter can also be the end result of the predictive process, and may include values like takeoff/landing dis-
tance, climb/sustained turning capability, or cruise range.
The ratio method is the other standardization process. It corrects to standard conditions by multiplying the
test values by a correction factor. This factor is the ratio of the model predictions for standard and test
conditions.
Ps = Pt (Ps’ / Pt’) (Eq’n 12.2)
The preferred approach is whichever gives the lowest total error. If the prediction models are in error by approx-
imately a constant percentage, then the ratio method yields the least error. If the models are in error by approxi-
mately a constant magnitude, then the increment method yields the least error. Less exact empirical methods can
also be used.
Page 12 - 4
12.3 Takeoff Distance (refs 12.1, 12.2, 12.5)

The total takeoff distance is the sum of the ground roll distance (Sg, from brake release to main wheel lift-
off) and the horizontal component of the air distance (Sa, from liftoff to main gear reaching either 35 or 50 feet
altitude-depending on the requirements).
STO = Sg + Sa
Both Sg and Sa can be standardized using the increment or ratio method, or by empirical relations. The empiri-
cal methods are useful when detailed aircraft models are not available. The more exact process of predicting
takeoff distance using models is described in section 12.3.2.

First correct for the effects of the test day wind. Define headwind velocity as Vw , liftoff true airspeed
as VLO, and test day ground roll as Sgw. With a typical variation of thrust per headwind, estimate the test day zero-
wind ground roll (Sgzw) using the following empirical equation:
1.85
⎛V ⎞
S g zw = S g w ⎜ LO ⎟ (Eq’n 12.3)
⎜V ⎟
⎝ g ⎠
If the average thrust is not appreciably affected by velocity, then the exponent should be 2.0 in lieu of 1.85. The
zero-wind air distance (Sat) correction is
S at = S a w + V w t (Eq’n 12.4)
where t is the time from liftoff to 35 (or 50) feet altitude.

The second correction is for the effect of runway slope (θ, positive uphill) and therefore applies only to
the ground roll. Correct the above zero-wind distance (Sgzw) to the test day zero-slope distance (Sgt) as follows:
⎡ W sin θ ⎤
S g t = S g zw ⎢1 − ⎥ (Eq’n 12.5)
⎢⎣ [Fex ]avg ⎥⎦
If the average excess thrust is not known, then approximate Fex as that at 70% of the liftoff airspeed or from the
zero-wind ground roll distance:
2
[Fex ]avg ≈
mV LO
(Eq’n 12.6)
2 S g zw
Page 12 - 5
After correcting the test day distance to zero wind and slope, use the following empirical equations to correct for
non-standard weight, density, and temperature. Any desired values can be treated as the "standard" conditions.
Aircraft Propulsion Type Standard Day Distance

2.4 −2.4 0.5
Fixed pitch propellers ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σ s ⎞ ⎛ Tas ⎞
S gs = S gt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σt ⎠ ⎝ Tat ⎠
(neglect temp correction for 2.2 − 2.2 0.6
constant rpm evaluation) ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σs ⎞ ⎛ Tas ⎞
S as = S at ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σt ⎠ ⎝ Tat ⎠
2 .6 − 1 .7 − 0 .7 − 0 .9
Turbo-propeller aircraft ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σs ⎞ ⎛ Ns ⎞ ⎛ Ps ⎞
S gs = S gt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝ σt ⎠ ⎝ Nt ⎠ ⎝ Pt ⎠
(for heavy aircraft, replace 2.3 & -1.2 2.3 −1.2 − 0 .8 −1.1
with 2.6 & -1.5 respectively) ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σs ⎞ ⎛ Ns ⎞ ⎛ Ps ⎞
S as = S at ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σt ⎠ ⎝ Nt ⎠ ⎝ Pt ⎠
2 .3 1 .3
Large jet aircraft ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σt ⎞⎛ Fnt ⎞
S gs = S gt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σs ⎠⎝ Fns ⎠
(for lights jets, replace 2.3 & 0.7 2 .3 0 .7 1 .6
exponents with 2.6 & 1 respectively) ⎛W ⎞ ⎛σt ⎞ ⎛ Fnt ⎞
S as = S at ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σs ⎠ ⎝ Fns ⎠
where
Pt = Test day brake power at the propeller Fnt = Tot = Avg. Test net thrust (approx .94 x static thrust
@ test conditions)
Ps = Standard day brake power at the propeller Fns = Tos = Avg. Standard net thrust (approx .94 x static
thrust @ std.conditions)
Nt = Test day propeller RPM
Ns = Standard day propeller RPM
These empirical corrections are valid only for small (<10%) changes.
(above equations from ref 12.3)
Page 12 - 6
12.3.2 Takeoff Distance Prediction (refs 12.1, 12.5)
Estimating takeoff ground roll without numerical methods
Define
V = airspeed
VTO = liftoff airspeed
Sg = ground roll distance
Sw = reference wing area
Fex = excess thrust
Fn = net thrust
CLIGE = lift coeffient in ground effect
CDIGE = drag coefficient in ground effect
W = aircraft weight
m = rolling friction
g = acceleration due to gravity
A = acceleration = g*Fex/
Assuming zero initial speed for takeoff run, ground roll distance
2
VTO ⋅W
Sg =
⎛ 1 ⎞ (Eq’n 12.7)
2 ⋅ g ⋅ ⎜ Tavg − μ ⋅ W + ⋅ ρ ⋅ S w ⋅ VTO
2
⋅ (μ ⋅ C LIGE − C DIGE )⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
Where Fnavg may be estimated as the average of static thrust and net thrust at liftoff airspeed. If the initial air-
speed is non-zero, its value should be inserted into Equation 10.3 in place of VL/O and the answer subtracted
from the zero-wind case.
where μ is the rolling friction coefficient (typically between 0.015 and 0.025 for hard dry runways), and
CLIGE is the lift coefficient in ground effect while at ground roll attitude.
Estimate CLIGE by determining the out-of-ground-effect lift coefficient (CLOGE) at the ground roll angle of at-
tack and correcting it as follows: n
(Eq’ 12.8)
CLIGE = CLOGE GECL
where the ground effect factor, GECL = [0.8609 –0.6282 log10(h/b)] and h is the wing height above the surface
and b is the wingspan. The above correction is not used above the height that predicts
GECL < 1
CDIGE is the induced drag coefficient while in ground effect. Estimate this by determining the out-of-ground-
effect drag coefficient (CDiOGE ) at the appropriate angle of attack and correcting it as fol-
lows: (Eq’n12.9)
CDiIGE = CDiOGE GECD
where the ground effect factor, GECD = [0.2412 ln(h/b)+1.0829] The above correction is not used above the
height that predicts
GECD > 1
Page 12 - 7
A direct approximation of takeoff air distance requires the desired speeds at liftoff and at 50 feet (typically
1.1Vs and 1.2Vs, respectively). It also requires an estimate of the average excess thrust as the aircraft climbs out
of ground effect.
Sa =
W
⎢
( ) ( )
⎡ V502 − VLO 2 ⎤
+ 50⎥ (Eq’n 12.10)
(T − D)avg ⎣ 2g ⎦
A direct approximation of the total takeoff distance (STO) can be calculated as the sum of the ground and air
distances or can be estimated by multiplying the ground roll distance by a “planform factor” (Fpl).
STO = SgFpl (Eq’n 12.11)
Fpl combines the effects of wing type, thrust-to-weight ratio, and pilot technique. The following values charac-
terize the typical aircraft.
straight wing: Fpl = 1.15

swept wing: Fpl = 1.36
delta wing: Fpl = 1.58
A more exact prediction of takeoff performance (ref 12.5) requires accurate thrust and drag models and an
integration of the aircraft’s velocity over the takeoff time. This is equivalent to a double integration of the air-
craft’s acceleration or its specific excess thrust.
Fex 1
STO = ∫ VT dt = ∫∫ adt = ∫∫ dt = ∫∫ Fex dt (Eq’n 12.12)
m m
This double integration can be performed numerically or graphically. Alternately, use planar kinematics and
sum the distances required to accelerate between incremental true airspeeds from brake release (V0) to the true
airspeed when the aircraft reaches the takeoff altitude (V50‘).
m V 50 '
V 22 − V1 2
S TO =
2
∑V0 Fex
(Eq’n 12.13)
Both methods above are typically split into pre-rotation ground roll,
rotation/post-rotation ground roll, and airborne segments. Both methods require calculation of the excess thrust,
addressed below.
Page 12 - 8
Solving for the excess net thrust during the ground roll for either takeoff or landing cases requires a simultane-
ous solution of the three equations of motion along the aircraft’s longitudinal & vertical axes and about the pitch
axis. These equations (in the above order) are as follows:
Fex + μnwRnw + μmRm = [FgcosιT + Fe – Dwb – Dt – Wsinθrw] (Eq’n 12.14)
Rnw+Rm = [Wcosθrw – Lw – Lt] (Eq’n 12.15)
(X1 + X2)Rnw = [WcosθrwX2 + Wsinθrw Z1 + {Fgcos(θ+ιT)-Fe}Z1

+ Lt(X3 + X4 – X2) - Lw(X2 – X3) - Dt (Z1 + Z2 )] (Eq’n 12.16)
where
Fex = excess net thrust
μnw = nose wheel coefficient of friction
(about 0.02 for takeoff, 0.5 for maximum dry runway braking)
Rnw = reaction force (weight) on nose wheel (positive)
μm = main wheel coefficient of friction (positive)
Rm = reaction force (weight) on main wheel (positive)
Fg = gross engine thrust (positive, aligned with engine axis)
ιT = thrust incidence angle (positive denotes thrust that generates lift)
Fe = ram thrust (or drag) due to momentum change of the air outside the engine, measured along drag axis-
aligned with relative wind (typically negative at low speed, positive at high speed)
Dwb = aerodynamic drag of wing and body (excludes horizontal tail drag)
Dt = aerodynamic drag of horizontal tail (positive aft)
W = aircraft weight (positive)
θrw = runway slope (positive denotes uphill)
Lw = main wing lift (positive denotes up)
Lt = horizontal tail (positive denotes up)
X1 = distance from nose gear to aircraft cg (positive)
X2 = distance from the main gear to aircraft cg (positive)
Z1 = distance from the ground plane to the aircraft body axis (positive)
θ = aircraft pitch attitude (positive denotes nose up)
X3 = horiz. dist. from wing’s aerodynamic center to aircraft cg (positive)
X4 = horizontal distance from the wing’s aerodynamic center to the horizontal tail’s aerodynamic center
(positive)
Z2 = vertical distance from the horizontal tail’s aerodynamic center to the aircraft body axis (positive)
Page 12 - 9
The previous equations were arranged so that the right hand side of each can be abbreviated as A1, A2, and A3
respectively. This step allows for a compact matrix form of the equations using a 3x3 matrix
⎡1 μ nw μ m ⎤ ⎡ Fex ⎤ ⎡ A1 ⎤
⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 ⎥ ⎢ Rnw ⎥ = ⎢⎢ A2 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣0 X1 + X 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Rm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A3 ⎥⎦
Solve for Fex by pre-multiplying both sides by the inverse of the first matrix
−1
⎡ Fex ⎤ ⎡1 μ nw μ m ⎤ ⎡ A1 ⎤
⎢ R ⎥ = ⎢0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢A ⎥
⎢ nw ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ Rm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 X1 + X 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A3 ⎥⎦
Although wheel reaction forces are not required for takeoff distance
prediction, they are useful for accurate calculation of rotation capability and for braking effectiveness during
landing ground rolls. For takeoff
calculations, several simplifying assumptions can be made such as:
μnw = μm = 0.02
Fg >> Fe
Dt = 0
This above approach can be repeated for the segment between rotation and liftoff. This is slightly more
complicated because the changing angle of attack alters drag and acceleration.
Precise predictions of the takeoff air distance can be made by applying Equation 12.10 in small incre-
ments using accurate models that describe thrust as a function of airspeed and the lift & drag changes due to
climbing out of ground effect.
Along with the incremental Sg and Sa calculations, the time to accelerate between the corresponding incre-
mental velocities can be calculated as
V2 − V1
Δt = m
Fex
Page 12 - 10
12.4 Landing Distance (refs 12.1, 12.2)
The total landing distance (SLD) is the sum of the ground roll distance (Sg, from touchdown to full stop) and the
horizontal component of the air distance (Sa, from the screen height to touchdown). The screen height can be
either 35 or 50 feet above the surface, depending on the requirements
SLD = Sg + Sa
Both Sg and Sa can be standardized according to the increment or ratio methods described by equations 12.1 and
12.2, or by empirical relations. The empirical methods are useful when detailed aircraft models are not availa-
ble. The more exact process of predicting landing distance using models is described in section 12.4.2.

First correct for the effects of the test day wind. Define headwind velocity as Vw , touchdown true airspeed as
VTD, and test day ground roll as Sgw. With a typical variation of thrust per headwind, estimate the test day zero-
wind ground roll (Sgzw) using the approach applied to takeoff ground roll:
1 .85
⎛ V + Vw ⎞
S g zw = S g w ⎜⎜ TD ⎟⎟ (Eq’n 12.17)
⎝ VTD ⎠
If the average thrust is not appreciably affected by velocity, then the exponent should be 2.0 in lieu of 1.85.
Apply Equation 12.4 to correct to the zero-wind air distance (where t is the time to descend from the screen
height to touchdown).
To correct to a zero-slope runway, apply Equation 12.5 to the zero-wind ground roll distance (note that Fex is
negative). If the average excess thrust is not known, then approximate [Fex ]avg as that at 70% of the touchdown
airspeed. Alternately, approximate [Fex ]avg from the zero-wind ground roll distance using
2
[F ex ]avg ≈
mV TD
(Eq’n 12.18)
2S g zw
Page 12 - 11
After correcting the test day distance to zero wind and slope, use the following empirical equations to cor-
rect the ground roll to standard weight and air density.
2
⎡W ⎤ σ
S gs = S gt ⎢ s ⎥ t (Eq’n 12.19)
⎣ Wt ⎦ σ s
Any desired values can be treated as the "standard" conditions.

Correct the air distance to standard weight and air density using the zero-wind air distance as follows (for
a 50-foot screen height)
hv hv
2+
⎡W ⎤ hv + 50 ⎡σ t ⎤ hv + 50
S a s = S at ⎢ s ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (Eq’n 12.20)
⎣ Wt ⎦ ⎣σ s ⎦
where hv is the specific kinetic energy change during the air phase. For the case of a 50-foot screen height, this
term is calculated as
V 502 ' − V TD2
hv = (Eq’n 12.21)
2g
12.4.2 Landing Distance Prediction
With reasonably precise models available, the landing distance can be predicted through calculation. Test
distances can then be standardized using either the increment or ratio method (Equations 12.1-12.2).
A direct approximation of landing ground roll can be obtained by applying the same Equation 12.7
used for the takeoff case. This method requires a value for the average net thrust (Tavg) across the landing roll
speed range and reasonable values for the wheel braking friction coefficient (0.35<μ<0.5 for typical dry runway
max braking). The same equations for estimating ground effect also apply.
A direct approximation of takeoff air distance including the flare requires the desired lift and associat-
ed drag coefficients, the thrust, and the applied normal load factor during the landing flare (n = 1.15).
Page 12 - 12
W ⎛ CD T ⎞
⎜ ⎟
50 S ⎜⎝ C L W ⎟⎠
Sa = + (Eq’n 12.22)
⎛ C D T ⎞ Tρ o g (n − 1)C L
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ CL W ⎠
A more exact prediction of landing performance requires

accurate thrust and drag models and an integration of the aircraft’s velocity across the landing time. This is
equivalent to a double integration of the aircraft’s acceleration as shown in Equation 12.12. This double integra-
tion can be performed numerically or graphically. Similarly, Equation 12.13 can be adapted for landing as fol-
lows:
m V50 ' V22 − V12
S LD = ∑
2 V0 Fex (Eq’n 12.23)
As with the takeoff case, this equation is usually broken into the air phase and the ground roll phase. Cal-
culation of excess thrust during the ground roll needs to consider the changing weight on the wheels and associ-
ated braking force. This requires a simultaneous solution of the three equations of motion along the aircraft’s
longitudinal & vertical axes and about the pitch axis, previously shown as Eq’ns 12.14-12.16.
Precise calculation of excess thrust during the air phase must consider the change in normal and longitudi-
nal load factor during the flare and the changes in lift and drag coefficients due to entering ground effect
(previously described).
If the desired flare technique is some schedule of flight path angle (γ) versus altitude, then the normal
load factor can be calculated from γ and the rate of γ using
.
V γ
N z = cos γ + T
g
. .
The longitudinal load factor can be calculated as Nx =
H VT
+
VT g
.
H
where sin γ =
VT
Page 12 - 13
An alternate method of calculating distance is the fixed time increment approach. The following air distance
example is based on a constant angle of attack landing technique (ref 12.5).
Fixed inputs Initial inputs

angle of attack, α initial ground speed, Vgo
wing area, S initial air distance, Sao = 0
air density, ρ initial altitude, ho
weight, W initial sink rate, hodot
wingspan, b initial lift coefficient, CLOGE
head wind, Vw wing aspect ratio, AR
net thrust, Fn (Fn = Fg cosα –Fe) wing Oswald efficiency factor, e
time increment, Δt (.05 sec works well)
height of wing above ground when on gear, hwing
Initial calculations initial true airspeed, VTo = Vgo + Vw

initial glide slope, γo =sin-1 [hodot]/ VTo
initial load factor, Nz = cosγo (assumes dγo/dt =0)
initial trim speed, VT =[2NzW/ρCLS]1/2
Incremental calculations
(values with prime symbols represent the result of the previous iteration).
1) CL = CLOGE GECL = CLOGE[0.8609 –0.6282 log10(h/b)]

2) L = 0.5NzWρCLSVT2
3) Nz = L/W
4) γdot = g(Nz –cosγ)/VT
5) γ = [γdot]’Δt +γ ’
6) hdot = VT sinγ
7) h = (hdot + [hdot]’)Δt/2 + h’
8) CDiIGE = CDiOGE GECD = [CL2/πARe][0.2412 ln(h/b)+1.0829]
9) CD = CDo +CDiIGE
10) drag, D = CDρSVT2/2
11) Fex = Fn - D
12) Nx = Fex/W
13) Vdot = g(Nx - sinγ )
14) Vg = Vg’ +Vdot(Δt)
15) Sa = (Vg + Vg’)Δt/2 +Sa’
Page 12 - 14
12.5 Climb/Descent/Level Acceleration (ref 12.4)

Standard performance can be determined either by predicting
results using (flight test validated) models or by correcting individual flight test climb/acceleration results to
standard conditions
Performance predictions require accurate net thrust and
aerodynamic models. Net thrust is the sum of the gross thrust and ram drag, while the aero model includes the
drag polar and lift curve.
Corrections to individual climb/accelerations tests require models that only show the change in thrust &
drag between test and standard conditions. The following sections address both the prediction and correction
approaches.
12.5.1 Climb/Descent/Acceleration Prediction

According to basic energy theory, an aircraft’s specific excess power (Ps) is related to the change in kinetic and
potential energy as follows
Pex (Fn − D)V dH H dW V dV V 2 dW
Ps = = = + + + (Eq’n 12.24)
W W dt W dt g dt 2Wg dt
where V is technically inertial speed. True airspeed and an assumption of zero wind is usually used instead of
inertial speed. Since aircraft typically have negligible weight change during a maneuver, the above
reduces to
(F − D)V = dH + V dV
Ps = n (Eq’n 12.25)
W dt g dt
This shows not only how climb rate or acceleration performance can be predicted, but also shows how the climb
and acceleration capabilities can be exchanged at any given specific excess power. Dividing this equation
through by V shows the relation between specific excess thrust and climb angle, γ
•
PS F − D H 1 dV (Eq’n 12.26)
= n = + = sin γ
V W V g dt
.
When predicting climb performance capability using this approach, iterations may be required because the re-
sulting climb angle affects the normal load factor (Nz = cosγ) and the therefore the induced drag.
Page 12 - 15
12.5.2 Correcting to Standard Climb Rate

The below sequence corrects results at the test q and (usually) pressure altitude
(i.e., Ve test = Ve std, and Htest =Hstd).
1) If the test day vertical velocity is measured by timing pressure altitude changes, then first correct the altimeter
readings for instrument error and then convert the indicated pressure altitude rate to geometric (tapeline) climb
rate as follows
dH ⎛ T ⎞ dH
= ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟
dt t ⎝ T s ⎠ dt indicated
2) Equation 12.25 yields the climb rate correction that accounts for the change in power (or thrust) between test
and standard days (at the test weight and velocity)
• ΔP ΔFnV
ΔH = ΔPs = =
P W W
where ΔP or ΔFn comes from engine models. For reciprocating engines without models that can predict this
power change, estimate the correction using only a standard day power chart and the following
equation
• 550ηBHPs ⎡ Ts ⎤
ΔH = ⎢1 − ⎥
P Wt ⎣ Tt ⎦
3) A changing horizontal headwind with altitude will alter climb results. If this change (dVw/dH) is known, then
add the following correction to the tapeline climb rate
•
V ⎛ dV ⎞⎛ dH ⎞
Δ H hw = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
g ⎝ dH ⎠⎝ dt ⎠t
Usually the exact wind shear profile is unknown. In this case, fly perpendicular to the known crosswind direc-
tion and repeat each climb speed at the reciprocal heading. After completing the remaining corrections listed
below, average the reciprocal results to obtain a standard climb rate.
4) If the climb is flown at constant indicated airspeed or Mach, then true airspeed will change with air density.
Correct for any change in true airspeed with the following “acceleration factor” correction
• ⎛V
⎜ −V ⎞
⎟
ΔH = V dV = ⎜ final initial
V ⎟
g dt g ⎜⎜ time to climb ⎟
⎟
AF
⎝ ⎠
Page 12 - 16
5) Combine the previous corrections then multiply this by the “inertial correction” factor that accounts for the
inertial effects of changing the weight from test to standard conditions
• Wt
H =
I Ws
6) To the above result, add a correction for the change in induced drag due to weight change.
• 2 ⎡Wt 2 − Ws2 ⎤
ΔH =
Ind πAReρaltVT S ⎢⎣ Ws ⎥⎦
Summary of climb rate corrections

• ⎧⎛ T ⎞ dH • • • ⎫• •
H = ⎨⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ + ΔH + ΔH + ΔH ⎬H + ΔH
std ⎩⎝ Ts ⎠ dt indicated P hw AF ⎭ I Ind (Eq’n 12.27)
Equation 12.27 can also be used to correct descents, level accelerations, and level decelerations to a stand-
ard climb rate. The primary difference is that for level accelerations, the accelerations factor is the dominant
term while the indicated climb rate is near zero.
12.5.3 Weight/Altitude/Temperature (WAT) Limits

To ensure safety, aviation authorities specify minimum climb gradients (γreq‘d) for many aircraft opera-
tions. The most straight forward way to comply with the specified gradients is to document the maximum allow-
able weight at various pressure altitude/temperature combinations.
Assuming the test day CL for best γ equals that for any other day, calculate the maximum allowable weight
by applying the following correction to the best test γ results.
⎡ CDO CL ⎤
⎢⎣sin γt + CL + πA Re ⎥⎦Wt + ΔFn
Wmax =
CD CL
sin γ req 'd + O +
CL πA Re
where ΔFn (= Fnstd -Fntest ) comes from the engine model. To ensure accuracy, the test configuration (i.e., one
engine inoperative) must equal the standard configuration. Level acceleration results are not an acceptable sub-
stitute for actual climb data.
Page 12 - 17
12.6 Level Turn Performance (ref 12.1)
Standard level turn performance can be determined either by

predicting results using (flight test validated) models or by correcting
individual turn results to standard conditions. It is possible to predict turn performance using climb or level ac-
celeration data, but this approach is not always accurate and should be validated with actual turn results.
Performance predictions require accurate net thrust and aero
models (drag polar and lift curve). Corrections to test day turn results
require models that only show the change in thrust & drag between test and standard conditions.
The following sections address both the prediction and correction approaches. For either approach, load
factor (nzw) is usually determined first, then the corresponding turn rate (ω-radians/sec) and radius (R-ft) are cal-
culated using the equations below.
2 2
VT2 g n zw −1 ⎛ ωV ⎞
R= ω= n zw = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1 (Eq’n 12.28)
2
g n zw −1 VT ⎝ g ⎠
12.6.1 Sustained Level Turn Performance Prediction
1) At the desired speed, altitude, temperature, and throttle setting use the
engine model to determine the gross thrust (Fg). Sophisticated models may show this to be a function of the inlet
angle of attack as well.
2) At the same conditions, use the engine and airframe models to determine the ram drag (Fe).
3) Calculate net thrust as Fn = Fg cos αF +Fe where αF = (α + ιT) and is ιT the incidence angle of the thrust line
(TED positive).
4) The total lift is the sum of the wing lift and the thrust lift:
L = LW + Fg sinαF.
Since L = nzwW , then LW = nzwW - Fg sinαF
Page 12 - 18
5) For any sustained turn, the net thrust equals the drag
⎡ ⎛ LW ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢
Fn = D = qSC D = qS C D o + ⎝ qS ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎡
= qS ⎢C D o +
(n zwW − Fg sin α F ) ⎤
2
⎥
⎢ πA Re ⎥ ⎢
⎣ (qS ) πA Re
2
⎦⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Solving for load factor gives
1 ⎛ ⎧⎡ Fg cos(α + ιT ) + Fe ⎞
1/ 2
⎤ ⎫
nzw = ⎜ ⎨⎢ − CD o ⎥(qS ) πA Re⎬ + Fg sin(α + ιT )⎟
2
W ⎜ ⎩⎣ qS ⎦ ⎭
⎟
⎝ ⎠ (Eq’n 12.29)
For any combination of weight, altitude, and airspeed, calculation of the standard sustained load factor requires
knowledge of the gross thrust, ram drag,
⎛ drag polar (CD0, e), and angle1 / 2of attack. ⎞
⎧⎡ F ⎤ ⎫
n zw = W ⎜ qS ⎨ ⎢ n − C D o ⎥π A Re ⎬ + Fn sin α F ⎟
6) To determine the standard angle of⎜attack, start
qS with the⎦ lift curve
⎭ slope model
⎟
⎝ ⎩⎣ ⎠
dC L
C L = C Lα = 0 + α = C Lα = 0 + C L α α
dα
Rearrange to solve for α
⎛ n zwW − Fg sin (α + ιT ) ⎞
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − C Lα =0
C L − C Lα =0 ⎝ qS ⎠
α= = (Eq’n 12.30)
C Lα C Lα
Because α cannot be solved for explicitly, calculate it using successive iterations of Equations 12.29 and 12.30.
Fg n zw
In cases where sin α F <
W 10
the angle of attack can be roughly estimated without significant error to the final result.
Page 12 - 19
12.6.2 Sustained Level Turn Performance Correction

The best method for obtaining standardized sustained level turn data is to correct actual level turn results
to standard conditions. It is also possible to correct level acceleration or climb data to give standard level turn
results. This approach may not work as well since any drag polar or engine model errors will be magnified.
Additionally, inlet distortion that accompanies actual turn thrust is different during (low angle of attack) climbs
and accelerations.
The equation below corrects any combination of test day climb, turn, and acceleration to a load factor for
a sustained turn at the same dynamic pressure but at standard conditions.
Fg std
n zw std = sin α Fs +
Ws
1
⎧⎪⎛ W Fg 2
⎞ πARe qS ⎡WtV&Tt Wt H& t ⎤⎫⎪
2
⎜
⎨⎜ nzwt
t t
⎟
− sinαFt ⎟ + ⎢ + + Fgstd cosαFstd − Fgt cosαFt ⎥⎬ (Eq’n 12.31)
⎪⎩⎝ Ws Ws ⎠ Ws2 ⎢⎣ g VTt ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Fg n zw
If sin α F < then the above equation can be closely approximated as
W 10
1 ⎡ V&T W t H& tW t ⎤
n zw std = (n zw t W t )
2
+ π A R eqS ⎢ t + + Δ Fex ⎥ (Eq’n 12.32)
WS ⎢⎣ g VT ⎥⎦
where ΔFex = Fgstd(cosαFstd) - Fgt(cos αFt)
The primary difference between using turn, accel, or climb test data is the dominant term in the above correc-
tions. In all cases, the test and standard day thrust values come from engine models.
Page 12 - 20
12.6.3 Level Limit Turn Performance Correction

A limit turn is one in which the aircraft performs a level turn beginning from maximum speed and maxi-
mum load factor and continues to decelerate at the Nzb limit until reaching the maximum CL . At this point, the
aircraft continues its level turning deceleration at the lift limit. This maneuver is also known as a “slow-down”
turn.
Test day limit turn data is corrected to a standard specific excess power (Ps) for each given combination of
altitude, Mach number and load factor (or AOA) limit. The following correction accounts for changes in trim
drag, weight, and atmospheric affects on thrust.
Pss = Pst + ΔPs

⎛ Wt axwt ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎟VTt
where Pst =
( ) =
(
Fext VTt mt axwt VTt ⎜⎝ g
=
) ⎠ = N V = Ma θ N
xwt Tt o t xwt
Wt Wt Wt
[ ]
and
{(
ΔPs = Mao Fgs cosαFs + Fe ) θs
Ws
(
− Fgt cosαFt + Fe ) θt
Wt + SCDo
qt θt
Wt −
qs θs
Ws
+
Sqt θt ⎛ m[NzwtWt −Fgnt sinαFt 2
] + ΔC [ ]
⎞ − Sqs θs ⎛ m NzwsWs −Fgs sinαFs 2 + ΔC ⎞⎫
⎜ ⎟ Ws ⎜ Dtrims ⎟⎬
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎭
Wt qt S Dtrimt qs S
where CLoα Nzwt Wt − Fgt sinα Ft

αF = ιT − + (Eq’n 12.33)
t t
a aqt S
CLoα NzwsWs − Fgs sinα Fs
and α Fs = ιTs − +
a aqs S
As with the sustained level turn case, one cannot solve explicitly for αF, so either assume an approximate value
or iterate until a solution converges.
In For the simplified case where δt = δs, cgt = cgstd , and sinαF = 0, then the above equation reduces to
ΔPs = Mao ⎧⎨ Wss ⎡F − qSC − (NzwsWs ) ⎤ − θt ⎡F − qSC − (NzwtWt ) ⎤⎫

2 2
θ
⎢⎣ ns qSπARe ⎥ ⎢⎣ nt qSπARe ⎥⎬ (Eq’n 12.34)
⎩
Do
⎦ Wt Do
⎦⎭
Page 12 - 21
12.7 Reciprocating Engine Cruise Performance (ref 12.1)

Cruise performance standardization consists of correcting test day range and endurance results to standard
conditions. Standard conditions are typically the standard aircraft weight & cg location, the nearest 5,000 ft in-
crement of pressure altitude, and standard ambient temperature at that altitude. Although not included in this
section, additional corrections can be made to adjust fuel flow to a standard
heating value and to adjust the thrust and fuel flow for the slight gravity effects due to changes in latitude and
centrifugal relief (see section 3.2).
Although any weight can be called “standard,” several are quite common. General aviation aircraft typi-
cally have the test data corrected to the maximum takeoff weight. Transport aircraft often use a mid-mission
weight (maximum payload and one-half fuel) as standard, and fighter/attack aircraft typically use full ordnance
and half internal fuel as standard for any given configuration.
Once standard cruise results are documented, mission planning can be conducted by reversing the stand-
ardization equations to the desired “mission” conditions. If desired, test day results can be directly corrected to
mission conditions by simply treating the mission conditions as standard. These options are shown below.
It is common practice to correct test data for only minor changes in altitude & temperature conditions.
Because large changes in Mach and Reynolds numbers alter drag polars and engine efficiency, it is not common
practice to correct results across altitude differences of more than 5,000 feet. This leads to a series of results
separated by altitude.
.
12.7.1 Power Standardization
If fuel flow is directly proportional to power output only, the power and optimal velocity for cruise perfor-
mance can be determined from a power required curve as shown below.
Power Best
End.
Required
Best Range
VT
Page 12 - 22
To correct the power required curve to any standard altitude/weight condition, the usual approach is to treat the
lift coefficient as the anchor (CL test = CL std). This leads to the following power and velocity standardization
equations
3 1 1
⎛W ⎞2⎛ σ ⎞2 ⎛W σ ⎞2 (Eq’ns 12.35)
Ps = Pt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ t
⎟⎟ VT s = V T t ⎜⎜ s t ⎟⎟
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σ s ⎠ ⎝ Wt σ s ⎠
Because the drag polar of low performance propeller aircraft generally collapses (generalizes) well to a single
curve, it is often acceptable to correct all power required data to a single standard altitude/weight condition.
When this condition is chosen to be standard day sea level at maximum weight, the above correction simplifies
to what is known as the “Piw ~Viw” values.
3 1
⎛ W ⎞2 1 ⎛W ⎞2
Ps = Piw = Pt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (σt )2 VT s = Viw = Ve t ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (Eq’ns 12.36)
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠
Although all points along the test day power curve can be standardized, the most useful points are those for best
range and endurance. When corrected to standard conditions, the performance of the test aircraft can be fairly
compared to that of another aircraft which has also been corrected to the same flight conditions.
Additionally, once the standard power and velocity are known and documented, the required power and airspeed
for any “mission” conditions can be predicted by reversing Equations 12.36 as follows
3 1 1 1
⎛W ⎞2⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛W ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ⎞2
Pm = Piw ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ VT m = Viw ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Eq’ns 12.37)
⎝ Ws ⎠ ⎝σm ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σm ⎠
The power & optimal speed for best mission range (and mission
endurance) are determined by applying the above equations to correct the points noted on the above figure. To
correct directly from test conditions to mission conditions, apply Equation 12.35 and substitute mission weight
and density in lieu of standard values.
Page 12 - 23

Because reciprocating engine fuel flow is essentially
proportional to power output, Equations 12.35 and 12.36 can be modified to correct the test fuel flow to standard
values. For the following standardization equations to be accurate, the propeller efficiency and brake specific
fuel consumption (BSFC) must be the same for test and standard days.
3 1 3
⎛W ⎞2 ⎛ σt ⎞2 ⎛W ⎞2 1
W& f s = W& f t ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or W& f iw = W& f t ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (σ t )2 (Eq’ns 12.38)
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σs ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠
Because BSFC is affected by engine RPM (due to friction losses), fuel flow results at one engine RPM are never
corrected to another RPM. Separate tests must be performed for each engine speed of interest. BSFC may also
be affected by ambient air pressure and temperature. If the relation between fuel flow and power can be repre-
sented with a model as shown, then the fuel flow is a linear function of BSFC.
test
Fuel
Flow W& f std
W& f = b + BSFC • BHP
BSFC
b
BHP
If the values for b and BSFC are known for both the test and standard conditions, then test fuel flow can be more
exactly corrected to standard weight and density conditions as follows
3 1
η BSFC s ⎛ Ws ⎞ 2 ⎛ σ t ⎞ 2
W& f s = bs + (W& f t − bt ) t ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (Eq’n 12.39)
η s BSFC t ⎜⎝ Wt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ σ s ⎟⎠
Note that this correction requires only a knowledge of the ratio of test and standard BSFC values. If both values
have the same percent error, then the effect is self-canceling. The above equation also corrects for changes in
fuel flow due to changing propeller efficiency.
Page 12 - 24

To determine the optimum endurance flight profile and time aloft for any condition (at the same RPM as
the test condition), plot the test day specific endurance parameter (SEP) vs the test day lift coefficient (CL)
RPM = xxx
SEP =
(n Wt
zt )
3
2
W& ft
Max end.
2nz Wt
CL =
ρa (VT )2 S
t
The maximum endurance occurs at the peak of the SEP curve. The associated lift coefficient is the optimum
endurance condition for the aircraft (at that same RPM). The results of this test change with engine speed. If
the aircraft operates at this optimum CL or any other constant CL , then the total endurance time (t) while at con-
stant altitude can be calculated from this test day data using
1
⎛σ ⎞2 ⎡ 2 2 ⎤
t = SEP ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Eq’n 12.40)
⎝σt ⎠ ⎣⎢ W F W I ⎦⎥
where the SEP comes from the above test day curve at whatever CL is chosen. WI is the total aircraft weight at
the start of the endurance segment and WF is the final weight of the endurance segment. This equation accounts
for the effect of how a change in air density alters the power required and the subsequent fuel flow, but does not
account for changes in propeller efficiency, BSFC, or the fuel flow intercept, b.For endurance at a constant CL
and VT, use the following equation and the SEP and test weight associated with the lift coefficient at the start of
the endurance segment.
SEP WI
t = ln (Eq’n 12.41)
Wt WF
Page 12 - 25
12.7.4 Range Optimization and Prediction (ref 12.1)

To determine the optimum range flight profile and distance for any condition (at the same RPM as the test
condition), plot the test day range factor (RF) vs the test day lift coefficient (CL)
RPM = xxx
V Tt W t
RF =
W& ft Max Range
2nz Wt
CL =
ρa (VT )2 S
t
The maximum range occurs at the peak of the RF curve. The associated lift coefficient is the optimum range
condition for the aircraft (at that same RPM). The results of this test change with engine speed. If the
aircraft operates at this optimum CL or any other constant CL , then the range at constant altitude can be calculat-
ed from this test day data using
WI
R = RF ln (Eq’n 12.42)
WF
where the RF comes from the above test day curve at whatever CL is chosen. WI is the total aircraft weight at
the start of the range segment and WF is the final weight of the range segment. Although not explicitly shown in
this equation, the correction does account for changes in air density, but does not account for changes in propel-
ler efficiency, BSFC, or the fuel flow intercept, b.
For cruise at constant airspeed and altitude, use the following equation and the RF associated with the lift
coefficient at the start of the cruise segment.
⎡ WF ⎤
⎢1 − W ⎥
−1
R = RF • 2 tan ⎢ I
⎥ (Eq’n 12.43)
⎢1 + W F ⎥
⎢⎣ W I ⎥⎦
Page 12 - 26
12.8 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance (ref 12.1)

Refer to section 12.7 for a general discussion of cruise
performance standardization.
.
12.8.1 Thrust Standardization
If fuel flow is directly proportional to net thrust output only, the thrust and optimal velocity for cruise per-
formance can be determined from a thrust required curve as shown below.
Thrust Best
End.
Required
Best Range
VT
Because jet aircraft typically cruise at speeds where changes in Mach number affect the drag polar, it is custom-
ary to treat both the lift coefficient and Mach numbers as anchors (CL test = CL std , M test = Mstd). In terms of
Mach number, cruise (nz = 1) lift coefficient is calculated as
W
CL = δ (Eq’n 12.44)
1481M 2 S
From this relation, the only way to match test & standard values for both CL and M is to match test & standard
values for W/δ . In this case, the test day net thrust required curve can be corrected to standard conditions as fol-
lows
Ws θs
Fn s = Fn t V T s = V Tt (Eq’ns 12.45)
Wt θt
Although all points along the test day thrust curve can be standardized, the most useful points are those
for best range and endurance. When corrected to standard conditions, the performance of the test aircraft can be
fairly compared to that of another aircraft which has also been corrected to the same flight conditions. Addition-
ally, once the standard thrust and velocity are known and documented, the required power and airspeed for any
“mission” conditions can be predicted by reversing Equations 12.45.
Page 12 - 27

Both the thrust and fuel flow of a simple (fixed-geometry turbojet) turbine engine are functions of engine
speed (N), Mach number (M), ambient pressure (δ), and ambient temperature (θ). Dimensional analysis and ex-
perimental results show these parameters to be related approximately as illustrated in the figures below.
Corrected Fuel Flow Corrected Thrust

vs vs
Corrected RPM & M Corrected RPM & M
w& f F
δ θ δ
F
E
100 M D M
A B C N A B C N
θ θ
Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC ) is defined as the fuel flow per thrust. At any given level of cor-
rected fuel flow, the above figures can be cross-plotted onto a single figure that relates corrected thrust (F/δ) to
corrected fuel flow at various Mach numbers.
.
F 200
δ F 150
w& f
E = 100
D δ θ
0.3 0.6 0.9 M
The slopes of the above figure exaggerate the typical case where TSFC changes with Mach number. If, at any
given Mach number, steady increments of corrected fuel flow are evenly spaced vertically, then
TSFC
≈ constant at that Mach number.
θ
Page 12 - 28
Standard fuel flow can be determined from these relations. If flight test data is to be corrected from test to
standard conditions at the same CL and M , then the CD will also be the same for both test &
standard conditions. Because thrust equals drag* during cruise, the
following relations show that corrected thrust (F/δ) must be the same for test and standard conditions
D F
CD = δ = δ
2
1481 M S 1481 M 2 S
• technically Fn cos(α+ιT)+Fe = D, where Fn = net thrust, Fe = ram thrust,
and ιT is the thrust incidence angle
If Mach number and F/δ are equal for both test & standard
conditions, then the previous cross plot shows that corrected fuel flow must also be the same for both conditions.
W& W&
=
ft fs
δ t θ t δ s θ s
This relation allows standard fuel flow to be calculated as
δ θ
W& f s = W& f t s s if CL test = CL std , M test = Mstd (Eq’n 12.46)
δ t θt
Page 12 - 29

Test day results are corrected to standard results at the same Mach, CL (and therefore the same W/δ , ac-
cording to Eq‘n 12.44) as the test condition. For each W/δ ratio tested, plot the test day corrected fuel flow vs
the test Mach number.
w& f
δ θ
W
δ
At any given W/δ , the maximum endurance occurs at the Mach corresponding to the bottom of the curve.
This optimal Mach and W/δ define the optimum lift coefficient for endurance (Eq‘n 12.44).
The corrected fuel flow for any desired Mach & W/δ combination can be interpolated from the above
figure. Calculate the actual fuel flow using Equation 12.46.
Even with simple turbojets, experience has shown that the above
curves do not generalize well if the desired standard altitudes
If the aircraft maintains flight at any combination of constant Mach & W/δ , then the corrected fuel flow
will be constant. For flight at a constant CL, endurance time can be calculated using
1 θ CL WI (Eq’n 12.47)
t= ln
θ c CD WF
where c is the thrust specific fuel consumption at sea level std conditions. WI is the total aircraft weight at the
start of the endurance segment and WF is the final weight of the endurance segment. Although not explicitly
shown in this equation, the correction process does account for changes in aircraft weight, and ambient pressure
& temperature.
Page 12 - 30

As with endurance analysis, test day range results are
standardized at a common Mach & W/δ. Using the same corrected fuel flow vs Mach test data illustrated in sec-
tion 12.8.3, create a cross plot of range factor (RF) vs Mach number for each W/δ tested.
W where range factor can be calculated as

δ
RF VTt M Wt
RF = SR t ⋅ W t = Wt = ao
&
W ft W& f t δt
δt θt
M (Eq’ns 12.48)
The optimum CL for range at any given W/δ occurs at the Mach corresponding to the top of the curve. The best
overall W/δ is the highest. These curves do not usually generalize well if the desired standard altitudes are more
than about 5,000 ft away from the test altitudes.
If the aircraft cruises at any combination of constant Mach & W/δ , then the range factor will be constant,
and range is calculated as
WI
R = RF ln (Eq’n 12.49)
WF
where RF comes from the above test day figure at whatever Mach & W/δ is chosen. It is often reasonable to
interpolate the above test data to define a RF for the desired standard conditions. WI and WF are the total aircraft
weights at the start and end of the range segment.
For cruise at constant altitude, fly at a constant CL by allowing the airspeed to decrease with weight. Cal-
culate range from test day results using
R = 2 Wt
VTt
W&
(W i − Wf ) (Eq’n 12.50)
ft
For this equation to be valid, use the VTt and fuel flow corresponding to the same CL and altitude of the desired
standard conditions. Both of the above correction equations account for changes in aircraft weight and
ambient temperature.
Page 12 - 31
12.9 References
12.1 Lawless, Alan R, “Fixed Wing Aircraft Performance Testing,” Volume III, Professional Textbook Series,
National Test Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1998.
12.2 anon, “Performance Flight Testing Phase” notes, USAF TPS , Edwards AFB, CA, 1991.
12.3 Lush, Kenneth J “Standardization of Take-Off Performance Measuresments for Airplanes,” AFFTC Tech-
nical Note R-12, USAF Air Research and Development Command, Edwards AFB, CA, circa 1955.
12.4 Roberts, S.C., Light Aircraft Performance for Test Pilots and Flight Test Engineers, NTPS publication
12.5 Olson, Wayne, “Performance Testing Handbook,”

(publication number pending ) AFFTC, Edwards AFB, CA, 1999.
Page 12 - 32
Section 13 Acoustics
13.2 Velocities, Spectrum and Reference Levels
13.3 Pressure, Intensity
13.4 Weighting Curves
13.6 References
Page 13 - 1
Abbreviations
ANSI American National Standards Institute
dB decibels
f frequency, cycles/sec
Hz Hertz
nm 10-9 meters
P sound power
p pressure
pW 10-12 Watts
x RMS value of quantity
xo reference value of quantity
μPa 10-6 Pascals
Terminology
decade band with the upper frequency x10 that of thelower.
decibels measure of a magnitude, dB = 10log10(mag).
far field beyond the near field (region where sound level drops -6 dB as distance from the source
doubles).
Hertz frequency in cycles/second.
narrow band band whose width is less than one-third octave but less than 1% of the center frequency near
field range within a distance equal to the wavelength of the lowest frequency emitted or twice
the greatest dimension of the subject.
octave a band with the upper freq exactly twice the lower freq. (common octaves include .0375-.075,
.075-.15, 15-.3, .6-1.2, 1.2-2.4, 2.4-4.8, 4.8-9.6 kHz).
pink noise has equal energy in each octave from 20 to 20,000 Hz, or with an energy content inversely
proportional to frequency.
random noise does not have a uniform frequency spectrum and has an amplitude, as a function of time, consis
tent with a Gaussian distribution curve.
third-octave highest frequency =1.26 x lower frequency (ratio= 21/3)
white noise has a constant spectrum level over the entire band of audible frequencies (need not be random).
Page 13 - 2
13.2 Acoustic Velocities, Spectrum, and Reference Levels
Acoustic Velocity (speed of sound)
Medium Approximate Velocity

Air (20o C) 343 m/s
Fresh water 1,480 m/s
Aluminum 5,150 m/s
Concrete 3,600 m/s
Glass 5,300 m/s
Steel 6,000 m/s
Wavelength (λ) = acoustic velocity

frequency
wavelength (m) in air
frequency (Hz)
Human hearing range is approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz

• Ultrasound lies above 20,000 Hz
• Infrasound lies below 20 Hz
Acoustic Reference Levels

Quantity Formula
Velocity (Lv) 20log(v/v0) vo = 10 nm/s2
Intensity (LI) 10log(I/I0) Io= 1 pW/m2
Sound Power Level (LW) 10log(P/P0) Po = 1 pW
Sound Pressure Level “SPL” (Lp) 20log(p/p0) 20μPa (air)
Pressure Spectrum Level (PSL)* SPL – 10logΔf (dB)
Pressure Band Level (PBL) PSL + 10logΔf (dB)
Overall SPL (OASPL) 10log10 Σ10SPL/10 20 μPa (air)
* the SPL contained within a band 1 Hz wide
Page 13 - 3
13.3 Acoustic Pressure and Intensity
Sound Pressure from Sound Power
Transmission Environment Lp
Free Field LW + log Q - 20 log r - 10.8 dB
Reflecting Plane LW + log Q - 20 log r - 7.8 dB
Reverberant Room LW + log Q - 20l og R - 6.2 dB
where r = distance from source

Q = directivity index of source
R = room constant
Acoustic Intensity
I - Imaginary[Gyx(f)] = Im[Gyx(f)](for air)

4πρ0Δrf 16.25 Δrf
where ρ0 = fluid density = 1.293 kg/m3 for air

Δr = microphone spacing (meters)
f = frequency
Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)
Intensity level of a sound contained within a band 1Hz wide
ISL = 10 log _I_ = IL – 10 logΔf (dB)

Io Δ f
wheref = center frequency of band

I = sound intensity (watts/m2)
Io = 10-12 watt/m2 reference intensity
Δf = bandwidth (Hz)
Page 13 - 4
13.4 Acoustic Weighting Curves (ANSI S1.4 1983)

Weighting for SPL
Nominal Exact A B C
Freq (Hz) Freq (Hz) (dB) (dB) (dB)
10 10.00 -70.4 -38.2 -14.3
12.5 12.59 -63.6 -33.3 -11.3
16 15.85 -56.4 -28.3 -8.4
20 19.95 -50.4 -24.2 -6.2
25 25.12 -44.8 -20.5 -4.4
31.5 31.62 -39.5 -17.1 -3.0
40 39.81 -34.5 -14.1 -2.0
50 50.12 -30.3 -11.6 -1.3
63 63.10 -26.2 -9.4 -0.8
80 79.43 -22.4 -7.3 -0.5
100 100.0 -19.1 -5.6 -0.3
125 126.9 -16.2 -4.2 -0.2
160 158.5 -13.2 -2.9 -0.1
200 199.5 -10.8 -2.0 .0
250 251.2 -8.7 -1.4 .0
315 316.2 -6.6 -0.9 .0
400 398.1 -4.8 -0.5 .0
500 501.2 -3.2 -0.3 .0
630 631.0 -1.9 -0.1 .0
800 794.3 -0.8 .0 .0
1,000 1,000 .0 .0 .0
1,250 1,259 0.6 .0 .0
1,600 1,585 1.0 .0 -0.1
2,000 1,995 1.2 -0.1 -0.2
2,500 2,512 1.3 -0.2 -0.3
3,150 3,162 1.2 -0.4 -0.5
4,000 3,981 1.0 -0.7 -0.8
5,000 5,012 0.6 -1.2 -1.3
6,300 6,310 -0.1 -1.9 -2.0
8,000 7,943 -1.1 -2.9 -3.0
10,000 10,000 -2.5 -4.3 -4.4
12,500 12,589 -4.3 -6.1 -6.2
16,000 15,849 -6.7 -8.5 -8.6
20,000 19,953 -9.3 -11.2 -11.3
Page 13 - 5

(ANSI S1.6 1984)
Band Nominal Exact Octave

No. Center (Hz) Center (Hz) Center (Hz)
1 1.25 1.26
2 1.60 1.58
3 2.00 2.00 2.0
4 2.50 2.51
5 3.15 3.16
6 4.00 3.98 4.0
7 5.00 5.01
8 6.30 6.31
9 8.00 7.94 8.0
10 10.00 10.00
11 12.5 12.59
12 16.0 15.58 16.0
13 20.0 19.95
14 25.0 25.12
15 31.5 31.62 31.5
16 40.0 39.81
17 50.0 50.12
18 63.0 63.10 63.0
19 80.0 79.43
20 100.0 100.00
21 125.0 125.89 125.0
22 160.0 158.49
23 200.0 199.53
24 250.0 251.19 250.0
25 315.0 316.23
26 400.0 398.11
27 500.0 501.19 500.0
28 630.0 630.96
29 800.0 794.33
30 1,000 1,000.0 1,000
31 1,250 1,258.9
32 1,600 1,584.9
33 2,000 1,995.3 2,000
34 2,500 2,511.9
35 3,150 3,162.3
36 4,000 3,981.1 4,000
37 5,000 5,011.9
38 6,300 6,309.6
39 8,000 7,943.3 8,000
40 10,000 10,000.0
41 12,500 12,589.3
42 16,000 15,848.9 16,000
43 20,000 19,952.6
Page 13 - 6
13.6 References
13.1 Beranek, Leo L., Acoustic Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, 1956.
13.2 Peterson, Arnold P.G. and Gross, Ervin E., Jr., Handbook of Noise Measurement, GenRag Incorporated,
Concord, Massachusetts, 1978.
13.3 Measuring Sound, (Pamphlet), Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark, September 1984.
13.4 Pocket Handbook, Noise, Vibration, Light, Thermal Comfort, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark, 1986.
Additional Reading
Hunter, Joseph L., Acoustics, Prentice-Hall Incorporated, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1957.
Page 13 - 7
NOTES
Page 13 - 8
Section 14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
14.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

14.2 Abbreviations
14.3 Terms
14.4 Fundamentals
14.4.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields
14.4.2 Antennas
14.4.3 Spectra
14.4.4 Non-Ideal behavior of components
14.5.1 Interference Model
15.5.2 Conducted Emissions
15.5.3 Radiated Emissions
15.5.4 Aviation Frequency Spectrum
14.6 Testing
14.6.1 Lab Testing
14.6.2 Aircraft Ground Testing
14.6.3 Aircraft Flight Testing
14.6.4 Avionics changes and EMI testing
14.7 Lightning
14.7.1 Aircraft Lightning Zones
14.7.2 Direct Effects
14.7.3 Indirect Effects
14.7.4 Instrumentation Precaution
Page 14 - 1
14.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

This section gives the Flight Test Engineer a basic introduction to terms and concepts used by
EMC engineers and insight into good testing philosophy and appropriate practices thus improving the
interaction between the EMC and Flight Test engineers.
14.2 Abbreviations
A Area m2
c Speed of Light 3.0E8 m/s
E Electric Field Intensity Volts/meter, V/m
f Frequency Hertz, Hz
H Magnetic Field Intensity Ampere/meter, A/m
I Current Ampere, A
L Inductance Henries
Q Charge Coulomb, C
V Electric Potential Volt, V
XC Capacitive Impedance Ohms
XL Inductive Impedance Ohms
λ Wavelength meter
14.3 Terms
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
Far Field Distance beyond 10λ
HIRF High Intensity Radiated Fields
RF Radio Frequency
DecibelLogarithmic (base 10) expression for amplitude ratios.
dB(power) = 10 Log10 (P1/P2)
dB(voltage) = 20 Log10 (V1/V2)
dB(current) = 20 Log10 (I1/I2)
Commonly used decibels for EMC:
dBm decibels relative to 1 milliwatt
dBW decibels relative to 1 watt
dBμV decibels relative to 1 microvolt
dBi antenna gain relative to an isotropic antenna
Page 14 - 2
Power V or I
dB
Ratio Ratio
0 1 1
3 2.0 1.4
6 4 2
10 10 3.2
20 100 10
30 1000 32
Common Decibel Values
The sensitivity of a radio receiver can be on the order of 1 µV/m, while RF field strengths for HIRF can
be 1000V/m, a factor of a billion or 180dBµV/m.
Page 14 - 3
14.4 Fundamentals
14.4.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields

A static charge Q, creates a static
Electric field, ‘E’.
+q
A common magnet produces a static magnetic field, ‘H’.
N S
Transferring charge Q, i.e. DC current on a wire creates both a constant magnitude Electric and
Magnetic field.
i wire
i wire
Electric Field ‘E’ Magnetic Field ‘H’
An amplitude varying charge, i.e. changing current (AC) will generate a time varying Electric and
Magnetic Field in different planes.
y y
z z
x x
Electric Field ‘E’ Magnetic Field ‘H’
Plane Waves that are self sustaining Electric and Magnetic Fields and combine in the far field, are
commonly called an Electromagnetic Wave.
y
E
H
x
Page 14 - 4
14.4.2 Antennas
Antennas can transmit and/or Receive RF equally well. Electrical length determines
effectiveness.
λ/2 is an efficient antenna element length

c
where: λ =
f
Frequency, f Wavelength, λ
3 MHz 100m
30 MHz 10 m
150 MHz 2m
300 MHz 1m
3 GHz 0.10 m
Common Wavelengths
Slots that have favorable electrical lengths are effective antenna elements also, i.e. hatches, doors,
avionics metal enclosure seams and ventilation holes.
Loop Area is the area encapsulated between the signal line and its return path that can be an effective
antenna. The larger the loop (capture) area, the better the antenna effectiveness is.
14.4.3 Spectra are the frequency content of the electronic signals and are an important consideration in
understanding EMI issues. Periodic signals contain energy at various frequencies and as such, a
frequency domain approach is needed. How much energy at what frequency depends largely on the type
of periodic signal, (i.e. square wave or sine wave), initial frequency and rise/fall times of the signal. The
faster the rise/fall times are, the more spectral content will be developed in the signal, most of which will
be unintentional and unwanted. This is mathematically demonstrated by the use of a trigonometric
Fourier series.
14.4.4 Non-Ideal behavior of components can exists in discrete components such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors and even wire when operated at off nominal conditions, for example temperature.
Another condition is frequency. For example, a short grounding wire from a DC perspective is a dead
short, neglecting the extremely small inductance. But at some frequency, this inductance gets large
enough to be a factor, for example on a bonding strap for lightning protection. A 26 gauge wire, 1 inch
above a ground plane will have 0.028 µH per inch of inductance (L).
Where: XL=2пfL
For f = 150 MHz; XL=26.4 Ohms per inch of wire which can be significant. To reduce this, replace the
ground wire with a wide strap.
Page 14 - 5

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is defined as systems that:
a) don’t interfere with other systems;
b) are tolerant of interference from other systems;
c) don’t interfere with itself.
Broadband Interference is interfering signals over a large range of frequencies. These can be
associated with spark producing equipment like motors that can create signals with lots of spectral
content.
Narrowband Interference is interfering signals that have a limited range of frequencies, usually a
single frequency along with it’s harmonics. These can be associated with digital devices that have
periodic characteristics like clocks.
14.5.1 Interference Model
The classic interference model is:
Source Æ Path Æ Victim
To reduce the interference you can:
–Reduce the emissions from the Source
–Disrupt the Path
–Harden the Victim
Sources of interference can be clocks, switching power supplies, CPUs, data buses, network systems,
relays, local oscillators, and transmitter harmonics.
Coupling Paths can be signal and power lines, radiating wires, apertures or slots on LRUs, windows,
door and hatch openings or antennas themselves.
Front Door coupling is meant to be interference coming in the normal path to the system, i.e. through
the antenna ports to the radio, and can cause interference at extremely low power levels (-100dBm).
Back Door coupling is interference coming into the system with the wires leading to the system and is
of relatively higher power.
Capacitive coupling primarily involves electric waves in the near field and is due to voltages on wires.
Inductive coupling primarily involves magnetic waves in the near field and is due to current on either
wires or chassis.
The aircraft fuselage is sometimes incorrectly thought of as a Faraday Cage encapsulating the RF energy
inside or preventing it from entering because of its aluminum structure, but actually it is not. All of the
windows, doors and hatches allow RF energy to travel through quite easily.
Victims of interference can be radio receivers, VHF, HF, VOR, ILS, ADF, Display systems, Audio and
Passenger Address system, smoke and fire detection circuits, fuel quantity systems. Typically, low
energy systems can be susceptible.
The reduction or elimination of EMI can be done in three areas; the systems end; by modifying the
emissions and/or susceptibility requirements; or at the aircraft end by modifying the aircrafts wiring or
structure.
Page 14 - 6
14.5.2 Conducted Emissions

Current/signal on wires that are not the intended or primary signal is considered conducted emissions.
This ‘extra’ current will be passed along to other systems and/or can radiate on those wires acting like
antennas.
Differential Mode current is made up of the intended signal or information and/or noise that goes out
on the signal wires and comes back on the return lines.
Common Mode current is usually just noise that goes out on two or more signal/return lines and returns
via some other path. This is usually the most troublesome in terms of emissions and should be
eliminated whenever possible.
14.5.3 Radiated Emissions

RF energy emanating from the unit/LRU itself through holes, slots and apertures or from the
interconnecting wires is considered radiated emissions.
14.5.4 Aviation Frequency Spectrum

The table below lists the frequency spectrum of interest to the aviation community. The range is
from 100kHz to 10GHz, a factor of 108 , (90dB). The primary interest is with equipment that is
sensitive to RF energy, i.e. radio receivers, which are primarily intended to detect small signals
(-105dBm). Emission requirements are set at a low level that will still allow proper operation of the
radio receivers. For EMI purposes, emissions from equipment should stay clear of these frequencies.
Band Frequency
ADF 190–1750 kHz
HF 2–30 MHz
Marker Beacon 75 MHz
VHF Nav 108-118 MHz
VHF Comm 118–138 MHz
Glideslope 328-335 MHz
DME, ATC, TCAS 960-1220 MHz
GPS 1227, 1558, 1575
MHz
Glonass 1609 MHz
Radio Altitude 4.2-4.4 GHz
MLS 5.0-5.25 GHz
WXR 5.4, 8.8, 9.0-9.3
GHz
Aviation Frequencies of Interest
Page 14 - 7
14.6 Testing
Regulations and Industry Guidance

The following references are regulations and industry guidelines that address procedures and
acceptable limits for interference testing.
-RTCA DO160D, Chapter 21
-FARs Part 25.1353 and 25.1431
-MIL STD 461
-CISPR
-FCC Part 15
-Aircraft manufacturers own standards
14.6.1 Lab Testing

Lab testing of the unit using established standards and practices is the first and best means of
testing. Not only is this where you will find the trouble spots (i.e. frequencies) but also is a place where
some troubleshooting could alleviate potential problem areas. Contracts with LRU vendors should be
written to require the equipment pass these tests, identified above, before delivery. A list of frequencies
that exceed an established limit is the result.
14.6.2 Aircraft Ground Testing

After lab testing, the unit should be installed in the airplane and be tested with the installed shops
wiring. Testing will consist of measuring conducted emissions with current probes on wire bundles
associated with the new equipment.
Radiated emissions are tested by using the aircrafts antennas hooked to test equipment to
determine how much RF energy is getting into these sensitive systems. Again, a list of frequencies that
exceed an established limit is the result.
14.6.3 Aircraft Flight Testing

Only after both lab and ground testing is accomplished can a meaningful flight test occur. The
results of the ground test should produce a list of frequencies of some exceedance or observed
interference. It is usually only these frequencies that need to be cleared in flight. The appropriate
systems should be tuned to those frequencies and with the equipment to be tested in its’ operating mode,
determine if there is objectionable interference, (usually a pilots subjective opinion). Pilots can evaluate
systems only if adequate lab/ground testing has been done beforehand. EMI issues that are found in
Flight Test are very difficult and expensive to fix at this stage, and can typically only reduce or mask the
problem.
14.6.4 Avionics changes and EMI testing

Changes in the hardware/wiring of a piece of avionics that could affect EMI testing are:
-Processor speeds
-Power Supply changes
-Frequency sensitive components, capacitors and inductors
-Circuit card layout and repackaging changes
Software changes typically don’t affect EMI unless software controls/switches hardware related
functions, i.e. speeds, options, peripherals etc.
Page 14 - 8
14.7 Lightning
Lightning is a very large electrical transient that can impart thousands of Amperes of current
through an aircraft structure. The structure needs to present a low impedance path for the lightning
current so that no damage causing arcing and/or over-heating occurs. Additionally nearby wiring needs
to be shielded to protect against the induced current produced by the ever changing magnetic fields.
14.7.1 Aircraft Lightning Zones

The aircraft is divided into different areas that relate to the probability of a lightning attachment.
The nose, tail, wingtips and engine nacelles (extremities) are more likely areas.
14.7.2 Direct Effects

Direct effects of a lightning attachment can be in the form of heating, arcing and acoustic issues.
Designing the structure to handle the current flow and providing a low impedance path for the lightning
current will greatly minimize these effects.
14.7.3 Indirect Effects

Indirect effects considers the current that is induced by the transient and coupled onto aircraft
wiring that is parallel to the main lightning current flow. The protection is two fold. Systems are
designed and tested to handle these types of transients as well as the wiring is addressed to minimize the
induced transient to these systems. Shielding and good grounding with short pigtails at both ends is a
good method to reduce the induced current.
14.7.4 Instrumentation Precaution

Any flight test instrumentation wiring that lies outside the protective fuselage needs to be
evaluated for both direct and indirect effects of a nearby lightning attachment. The sensor itself must be
protected from the direct attachment and the wiring must be protected from induced current onto that
wiring. This current may damage the data system equipment and/or, other aircraft systems that are also
instrumented. Good shielding and grounding techniques will minimize these effects. For more
information see the 10-6 Reference at the end of this handbook section.

Aircraft can be exposed to large RF energy produced by high powered radio transmitters or
military/airport surveillance radars. These RF fields can penetrate the aircraft fuselage through windows
and doors/slots which could couple with aircraft wiring and/or systems and potentially interfere. This
threat is addressed by both the aircraft and systems approach.
The systems themselves are designed and tested to be immune to a particular level of RF. These
levels are determined by the criticality of the systems and are specified in regulatory material. Testing is
usually done in a laboratory environment.
From the aircraft side, the internal wiring for critical systems is protected with appropriate
shielding and grounding. Aircraft ground testing is done at special facilities that can radiate the vehicle
with large RF fields with instrumentation inside to measure the penetration and to verify correct system
operation.
Page 14 - 9

This occurs due to a buildup of static charges that discharge by noisy arcing from/to various parts
of the aircraft. The static buildup is caused by tribo-electric charging from the aircraft impacting
snow/rain/ash particles in the air while flying. This charge should gracefully exit the aircraft through
static wicks installed on the wingtips and empennage tips. If it doesn’t the problem shows up as broad
banded noise (white noise) heard on receivers such as ADF, HF and to some extent VHF as the aircraft
flies through the precipitation.
Typical causes are access panels (composite and metal), cowling and fairings that are not properly
grounded. Ground straps do a good job of not isolating parts. (Note: these straps should not be used for
lightning protection as they usually are not sized to handle the current).
10.1) Paul, C. R., “Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility”, John Wiley & Sons Publishing,
1992
10.2) Ott, H. W, “Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems”, John Wiley & Sons Publishing,
1988
10.3) Hrehov, D. W. and Walen, D. B., “What Flight Test Crews Need to Know About EMI/EMC”,
34th Annual SFTE Symposium Workshop, 2003
10.4) Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 25
10.5) RTCA DO160D, “Environmental Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment”,
1997
10.6) Hrehov, D. W., “What Instrumentation Engineers Need to Know About Lightning”, 31st Annual
SFTE Symposium, 2000
10.7) Fisher, F. A., Perala, F. A., and Plumer, J A., “Lightning Protection for Aircraft”, Lightning
Technologies Inc., 1990
Page 14 - 10
15.1 Cooper-Harper Rating Related Figures
Figure 15.1-1 Elements of Closed-Loop Handling Qualities
Figure 15.1-2 Undesirable step input responses and pilot compensation to achieve
desired response
a) Lag compensation, b) lead-lag compensation.
Page 15- 1
Figure 15.1-3 Optimum Short Period Frequency and Damping Based on Pilot Opinion
Page 15- 2
Figure 15.1-4 General Pilot Ratings for Handling Qualities
Closed Loop Handling Qualities Test Requirements

1) Explicit mission definition: what the pilot must accomplish. Identify the circumstances and operating condi-
tions.
2) Define mission tasks. Tasks should be repeatable, require sufficient control input frequency to stress the sys-
tem, and they should be of adequate duration to differentiate transient from steady state responses.
3) Establish desirable and acceptable criteria for task performance. Criteria established should be quantifiable,
recordable, and realistic. Desirable criteria specify a satisfactory level of performance. Acceptable criteria speci-
fy the level of performance that is marginally adequate.
4) Test should include realistic typical distractions and disturbances.
5) Record task performance relative to the criteria established (comments, video, audio, pipper movement, etc.)
6). Measuring & record pilot workload and compensation.
Page 15- 3
Figure 15.1-5 Cooper Harper Workload and Handling Qualities Rating Scale
Page 15- 4
Figure 15.1-6 Pilot Induced Oscillations Rating Scale
Page 15- 5
NOTES
Page 15- 6
Section 16 Rotary Wing

16.1 Principal Aeroderivatives
16.2 Forward Flight Static And Dynamic Stability
Page 16- 1
16.1 PRINCIPAL AERODERIVATIVES

Derivative Common Name Principal Contributors Typical
Sign
CONTROL POWER
Pitch control power MR Thrust vector -
M B1
Mast bending moment
Control gearing
Rotor type
Effective hinge offset
Roll control power MR Thrust vector -
L A1
Mast bending moment
Control gearing
Rotor type
Yaw control power TR thrust -
N θTR
TR moment arm
Control gearing
Heave control power MR thrust -
Z θC
Control gearing
STATIC STABILITY
Speed stability MR flap back +
Mu Mast bending moment
Horizontal tailplane
Static/Incidence/Angle of MR flap back
Mw Attack stability Mast bending moment
Fuselage
Lateral static stability MR ‘flap back’ -
Lv (dihedral effect) TR vertical moment arm
Fuselage
Directional static stability TR thrust +
Nv (weathercock effect) Vertical tailplane
Fuselage
DAMPING
Drag damping Rotor drag -
Xu Fuselage drag
Side force Rotor drag -
Yv Fuselage drag
Heave damping MR characteristics -
Zw
Roll damping Main rotor -
Lp
Pitch damping Main rotor -
Mq
Yaw damping Tail rotor -
Nr Vertical tailplane
Fuselage
Page 16- 2
16.1 PRINCIPAL AERODERIVATIVES (Continued)
Derivative Common Name Principal Contributors Typical

Sign
CROSS COUPLING
Tail rotor roll Tail rotor vertical position +
LθTR
Pitch change with power Forward speed +
M θC
Main rotor
Torque reaction Torque
N θC
Tail rotor drift Tail rotor
YθTR
Page 16- 3
16.2 FORWARD FLIGHT STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY
Page 16- 4
16.3 References:
Padfield, G.D., (2007), Helicopter Flight Dynamics, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Publishing, UK.
Cooke, A., Fitzpatrick, E., (2002), Helicopter Test and Evaluation, Wiley Blackwell, UK.
Leishman, J.G., (2006), Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Page 16- 5
NOTES
Page 16- 6
Section 17 Gas Turbine Propulsion

17.1.1 Turbine Engine Types
17.2.2 The Brayton Cycle
17.2.3 Component Descriptions
17.2.1 Standard Day Corrections
17.2.2 Pressure and Temperature Relationships with Flight Parameters
17.2.3 Reynold’s Number Index
17.2.4 Thrust Calculations
17.3.1 Compressor operation during accelerations
17.3.2 Compressor operation during decelerations
17.3.3 Bleed are impacts during engine starts
17.3.4 Stator vane cambering effects
17.3.5 Compressor impacts due to nozzle area for turbojet engines
17.3.6 Compressor impacts due to nozzle area for turbofan engines
17.3.7 Combustion stability
17.4.1 Engine Stations
17.4.2 Key Propulsion Terminology
17.4.3 Common Aircraft and Associated Engines
17.4.4 Additional Propulsion Resources
Page 17-1
17.1.1 Turbine Engine Types
Three basic types of aircraft turbine include turbojets, turbofans, and Turboshafts.
Turbojet Turboprop
Low Bypass Turbofan High Bypass Turbofan
The primary advantage of turbojets is their efficiency at high speed/altitude and small diameter.
Turbojets are less efficient at low speed and are currently only used in older aircraft (B-52, T-38, Boeing
707).
A turbofan engine is essentially a turbojet to which a second compression system has been added.
Turbofans are further divided into low bypass and high bypass engines, where bypass describes the
amount of air used by the fan that bypasses the compressor. In low bypass (0-1 bypass ratio) engines, most
of the thrust comes from the nozzle. In high bypass (1-11+ bypass ratio) engines, most the thrust comes
from the fan. Turbofans are the most popular engine for new medium and large aircraft due to the range of
bypass ratios available, allowing optimization for most flight regimes. Turbofan advantages include: high
thrust and low fuel consumption at low airspeed (subsonic), lower engine noise compared to turbojets, and
generally lower operating temperatures allowing the use of lower cost materials. Turbofan disadvantages
include large engine diameters that can increase aircraft drag and cause ground clearance issues and
slower engine response compared to turbojets.
Turboprops generate the majority of their thrust by driving an external propeller. They generally
operate at slightly higher altitudes and faster airspeeds than conventional piston driven aircraft, but
performance at higher mach numbers is limited due to compressibility effects at the propeller tip. The
primary advantages of turboprops compared to reciprocating engines are fuel consumption improvements
and increased reliability.
Page 17-2
Engine Type Operating Envelopes

Some applications have unique flight envelopes and are required to support large horsepower
extractions to power on-board sensors (e.g. Global Hawk).
Page 17-3
17.1.2 The Brayton Cycle
Aircraft turbine engines generally operate on the Brayton thermodynamic cycle. A simplistic
explanation is provided using pressure-volume (P-V) and temperature-entropy (T-S) diagrams.
Ideal thermodynamic cycles (dotted) are those where:

1) The inlet and compressor (engine stations 0 to 3) isentropically compress the air.
2) The combustor (engine stations 3 to 4) provides isobaric heating.
3) The turbine and nozzle (engine stations 4 to 9) isentropically expand the air to free stream jet.
4) Free stream exhaust jet is at a higher velocity and temperature (and entropy) than the inlet.
In the real case (solid/dashed line), the inlet and compressor induce increased entropy (friction losses),
the combustor has pressure losses, the turbine and exhaust nozzle do not perfectly expand the air to free
stream pressure, and the exhaust jet is still at a higher velocity and temperature than the inlet. All of these
factors decrease the efficiency of real turbines.
Turbojet, Real (solid/dashed) & Ideal (dotted)

A more complex case is the two spool turbofan with afterburning. Although following the same trends,
the additional “reheat” from the afterburner (stations 5-7) provides a significant increase in free stream
exhaust jet temperature and velocity. Because the increase in temperature is never recovered by a turbine,
actual efficiency is lower.
Turbofan With Afterburning, Real (solid/dashed) & Ideal (dotted)
Page 17-4
17.1.3 Component Descriptions

(Example Axial Dual-spool Augmented Turbofan)
Inlet (Station 0 to 2)
Inlets usually provide laminar, subsonic flow with minimal total pressure loss across a variety of
Mach numbers and angles of attack. Subsonic inlets are typically simple with fixed geometry and
supersonic inlets range from simple to complex using variable bleeds and bypasses depending on the
operating conditions.
0 2
Complex Supersonic Inlet Simple Subsonic Turbofan Inlet
Compressor (Fan/Core) (Stations 2 to 3)

The low pressure compressor, or fan, provides increased thrust and efficiency by accelerating a
larger mass flow of air (compared to the high pressure compressor). It consists of stators (S) and rotor
blades (R). A splitter in the duct following the fan separates airflow from the bypass duct. Below example,
the fan is coupled via an inner shaft to the low pressure turbine.
Typical Low Pressure Compressor Typical High Pressure Compressor
The high pressure compressor provides airflow to the combustor and turbines. It can have many
stages, each stage consisting of a rotor and a stator. The rotors impart kinetic energy into the airflow,
while the stators convert the kinetic energy to a pressure rise. For improved operation, stators can also
have variable geometry. Overall compression ratios can be 10 to 40 times ambient and the temperature
rise more than 600 deg F. Bleed air from later compression stages can also be extracted to cool the turbine
blades and provide airflow for auxiliary power or ice protection. Shaft power is also extracted through an
engine mounted gearbox attached to the high pressure spool to power electrical and hydraulic systems.
Page 17-5
Combustor (Station 3 to 4)
Fuel is injected, ignited, and burned in the combustor. Modern combustors are annular, while older
designs consisted of multiple cans surrounding the shaft. Combustors slow the airflow entering the
chamber to allow fuel-air mixture and prevent combustion outside the chamber. If air velocities are too
great in the combustor, combustion stability is affected.
Igniter
Fuel Line &

Injector
3 Dilution
Diffuser Primary
Burn 4
Liner
Compressor Exit
Swirler
Dome
Annular Combustor Combustor Cross-Section

Combustors induce turbulence into the air to achieve proper fuel-air mixing and even burning.
Approximately half of the air entering the combustor is used for the combustion process; the remainder
cools the combustor panels. The exhaust gas temperature can exceed 3,100 deg F, leading to significant
material challenges within the combustor and turbine sections.
Turbine (Station 4)
Turbines extract energy from the combustor exhaust to
drive the compressors. Extreme blade and vane temperatures drive
special materials and/or active cooling requirements. State-of-the-
art turbines may include single crystal nickel based alloys with
thermal barrier coatings, internal cooling passages, and external
film air cooling.
The high pressure turbine powers the high pressure
compressor, and the low pressure turbine powers the low pressure
compressor.
Augmentor (Station 6)
Afterburning burns fuel between the turbine and the exhaust nozzle to reheat the airflow. This
reheat increases flow velocity and thus thrust, but because the temperature increase is not recovered as in
the turbine, afterburners are very inefficient. While an increase in thrust can be obtained from a larger
engine, the commensurate increase in weight and drag is not economical for short period requirements
(e.g. aircraft takeoff).
Page 17-6
Exhaust Nozzle (Station 7 to 9)

Air from the augmentor exits through the exhaust nozzle to provide the airplane with thrust.
Efficient exhaust nozzles also reduce aircraft drag by matching exhaust pressure and ambient pressure.
They can provide thrust vectoring to enhance aircraft stability, thrust reversing to improve aircraft
braking, and noise suppression. Large commerical jets usually have fixed nozzles that are optimized for
one cruise condition. Fighter aircraft often have variable nozzles to increase performance at all flight
conditions.
Variable Converging-Diverging Crossection
Accessories
Turbine engines require a variety of accessories to support engine and aircraft functions. Engine
control can be managed by hydro-mechanical, analog, digital, or a combination of the control types.
Modern engines use a full authority digital engine control (FADEC) to schedule engine operation
throughout its operating range. Engine or aircraft sensors (e.g. Tt2) provide operating conditions to the
engine controller. An anti-ice valve can supply bleed air to the engine face struts to prevent ice build-up.
A gearbox also extracts power from the high pressure compressor shaft to run electrical generators and
aircraft hydraulic systems.
Typically, a propulsion system’s operation is segregated into the five sub-categories or disciplines.
1. Overall: Integrated System Utility (Does it meet the users’ needs?). Topics include adequate
engine bay ventilation, anti-ice, gun or gas ingestion, and inlet compatibility.
2. Performance: The ability to produce thrust at a prescribed level with a specified fuel flow. Usually
prescribed over the life of the engine and is modeled with a propulsion system simulation. If an
inlet rake is used for testing, we can calculate inlet recovery, which is an integral part of
engine/aircraft performance.
3. Operability: The ability to resist or recover from an engine instability. These instabilities primarily
refer to compressor stall or surge, which are aggravated by inlet temperature and pressure
distortions. However, operability can include several other aspects, such as flameout, overspeed,
overtemp, engine starting, and afterburner lighting and stability.
4. Response: The ability to change thrust conditions within a prescribed time in response to a
commanded change.
Page 17-7
5. Life/Durability: The ability to withstand extended operating conditions (pressure, temperature, and
rpm) over a prescribed lifetime (usually described in terms of engine operating hours or Total
Accumulated Cycles) at a specified level of performance and operability.
A number of Aerospace Recommended Practices (ARP) exist to aid in standardization of gas

turbine design, testing, and analysis. Aerospace Information Reports (AIR) also provide similar guidance.
This handbook scope does not include the theory and concepts of these practices, however, some of the
practices most relevant to propulsion system analysis are presented in the Additional Propulsion
Resources section.
Page 17-8
17.2.1 Standard Day Corrections
Due to varying atmospheric conditions, engine tests are rarely conducted at the same flight
conditions. Therefore, to compare tests results, data must be standardized to a common flight condition.
By applying standard day corrections, the effects of changes in temperature and pressure can be removed
from test results.
Quantity Normal Corrected
Air mass flow rate

Fuel flow rate

2 2
Rotational speed

Thrust

0

θi=total temperature ratio ( ) and δi=total pressure ratio (
)

[Values can also be found in the standard atmosphere table, Section 3-14. Reference is sea-level, standard
day. These values are also corrected for Mach number in Figure x-11.]
17.2.2 Pressure and Temperature Relationships with Flight Parameters
Two of the main inputs to a propulsion system are engine face pressure and temperature (Pt2 and
Tt2 respectively), yet the flight envelope is defined in altitude, airspeed, and Mach number. Consequently,
it is helpful to be able to translate from one to the other. Unfortunately, because many engine inlets are
variable, and therefore introduce varying pressure and temperature losses, the handbook assumes Pt2=Pt0
and Tt2= Tt0. The following chart is useful when describing the engine operating conditions relative to
flight conditions.
Page 17-9
Page 17-10
17.2.3 Reynolds Number Index
Assuming the characteristic length of an engine is constant in differing operating environments,

another way of describing the pressure and temperature relationship is with the Reynolds number index.
Similar to standard day corrections, the Reynolds Number Index provides a method of comparing engine
operation across varying inlet-pressure loses, inlet temperatures, flight speeds, and altitudes. The
Reynolds Number Index is:

where
718.2 / (# "#
,
,
"# $ 199.5 2116 518.7
Here, Pt2 is in psf, and Tt2 is in degrees Rankin.
Pt2 and Tt2 are assumed to be equal to aircraft total pressure and temperature. The actual in-flight
Reynolds Number Index depends on inlet recovery losses, since these are the conditions in which the
engine is operating.
100 KCAS 200 KCAS 300 KCAS 400 KCAS
50,000
Reynolds Number Index 500 KCAS
0.20
45,000
600 KCAS
40,000 0.30
35,000 0.40
700 KCAS
30,000 0.50 800 KCAS
0.60
Altitude (ft)
25,000
0.70
0.80
20,000 0.90
1.00
15,000
1.10
1.20
10,000
5,000
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5
Mach Number
Reynolds Number Index versus Altitude and Mach Number
Page 17-11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 20 13
17.2.4 Thrust Calculations
Various formulae exist to calculate gross engine thrust (Fg). However, modern engines are too
complex for standard textbook formulas to accurately predict thrust; this is normally left to complex
computer algorithms. The current standard for new models is the Numerical Propulsion System
Simulation (NPSS). Despite this, a control volume approach relying on conservation of momentum will
provide gross engine thrust if the required parameters are known.
(ri29 + mfuel)v9 - ~ O V O
Thrust = + (P9 - P0)A9
9c
Where subscript 9 represents the nozzle exit and subscript 0 represents the freestream conditions.
m, V, and, P represent mass flow rate, velocity, and static pressure respectively.
Variations and simplifications of this formula exist:
Turbojet and Low Bypass Turbofan mo(v9 -

Thrust =
(Mixed Streams) 9c
High Bypass Turbofan mf an mcme
Thrust = -(vf - Vo) +- (Vg - Vo)
(Separate Streams) 9c 9c
Atmospheric temperature, Mach, and altitude also sigmficantly affect engine thrust and efficiency.
r Takeoff Thrust Partial Throttle Performance
hfaximum climb rating

Maximum cruise ra~ing
I n . . . . . . . . . . .
40M) 60a, 8Wl lO.@XJ l2.ooD 14.000 16MXI

Uninstalled Thrust, F (lb,)
Page 17-12
Compressor maps allow engine operation evaluation, showing corrected engine airflow (fan or
core) versus pressure ratio. It is critical to know where an engine is operating within the compressor map
in order to avoid stalls and flameouts. The following sections review compressor operation during several
maneuvers and geometry changes.
17.3.1 Compressor operation during accelerations

Surge Prevention logic:
• Pressure ratio limits
• fuel to air ratio limits
Surge Region (stall line lowered by: inlet distortion, • Engine Acceleration Rate
pressure, temperature, or engine deterioration)
Pressure
Ratio Transient Operating
Line
Surge margin
remaining Mil/Max
Constant
Corrected
RPM, N/√θ Steady-State Op-Line
•Raised by power extraction
Idle • Lowered by airbleed
Airflow (pps) * √θ/+
Above is a typical engine acceleration compressor map. As the engine accelerates from idle to
maximum power, the engine follows the transient operating line scheduled by the engine controller. This
usually includes surge prevention logic (e.g. pressure ratio limits as a function of airflow). Engine surge
susceptibility is generally determined by either component bench tests or from altitude development tests
of the full scale engine. Once the surge region is determined for the baseline engine, it can be further
reduced by inlet distortion, power extraction, manufacturing tolerances, deterioration, or thermal
transients, which affect compressor tip clearances. These affects are considered when determining the
transient acceleration schedule needed to provide sufficient surge margin in the most demanding
situations.
Page 17-13
17.3.2 Compressor operation during decelerations
Steady-State
Operating Line
Mil/Max
Pressure
Ratio
Blowout prevention:
Idle
Deceleration
• Fuel to air ratio minimum
Transient • Engine Deceleration Rate
Operating
Line
Blowout Region
Above is a typical engine deceleration compressor map. As the engine decelerates to idle power,
the engine follows the transient operating line. To protect from combustor blowout during the
deceleration, transient operation schedules usually include blowout prevention logic that schedules a
minimum fuel to air ratio within the combustor as a function of engine airflow. This blowout region is
usually determined by combustor bench tests or from altitude development tests of the full scale engine.
Once the blowout region is determined, the engine schedules are set to include margin to account for
engine-to-engine variability.
17.3.3 Bleed air impacts during engine starts
Open
Start
Bleed
Position Closed
N/√θ Idle Speed

Stall “Hot Start” Region Start bleed Idle
Pressure
Closed
Ratio
Constant
Corrected
Off Start bleed RPM
open
Additional
Stall Margin
Blowout Region

Above is a typical engine start compressor map. Turbine engines can be challenging to accelerate
from off to idle power due to little stall margin at low airflow conditions. As a means to increase engine
surge margin by reducing compressor back pressure and allowing quicker accelerations, engine bleed air
can be removed from the engine core via a bleed valve. As the engine approaches idle power, the bleed air
valve closes and the engine accelerates the remaining way to idle.
Page 17-14
17.3.4 Variable Stator vane cambering effects
β1 α1
W1
α1
C Cambered throat area C1
Ca1
1
Vane Axial Cw1
Stator • • • rω
Vane Cambered
Minimum Axial throat area

W2’ β2
α2’
α2 i2’ β2’ α2’
W2 α2
i2 W2’
C2’ W2
C2
Rotor
Cambering stator vanes
• Reduces airflow passage area
• Reduces airflow and increases surge margin
• Reduces relative velocities (W2 vs. W2’ )
• Decreases incidence to rotor blades (i2 vs. i2’ )
`
Above are typical engine compressor stator and rotor velocity diagrams. Stator vanes control
engine surge margin and thrust; as they are cambered closed, the throat area between the vanes is reduced,
thereby decreasing airflow. Cambering the vanes also decreases the incidence angle of the rotor blade.
These lower airflows and reduced incidence angles increase engine surge margin.
Stators
Cambered
Pressure
Ratio Stators Mil/Max
Axial
Additional
Stall Margin
√θ
N√
Idle
Above is a compressor map illustrating how variable geometry and stator vane cambering can be
used to affect engine operation and performance. The solid lines show how the compressor would operate
if the stator vanes remained fixed in the axial position. The dashed lines show how the compressor would
operate if the stator vanes remained fixed in the cambered closed position. When the stator vanes are
cambered closed, additional surge margin is provided, and when the stator vanes are axial, additional
airflow capability (or thrust) is provided. As a result, engines typically camber closed stators at low
airflow to increase surge margin and acceleration capability, then camber the vanes axial open to
maximize performance at higher engine rpms.
Page 17-15
17.3.5 Compressor impacts due to nozzle area for turbojet engines
• Nozzle closed shows insufficient stall margin

• Opening nozzle moves op-line away from surge
Nozzle
Stall line closed
Pressure
Ratio Insufficient stall Nozzle
margin w/ open
smaller nozzle
area
N√ θ
Above is a compressor map illustrating impacts to stability margin from opening and closing the
engine exhaust nozzle for a single-spool engine (e.g. J85 engine in T-38 aircraft). In this example, it is
shown that stall margin is insufficient at lower airflows with the smaller nozzle area. Opening the nozzle
for this single spool configuration moves the engine away from surge. As a result, a typical engine might
run nozzle open at idle power to reduce thrust and keep the nozzle open until engine stability was no
longer a concern.
17.3.6 Compressor impacts due to nozzle area for turbofan engines

(mixed flow, proximate splitter)
• Closing nozzle moves fan away from surge.
• Opposite impact compared to single-spool engine
• High pressure compressor operating line not impacted by nozzle
position - if low pressure turbine is choked
• Variable nozzle allows ability to set airflow and thrust independently
Nozzle Stall Line

open
Stall Line Compressor
Fan Pressure Nozzle closed
Pressure Ratio
Ratio Nozzle open
Nozzle
closed
Airflow (pps) * √θ/

Airflow (pps) * √θ/
Above is a compressor map illustrating stability margin impacts from opening and closing the
engine exhaust nozzle for a turbofan engine (e.g. F100 engine in F-16 aircraft). Closing the nozzle moves
the fan away from surge, which is opposite from the turbojet application. The high pressure compressor
(HPC) is not impacted by the nozzle opening or closing (assuming the low pressure turbine [LPT] is
choked). The fan and compressor’s independent reactions to nozzle movement allow the ability to set
airflow and thrust independently. This is an important feature for flutter vibration or stability issues at
particular rpm ranges.
Page 17-16
17.3.7 Combustion Stability
Match Point Fuel Flow

Variations Variations • Engine operates closer to blowout
region at high altitude and low Mach
• Variations in fuel flow or match point
Air Mass Blowout can result in blowout
Region
Flow Stable • Combustion instabilities cause rough
(V/PT) Region running and setup vibrations and
reduce part life
• Rumble - low freq 20-200Hz
Lean limit Rich limit (too rich in ULHC)
• Screech - high freq ~ 3000Hz
(too lean & H/W issue in LRHC
Fuel to Air Ratio
Above is a combustion stability plot showing engine airflow versus fuel-to-air-ratio. These plots
are generally developed during component bench testing and are then used by engine designers to
schedule combustor or augmentor fuel flow. The plot shows regions of stable and unstable combustion.
Also, the engine operates closer to a blowout region at low air mass flow (high altitude and low Mach
number [ULHC]). Combustion instabilities can have various effects on engine operation, including
blowout, running rough, and vibrations that can reduce part life.
Page 17-17
17.4.1 Engine Stations

(Reference SAE ARP-755 Aircraft Propulsion System Performance Station Designation and
Nomenclature for additional details)
Engine station designations provide a consistent definition of the process the gas undergoes, regardless of
the type of engine cycle
The six main processes specifically isolated are:
a. kinetic compression (inlet/diffuser)
b. mechanical compression/work addition/fluidic compression (compressor/propeller)
c. heat addition or exchange (combustor/augmentor/heat exchanger)
d. mechanical expansion/work extraction (turbine)
e. kinetic expansion (nozzle)
f. mixing (mixer/ejector/eductor).
Dual Spool Turbofan With Afterburning
0 – Free stream air conditions

1 – First station of interest to the engine manufacturer. Inlet or aerodynamic interface plane (AIP).
2 – First compressor or fan front face
3 – Last compressor discharge or combustor entrance
4 – Combustor discharge or first turbine entrance
5 – Last turbine discharge
6 – Mixer or afterburner entrance
7 – Exhaust nozzle entrance
8 – Exhaust nozzle throat
9 – Exhaust nozzle discharge
Notes:
1. Incremental (or sub) stations may be indicated with suffix nomenclature (e.g. 2.5 to indicate fan
discharge on a dual spool compression system).
2. There are a multitude of variations on this theme. SAE ARP-755 includes descriptions for most
turbine engine configurations.
Page 17-18
17.4.2 Key Propulsion Terminology
Aerodynamic Interface Plane - A defined plane of intersection between the inlet and the engine.
Afterburner - Any type of auxiliary (post turbomachine) combustion to enhance propulsion system thrust.
Also known as the augmentor or reheat.
Compressor Loading -The general ratio of work across the compressor stages. Forward compressor
loading indicates the forward stages are more loaded (higher pressure ratio) than the aft stages.
Compressor Map - A compressor’s total pressure ratio defined by corrected airflow and corrected
rotation speed.
Corrected - An adjustment for standard day temperature and/or pressure (at an engine station) to an
engine parameter (like rotational speed, air flow or fuel flow). Also see referred.

Delta - Pressure ratio,
, where i is the reference station.
,
Flame-out - Can be synonymous with blow-out; however, it is more typically used in reference to the
main combustor flame extinguishing.
Gross Thrust - The momentum change at the nozzle exit or aft side of the propeller. The first term in the
thrust equation.
Horsepower Extraction - Any form of removal of power (bleed or mechanical) from a turbomachine
other than for the generation of thrust.
Inlet Compatibility - A type of test used to determine if the combined effects of inlet distortion and
engine stability are compatible (e.g.; no stalls occur).
Inlet Distortion - The measurement of variation in pressure, temperature, or vector at the aerodynamic
interface plane.
Inlet Recovery - The average total pressure at the Aerodynamic Interface Plane divided by the free stream
total pressure.
Instability - Can be used in many contexts. The two main contexts are in combustion stability and
compressor stability. The former refers to a flame’s (either combustor or augmentor) ability to stay lit and
the later to compression system flow disturbance.
Operability - The sub-discipline of propulsion related to a turbine engine’s characteristic operational
limits. This includes but is not limited to the regions of the flight envelope where stalls or flame-outs may
occur, where augmentation is limited, or where airstarts can be accomplished.
Recycle - A full no-light or blowout and relight sequence where the engine control continues to try to light
the combustor or augmentor. Most typically refers to the augmentor.
Referred - An adjustment for standard day temperature and/or pressure (at an engine station) to an engine
parameter (like rotational speed, air flow or fuel flow). See also corrected.
Reynolds Number Index - Ratio of actual Reynolds Number to standard atmosphere Reynolds Numbers
assuming a constant length scale.
Page 17-19
Rotating Stall - A cyclic disruption of airflow (surge) across one or more fan or core compressor blades.
May or may not be noticeable by the operator, but can produce cycle fatigue damage to the compressor
blades.
Rumble - A low frequency augmentor induced vibration.
Screech - A combustion induced acoustic vibration in the augmentor. Usually in the several hundred
Hertz frequency range
Stagnation - A series of stalls that have become non-recoverable (no response to engine control inputs—
requires the disruption of fuel flow to clear). The series of stalls has disrupted the airflow through the
compressor so severely that ram flow will not recover the engine. Characterized by no engine core
response and increasing exhaust gas temperature.
Stall - A disruption of airflow across one or more fan or core compressor blades. Also known as surge.
Stage - A blade (or rotor) and stator pair.
Station - Defined locations within a propulsion system. See Section 20.2.1
Stator - The non-rotating blades of a stage within a turbomachine compressor or turbine.
Swirl - Non-axial vector of inlet airflow.
Temperature Profile - Usually used in reference to the span wise temperature distribution across the
turbine inlet guide vanes.

Theta -Temperature ratio, , where i is the reference station
,
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption - The amount of fuel required to produce a unit of thrust,
Wf
TFSC =
Fn
Total Accumulated Cycles - A conglomerate measurement (based on an empirical relationship) of the
number of cycles an engine has experienced. It is used as a measure of engine health or life.
Upper Left Hand Corner - An area of the flight envelope chart (Mach Number on the x-axis and altitude
on the y-axis) characterized by areas of low speed and high altitude.
Windmill - The free rotation of the rotational components of the engine driven solely by ram airflow.
Page 17-20
17.4.3 Aircraft and Associated Engines
Military Aircraft
Designation Name Engine
A-10 Thunderbolt II TF34-GE-100/-100A
AC-130 Gunship T56-A-15
AH-1 Cobra T400-CP-400, T53-L-703
AH-64 Apache T700-GE-701C
AV-8 Harrier F402-RR-401/402, F402-RR-406A/408
B-1 Lancer F101-GE-102
B-2 Spirit F118-GE-100
B-52 Stratofortress J57-PW-43WB, TF33-PW-3/103
C-12 Huron T74
C-130 Hercules T56-A-15/7/7B/9D, RR-AE2100D3
C-135 Stratolifter J57-PW-59W, TF33-PW-5
C-141 Starlifter TF33-PW-7/7A
C-17 Globemaster III F117-PW-100
C-20 Gulfstream III F113-RR-100, F126-RR-100
C-23 Sherpa T101-CP-100
C-37 Gulfstream V RR-BR710A1
C-5 Galaxy TF39-GE-1A/1C, F138-GE-100
CH-3 Jolly Green Giant T58-GE-1/3/100
CH-47 Chinook T55-L-5/7/11/712/714
CH-53 Sea Stallion T64-GE-412
CV-22 Osprey T406-AD-400
E-3 Sentry TF33-PW-100A
E-8 Joint Stars TF33-PW-102C
F-14 Tomcat TF30-PW-412A, F110-GE-400
F-15 Eagle F100-PW-100/220/220E/229/229A
F-16 Fighting Falcon F100-PW-200/220/220E/229/229A, F110-GE-100/129/132
F-18 Hornet F404-GE-400, F414-GE-400
F-22 Raptor F119-PW-100
F-35 Lightning II F135-PW-100, F136-GE-100
F-4 Phantom II J79-GE-2/8/10/15/17, F103-GE-100
F-5 Tiger/Freedom Fighter J85-GE-13/21, F404-GE-400
KC-10 Extender F103-GE-101
KC-135 Stratotanker J57-PW-43WB/-59W, TF33-PW-102, F108-CF-100
MQ-9 Reaper Honeywell TPE331-10
MQM-107 Streaker J402-CA-700/702
MQM-74 Chukar J400-WR-400/401
RQ-3 DarkStar F129-WR-100
RQ-4 Global Hawk F137-AD-100
SR-71 Blackbird J58-PW-4
T-1 Jayhawk PW-JT15D
T-2 Buckeye J85-GE-4
T-33 Shooting Star J33-A-5
T-37 Tweet J69-T-25A
T-38 Talon J85-GE-5/H/J/L/R/S
T-6 Texan II PW-PT6A-68
U-2 Dragon Lady F118-GE-101
X-31 F404-GE-400
X-47 Pegasus JT15D-5C
Civilian Aircraft
Boeing 737 PW-JT8D, CFM-56
Boeing 747 PW-JT9D, GE-CF6, RR-RB211, GEnx
Boeing 757 RR-RB211, PW-2000
Boeing 767 PW-JT9D, PW-4000, GE-CF6, RR-RB211, RR-800
Boeing 777 GE-90, PW-4000
Boeing 787 GEnx, RR-1000
Airbus A300 GE-CF6, PW-JT9D, PW-4000
Airbus A310 GE-CF6, PW-JT9D, PW-4000
Airbus A320 CFM-56, PW-6000, IAE-V2500
Airbus A330 GE-CF6, PW-4000, RR-700
Airbus A340 CFM-56, RR-500
Airbus A380 RR-900, GP-7000
Page 17-21
17.4.4 Additional Propulsion Resources
Jack Mattingly’s Engine Design Site

http://www.aircraftenginedesign.com/
NASA EngineSim
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/ngnsim.html
AeroFiles
http://www.aerofiles.com/home.html
NASM Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum

http://www.nasm.si.edu/
National Museum of the US Air Force

http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/
Aerospace Recommended Practices
ARP1420 Gas Turbine Engine Inlet Flow Distortion Guidelines

AIR1419 Inlet Total-Pressure-Distortion Considerations for Gas-Turbine Engines
ARP4990 Turbine Flowmeter Fuel Flow Calculations
Additional standards for Emissions, Test Cell Correlation, Noise, Temperature

Measurement, and Health Management are also available through SAE International’s website:
http://standards.sae.org/power-propulsion/engines/gas-turbines/standards/
Page 17-22
Section 18 - Telemetry Control Room and Radio Communications

“SFTE Tech Council “Best Practice Guidelines”
In accordance with experienced FTE feedback from across industry, below are suggested best practices
for communications between flight and ground crews. This guideline uses the following terminology
• “Ground station” is a generic term for any station providing radio support, whether it is a
simple radio, fixed‐base TM control room, mobile TM station, or other.
• “R/O” is a generic term for the ground station radio operator. Different organizations may use
different job titles for the person commanding the ground station (i.e., TM Chief, Test Director,
Test Conductor). The radio call sign for this role is typically “TM” or “Control”
• “Flight crew” to refer to whichever test aircraft crew member (pilot‐in‐command, copilot, or
other) is designated to communicate with the test ground station.

Overall Guidance
Unless otherwise established during the preflight briefing, radio operations between the test aircraft
and ground station should use some standard phraseology established by the testing organization. The
following are presented as radio transmission terminology between designated participants. The same
phrases equally apply to communications within the telemetry (TM) room during a test. This
phraseology is not necessarily applied to any communication with air traffic control (ATC).

“Stand by” ‐ Instruction issued by any participant to direct others to stay on established flight
conditions and remain prepared for continuing, but to not execute the next action. Used when
everything is OK, but the caller requires more time for some reason (e.g. ATC conversations, data
analysis, airspace maneuvering).

“Cleared for ___” ‐ Transmitted by the R/O to authorize proceeding to the specified condition,
typically the next planned test point, but sometimes a out‐of‐sequence test point, airspeed, or flight
condition. The flight crew will typically “parrot back” the same phrase to acknowledge clearance.
When in doubt, the flight crew requests “Confirm clear for ___.” Routine operations generally do not
require clearance; these transmissions are typically used only when the flight crew requires clearance
for saefty of flight (SOF) or technical reasons – as established during the preflight briefing.

“On Condition” – Normally transmitted by test pilot to announce the aircraft is properly trimmed or
otherwise set up to beginf the test.

“Hold” – Instruction by R/O to maintain current flight condition to either extend data collection period
or emphasize critical parameter (e.g “Hold condition” or “Hold altitude”).

"3,2,1, HACK" – countdown to event.

Silent countdown “ Five, four, three ___ ___” ‐ an intentional silence at the end of a countdown to
allow other participants a chance to call for an abort. Most common with ordinance employment.

"Condition Complete" or “Test Complete” – Call from test conductor or pilot to announce a normal
completion.

Page 18-1

"Continue" – transmitted by R/O when there is a series of steps in the maneuver and flight crew is
cleared to continue to the next one.

"Recover" called by either participant at test point completion or non‐urgent cessation of a test point.
Instructs the flight crew to smoothly return to a normal flying condition.

“Copy” – Routine shorthand reply meaning “I understood your previous transmission.” This single
statement is generally preferred. This can be replaced by a non‐verbal radio double‐click (zipper) to
acknowledge simple statements. Some organizations may also aknowledge a transmission using
“Roger.” Flight testers do not use CB radio slang such as “10‐4”

“Stop Test” or “Knock it Off”‐ Instruction transmitted by flight crew or R/O to stop test underway using
normal means. There is no implied requirement to change flight conditions. Used when testing does
not present SOF concerns but continuing will not provide useful data. The R/O would typically make
this call if witnessing incorrect execution or experiencing critical data dropouts or other technical
difficulties. The R/O would also make this call on behalf of a participating engineer who does not have
radio access. The flight crew would make this call if testing is invalidated by ATC or weather
interference or in the case of an improperly executed procedure. The caller should state the reason for
stopping the test (e.g. reaching __ limit).

“ABORT, ABORT, ABORT” ‐ Emergency instruction transmitted by flight crew, chase aircraft, or R/O to
stop test immediately and recover to safe flight conditions as soon as possible. Used when continued
testing presents SOF concerns. The R/O may make this call if witnessing a dangerous situation or if
unable to confirm SOF because of critical data dropouts or other technical difficulties. The flight crew
would make this call to advise the R/O of actions they are taking. In certain cases pre‐arranged at the
prebriefing, a ground station participant other than the R/O may be authorized and physically
positioned to make radio abort calls. The caller should state the reason for stopping the test (e.g.
reaching __ limit).

“BAIL OUT, BAIL OUT, BAIL OUT” ‐ Emergency instruction to or between the flight crew to leave the
aircraft. Nominally used when out‐of‐control aircraft descends through a pre‐set minimum or other
briefed altitude. In circumstance leading up to any potential bail out call, the R/O will transmit “__
altitude” callouts every thousand feet during attempted recovery of an out‐of‐control aircraft.

“Terminate” is the instruction to destroy or otherwise incapacitate a flight vehicle. Applies to vehicles
with a flight termination system designed to quickly end its flight and limit possible damage to the
surroundings.

Page 18-2

Call sign designation. Depending on prior agreements, ATC may communicate to an aircraft by
referencing its registration (a.k.a. tail) number or by an accepted call sign such as “Zoom 86.” Call signs
potentially have the advantage of being easier to say & understand and bringing familiarity between
operators. The R/O may use this same call sign if so arranged prior to the flight, but will otherwise
refer to the test aircraft as “Test” and a chase aircraft as “Chase.” The call sign for the ground station is
“Ground” and is “[Company] Weather” for the mobile ground weather station. The call sign for any
other mobile radio‐equipped ground crew is “[Company] Mobile” unless otherwise specified during
the pre‐flight briefing. The dispatcher’s radio station, is “[Company] Dispatch.” Security personnel
employed who control the gate at the taxiway and are called “[Company] Security.”

Call sign use. When initiating radio communications at the beginning of a flight or after a period of
silence, the caller will first state the receiver’s call sign then his own (e.g. R/O transmits “Test –
Ground”). This is an abbreviated version of the formal “Calling Zoom 86, this is Ground, Over” which is
not useful unless radio transmission quality is poor. After two‐way communication has been initiated,
each transmission need only to begin with the recipient’s call sign.

Thumbs Up. A convenient non‐verbal communication between control room participants is the
“thumbs‐up” hand signal. During active testing, this signal is preferred for routinely acknowledging a
message or for indicating readiness. Not only does this signal eliminate unnecessary discussion, but
allows all ground station participants to signal simultaneously and continuously if needed.

Page 18-3
NOTES
Page 18-4
S
SFTE Refere
n 19 - The Electromagn
Section E netic Spectrrum
1
19.1 Electro
omagnetic Waves
W
AAll energy in the universe radiates

r in waaves. Figure 1 depicts an eelectromagneetic wave, chaaracterized byy an
eelectric field vector
v (E) andd a magnetic field
f vector (H
H) oscillatingg orthogonal tto each other.. The electrom magnetic
wwave propagaation direction n is determineed by the righ
ht-hand rule annd crossing thhe electric fieeld into the m
magnetic
ffield as illustrrated. The eleectromagneticc wavelength (λ) is the disttance betweenn two consecutive electric field
ppeaks. The ellectromagnetiic wave frequ uency (f or ν) is inversely pproportional tto its wavelenngth. The prooduct of
aany electromaagnetic radiatiion’s frequen ncy and wavellength equals the speed of light (C=λν).
Figure
e 1 - The Ele
ectromagne
etic Spectru
um
1
19.2 The Ele
ectromagne
etic Spectru
um
F
Figure 2 illusttrates several concepts relaated to the eleectromagneticc spectrum
• Size reference for various waveelengths.

• Nummerical relationn between waavelength (meeters betweenn peaks), wavee number (peaks per cm), energy
(electron volts), an
nd frequency (Hz).
• Separate frequenccy bands identtified within the
t overall sppectrum.
• Commmon sources & uses within n frequency bands.
b
Many aircraft
ft and spacecraft systems operate within n limited regioons of the elecctromagnetic spectrum. C Common
examples include radar, ellectro-optical sensors, radios, data linkss, electronic w
warfare, and nnavigation sysstems.
Page
P 19-1
Figure 2 - The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Page 19-2
19.3 Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation
One of the most heavily used regions of the electromagnetic spectrum is the radio frequency or RF spectrum,
from ~3 kilohertz to ~ 300 gigahertz. The RF Spectrum encompasses an array of telecommunications devices
including radios, television, satellite communications, data links, radio-navigation aids, and radar. Table 1 shows
how the RF Spectrum is subdivided into frequency bands.
Band Designation Label Frequency Spread
Extremely Low Frequency ELF 3 - 30 Hz

Super Low Frequency SLF 30 - 300 Hz
Ultra Low (Voice) Frequency ULF or VF 300 Hz - 3 KHz
Very Low Frequency VLF 3 - 30 KHz

Low Frequency LF 30 - 300 KHz
Medium Frequency MF 300 KHz - 3 MHz

High Frequency HF 3 - 30 MHz
Very High Frequency VHF 30 - 300 MHz
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super High Frequency SHF 3 - 30 GHz
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 - 300 GHz
Table 1 - Radio Frequency Band Designations
Depending on the type of RF system, additional subdivisions of the bands also exist. Table 2 applies to radar
systems.
IEEE US Origin Frequency Wavelength NATO, US ECM

(Old RADAR Range (New RADAR
Designation) Designation)
W W follows V in alphabet 75-111 GHz 400 mm-270 mm M (60-100 GHz)
V Very Short 40-75 GHz 700 mm – 400 mm L (40-60 GHz)
KA Kurtz (above) 26-40 GHz 1.1 cm -.7 cm K (20-40 GHz)
K Kurtz 18-26 GHz 1.6 cm – 1.1 cm

J (10-20 GHz)
KU Kurtz (under) 12.4-18 GHz 2.5 cm – 1.6 cm
X WWII fire control - as an 8-12.4 GHz 3.7 cm -2.5 cm I (8-10 GHz)

“X” for crosshairs
C Compromise between S 4-8 GHz 7.5 cm -3.7 cm H (6-8 GHz)
and X G (4-6 GHz)
S Short Wave 2-4 GHz 15 cm – 7.5 cm F (3-4 GHz)

E (2-3 GHz)
L Long Wave 1-2 GHz 30 cm – 15 cm D (1-2 GHz)
UHF .3-1 GHz <1 m – 30 cm C (.5-1 GHz)
Table 2 - Radar Frequency Band Designations
Page 19-3
Electromagnetic wave propagation does not stop at national boundaries. Most governments regulate radio
frequency band use via frequency or spectrum allocation. For technical and economic reasons, governments try to
harmonize and standardize RF band allocation. A number of forums and standards bodies address frequency
allocation. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations agency for information and
communication technologies. The ITU allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits and develops technical
standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect. There are numerous users and spectrum
allocation is complicated to implement and regulate. Figure 3 illustrates the United States frequency allocations.
[Editor’s Note: Figure 3 is highly detailed and not legible in either 8.5 x 11” or 11 x 17” format. Posters may be
purchased via http://bookstore.gpo.gov/products/sku/003-000-00694-8. A high resolution online version is
available at http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/spectrum_wall_chart_aug2011.pdf ]
Page 19-4
Figure 3 - U.S. Radio Frequency Allocations (2011)
Page 19-5
S
SFTE Refere
1
19.4 Opticall Frequency agnetic Radiation
y Electroma
OOptical frequeency electrom

magnetic radiaation includess ultraviolet (U
UV), visible, and infrared (IR) light rannging
ffrom about 0.001 microns (µ
µm) out to about 1000 µm wavelength. These comprrise the opticaal spectrum ass shown
in Figure 4.
ÅOptical Spectrum
mÆ
Figure 4 - The Optical Spe

ectrum and
d the Visible
e Spectrum
JJust as the RF
F spectrum can n be subdividded into variouus special bannds, Table 3 sshows bands in the opticall
sspectrum. Th he visible, neaar infrared (NIIR), mid wavve IR (MWIR)), and long w wave IR (LWIR R) bands are most
ccommonly useed for airborn ne electro-opttical sensor sy
ystems. All bbands can be uuseful, depending on the sppecific
mmission and operational
o reqquirements. [EEditor’s Notee: Some bandd nomenclaturre and boundaaries depend oon author
aand text. SFTEE has not estaablished standdards on this subject]
TThe most fam miliar examplee of electromaagnetic radiatiion is the lighht spectrum hu
humans see. D
Different coloors of
vvisible light have
h different wavelengths,, ranging from
m violet at thee shorter wavvelengths (0.4 µm) to red aat the
longer waveleengths (0.7 µm m). Aerospacce vehicles emmploy many vvisible light seensor systems. Visible lighht sensors
pprovide useful and highly recognizable
r images,
i ogically enouugh, do not woork well in pooor visibility or at
but lo
nnight without some sort of artificial illum
mination or im
mage intensiffication.
Page
P 19-6
S
SFTE Refere
able 3 - Optiical Spectru

Ta um Bands
IInfrared radiattion refers to the optical sp

pectrum betwween ~0.7 µm and ~1000 µm. Infrared rradiation is poopularly
kknown as "heaat or thermal radiation", bu ut light and ellectromagnetiic waves of anny frequencyy will heat surrfaces that
aabsorb them. Infrared
I lightt from the sunn accounts forr ~49% of earrth heating, thhe rest is by vvisible light thhat is
aabsorbed thenn re-radiated ata longer waveelengths. Objjects at room temperature eemit radiationn mostly conccentrated
in the 8 to 25 µm region.
IInfrared sensoors are useful in numerous civil and military remote ssensing appliications. At wwavelengths bbeyond
aabout 14 micrrons, infrared radiation is not
n useful for most airbornne remote senssing applicatiions due to thhe earth’s
aatmosphere atttenuation. Thhis is especiallly true in hott and humid aatmospheric conditions witth extreme inffrared
rradiation atten
nuation.
1
19.5 Atmosp
pheric Tran
nsmission Windows
W
T or source of naatural energy across the eleectromagnetiic spectrum annd its radiatioon
The sun is thee earth’s majo
bbombards the atmosphere constantly.
c The
T earth's atm mosphere prottects its life fr
from excessive exposure too a range
oof higher enerrgy waves succh as Gammaa rays, x-rays, and some ulttraviolet waves. These are "ionizing" raadiation
bbecause they have
h sufficien
ntly high enerrgy to knock electrons
e out of atoms, alteer atoms and molecules, annd
ddamage organ nic cells. Figu
ure 5 shows attmospheric op pacity (blockiing) across a wide wavelenngth spectrum m.
Page
P 19-7
S
SFTE Refere
Figure 5 - Atmosphe
eric Opacity
y vs. Wavele
ength
TThe opposite of opacity is transmission.

t The earth’s atmosphere
a abbsorbs, refleccts, refracts, oor allows
eelectromagnettic radiation transmission.
t Suspended particles
p suchh as dust and rraindrops cann reflect and reefract
gure 6 shows electromagneetic radiation transmission through the aatmosphere accross the visibble and
rradiation. Fig
infrared waveelength spectru um (subset off the Figure 5 spectrum). S Some radiatioon bands, inclluding visiblee light
aand some infrrared pass throough the earth
h’s atmospherre with little tto no attenuattion. Such “aatmospheric w windows”
oor “transmissiion windows”” allow infrareed remote sen nsing from staandoff distancces. The botttom scale of Figure 6
sshows which molecules
m aree primary abssorbers at variious infrared radiation wavvelengths. Thhe most imporrtant
aabsorbers are water vapor (H( 2O), carbonn dioxide (COO2), and ozonee (O3). Flighht testers shouuld understannd
wwavelengths, absorption, reefraction and atmospheric windows wh en designing tests to evaluuate sensors.
Fig ansmission Windows

gure 6 - Infrrared Atmospheric Tra
Page
P 19-8
19.1 Thermal Imaging Systems by J.M. Lloyd, C 1975, Plenum Press, New York & London, 451 pages.
19.2 Infrared Systems Engineering by Richard D. Hudson Jr., C 1969, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 642 Pages.
19.3 Electro-Optical Systems Analysis 3rd edition, C 1985, Electro-Optical Research Company, Los Angeles,
356 pages.
19.4 Light, The Mystery of the Universe by Khalil Seyrafi C 1986 by Electro-Optical Research Company, Los
Angeles, 240 Pages.
19.5 Test and Evaluation of Infrared Imaging Systems 2nd edition by Gerald Holst, C 1998, JCD Publishing,
Winter Park, Fl., 422 pages.
19.6 Electro-Optical Imaging Systems Performance by Gerald Holst, C 1995, JCD Publishing, Winter Park,
Fl., 468 pages.
19.7 Infrared Technology and Fundamentals by Spiro & Schlessinger, C 1989, Marcel Dekker Inc.
19.8 The Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Handbook, C 1993, The Infrared Information and Analysis
Center and the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE), 8 Volumes.
10.9 Electro-Optical Surveillance by Gene Adcock, C 1999, CCS Security Publishing Ltd.

Page 19-9
NOTES
Page 19-10
Quick Index
Section Title
2 Mathematics
4 Pitot Statics
5 Aerodynamics
7 Mass Properties
11 Propellers
13 Acoustics
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
16 Rotary Wing
18 Radio Communications

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SFTE Reference Handbook

3 Earth and Atmosphere

6 Axis Systems and Transformations

9 Material Strength (Loads)

12 Fixed-Wing Performance Standardization

14 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

17 Gas Turbine Propulsion

19 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Section 1 General Information

1.2 Greek Alphabet

1.1 Unit Conversions

(Common FTE conversions in boldface)

#solid angle measurement

Angular rev/min2 0.001745 rad/sec2

Angular cycles/sec 6.2814 rads/sec

Area acres 43,560 ft2

Density * grams/cm3 0.03613 pounds/in3

Electrical amperes 0.1 abamperes

Electrical gausses 6.452 lines/in2

Energy / Btu 1.055x1010 ergs

Force dynes 3.597x10-5 ounces

Forc eounce 20 pennyweights

Fuel gal 5.8 lbs (U.S. AV gas)

Note: Fuel densities are temperature dependent

Illumination candles 1 lumens/steradian

Length angstroms 10-10 meters

Linear feet/sec2 1.09728 kilometers/hr/sec

Mass* carats 200 milligrams

Moments gram-cm2 0.737x10-7 slug-ft2

Power btu/min 0.01758 kilowatts

Pressure atmospheres 14.696 pounds/in2

Pressure mm of Hg 133.32 Newtons/m2

Temperature Kelvin = oC+273.15o

Time days (solar) 24 hours

Torque * foot-pounds 1.3558 Newton-meters

Velocity inches/sec 0.0254 meters/sec

Viscosity centistokes 10-6 m2/sec

Volume acre-feet 43,560 ft3

Volume m3 1000 liters

1.2 Greek Alphabet

1.3 Greek Symbols Used for Aircraft

α angle of attack (degrees or radians)

1.4 Common Subscripts

1.5 Common Abbreviations

c speed of light in a vacuum

INS inertial navigation system

P pressure (N/m2 ,pounds per square inch)

VFR visual flight rules

1.6 Sign Conventions (reference 1.8)

Wind Axes Sign Convention

Body Axes Sign Convention

Summary of Generally Accepted Body Axes Sign Convention

Parameter Name Symbol Positive Direction

Longitudinal axis x from ref cg towards nose

Lateral axis y from reference cg towards right wing tip

Vertical axis z from reference cg towards vehicle bottom

Lateral velocity v along +y axis

Vertical velocity w along +z axis

Long. acceleration ax along + x axis