American Academy of Political and Social Science

Sport and the Social Sciences

Author(s): George H. Sage
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 445,
Contemporary Issues in Sport (Sep., 1979), pp. 1-14
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of
Political and Social Science
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1042950
Accessed: 07-06-2018 05:00 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1042950?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms

Sage Publications, Inc., American Academy of Political and Social Science are
collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 ANNALS, AAPSS, 445, Sept. 1979

Sport and the Social Sciences

By GEORGE H. SAGE

ABSTRACT: Sport is one of the most ubiquitous activities

of modern contemporary society. The pervasiveness of sport
can be seen by the enormous amount of primary and second-
ary involvement in it by people of all ages and social strata.
Sport penetrates into and plays a significant role in all of the
social institutions. The functions of play, games, and sport is
a major theme running through much of the work of social
scientists. Although there is no definitive list, there are seven
major categories of functions of play, games, and sport: in-
stinct, developmental-cognitive, mastery, social integration,
socialization, social control, and personal-expressive. There
is a substantial body of literature in the social sciences dis-
cussing the importance of each of these functions.

George H. Sage is Professor of Physical Education at the University of Northern

Colorado. He earned B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Northern
Colorado and his doctorate from UCLA. His area of research interest is the study of
sport occupations and socialization into and via sports. He is editor of Sport and
American Society and coauthor of Sociology of American Sport.
1

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
2 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ALTHOUGH the twentieth cen- either as a participant or in more

tury has been called "The indirect ways, is almost considered
Century of" many different things,a public duty. Primary involve-
perhaps no other phenomenon de- ment-meaning actual participation
serves this distinction more than -in sport begins for many chil-
dren while they are still in elemen-
sport; indeed, the twentieth century
can legitimately be called "The Cen-
tary school. Youth sports programs
tury of Sport," since it has become
initiate boys and girls into the world
one of the most ubiquitous activities
of organized sport at seven or eight
years of age, and if they show a
of contemporary society. As sociolo-
gists Eldon Snyder and Elmer little interest and aptitude for sports
Spreitzer note: "Sports permeate all
they will likely pass through several
levels of social reality from the so-
sports programs on their way to
cietal down to the social psychologi-adulthood. There are an estimated
cal levels. The salience of sport 20 million boys and girls now par-
can be documented in terms of news ticipating in youth sports programs.2
coverage, financial expenditure, The programs mentioned above
number of participants and spec- are sponsored by community, club,
tators, hours consumed, and time or service groups, but American
samplings of conversation."1 Given schools also provide abundant op-
the pervasiveness of this human ac- portunities for sports involvement.
tivity, it is obvious that it deserves Most states have legislation requir-
serious, systematic study. This issue ing the teaching of physical educa-
of The Annals illustrates the grow- tion through high school, and sports
ing acknowledgement of the legiti- activities form the basic curriculum
mate scholarly study of sport by of these programs. In addition to the
political and social scientists. Two required physical education classes,
general objectives guided the writ- most schools throughout the country
ing of this article. First, to illus- sponsor interschool athletic programs,
trate how thoroughly sports per- beginning in the junior high school
meate modern society, the multi- and continuing through college.
dimensionality of sport involvement Most other countries throughout
is described and how it is woven into the world have nothing comparable
the social fabric through modern to the youth, interscholastic, and
social institutions is discussed. In intercollegiate sports programs found
the second section of the paper, in America, but sports clubs flourish
since the topic of "function" is the in many countries. For example, in
most persistent theme about sport West Germany one-fourth of the
throughout the social sciences, the population belongs to sports clubs,
functions that social scientists have
and in many respects this system
proposed for play, games, and sport
provides an excellent model for life-
are enumerated. long education. Clubs are open to
all, regardless of age, sex, social
THE PERVASIVENESS OF SPORT
class, religion, or ability. They inte-
grate recreation, physical education,
Primary and secondary involvementand quality of performance as a form
In America virtually everyone is of community interaction, fostering
touched by sport. Involvement, sports and physical education out-
1. Eldon E. Snyder and Elmer Spreitzer, 2. Jerry R. Thomas, ed., Youth Sports Guide
"Sociology of Sport: An Overview," The So-for Coaches and Parents (Washington, DC:
ciological Quarterly 15 (Autumn 1974):468. AAHPER Publications, 1977).

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 3

side the schools and making thembaseball 32 million, but horseracing,

available to all members of the with 82 million spectators, and auto
community.3 racing, with 49 million, attract the
Throughout the world, leisure-
most spectators.7 Worldwide, the
time participation undoubtedly pro- largest TV audiences have been at-
duces the greatest amount of primary tracted by sports events; audiences
sport involvement. In the United in excess of 800 million people
States there has been an increase in watched the last Olympic Games
reported leisure time over the past and World Soccer Championship.
generation.4 Accompanying this Robinson reported that 30 percent
trend, Meyersohn claims that there of Americans follow sport on tele-
has been a "democratization of vision each day, and Kenyon re-
leisure," meaning that there is now a that some 50 percent of
ported
greater use of discretionary timethose
for in his study listened to sport
cultural pursuits, including sports,
on the radio or watched sport on
which were formerly only the prov- television each week.8 The three
ince of the rich.5 Notwithstanding major networks in the United States
these trends in leisure time, stud-telecast more than 1200 hours of
ies in several countries show that sports annually.9
while daily participation in sport is
comparatively low and hardly com-SPORT AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
prises a regular free time activity
Economy
for the adult population in any
country, cumulatively leisure sport In addition to primary and second-
participation numbers in the billions
ary involvement, sport also pene-
worldwide. In the United States
trates into and plays a significant
alone there are 24 sports whose role in the major social institutions.
participants number five million The
or economic impact of sport is awe-
more annually, with swimming ac- some; there is no doubt that sport is
counting for 104 million and bowl-
big business with a commanding
ing 44 million.6 position in the entertainment in-
By far the greatest secondary dustry. Americans spent about $160
involvement in sports is as a spec-
billion on leisure and recreation ac-
tator, either by actually attending
tivities in 1977.10 Ticket sales at
sporting events or by viewing them sports events, both amateur and
on television. Professional football professional, reached $2 billion in
attracts some 16 million paid admis- 1978.
sions each year, and Major League
7. "How Americans Pursue Happiness."
3. Val D. Rust and Terry Schofield, "The 8. John P. Robinson, "Daily Participation
West German Sports Club System: A Model in Sport Across Twelve Countries," in The
for Lifelong Learning," Phi Delta Kappan 59 Cross-Cultural Analysis of Sport and Games,
(April 1978):543-546. ed. Gunther Luschen (Champaign, IL: Stipes,
4. John P. Robinson, "Changes in America's 1970), pp. 156-173; Gerald S. Kenyon, "The
Use of Time, 1965-1975," Report of the Com- Significance of Physical Activity as a Func-
munication Research Center (Cleveland State tion of Age, Sex, Education, and Socio-Eco-
University, 1976). nomic Status of North American Adults,"
5. Rolf Meyersohn, "Is There Life After International Review of Sport Sociology 1
Work?" Saturday Review, 4 May 1974, pp. (1966):41-54.
14-16.
9. "The Affluent Activists," Forbes 118 (1
6. "How Americans Pursue Happiness," August 1976):22. See also William Leggett,
U. S. News and World Report, 23 May "He 1977,Was Right on the Button," Sports Illus-
p. 63. Also see A. Szalai, ed., The Use oftrated
Time44 (23 February 1976):48.
(Paris: Mouton, 1972). 10. "How Americans Pursue Happiness."

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
4 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Although growth in an industry Professional sports franchises are

is not necessarily a valid economic worth anywhere from $5 million to
indicator of increasing profits, the$40 million. There are several rea-
proliferation of professional sportssons for their value, one of which is
franchises certainly indicates that that they are profitable-the Los
professional sports is one of the Angeles Dodgers made an estimated
most successful and expanding in- $9 million after taxes in 1978. But
dustries in the United States. Dur- few professional sports franchises
ing the past 20 years, professional could exist without television reve-
sports teams have multiplied atnue. a Television contracts with pro-
remarkable rate. The National fessional sports is a billion dollar
Hockey League began the 1960s a year business.13
with six teams and the 1970s with The big business of sport is mani-
14. During the 1960s professional fested in other ways. Over 170,000
basketball proliferated from one student-athletes participate in Na-
league to two and from 12 teamstional to Collegiate Athletic Associa-
a total of 22 teams when the leagues tion sponsored competitions in 35
merged in the mid-1970s. Major different sports each year at an in-
league baseball broke a longstand- vestment of 5 billion dollars.'4 Sport,
ing tradition and went from 16 to in the form of participant recrea-
24 teams; professional football wit- tion, is often promoted by companies
nessed the birth of a new league, for their employees. Industry buys
the merger of that league with the more sports goods and equipment
NFL, and a new 28-team league, than United States schools and
thus more then doubling the teams colleges combined, and they sched-
which existed in 1960.11 ule more entertainment than the
nation's night clubs.15 Even gam-
Professional athletes' salaries re-
flect the economic value placed bling
on on sports is a major economic
sports. A minimum salary of over activity; estimates of the amount of
$30,000 is guaranteed in several money that Americans wager on
sports and annual salaries of over sports range from $15 billion to $50
$100,000 are not uncommon; in- billion per year. Between 12 and 15
deed, in 1978 the California Angelsmillion Americans bet on pro foot-
had nine players earning $100,000 ball games on any given weekend.
or more. A few of the so-called
"super stars" receive salaries in
Polity
excess of $300,000, and several have
Sport is a prominent feature of
contracts in excess of $5 million.
American politics. Politicians recog-
The average salary in the National
nize the pervasiveness of sport and
Football League in 1978 was over
make every effort to use it for
$62,000, while professional golfers
political gain. Recent presidents
compete for over $8 million in prize
have publicly associated themselves
money each year.12
with sports. Nixon's telephone calls
11. For a discussion of the financial aspects
of sport, see Ray Kennedy and Nancy Wil- 13. Ibid.
liamson, "MONEY: The Monster Threaten- 14. The Sports and Recreation Programs
ing Sports," Sports Illustrated 49 (17 July of the Nation's Universities and Colleges,
1978):29-88. Also see Sports Illustrated (24 Report Number Five. (Kansas City: The Na-
July 1978):34-49 and (31 July 1978):34-50. tional Collegiate Athletic Association, 1978).
12. Ibid. 15. "How Americans Pursue Happiness."

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 5

The Communist countries are not,

to the locker rooms of sports victors
garnered publicity for him as well of
as course, the only countries that
for sport. Gerald Ford capitalized practice sports diplomacy. Canada
on his background as a footballhas undertaken a federally financed
player at the University of Michigan.program of support to amateur
And Jimmy Carter's forays into soft- athletics designed to enhance the
caliber of athletes and thus bring
ball are clearly designed to legitimize
his affiliation with sport. But presi-
prestige and respect to the nation.18
dents are only the most visibleIn the United States, although the
politicians to be linked with sport.
federal government has not directly
Politicians from the local level to the
supported American participation in
national level capitalize as much the
as Olympic Games, untold mil-
possible on sport because not only is lions of dollars are spent to assist
sport a pervasive component of indirectly the Olympic team so that
American society but it represents the United States may impress other
what is good, moral, and true. Thus, a nations throughout the world. The
connection with sport places the poli- Final Report of the President's Com-
tician on the side of righteousness. mission on Olympic Sport issued in
The linking of politics and sport 1977 recommended unified control
extends into international affairs as of amateur sport in the form of a
well. Today, most countries of the Central Sports Organization and
world use sport as an instrument called for a federal outlay of $218
of international policy to some ex- million in funds and facilities and
tent. Communist countries make another $83 million annually for
quite clear their motive for support-
operating costs.'9
ing and promoting national and
international sports: sport is used as
Education
a visible example of the success of
their political-economic system. AsSport and education are inexorably
Morton says in his book Soviet intertwined in American society.
Sport: "The Soviets have made According to statistics recently com-
piled by the National Federation of
serious business out of sport compe-
tition .... They have forged a State High School Associations,
direct propaganda link between nearly 6.5 million boys and girls
sport triumphs on one hand and the participate on interscholastic ath-
validity of a social system on the letic teams each year.20 The signif-
other."16 icance of these programs in the life
Perhaps the most obvious example of high school students is best
of blatant sport diplomacy is in the exemplified in James Coleman's
German Democratic Republic.17 statement that a visitor to a typical
American high school "might well
16. Henry W. Morton, Soviet Sport (New
York: Collier Books, 1963), p. 82; more re- 18. See Report of the Task Force on Sports
cently the same point is made in James Rior- for Canadians (1969).
don, Sport in Soviet Society (Cambridge: 19. President's Commission on Olympic
Cambridge University Press, 1977). Sport. The Final Report of the President's
17. For descriptions of sport in East Ger- Commission on Olympic Sports: 1975-1977.
many see Jerry Kirshenbaum, "Assembly (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1977).
Line of Champions," Sports Illustrated 45 (12 20. National Federation of State High
July 1976):56-65 and Brian Chapman, "EastSchool Associations, 1978 Sports Participation
of the Wall," Runner's World (March 1978): Survey (Elgin, IL: National Federation of
60-67.
State High School Associations, 1978).

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
6 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Fellowship of Christian Athletes

suppose that more attention is paid
to athletics by teenagers, both and
as Athletes in Action are two
athletes and as spectators, thanprominant
to national organizations
scholastic matters. He might even
that employ these techniques.
conclude . . . that the school was
essentially organized around ath-
Literature and drama
letic contests and that scholastic
Sport is even making a consider-
matters were of lesser importance
to all involved."21 Although Cole- impact on the literary and
able
drama fields. With the rise in mass
man's comments were made almost
20 years ago, they are as appro- sport interest, there has developed
priate today as when they were a trend toward serious writing
written. Colleges and universities about sport, and in the past decade
American novelists have increas-
carry on the interschool sports pro-
grams; indeed, for many of these ingly employed sport themes in their
institutions the intercollegiate ath- writing.23 Indeed, over 30 novels
since 1960 have either referred to
letic program is the most publicly
football or used it as a central
visible part of the institution.
theme.24 Perhaps the greatest im
Religion pact of sport in the literary field
however, is coming from forme
While there may seem to be little athletes and sports journalists.
in common between sport and re- Within the past decade there has
ligion, actually each of the social been a virtual deluge of books writ-
institutions is making inroads into ten by professional athletes (most
the traditional activities and preroga- are actually ghost written) who de-
tives of the other. Churches have scribe their experiences in sports. A
had to alter their weekend services
number of former athletes have
to accommodate the growing in-written "kiss and tell" books which
volvement in sport. Frank Deford, have either mocked their sports
in a three-part series on "Religion experiences or have been highly
in Sport" for Sports Illustrated, critical of them.25 The underpaid,
noted that, "the churches have unheralded sport journalist has also
ceded Sunday to sports. . . . Sport gotten into the publishing wind-
owns Sunday now, and religion is
content to lease a few minutes be- 23. For examples of writers' treatment of
fore the big games."22 Contemporarysports in literature, see Robert J. Higgs and
Neil Isaacs, eds., The Sporting Spirit: Athlet-
religion uses sport by sponsoringics in Literature and Life (New York: Har-
sports events under religious aus- court Brace Jovanovich, 1977) and Henry B.
pices and/or proselytizing athletes Chapin, Sports in Literature (New York:
to religion and then using them David McKay, 1976).
24. D. Burt, "A Helmeted Hero: The Foot-
as missionaries to spread the Wordball Player in Recent American Fiction,"
and recruit new members. The Presented at the Convention of the Popular
Culture Association, 1975.
21. James S. Coleman, "Athletics in25. See, for example, Dave Meggyesy, Out
High
School," Annals of the American Academy of Their League (New York: Paperback Library,
1971); Bernie Parrish, They Call it a Game
of Political and Social Science 338 (1961):34.
22. Frank Deford, "Religion in Sport," (New York: New American Library, 1971);
Sports Illustrated 44 (19 April, 26 April, 3 Gary Shaw, Meat on the Hoof (New York:
May 1976). St. Martin's Press, 1972).

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 7

ence has approached this question

fall of sports books in recent years,
and several have written what mightfrom its own unique conceptual
be called expose or muckraking and theoretical vantage point and,
books.26 predictably, each has formulated
Sport has even invaded broadwaydifferent answers about the func-
and shows evidence of making a tions of play, games, and sports.
happy marriage with drama. Several However, the emphasis here is on
years ago, the story of Jack John-the dimension of "function" rather
son, the first black heavy-weight than on specific social science
boxing champion, came to life in the disciplines.
play The Great White Hope and be- There is always some danger of
came an immediate success. This omitting or misrepresenting com-
plex phenomena whenever one at-
was followed by several other dramas
about sport. Jason Miller's grimly tempts to employ a system of cate-
funny account of a high school gories, but for simplicity the no-
basketball team's 20th reunion, The tions about the functions of play,
Championship Season, was voted games, and sports have been clas-
the best play of 1972 by the Drama sified into seven categories: instinct,
Critics Circle. In 1973, The Jockey developmental-cognitive, mastery,
Club Stakes and the Changing social integration, socialization, so-
Room became two of the most cial control, and personal-expres-
popular plays in New York. sive. There This is not meant to be an
are definite indications thatexhaustive
sports list of functions that
themes are increasingly being haveused
been advanced for sport; it
in motion pictures. Movies such as a list of the most com-
constitutes
Rollerball, Slap Shot, Rocky, and identified functions.
monly
Black Sunday are only a few of the
movies of the past few years with functions
Instinct
a sports motif.
In the latter nineteenth century,
at a time when the social sciences
THE FUNCTIONS OF SPORT
were just emerging as distinct scien-
Although the study of sport hastific
yet disciplines, Charles Darwin's
to become widespread in any of evolutionary theory was at its peak of
the social sciences, the-foundation popularity. Scholars in all fields
has been laid over the past century, were examining its tenets for implica-
and in the past decade academic tions, and several instinct theories
interest in sport has become both about the function of play were
acceptable and popular. As the social advanced. In his monumental Prin-
sciences have attempted to come ciples of Psychology, Herbert Spen-
to grips with sport, one question cer elaborated on the "surplus en-
cuts across the disciplines: Why? ergy" theory of play, a notion that
Why do people play and engage in appears to have first been articu-
games and sports? Each social sci- lated by the 18th century German
scholar, Friedrich von Schiller. But
26. See, for example, Leonard Shector, The
Spencer gave the theory an evolu-
Jocks (New York: Paperback Library, 1969);
Glenn Dickey, The Jock Empire (Radnor, PA: tionary twist, arguing that play
Chilton, 1974); Robert Lipsyte, Sportsworld evolved in humans because they had
(New York: Quadrangle, 1975). developed effective and efficient

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
8 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

means of meeting their basic needs, best able to cope with the prevail-
so they had much energy available ing environment, and whose off-
which was dissipated in play forms.27spring can adapt to changing condi-
Although intuitively appealing, this tions. For Groos, animals play be-
theory of play has been found cause play is functional in the
rather inadequate on numerous struggle for survival; play forms pro-
counts, and few current social scien- vide practice in perfecting skills
tists take it seriously. needed in adult life. Play, then, is
One of America's most famous the generalized impulse to practice
early psychologists, G. Stanley Hall, and perfect hereditary skills before
advanced an evolutionary theoryaof serious need to exercise them
play that came to be known as the arises. According to Loizos, the most
"recapitulation theory." According commonly accepted theory of play i
to this theory, children's play was the view that it is practice for
ontogeny repeating phylogeny. adult In activity.30
other words, the play "stages" of A related theory about instinctual
children recapitulate the entire bio- behavior has frequently been ad
culture of humanity. Hall wrote: vanced to support sport. The notio
"The best index and guide to thethat aggression is a human instinc
stated activities of adults in past and thus its expression is inevitabl
ages is found in the instinctive, underlies the work of a number of
untaught, and nonimitative play of psychiatrists, psychologists, and
children. . . "28 Thus, children re- ethologists. These scholars have
enact in play the interests and oc- suggested that sport serves as an
cupations in the order in which excellent medium for expelling the
they occurred in their prehistoric aggressive instinct, and that sport
and primitive ancestors. This view should be encouraged since it pro-
of play has been widely criticized vides humans with a way to "let
and no longer has influential advo- off steam" in a socially wholesome
cates in the social sciences. way. J. P. Scott claims that "violent
Karl Groos, a philosopher by train-exercise is nature's tranquilizer."
ing, put forward a theory of the And, "In short, games and sport are
function of play that clearly had training grounds for the control of
both a psychological and evolu-aggression"'31 Ethologist, Anthony
tionary orientation. Based on his Storr, argues "that the encourage-
studies of animal and children's ment of competition . . . is likely
play, Groos proposed that play to is adiminish the kind of hostility
preparation and practice for adult which leads to war. . .32 Finally,
life.29 His theory was firmly based esteemed ethologist, Konrad Lorenz,
on the principle of natural selectionclaims that the "most important
formulated by Darwin, which sug-
gests that animals survive who are 30. C. Loizos, "Play Behavior in Higher
Primates: A Review," Primate Ethology ed.
D. Morris (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1969), pp. 226-285.
27. Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychol-
ogy, 2 vol., 1855, 1872. 31. J. P. Scott, "Sport and Aggression,"
28. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, vol. 1 Gerald S. Kenyon, ed. Contemporary Psy-
(New York: Appleton, 1904), p. 129. chology of Sport (Chicago: The Athletic In-
29. Karl Groos, The Play of Animals (New stitute, 1970), pp. 11-24.
York: Appleton, 1898); The Play of Man (New 32. Anthony Storr, Human Aggression
York: Appleton, 1901). (New York: Atheneum, 1968), p. 132.

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 9

play environment and thus serve

function of sport lies in furnishing
a healthy safety valve" for the ag-
valuable functions in the larger
gression instinct.33 social context.

Developmental and cognitive

Mead saw play and games as
serving an important function in
functions
the development of the self. A
Social scientists, such as Jean major concern of Mead was to deter-
Piaget, George Herbert Mead, andmine how the individual obtains full
Jerome Bruner, have emphasized development of self, and he pro-
the function of play in the develop-posed two general stages. Play,
mental and cognitive growth ofaccording to Mead, contributes to
children. As part of his work on the first stage because in play the
the cognitive development of chil-child takes on and acts out roles
dren, Piaget has analyzed play which exist in the immediate, but
behavior in relation to the develop-also wider social world; and in the
ment of intelligence. According tocourse of acting out such roles he
him, each cognitive stage exhibits learns
a to "stand outside himself,"
unique type of play form. In the and thus develop a reflected view
sensory-motor stage, play is charac-of himself as a social object dis-
terized by performance of recently tinct from but related to others.
mastered motor abilities. DuringGames, on the other hand, con-
the preoperational phase of develop-tribute to the second stage in the
ment, symbolic play dominates and development of self. In a game, the
the child engages in make-believechild must take the role of every
and sociodramatic activities, such as
player, thus he must perceive what
acting "as if" he/she were a mother,others are doing in order to make his
doctor, and so forth. Games-with-own movements. As the child learns
rules characterize the concrete oper-to take the attitude of the other
ational phase, whereby collectiveand permits that attitude of the
symbols are promoted and reason- other to guide what he is going to
ing and logical thought are nur-
do with reference to a common end,
tured, thus preparing the child for he is becoming an organic member
the final formal operational cogni- of society. According to Mead:
tive phase. Piaget stated that games-"The game is ... an illustration
with-rules "mark the decline of chil-of the situation out of which an
dren's games and the transition to organized personality arises."35
adult play, which ceases to be a Erik Erickson, whose work is
vital function of the mind when the generally considered within the
individual is socialized."34 For Pia- psychoanalytic tradition, emphasized
get, the practice of rules and the the growth functions play may serve.
consciousness of rules, both of Erickson proposed three stages of in-
which are associated with play andfantile play that are linked with
games, are largely learned in the his general theory of psychosexual
development. The first play stage is
33. Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression (New called autocosmic and consists of
York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1966), p. "exploration by repetition of sensual
281.
34. Jean Piaget, Play, Dreams and Imita- 35. George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and So-
tion in Childhood, trans. C. Cattegno and F. M.ciety (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
Hodgson (New York: Norton, 1962), p. 168. 1934), p. 159.

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
10 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

perceptions, of kinesthetic sensa-that the wishes and conflicts of

tions, of vocalizations, etc." At the each of the psycho-sexual stages
second stage, the microspheric stage, would be expressed in play. Finally,
play is typically solitary, is charac-since Freud believed that all chil-
terized by play with toys, and occurs dren aspire to adult status, they
when the child "needs to overhaul imitate adults in their play, thus
his ego." Play at this stage leads to
making possible what is currently
pleasure in mastery of toys and impossible and enabling them to
mastery of traumas projected on master a frustrating situation.39
them. Play in the macrosphere, the The studies of John Roberts and
third stage, occurs at nursery school his collaborators comprise the most
age and is "the world shared by widely cited cross-cultural investi-
others" which "are treated as, are gations of games, and their work
inspected, run into, or forced to be emphasizes the function of games in
horsie."36 cultural mastery. In their now classic
Jerome Bruner, the most noted article "Games in Culture," Roberts
contemporary American cognitive and his colleagues constructed a clas-
psychologist, is well known for his sification of games based on how the
prolific research on cognitive growth game outcome is determined. Three
and the educational process. Bruner types of games are identified: games
contends that random play is the of physical skill, games of strategy,
main business of infancy and child-and games of chance. Based on their
hood and is the precursor of adult analysis of ethnographic data of 50
competence. Play makes possible tribal societies, and applying their
the practice of subroutines of be- three-category classification of
havior that later come together in use- games, they concluded that games
ful problem solving and creativity.37 are expressive cultural activities
similar to music and folktales; more-
Mastery function over, they are models of various
cultural activities and thus exercises
Sigmund Freud emphasized that in cultural mastery. For example,
children act out and repeat proble- games of physical skill are related
matic situations in play in order to to mastery of specific environmen-
master them.38 According to this tal conditions, games of strategy are
view, play enables the child to deal related to the mastery of the social
with anxiety evoking situations by system, and games of chance are re-
allowing him to be the active master lated to mastery of the super-
of the situation, rather than the natural.40
passive victim. Freud also proposed Building on this work, Roberts
and Sutton-Smith, in a cross-cultural
36. Erik H. Erickson, Childhood and So-
ciety (New York: Norton, 1963). study of children's games, formu-
37. Jerome Bruner, Alison Jolly, and Kathy
Sylva, eds. Play: Its Role in Evolution and 39. Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure
Development (New York: Penguin, 1976). Principle (New York: Bantam, 1959); Jokes
38. Helen B. Schwartzman, "The Anthro- and Their Relation to the Unconscious. (New
pological Study of Children's Play," AnnualYork: Norton, 1963).
Review of Anthropology, vol. 5, ed. Bernard 40. John Roberts, Malcolm J. Arth, and
J. Siegel, Alan R. Beals, and Stephen A. TylerRobert R. Bush, "Games in Culture," Ameri-
(Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 1976), pp. can Anthropologist 61 (August 1959):597-
289-328. 605.

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 11

lated a "conflict-enculturation" the- changes in play preferences.43

ory of games to explain relation- Lever's recent studies of sex differ-
ships existing between types of ences in children's play and game
games, child-training variables, and behavior suggests that these dif-
cultural variables.41 In essence this ferences may give males "an ad-
theory proposes that conflict pro-
vantage in occupational milieus that
share structural features with those
duced by specific child-rearing tech-
niques in a culture lead to an games."44 Thus, the complex games
of childhood may be functional to
interest and involvement of specific
types of game activities which pat-
successful participation in the adult
tern this conflict in the role-reversals occupational world.
sanctioned by the game rules. More-
over, according to Sutton-Smith: Social integration function
"Involvement over time in these Human social structures are held
rewarding game patterns leadstogether
to by normative integration
mastery of behaviors which have
and shared symbolic meaning. Func-
functional value or transfer to cul-
tional explanations for sport fre-
turally useful behavior."42 quently identify sport's presumed
In view of the current interest
social integrating function. The idea
in female participation in sports,
here is that sports teams bind in-
it is appropriate to note that chil-
dividuals to a common cause, de-
dren's play as functional to the veloping loyalty to and an identifica-
learning and practicing of culturally tion with the organizations of which
appropriate sex roles has been the team is a part. Thus, high
studied by a number of scholarsschool and college teams, profes-
in several of the social sciences.
sional teams, and Olympic teams
The work of Sutton-Smith and
are seen as binding people to the
Rosenberg on the historical changes
school, college, city, and nation.
in the game preferences of Ameri-
Moreover, the ritual and ceremony
can children and the development
which is a part of sport serves to
of sex differences in play choices
reinforce the values of society, and
during the preadolescence illus-
thus promotes integration. The inte-
trates how sex role differentiation
grating function of sport for Ameri-
is reflected in play activities of can society has been summarized
boys and girls and how changing by Cozens and Stumpf:
cultural prescriptions of appropriate
sex role behaviors is reflected in Common interests, common loyalties,

43. Brian Sutton-Smith and B. G. Rosen-

41. John M. Roberts and Brian Sutton- berg, "Sixty Years of Historical Change in the
Smith, "Child Training and Game Involve- Game Preferences of American Children,"
ment," Ethnology 1 (1962):166-185; Brian Journal of American Folklore 74 (1961):17-
Sutton-Smith and John M. Roberts, "The 46; Brian Sutton-Smith, B. C. Rosenberg, and
Cross-Cultural and Psychological Study of E. F. Morgan, Jr., "Development of Sex Dif-
Games," in Gunther Luschen, ed., The Cross- ferences in Play Choices During Preadoles-
CulturalAnalysis of Sport and Games (Cham- cence," Child Development 34 (1963):119-
paign, IL: Stipes, 1970), pp. 100-108. 126.
42. Brian Sutton-Smith, "Towards an An- 44. Janet Lever, "Sex Differences in the
thropology of Play," The Association for the Complexity of Children's Play and Games,"
Anthropological Study of Play, NEWSLET- American Sociological Review 43 (August
TER 1 (Fall 1974):10. 1978):482.

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
12 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

common enthusiasms-these are the havior . . . and determining ac-

ceptable solutions to problems in
great integrating factors in any culture.
In America, sports have providedthe this
secular sphere of life."48 Simi-
common denominator in as great a larly, Walter Schafer has argued that
degree as any other factor . . . in
sport socializes "the athlete into estab-
furnishing cultural interest, fosteringlished mainstream cultural and be-
understanding across class lines, and
increasing the intimacy of associationhavioral patterns of society and in
with different classes spectator sportsthis way contributes to the stability,
have contributed to those integratingmaintenance, and perpetuation of
forces which are vital and indispensable the established society.49
in the preservation of our democratic One of the oldest and most per-
way of life.45 sistent claims with respect to sport's
role in socialization is that sport
Polish sociologist, Andrzej Wohl,
"builds character," which has typi-
echoes the same theme. He says:
cally implied that behavioral dis-
"... competitive sports has . . .
been turned into an instrument positions such as courage, self-
discipline, leadership, cooperation,
promoting national integration, re-
flecting national aspirations loyalty,
and and honesty are nurtured
through
achievements. This lofty function of
sport participation. One
competitive sport as a means to
example of this belief is Patterson
awaken national consciousness andand Hallberg's statement: "Through
athletic participation students gain
national pride is no secret for any-
body any more."46
many qualities for effective citi-
zenry."50 Aside from the undocu-
Socialization function mented essays by physical educa-
tors and a few social scientists,
this contention has typically been
In order to integrate persons fully
into society, the society must pro-
documented through testimonials
vide ways and means for appro-
48. Harry Edwards, Sociology of Sport
priate socialization. Various social
(Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1973).
agents and agencies typically per-49. Walter Schafer, "Sport and Youth Coun-
form this function, the outcome of
terculture: Contrasting Socialization Themes"
which is the learning and internal-in Social Problems in Athletics ed. Daniel
ization of the societal values, norms,
M. Landers (Chicago: University of Illinois
and behaviors on the part of the Press, 1976), p. 184; also see Walter Schafer,
"Sport, Socialization, and the School: Toward
individual.47 According to sociolo-Maturity or Enculturation?" presented at the
gists Harry Edwards, sport is "A so-
Third International Symposium on Sociology
cial institution which has primary of Sport, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 1971.
functions in disseminating and rein- 50. Ann Patterson and Edmond C. Hall-
berg, Background Readings for Physical Edu-
forcing the values regulating be-
cation (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,
1965); also see American Association for
45. Frederick Cozens and Florence'Stumpf, Health, Physical Education, and Recreation,
Sports in American Life (Chicago: University Athletics in Education (Washington, DC:
of Chicago Press, 1953). AAHPER, 1962); Leonard A. Larson, "Why
46. Andrzej Wohl, "Competitive Sport Sports Participation?" Journal of Health,
and its Social Functions," International Re- Physical Education, and Recreation 35 (Jan-
view of Sports Sociology 5 (1970):123. uary 1964):36-37, 42-43; Joseph Oxendine,
47. William M. Dobringer, Social Struc- "Social Development: The Forgotten Objec-
tures and Systems (Pacific Palisades, CA: tive," Journal of Health, Physical Education
Goodyear, 1969). and Recreation 37 (May 1966):23-24.

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPORT AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 13

of successful businessmen and mili- masses." In 1934 Parry suggested

tary leaders, describing how their that sport was an instrument with
sports experiences were responsible which the mass of population could
for their achievements in business be kept in check, awed, or distracted.
or war. According to him, sport would "allay
social unrest and lessen the possibil-
Social control function ity of political uprisings.53 In that
same year in his book Technics and
The notion that sport has a social
Civilization, Mumford contended
control function also has a longthat modern sport no longer had any
history. Almost 50 years ago sociolo-
of the characteristics of play and had
gist Willard Waller suggested become
that a spectacle that served only
one of the primary functions of inter-
to promote the existing social order
school sports was to help control
by providing a temporary distraction
students' behavior. He observed the
from the highly structured, standard-
"use of athletics may simplify the ized, mechanized world.54 More re-
problem of police work in the cently, Hoch has argued that con-
schools. . . . Athletes . . . are the
temporary sport is an instrument of
natural leaders, and they are leaders monopolistic capitalism which . . .
who can be controlled and ma-
"robs people of their power to make
nipulated through the medium of and their creativity, and
decisions
athletics."51
sets them in search of opiates in con-
The theory that aggressive tend- sumption and entertainment."55 In
encies of people need a socially Hoch's view contemporary sport thus
sanctioned outlet has led some social
serves as a mass narcotic-an opiate.
scientists to suggest that sport can
serve this social control function.
Personal-expressive function
Two well-known sociologists, Gerth
and Mills, have argued: Our discussion of the functions of
Many mass audience situations, with their
play, games, and sports have focused
on the instrumental functions that
"vicarious" enjoyments, serve psycho-
logically the unintended function of these activities are presumed to have
channeling and releasing otherwise un- -meaning that the various play
placable emotions. Thus great volumes forms are a means to some end which
of aggression are "cathartically" released
is not the participation itself. It seems
by crowds of spectators cheering their appropriate to end this discussion of
favorite stars of sport-and jeering the the functions of play, games and
umpire.52
sports by noting that some social
A related dimension to the issue scientists have proposed that "sport
of sport for social control is the idea needs no other justification than it
that sport is an opiate of the people, provides a setting for sociability and
an adaptation to Marx's contention
that "religion is an opiate of the 53. Albert Parry. "Sports" in Edwin R. Se-
ligmann and Alvin Johnson, eds., Encyclope-
dia of the Social Sciences, vol. 3 (New York:
51. Willard Waller, The Sociology of Teach- Macmillan, 1934) p. 306.
ing (New York: Wiley, 1932), p. 116. 54. Lewis Mumford. Technics and Civili-
52. Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Char- zation. (New York: Harcourt-Brace, 1934).
acter and Social Structure (New York: Har- 55. Paul Hoch, Rip Off the Big Game (Gar-
court Brace Jovanovich, 1954). den City, NY: Doubleday, 1972).

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
14 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

fun."56 This emphasis on the per-ness is decried by these scholars, and

sonal-expressive function of play,they are beginning to produce a
games, and sports views these activi-
growing body of literature promoting
ties as basically existential experi-
the personal-expressive potential of
ences that provide joy, self-satisfac-
play, games and sport.57
tion, and self-fufillment. That instru-
mental concerns have distorted or
negated the rich potential that play
57. See, for example, Dorothy J. Allen and
Brian W. Fahey, Being Human in Sport (Phil-
forms have for nurturing expressive-
adelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1977); Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anx-
56. Alan G. Ingham and John W. Loy, iety
Jr. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975);
"The Social System of Sport: A Humanistic
Benjamin Lowe, The Beauty of Sport (Engle-
Perspective," Quest 19 (Winter 1973):7. wood Cliffs: NJ Prentice-Hall, 1977).

This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 05:00:58 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms