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African Studies
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To cite this article: Achille Mbembe (2012) Metamorphic Thought: The Works of Frantz Fanon,
African Studies, 71:1, 19-28, DOI: 10.1080/00020184.2012.668291
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African Studies, 71, 1, April 2012
Fifty years ago, the Paris-based Maspero published Frantz Fanon’s last work, Les damnés de la
terre, a book that achieved an almost biblical status and became a cornerstone of postcolonial
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thought. Last year saw the publication of Fanon’s Oeuvres by La Découverte. This article explores
the meanings of Fanon and the metamorphic nature of his thought.
We must shake off the heavy darkness in which we were plunged, and leave it behind.
(Fanon 1961:251)
It is 50 years since Frantz Fanon died leaving us with his last testimony, The
Wretched of the Earth. Written in the crucible of the Algerian war of indepen-
dence and the early years of Third World decolonisation, this book achieved an
almost biblical status. It became a living source of inspiration for those who
opposed the Vietnam War, marched with the civil rights movement, supported
revolutionary black struggles in America, the struggle against apartheid in
South Africa and countless insurgent movements around the world. Fanon’s life
had led him far away from the island of Martinique in the Caribbean where he
was born a French citizen. He took part at the age of 19 in the war against
Nazism only to discover that in the eyes of France he was nothing but a
‘Negro’, that is, anything but a man like any other man. He would end up
feeling a deep sense of betrayal. Black Skin, White Mask – his first book – in
part relates the story of this and many other fraught encounters with colonial
forms of dehumanisation (Macey 2011).
often said it had taken on ‘the look of an authentic genocide’,3 ‘an exercise in exter-
mination’.4 It was the ‘most horrifying’, ‘the most hallucinatory [war] that a people
has conducted in order to destroy colonial oppression’,5 a war that was responsible
for the imposition, in Algeria, of a ‘bloody’ and ‘ruthless’ regime of violence. The
war was characterised by the large-scale ‘generalisation of inhumane practices’,
which led many of the colonised to believe that they were ‘witnessing a veritable
apocalypse’.6 During this fight to the death, Fanon sided with the Algerian people
and France disowned him. He had ‘betrayed’ the nation. He became an enemy
and, long after his death, France still treated him as such.
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Following its defeat in Algeria and the loss of its colonial empire, France plunged
into a post-imperial winter (Stoler 2010). Suffering from aphasia, it turned its back
on its colonial past and forgot Fanon, thus largely missing out on the new voyages
of thought which characterised the last quarter of the 20th century – most notably
postcolonial theory and critical race studies (Mbembe 2010a). But in the rest of the
world many of the movements fighting for the emancipation of people continued
to invoke this heretic name. For those committed to the cause of oppressed people
struggling for racial justice or for new psychiatric practices, Fanon’s name
remained not only a sign of hope, but also served as an injunction to rise up
(Mellino 2011). Today there are thousands of works and scholarly articles on
Fanon and there exists a growing ‘Fanon library’, a vibrant, global critique
inspired by his writing and which strives to develop his thought.7
Even if France is yet fully to experience the Fanon phenomenon, everything would
seem to indicate that Fanon has finally emerged from the obscurity to which he had
been relegated.8 His complete Works have recently been published. For almost
half a century, the goal had been to prevent his name from being lost and forgotten
(see Cherki 2000). The veil has been lifted on his work and we are finally in a pos-
ition, at the start of the 21st century, to read, in relative serenity but nonetheless
with sense of some urgency in regard to the brutal reality which confronts the
new wretched of the earth.
But reading Fanon today, we have to take the exact measure of his project in order
to develop it further. If Fanon’s thought is like the ringing of the angelus, filling
those times with the pealing of bells, it is because it was responding to the
bugle call of colonialism, to the need for implacable and forceful opposition to
the latter. Fanon’s thinking was born of real, lived, unstable and changing experi-
ence. For Fanon, to think meant travelling along the same road as others towards a
world that was perpetually and irrevocably created in and through struggle.9 In this
process, critique had to be like a bullet destroying, traversing and transforming the
rocky, mineral wall and the interstices of colonialism. It is this energy that charac-
terised Fanon’s thought as metamorphic thought. For Fanon, the irrepressible and
relentless pursuit of freedom required us to mobilise all life reserves. It drew the
colonised into a fight to the death – a fight that they were called upon to assume as
their duty and that could not be delegated to others.
Metamorphic Thought: The Works of Frantz Fanon 21
In this almost sacrificial aspect of his thought, to rise up, to revolt was an injunc-
tion. It went hand in hand with the duty of violence – a strategic term in Fanon’s
lexicon which, following many hasty and superficial readings, has given rise to
much misunderstanding. It is therefore useful to review briefly the historical con-
ditions in which Fanon developed his conceptualisation of violence. In this regard,
it is perhaps important to bear in mind two things. First, that in Fanon violence is
both a political and a clinical concept. It is as much the clinical manifestation of a
political ‘disease’ as an act of ‘re-symbolisation’, which allows for the possibility
of reciprocity and hence for relative equality in the face of the supreme arbiter
which is death. Thus, by choosing violence rather than being subjected to it, the
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colonised subject is able to restore the self. He comes to the realisation that ‘his
life, his breath, his beating heart are the same as those of the settler’ or that ‘the
settler’s skin is not of any more value than a native’s skin’.10 In so doing, he rede-
fines himself and learns to value his life and the shape of his presence in relation to
his body, his speech, to the Other and to the world.
For Fanon, the political and the clinical share in common the fact of being eminent
psychic sites (Postel and Razanajo 1975). In these a priori empty spaces animated
by la parole the relation between body and language is played out. Body and
language are events. They testify to the fragility of the relationship to the self
and to the other as engendered by the colonial situation, on the one hand,11 and,
on the other, to the extraordinary vulnerability of the psyche when confronted
with the trauma of the real. But the relation between body and language is far
from being stable. In the long run, Fanon does not confuse the healing of the
colonised (la politique du patient) and the political itself as a form of healing
(la clinique du politique). He oscillates continuously between the two. At times
he views the political as a form of the clinical and the clinical as a form of the pol-
itical; and at times he stresses the inevitability as well as the failure of the clinical
or its impasse, especially where the trauma of war and destruction, the pain and
suffering caused in general by the colonial nomos undermine the ability of the
subject or of the patient to return to the world of human speech (Douville
2006:709). Revolutionary violence is the shock that causes this ambivalence to
explode. But Fanon shows that, although it is a key phase in the becoming
subject of the colonised, violence is in turn, at the very moment of its occurrence,
the cause of deep psychic damage. If truly subjective violence at the time of a lib-
eration struggle can be articulated as speech, it is also capable of weighing on
language and producing, in those who survive the war, mutism, hallucinations
and trauma.
At the historical level, France attempted, in Algeria, to conduct ‘a total onslaught’
which provoked in return a response that was just as total on the part of the Algerian
resistance. Following his experience of the war, Fanon was convinced that coloni-
alism was a necropolitical force animated at its core by a genocidal drive.12 Since in
order to reproduce and perpetuate itself colonial violence had to be transformed
into an ontology and genetics, the destruction of colonialism could only be
22 African Studies, Vol. 71, No. 1 April 2012
words were both an attestation to and declaration of justice. To bear witness to the
colonial situation meant ‘travelling step by step the length of the wound inflicted on
the people and on Algerian soil’. It was necessary, he said, ‘to interrogate Algerian
soil, inch by inch’, to measure the fragmentation and ‘dispersal’ caused by colonial
occupation. It was necessary to bear witness to the ‘haggard and famished
orphans’; to the ‘husband carried off by the enemy and who returns with his
body covered in bruises, his life nearly extinct and his spirit extinguished’.20 In
such a context, the task of critique was to bear witness to scenes of mourning, in
those spaces of loss and destruction where the lamentations of old were replaced
by new forms of behaviour. Having experienced the struggle, one does not
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weep, nor cry out, one does not behave as one used to, he comments. Instead,
‘one grits one’s teeth and, after one more step, the death of a moudjahid who has
fallen in the field of honour will be met with cries of joy’.21 Eventually, this trans-
figuration of suffering and death would give rise to a new ‘spiritual community’.22
Be that as it may, the ethical dimension of the violence of the native lies in the
close relationship between violence and healing – treatment provided to the
injured in the military hospitals of the resistance fighters, to prisoners who the
resistance refuses to kill in their beds as is done by the colonial troops, to perma-
nently mentally disordered torture victims, to Algerian women who have been
driven mad after being raped, and even to torturers haunted by the twofold
trauma and horror of their victims.28
In addition to healing the wounds of colonial atrocities, the violence of the native
achieved three goals. First it served as a call to a people caught in the grip of
history and placed in an untenable situation to exercise their freedom, to take
charge, to name themselves, to spring to life or, if they failed to do this, to be
seen to be in bad faith. They were forced to make a choice, to risk their lives,
to expose themselves, to ‘draw on all their reserves and hidden resources’29 – a
condition for achieving liberty.
Nonetheless Fanon’s theory of violence only makes sense within the context of a
more general theory, that of the rise in humanity (montée en humanité). The colo-
nised has to propel himself, by his own force, to a level above the one to which he
had been consigned as a result of racism or subjugation. The embattled human
subject, brought to his knees and subjected to abuse, rallies on his own, scales
the ramp and pulls himself up to his full height and to that of other human
beings, if necessary through violence – what Fanon termed ‘the absolute
praxis’. In this way, he restores the possibility, for him personally and for human-
ity as a whole, starting with his executioners, of new and open dialogue between
two equal human subjects where, previously, there had been opposition between a
man (the colonialist) and his object (the colonised). From then on there is no more
black or white. There is only a world finally rid of the burden of race, a world to
which everyone has a right.
Conclusion
Fanon was, at one and the same time, Martinican, Algerian, black, French and
African. He was, even more, a man of the world. Life choices had taken him
far from the Caribbean, where he was born, to Africa, where he experienced a
Metamorphic Thought: The Works of Frantz Fanon 25
to bring this to an end. Whether it was a case of ‘touching the misery of the
Black man’ in the face of the racist social order or of being aware of the transform-
ation engendered by the war of liberation in Algeria, this knowledge was always
openly partisan. It did not aim for objectivity or neutrality. ‘I did not wish to be
objective. In fact that is not true: I was not allowed to be objective,’ he declared.30
It was in the first instance a case of accompanying and – wherever this was still
possible – of curing and healing those who had been wounded, decerebrated and
sent mad as a result of colonial violence.
To read Fanon today means, on the one hand, to restore his life, his work and his
language to its place in the history which he saw unfolding at the time and which
he wished to change through struggle and critique. On the other hand, it means to
translate into the language of our times the major questions which forced him to
stand up, uproot himself and travel with others, his companions, along a new
road which the colonised had to carve out on their own, through their own inge-
nuity and their indomitable will. In order to re-enact his project in contemporary
terms, we have to think both with and against Fanon, the difference between him
and some among us being that, for him, to think meant placing one’s life at risk.
Having said this, our world is no longer the same as his. His diagnosis of life after
colonialism was uncompromising. For him, there was a distinct possibility that
post-liberation politics and culture might take the road of retrogression if not
tragedy. The project of national liberation might turn into a crude, empty shell;
the nation might be passed over for the race, and the tribe might be preferred to
the state. He believed that the liberation struggle had not healed the injuries and
trauma that were the true legacy of colonialism. After liberation, the native elite
had been ensconced in intellectual laziness and cowardice. In its will to imitation
and its inability to invent anything of its own, the native bourgeoisie had assimi-
lated the most corrupt forms of colonialist and racist thought. Afflicted with
precocious senility, the educated classes were stuck in a great procession of cor-
ruption. He warned against the descent of the urban unemployed masses into
lumpen-violence. As soon as the struggle is over, he argued, they start a fight
against non-national Africans. From nationalism they pass to chauvinism, negro-
phobia and finally to racism. They are quick to insist that foreign Africans go
home to their country. They burn their shops, wreck their street stalls and spill
26 African Studies, Vol. 71, No. 1 April 2012
their blood on the city’s pavements and in the dark or dusty alleys of the shanty-
towns.
Surveying the postcolony, Fanon could see a coming nightmare – an indigenous
ruling class luxuriating in the delicious depravities of the western bourgeoisie,
addicted to rest and relaxation in pleasure resorts, casinos and beaches, spending
large sums on display, on cars, watches, shoes and foreign labels. In his post-lib-
eration nightmare, he could distinctly see stupidity parading as leadership, patri-
archy turning women into wives, vulgarity going hand in hand with the
corruption of the mind and the flesh, all in the midst of hilarity and demobilisation.
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Note on Contributor
Achille Mbembe is a Research Professor in History and Politics at the Wits
Institute for Social and Economic Research (WISER), University of the
Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, South Africa. He is the author of many books,
including On the Postcolony (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
His latest book is Sortir de la grande nuit. Essai sur l’Afrique decolonisee
(Paris: La Decouverte, 2010).
Notes
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1. ‘My decision is not to assure responsibility at all cost under the fallacious pretext that nothing
else is to be done’, see Oeuvres (Fanon 2011:733–5).
2. See Fanon’s notes on psychiatry in Oeuvres 623 et ss.
3. Oeuvres 266; then 627.
4. Oeuvres 403.
5. Oeuvres 261.
6. Oeuvres 627.
7. See A. Mbembe ‘L’universalité de Frantz Fanon’ [The Universality of Frantz Fanon] in
Oeuvres.
8. See ‘Vers une pensée politique postcoloniale. À partir de Frantz Fanon’ [Towards postcolonial
thought. After Fanon], Tumultes 31, octobre 2008; ‘Frantz Fanon, 50 ans après’ [Frantz Fanon,
50 years on], Contretemps, 10, juin 2011; Temps modernes. See also Olivier Doubre, ‘La
dignité de Fanon’ [The dignity of Fanon], Politis 10, novembre 2011; Louis-Georges Tin,
‘Frantz Fanon, la colère vive’ [the anger of Frantz Fanon], Cahiers du Monde 20773, vendredi
4 novembre 2011; Philippe Chevalier, ‘Fanon, l’homme révolté’ [Fanon the rebel], L’Express
19/25 Octobre 2011; Éric Fassin, ‘La question raciale . . .’ [The question of race], L’Humanité
Dimanche, 24/30 novembre 2011. Also see, André Lucrèce, Frantz Fanon et les Antilles,
[Frantz Fanon and the Caribbean] La Teneur (Éd), 2011; and Mathieu Renault, Frantz
Fanon. De l’anticolonialisme à la critique postcoloniale [Frantz Fanon. From anticolonialism
to postcolonial criticism], Paris, Éd. Amsterdam, 2011.
9. ‘Nous nous sommes mis debout et nous avançons maintenant. Qui peut nous réinstaller dans la
servitude?’ [We stood up and are now moving forward. Who can return us to servitude?]
Oeuvres 269.
10. Bernard Doray ‘. . . De notre histoire, de notre temps: à propos de Frantz Fanon, portrait d’Alice
Cherki’ [Our history, our times: on Frantz Fanon, portrait by Alice Cherki], http://www.frantz-
fanon.com/Histoire_Temps.htm
11. See Renault (2011) on the paradoxes and possibilities of Fanon’s politics of love.
12. Oeuvres 266, see ‘Pourquoi nous employons la violence’ [Why we resort to violence].
13. Oeuvres 413 et ss.
14. Oeuvres 494.
15. ‘Ce n’est pas le sol qui est occupé . . . Le colonialisme s’est installé au centre meme de l’indi-
vidu . . . et y a entrepris un travail soutenu de ratissage, d’expulsion de soi-meme, de mutilation
rationnellement poursuivie . . . C’est le pays global, son histoire, sa pulsation quotidienne qui
sont contestés . . . Dans ces conditions, la respiration de l’individu est une respiration observée,
occupée. C’est une respiration de combat” [There is not occupation of the land . . . Colonialism
has occupied the very heart of the human subject . . . and has carried out a exercise of sustained
scouring, expulsion of the self, rationally argued mutilation . . . It is the country as a whole, its
history, its daily pulsation that are contested . . . under these conditions the individual’s breath-
ing is observed breathing. It is combat breathing] Oeuvres 300.
16. Or sometimes, ‘le cercle de la haine’ [the circle of hatred] Oeuvres 492.
28 African Studies, Vol. 71, No. 1 April 2012
17. ‘. . . Nous aurons à panser des années encore les plaies multiples et quelquefois indélébiles faites
à nos peuples par le déferlement colonialist’ . . . [We will have to heal the multiple and some-
times indelible wounds inflicted on our people by the colonial flood] Oeuvres 625.
18. Oeuvres 361.
19. See ‘Pourquoi nous employons la violence’ [Why we resort to violence] Oeuvres 413–8.
20. Oeuvres 151.
21. Oeuvres 350.
22. Oeuvres 351.
23. Oeuvres 408.
24. Oeuvres 415.
25. Oeuvres 495.
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