SIMULATION OF A SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM

NUR ALINA ZUREEN BT ROSLI

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Master of Electrical (Electronic & Telecommunication Engineering)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2008
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To my family, even though you guys might just be interested in the title of this
project but your support and faith pulled me through. Thank You!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many thanks to all my friends that help me understand what I’m doing,
guiding me and giving me tips, especially to Kak Nor and Faezah, thank you very
much for your contribution. Also to my advisor Prof. Dr. Tharek, thank you for
your ideas, patience and understanding.
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ABSTRACT

Smart Antenna technologies will change the economics of 3G radio

networks. They provide either a major data capacity gain or a significant reduction
in the number of base stations required to achieve a base level of service. When
deployed optimally, Smart Antennas can increase the capacity of a network by more
than 100% or reduce the required number of base stations to less than 50%. It is
not surprising that Smart Antennas are more expensive than conventional
technologies. These costs are a fraction on the gain achieved, but they mean that
smart deployment will produce the most cost-effective result. This thesis is an
overview of Smart Antenna technology, their benefits, how they work and how they
can be deployed to best advantage. Implementation that revolves around the Least
Mean Square (LMS) adaptive algorithm, chosen for its computational simplicity and
high stability algorithm into the MATLAB® simulation of an adaptive array of a smart
antenna base station system, is to investigate its performance in the presence of
multipath components and multiple users. The simulations illustrate that adaptive array
antenna systems are able to adjust their antenna pattern to enhance desired signals, and
reduce interference.
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ABSTRAK

Ekonomi rangkaian radio 3G berubah dengan adanya Teknologi Antena

Pintar. Teknologi ini menyumbang kepada gandaan kapasiti data yang tinggi, ini
secara tidak langsung akan mengurangkan bilangan station tapak yang
berkadaran dengan perkhidmatan yang diberi. Apabila teknologi ini digunakan
secara optima, ia mampu menaikkan kapasiti rangkaian lebih daripada 100% dan
mengurangkan bilagan station tapak sebanyak 50%. Tidak hairanlah sekiranya
teknologi antena pintar ini lebih mahal berbanding dengan system sedia ada. Tetapi
perbelanjaan yang tinggi ini tidak boleh dibanding-beza dengan keberkesanan
yang ketara yang diperolehi. Tesis ini merupakan pendedahan kepada
Teknologi Antena Pintar ini, keuntungannya dan bagaimana ia beroperasi bagi
memperolehi keadaan yang terbaik. Implementasi terhadap algoritma
pelengkap kuasa dua, yang dipilih kerana pengiraan yang mudah dan stabil
untuk disimulasi menggunakan MATLAB® . Simulasi ini adalah untuk menyiasat
kemampuannya dalam mengendali pengguna dan komponen yang berbilang. Simulasi
ini juga akan mengambarkan bagaimana adaptive array antenna mampu menyerasikan
paten isyarat antena bagi merangsang isyarat yang tinggi dengan mengurangkan
gangguan isyarat.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi

1 GENERAL OVERVIEW 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Outline of a Smart Antenna 2

2 IMPLEMENTATION OF A SMART 6
ANTENNA SYSTEM
2.1 Execution technique of a Smart 6
Antenna System
2.2 Smart / Multi-antenna System 7
2.2.1 SISO 7
2.2.2 SIMO 9
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2.2.3 MISO 10
2.2.4 MIMO 12
2.3 Classification of Smart Antennas 15
2.3.1 Beamforming 16
2.3.2 Diversity Combining 17
2.3.3 Space-time equalization 18
2.3.4 Multiple Input Multiple Output 19
2.4 Interaction of Smart antennas within a wireless system 21
2.5 Smart antenna APIs for software radios 23
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of smart antennas 27

3 MULTIANTENNA ALGORITHMS 29
3.1 Usage of Algorithms 29
3.2 Building blocks for Multiantenna Algorithms 29
3.2.1 Common building blocks 30
3.2.2 Scalable building blocks 31
3.3 Smart antenna algorithms 32
3.4 Overview of LMS Adaptive FIR 34
3.5 Standard LMS Algorithm 35
3.6 Stability of the LMS Algorithm 38

4 ANALYSIS AND RESULT 39

4.1 Analysis of Smart Antenna Simulation 39
4.2 Result for One White Signal with One DOA 40
4.3 Result for One White Signal with Three DOAs 42
4.4 Result for Two White Signals with One DOA Each 44
4.5 Result for Two White Signals with Three DOAs Each 46
4.6 Smart Antenna Summary 48
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5 CONCLUSION 49
5.1 Overall Conclusion 49
5.2 Future Work 50

REFERENCE 51
APPENDICES 53-73
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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Example API primitives for Beamforming Smart Antenna 25

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Generic implementation of Smart Antenna System. 3

1.2 Block diagram representation of antenna array processing. 4

2.1 A conventional SISO communications system. 8

2.2 Scattered and reflected signals due to obstruction, 8
causing multipath effects.
2.3 A single input - multiple output system. 9
2.4 A multiple input - single output system. 10
2.5 A SIMO system where the multiple antennas at the receiver 11
create beams that listen in the directions of the multipaths.
2.6 Smart antenna techniques can be used in satellite transmission 12
to cover small hotspots, or in cellular systems to track
individual mobiles.
2.7 A multiple input - multiple output system. 13
2.8 A MIMO system using beamforming to transmit the signal 13
in specific directions and creating beams to listen for signals
coming from those directions.
2.9 A datastream is multiplexed onto different antenna elements 14
in a MIMO system.
 12

2.10 The transmitted datastream is mixed when traveling 14

through the channel.
2.11 User beamforming transmission 16
2.12 Receiver beamforming reducing co-channel interference 17
2.13 A generic Space-time adaptive processing based 19
2D-Rake receiver.
2.14 MIMO system set-up 20
2.15 Block diagram of a smart antenna system. 22
2.16 Antenna API Definition 23
2.17 Smart antenna API logical functionality 24
2.18 Omnidirectional and Smart antennas based cellular system. 27

3.1 Multiantenna algorithms can be decomposed into common 31

matrix operations which constitutes fundamental building blocks.
3.2 Block diagram of proposed adaptive equalisation system. 35

4.1 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white 41

signal with 1 DOA.
4.2 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal 41
with 1 DOA.
4.3 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white 42
signal with 3 DOAs.
4.4 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal 43
with 3 DOAs.
4.5 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white 45
signals with 1 DOA each.
4.6 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white 45
signals with 1 DOA each.
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4.7 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white 46

signals with 3 DOAs each.
4.8 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white signals 47
with 3 DOAs each.

4.9 Block diagram of time delay summing system. 49

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDICES NO. TITLE PAGE

a) One White Signal with One DOA 53

b) One White Signal with Three DOAs 56
c) Two White Signals with One DOA 61
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CHAPTER 1

GENERAL OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

Smart antennas have promised to provide significant increases in system capacity

and performance in wireless communication systems [2]. In turn, this leads to increased
revenue for the telecommunications companies and also a reduction in dropped and
blocked calls. Other benefits include greater coverage, meaning less base stations are
needed to cover the same area compared to conventional antennas. For these reasons,
smart antennas have gained greater interest over the recent years.

Smart antennas have been around for about 40 years which were first used in
RADAR applications in the form of phased array. Research on application of smart
antennas has paved the way for their use in commercial wireless systems [1]. Smart
antennas are currently used in wireless communication systems to provide
interference reduction and enhance user capacity, data rates. Current applications
of the smart antennas are predominantly at the cellular base stations due to area and
processing power requirements.
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However, recent propagation measurements for smart antennas and the

development of faster and low-power processors have enabled the use of this
technology at the access points in a WLAN system in the form of dual diversity
reception. Mobile terminal based smart antennas are still in the research stage for large
network and ad-hoc network scenarios where they have been touted to improve average
network capacity [17]. In future one can expect smart antenna technology to be present at
base stations and mobile terminals. The goal of this thesis is to present in a simple yet
comprehensive manner the smart antenna technology to the non-specialists.

1.2 Outline of a Smart Antenna

The definition of a Smart antenna is an antenna array system that is aided by

a processing system that processes the signals received by the array or transmitted by
the array using suitable array algorithms to improve wireless system performance. An
antenna array consists of a set of distributed antenna elements (dipoles, monopoles or
directional antenna elements) arranged in certain geometry (e.g., linear, circular or
rectangular grid) where the spacing between the elements can vary. The signals collected
by individual elements are coherently combined in a manner that increases the desired
signal strength and reduces the interference from other signals.

Hence a smart antenna can be viewed as a combination of “regular or

conventional” antenna elements whose transmit or received signals are processed
using “smart” algorithms. In the next page Figure 1.1 Generic implementation of
Smart Antenna System [18], shows a generic implementation smart antenna system.
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Antenna RF Digital Digital

System Front Frequency Processing
End Conversion Section

RF signal IF signal Baseband Signal

Figure 1.1 Generic implementation of Smart Antenna System.

The antenna arrays have input or output as RF signals in the analog domain.
These signals are passed to/from the RF analog front end which usually consists of low
noise amplifiers, mixers and analog filters. In the receive mode, the RF signals are
converted to digital domain by analog to digital converters (ADCs) and in transmit
mode, the base band digital signals are converted to RF using digital to analog
converters (DACs). The down-conversion from RF to base band or up-conversion
from base band to RF can involve the use of IF signals. The base band signals received
from each antenna is then combined using the “smart” algorithms in a digital
processing section. Each antenna element hence has a RF chain going from the
antenna element to RF front end to digital conversion for receiver and vice-versa for
transmitter. The digital processing section can be implemented on a microprocessor
or a DSP or FPGA.

Hence the “smart” algorithm implementation usually is a software code unless

implemented in an ASIC or FPGA. An example of the array processing in the digital
domain is shown in Figure 1.2.
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x1
Downconvert ADC W

x2
W
Downconvert ADC y
Σ Demodulator

Generate Desired signal

Error Signal or signal
x property
Downconvert ADC W

RF Adaptive
Section Algorithm

Smart Antenna
Section

Figure 1.2 Block diagram representation of antenna array processing.

The diagram illustrates the operation of an M-element antenna array system in

the receive mode. The signals collected by the antenna elements are down converted,
sampled and digitized to generate the beamformer inputs (x1, x2,.. xM). These signals
contain both the desired signal and the interfering signals and these are appropriately
scaled by complex gain vectors, also known as weight vectors (w1, w2,.. wM) and
combined to generate the array output y as:

yt= w t x t (1.1)

The array output is then compared with some reference signal in the ‘Generate
Error Signal’ block to generate an error signal which is then adaptively minimized by
an adaptive algorithm. This adaptation process involves changing the weight vector
according to some minimization criteria. For example, for stochastic gradient based
Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, the weight update equation has the following
form:
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wk+1= wk+µekxk (1.2)

where w(k), e(k) and x(k) are the weight vector, error signal and input signal vector at
the k-th instant and ‘*’ denotes complex conjugate operation. In most cases, the weight
vector is updated during some training sequence when some known or pilot symbols are
transmitted and at the end of the training sequence, the array output is fed to the
demodulator and subsequently to the upper layers of the system.
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CHAPTER 2

IMPLEMENTATION OF A SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM

2.1 Execution technique of a Smart Antenna System

The wireless spectrum is limited and during the last decade it has become a
precious resource. Achieving the capacities needed for future wireless systems
without increasing the required spectrum will only be accomplished by the design and
implementation of advanced communications techniques such as multi-antenna systems.
These systems are realized by time-consuming and computationally complex
algorithms, requiring new digital hardware architectures to be developed. The
development of efficient hardware architectures for multi-antenna algorithms is the
focus of this thesis.

Multi-antenna systems consist of two or more antenna elements either at the

transmitter, the receiver, or both. Here the two different groups of multi-antenna
systems, smart antenna systems and multiple input - multiple output systems
(MIMO), will be discussed.
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2.2 Smart / Multi-antenna System

A smart antenna is a digital wireless communications antenna system with

multiple antenna elements at the source (transmitter), the destination (receiver), or both,
where signals from the different antenna elements are combined or created in an
intelligent way by an algorithm. The smart antenna system can be utilized in a number of
ways. It can be used to increase the capacity and the coverage (beam forming) in a
mobile communication system. It can also be used for improving the link quality, user
position estimation, and to decrease the delay dispersion [1]. There are a few techniques
that are used as an approach to this system, such as will be introduced soon.

2.2.1 SISO

Conventional wireless communications, a single antenna is used at the source,

and another single antenna is used at the destination as shown in Figure 2.1. This
communication system is referred to as a single input - single output (SISO) system.

Assume that a transmitter with a single antenna element transmits omni

directional, meaning that the signal or wavefront is transmitted in all directions, and
that the receiver antenna listens for signals coming from all directions. Sending signals
by transmitting energy in all directions is not energy efficient.
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Figure 2.1 A conventional SISO communications system.

A better way is to only transmit in the direction of the receiver. In the same manner
it is more efficient to only listen in the direction of the transmitter and not in all
directions at the same time. This will increase energy efficiency and will also lead to a
reduction in interference between different transmitters and thereby increase the efficiency
in an interference limited system.

Another drawback with SISO systems is that they are vulnerable to multipath
effects. When the electromagnetic wavefront travels towards the receiver, its propagation
path can be obstructed by objects. In an outdoor environment this can for instance be
caused by objects such as hills, buildings, trees, cars, etc., while in an indoor scenario
the signal can be obstructed by doors, walls, people, furniture, etc. The wavefronts
will then be reflected and scattered by these objects, thus creating multiple paths to the
receiver (figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 Scattered and reflected signals due to obstruction, causing multipath effects.
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The wavefront, arriving in scattered portions at different time instances, can

cause problems resulting in intermittent reception [2,6]. In digital communications this
can cause an increase in the number of errors resulting in a reduction in data rate. The
use of smart antennas can reduce the deterioration of the transmitted wavefront caused by
multipath wave propagation by automatically changing the directionality of its
radiation patterns in response to its signal environment.

2.2.2 SIMO

There are mainly two different categories of smart antenna systems [6]. Single
input - multiple output system (SIMO). In a SIMO system, one antenna is used at the
transmitter, and two or more antennas are used at the receiver as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 A single input - multiple output system.

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2.2.3 MISO

Multiple input - single output (MISO). In a MISO system, two or more

antennas are used at the transmitter, and one antenna is used at the receiver as shown in
Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 A multiple input - single output system.

By applying the techniques shown in Figures 2.3-2.4 we can transmit in a

specific direction or listen in a specific direction. Figure 2.5 shows the same scenario
as in figure 2.2 but with a smart antenna as a receiver. The smart antenna system detects
the three multi-paths and creates “listening” beams for those directions. Subsequently,
all other signals are suppressed [5]-[7].

In this way the signals coming from the directions of the listening beams can
be combined at the receiver, thus increasing the signal-to-noise ratio and lowering the
bit error rate. The concept of using smart antennas to transmit and receive data more
intelligently has existed for many years. Simple smart antenna techniques, like the
switched beam technology, where the antenna systems form multiple fixed beams with
heightened sensitivity in particular directions, have been used in commercial applications
for some time [4]-[6]. These antenna systems detect signal strength, choose from one of
several predetermined, fixed beams, and switch from one beam to another as the mobile
device moves throughout the beam pattern.
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Smart antenna technology represents the most advanced approach to date taking
advantage of its ability to effectively locate and track various types of signals to
minimize interference and maximize signal reception [6].

Figure 2.5 A SIMO system where the multiple antennas at the receiver create beams
that listen in the directions of the multipaths.

One sophisticated utilization of smart antenna technology is spatial division

multiple access (SDMA) [1],[6]. In this technique, single mobile terminals are
located and tracked by adaptively steering transmission signals toward users and away
from interferers (figure 2.6). In this way a high level of interference suppression is
achieved, making possible more efficient reuse of the frequency spectrum.

Smart antenna technology can, with some modification, be integrated into all
major access methods such as frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time
division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), etc. and has
widespread applications in several different areas such as digital television (DTV),
 26

body area networks (BAN), personal area networks (PAN), wireless local area
networks (WLAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN), and mobile communications
[7],[8]. However, the technique requires sophisticated algorithms and computationally
heavy algorithms to operate in real-time.

Figure 2.6 Smart antenna techniques can be used in satellite transmission to cover
small hotspots, or in cellular systems to track individual mobiles.

2.2.4 MIMO

MIMO systems are characterized by having multiple antennas at both the

transmitter and the receiver as shown in figure 2.7. The number of antenna elements
does not have to be the same at the transmitter and the receiver.

Figure 2.7 A multiple input - multiple output system.

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A MIMO system is mainly used for three different purposes; beamforming,

diversity, and spatial multiplexing. Both beamforming and diversity can be use in the
same way as in the case of the smart antenna system [6]. By applying a MIMO
beamforming system to the scenario in figure 2.2, the signal can be transmitted in one
or more favorable directions. Figure 2.8 shows how the signal is transmitted in two
beams from the transmitter and received via two beams formed by the receiver antenna.

Figure 2.8 A MIMO system using beamforming to transmit the signal in specific
directions and creating beams to listen for signals coming from those directions.

In this way transmission energy is saved, since less energy is transmitted in

other directions than those of the receiver. Another way of using a MIMO system that
has attracted lots of interest in recent years is spatial multiplexing [7]-[9]. Spatial
multiplexing offers an improvement of the capacity by simultaneously transmitting
multiple datastreams.
 28

This is done by multiplexing a datastream into several parallel datastreams that

are sent from separate antenna elements as shown in figure 2.9 [7].

Figure 2.9 A datastream is multiplexed onto different antenna elements in a MIMO

system.

Data transmitted from the multiple antenna elements will be mixed when traveling
throughout the propagation channel as shown by figure 2.10. Each individual antenna
element in the receiver will detect a combination of the transmitted data.

Figure 2.10 The transmitted datastream is mixed when traveling through the
channel.
 29

The received data must then be resolved by signal processing algorithms before
it can be combined into a single datastream again. In this way MIMO can exploit the
phenomena of multipath propagation to increase throughput, or reduce bit error rates,
rather than suffer from it [7].

MIMO will be incorporated into the new IEEE 802.1 1n standard for local-area
wireless networks, which will improve the coverage and data rate significantly. The
IEEE 802.1 1n standard is still being discussed, but data throughput is estimated to
reach a theoretical 540 Mbit/s. The data rate requirement at the physical layer may be
even higher, prompting for new high-speed hardware solutions. Although a few
manufacturers have released consumer products with so called pre-n hardware,
exploiting rudimentary diversity by using 2 to 4 antenna elements, the widespread
usage of MIMO will not be a reality before the standard is set. MIMO has also been
added to the latest draft version of Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.1 6e).

To be able to fully take advantage of the emerging standards, new high-

throughput hardware architectures must be developed. A first step in the development
process is to analyze the multi-antenna algorithms and to identify common algorithmic
features.

2.3 Classification of Smart Antennas

Based on the signal processing technique followed at the baseband output of the
antenna array smart antennas can be grouped into four basic types based on:
i) Beamforming
ii) Diversity combining
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iii) Space time equalization

iv) Multiple input multiple output (MIMO) processing.

2.3.1 Beamforming

Through beamforming, a smart antenna algorithm can receive predominantly

from a desired direction (direction of the desired source) compared to some undesired
directions (direction of interfering sources). This implies that the digital processing has
the ability to shape the radiation pattern for both reception and transmission [3] and
to adaptively steer beams in the direction of the desired signals and put nulls in the
direction of the interfering signals. This enables low co-channel interference and large
antenna gain to the desired signal. Figure 2.11 shows the formation of transmit beams to
desired users. Figure 2.12 shows a receiver beamformer which puts a null in the
direction of interferer by choosing appropriate weights using adaptive beamforming
algorithm.

Figure 2.11 User beamforming transmission

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Figure 2.12 Receiver beamforming reducing co-channel interference

Beamforming systems can be implemented in two ways; fixed beamforming

systems or fully adaptive systems. A fixed beamforming system has a beamforming
network (BFN) followed by RF switches which operate in the RF/analog domain. The
switches are controlled by a control logic which selects a particular beam. Here the
processing required is minimal as the control logic has to choose one of the
predetermined set of weights to select a beam. In adaptive beamforming, the antenna
gains or weights are chosen adaptively through running array algorithms in the digital
domain.

2.3.2 Diversity combining

A major limiting factor in wireless communication is multipath fading where

the amplitude of the received signal fluctuates over time. The occurrence of a deep
fade where the signal amplitude becomes very small can impair the
communications link for a conventional or a single antenna system. When multiple
 32

antennas are used it becomes less likely that two or more antennas undergo deep fades
at the same time. This diversity in the received signal, for the same transmitted
information, is exploited by smart antenna processing schemes. Many simple
algorithms, such as maximal ratio combining, equal gain combining, and selection
diversity have been developed to take advantage of using antenna arrays to exploit
diversity reception in wireless systems. These algorithms weight the received signal
similar to beamforming but based on a different criterion used in the algorithm [4-5].

2.3.3 Space-time equalization

The preceding two techniques usually assume that the signal of interest is a
narrowband signal compared to the coherence bandwidth of the channel and is thus
subjected to flat fading across the bandwidth of the signal. Multipath fading in wireless
communication can also introduce frequency distortion to the received signal.

By introducing temporal processing in each antenna element to remove the

effect of frequency distortion and doing a spatial combining described above results in
mitigating channel induced frequency selective fading and providing antenna gain.
Such schemes are called space-time adaptive processing (STAP) or equalization.
Figure 2.13 [7] shows a generic diagram of a STAP based smart antenna system.
 33

Figure 2.13 A generic Space-time adaptive processing based 2D-Rake receiver

2.3.4 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO).

As the name suggests this scheme requires array processing at the transmitter and
receiver. There are two different types of MIMO schemes: one uses spatial
multiplexing to enhance data rate for a given bandwidth (thus, the spectral efficiency)
and the other uses space time coding using diversity combining techniques to combat
fading. In the multiplexing scheme, data is serial to parallel converted and
transmitted simultaneously over multiple antenna elements [6]. The receiver also uses
multiple antenna elements to receive the signal and applies a maximum likelihood (ML)
algorithm to retrieve the simultaneously transmitted symbols.

One key assumption in this case is that the propagation environment has to
provide rich scattering; in other words, the propagation channel has to include a large
 34

number of scattering objects that will generate independent fading at the antenna
elements. In the case of space-time coding, symbols to be transmitted are coded over
multiple antennas and symbol time durations in such a way that the receiver can
easily regenerate the transmitted signals by doing a linear processing on received signal.

The space-time codes rely on the orthogonality present in the coded symbols
for proper detection, and additionally they require the fading to be independent
between the antenna elements for best performance results. Figure 2.14 shows the set-
up of a MIMO system with nT and nR antennas at the transmitter and receiver
respectively.

Figure 2.14 MIMO system set-up

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2.4 Interaction of Smart antennas within a wireless system

In previous sections we have seen various types of implementations of smart

antennas both at the transmitter and receiver. In order to understand the interaction of
smart antennas with other parts of the wireless system a generic block diagram is needed
which accommodates most of the interface requirements over all possible types of
implementation. Figure 2.15 shows a block diagram of such a generic implementation of
smart antenna system highlighting the software and hardware boundaries and their
interfaces.

A transceiver can have both transmit and receive chains using more than one
antenna element. Each antenna element has its own RF and IF parts. The beamforming
network shown here is mostly used in fixed beamforming which in a software radio
scenario can be adaptively controlled using software. The bank of ADCs and DACs
are used for digital conversions in the receive and transmit case respectively. Finally there
is a baseband domain where smart antenna algorithms are run in the digital or software
domain. The smart antenna algorithms can also be combined with other baseband signal
processing algorithms in certain scenarios. In such cases a smart antenna processing
cannot be considered separate from other baseband modules in a software radio. Data
processing in smart antenna is usually done in the baseband signal processing part.
Hence the inputs to this section come from the digital converters in the case of a receiver
and form outputs in the case of transmitter. The data after processing is passed to the
upper network layer via software control. It is the reverse in the case when data from the
network layer needs to be transmitted.

All the components shown in the block diagram have control signals which in a
software radio will be generated in software. This control is necessary for various
operations like feedback from network layer, generating control signals to perform array
 36

calibration, or simply sending information of each RF chain to determine QoS. It can

be seen that control plays an important role to define the specific functionality of a
smart antenna system as well as collecting information and controlling different
components independently.

Figure 2.15 Block diagram of a smart antenna system.

In this section we have seen how different components in a smart antenna

system interact. We have also shown the hardware-software boundaries and how
control and data information interact in the system. Additionally, the above
information has shown that a smart antenna system can be controlled to operate
under different modes for different scenarios. This is the reason why a smart antenna
system needs to be subsystem or module in a software radio. To allow for different
modes of operation of a smart antenna module and to adapt the system to different
classes of smart antennas it is necessary to develop APIs which can integrate smart
antenna functionality into software radios. The next section gives a broad outline on
how APIs can be related to smart antenna functions.
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2.5 Smart antenna APIs for software radios

Application programming interfaces standardizes the way a smart antenna system

interfaces with software defined radio network. As seen from Figure 8 a smart
antenna system requires data from the RF section and also passes processed data to
the network layer. Smart antenna processing and control can be split into smaller
standardized modules. The specific inputs to these modules then decide the functionality
of the smart antenna subsystem. Smart antenna APIs when developed will standardize
these inputs and outputs and the number of available functionalities to choose from for
a smart antenna subsystem. According to SCA 2.2, provision has already been made for
an antenna API.

The Antenna Class that has been designed consists of both a simple passive
radiating element as well as an antenna array with possibly some dedicated intelligence.
UML profile of the Antenna Device created using Rational Rose Software is shown in
Figure 2.16:

Figure 2.16 Antenna API Definition

 38

A smart antenna API when designed will need to interact with the antenna API
which already has specifications to include the antenna requirements for a smart
antenna. Some of the important considerations that should be taken into account for
establishing a smart antenna API are discussed below. First a smart antenna subsystem can
operate either in transmit, receive or calibration mode in which case the number of inputs
and outputs can be varied according to number of antennas used. Next a smart
antenna needs to choose from different classes of operation as explained earlier.
Within these classes it can choose a combination of processing techniques which may
be based on the IP developed.

From a software control perspective information which can be integrated into

standard APIs include number of antennas, level of calibration, type of radiation pattern,
RSSI levels etc.. Thus the APIs should have commands which select the mode of
operation. It should have the ability to set variables which select the class or type of
smart antenna technique used and to retrieve information about control signals. Hence
we have defined in a broader sense the API primitives like command, variable and
signals required for a smart antenna subsystem to interface with SDR network.

As an example, a smart antenna basestation (SABS) needs to operate

independently of the SDR network so that advances in system standards or the hardware
do not affect the interface between the two. Figure 2.17 [8] shows the interface between
SABS and the network using API logical functionality.

Figure 2.17 Smart antenna API logical functionality

 39

The broad classification of smart antenna API primitives identified is

explained below in terms of their scope [19].
i. Commands: Asynchronous protocols-to-device primitives for
performing immediate, typically non-persistent actions.
ii. Variables: Persistent antenna state or long-term measurement primitives.
iii. Response: The synchronous device response to a protocol’s command or
variable operation.
iv. Signals: Asynchronous device-to-protocols primitives for
reporting recent, typically non-persistent events.

Based on the above classification of API primitives Table 2.1 [19] shows
and example of API primitives that need to be considered for beamforming SABS.

Table 2.1 Example API primitives for Beamforming Smart antenna

40
 41

2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of smart antennas

Primarily smart antennas were used at base stations in a cellular network to

improve user capacity. Capacity here refers to the number of subscribers that can be
simultaneously serviced in a system. Usage of omnidirectional antennas causes co-
channel interference when two users use the same band of frequency that eventually
limits the user capacity in a system. Since smart antennas can focus their beams
towards desired user reducing interference to other users using the same frequency
band, the user capacity in a system can be improved using spatial division multiple
access (SDMA). Figure 2.18 [7] shows this advantage of SDMA compared to the
omnidirectional case, which can reduce co-channel interference using beamforming.

Figure 2.18 Omnidirectional and Smart antennas based cellular system.

Other advantages as seen from various types of smart antennas studied in section
2 include robustness against multipath fading and noise which improves reliability of
received signal; reduced power consumption for handsets; low probability of
interception and detection; enhanced location estimates and enhanced range of
reception. Recent studies on use of smart antennas in mobile terminals have also shown
to improve network capacity in ad-hoc networks.
 42

One of the major existing disadvantages of smart antennas is in their design and
implementation in hardware. Multiple RF chains can increase the cost and make the
transceiver bulkier. Most of the baseband processing requires coherent signals. This
means that all the mixer LOs and ADC clocks need to be derived from same sources.
This can present significant design challenges. The phase characteristics of RF
components can change over time. These changes are relatively static and hence need
calibration procedures to account for phase differences. Most of the devices such as
mixers amplifiers and ADCS used are non-linear devices.

Using smart antennas can increase the number of such components used. This can
affect the performance of the array if not checked periodically. Further more since
antenna arrays use more than one source of signal the data bandwidth required for
digital processing increases linearly with number of antenna elements used. This can
limit data rates for different applications. Note that the technological challenges in
terms of hardware and processing load can be satisfactorily met by resorting to present-
day miniaturized RF components and faster and low power processors.

The accommodation of the antenna array itself within a small factor device,
however remains a challenge. Access points and base stations can easily host antenna
arrays of four or more elements but with existing microstrip or patch antenna
technology, up to three elements can be fitted in a handset form-factor. The
wrapping of the hand around a handheld device may diminish the performance of a
handheld smart antenna system.
 43

CHAPTER 3

MULTIANTENNA ALGORITHMS

3.1 Usage of Algorithms

It is important to point out that the antennas themselves are not “smart”, it is rather
the underlying antenna systems that have the intelligence in the form of advanced signal
processing algorithms. In order to be able to take full advantage of the multiantenna
techniques, discussed in the previous section, advanced and computationally heavy
communications algorithms must be used. There are myriads of different algorithms,
which are optimized and specialized for different multiantenna systems and for
different user scenarios. A brief discussion on smart antenna and MIMO methods are
given below.

3.2 Building blocks for Multiantenna Algorithms

There are two ways to define this, shown as follows:

 44

3.2.1 Common building blocks

The advanced communication algorithms can be described and realized under

a common framework of well known methods. This framework consists for example of
methods such as solving least squares problems, eigenvalue and singular valued
decomposition, factorizations, or using filtering techniques such as Kalman filtering
[6]-[8]. In multiantenna systems the received data is often collected and processed by
these methods in either matrix or vector form. These methods can therefore be
decomposed into fundamental matrix operations such as matrix-matrix multiplication,
matrix-vector multiplication, matrix inversion, QR-decomposition, LU-decomposition,
eigenvalue decomposition (EVD), singular value decomposition (SVD), etc. [14],[1 5].

For example, in the case of the Capon algorithm a matrix is to be inverted and in
the ESPRIT algorithm a SVD is done. Some of the matrix operations will be discussed
in detail in part II of the thesis which deals with the implementation of matrix operations
such as the QR-decomposition and matrix inversion.

Figure 3.1 shows a hierarchic view of the decomposition of the multiantenna

algorithms into common methods, which are decomposed into basic matrix operations.
The matrix operations presented in figure 3.1 constitute the computational bottle neck in
the hardware implementations of multiantenna algorithms. To be able to develop
efficient multiantenna systems a bottom-up approach must be applied. This means that
by developing optimized building blocks performing basic matrix operations, efficient,
thereby meaning high throughput rate, multi antenna algorithms can be implemented.
The main focus of this thesis is on the development of some of the most commonly
used building block.
 45

Figure 3.1 Multiantenna algorithms can be decomposed into common matrix

operations which constitutes fundamental building blocks.

3.2.2 Scalable building blocks

Besides efficient implementations, scalability of the hardware design is an

important factor. Previous hardware implementations of basic matrix operations have
often been mapped onto large multiprocessor networks, such as array architectures or
massive parallel architectures. Such architectures are seldom easy to tailor for one owns
needs and they tend to grow rapidly with the matrix size, thus consuming large amounts
of hardware resources. Resource conservative and scalable hardware blocks therefore
highly sought for. The scalability of the architectures developed in this research project
has therefore been prioritized.
 46

Basic matrix operations are not only used in the implementation of

multiantenna systems. Matrix operations occur in virtually every branch of engineering
[15]. Therefore, it is important to make hardware blocks that can be used in many
different types of applications.

3.3 Smart antenna algorithms

Smart antennas, in their simplest form, linearly combines antenna signals into a
weight vector that is used to control the beam pattern. The weights can be determined in
a number of ways using different algorithms. These smart antenna algorithms can
crudely be divided into three classes of algorithms, spatial reference, temporal
reference, and blind algorithms [7]. The common features of the two first algorithm
classes are that they both form beam patterns and they are based on linear weighting
and addition of received signals at the antenna elements. The difference between the
two classes is in how they calculate the antenna weights. The third class of algorithms
uses neither of the features used by spatial and temporal reference algorithms. Instead
they exploit the statistical properties of the transmit signal.

In Spatial reference algorithms (SR) the antenna weights are chosen based on
knowledge of the array structure [6],[7]. These algorithms estimate the direction of
arrival (DOA) of both the desired and interfering signals. The DOAs can be determined
by applying different methods to the sampled data from the antenna array. The simplest
way of extracting the DOAs is to use spatial Fourier transform on the signal vector.
 47

This method is limited by its resolution (size of antenna array) and has
therefore limited usages. In cases where good resolution is necessary, so called high-
resolution methods could be used. High-resolution methods are limited only by the
modeling errors and noise and not by the size of the antenna array [6],[7] . Common
high-resolution algorithms include:

i. Minimum Variance Method (a.k.a. Capon’s beamforming algorithm) [6].

Capon’s algorithm is a spectral-based search method. It determines an
angular spectrum for each direction by minimizing the noise and the
interference from other directions. This algorithm has been implemented
in this thesis and is discussed in more detail in part III.
ii. MUSIC algorithm [6],[7]. This algorithm determines the signal and
noise subspaces and then searches the spectrum to find DOAs.
iii. ESPRIT algorithm [6]. This algorithm determines the signal subspace,
from which the DOAs are determined in closed form.
iv. SAGE algorithm [6],[7]. The SAGE algorithm is based on maximum-
likelihood estimation of the parameters of the impinging waves on the
antenna array.

When the DOAs are determined an appropriate beampattern is created that

maximizes the beam pattern in the direction of the wanted signals and places nulls in
the direction of unwanted interfering signals.

Temporal reference algorithms (TR) are based on prior knowledge of the time
structure of the received signals [6],[7]. Usually a training sequence is used as a
temporal reference. The receiver aims to adjust or choose antenna weights in a way so
that the deviation of the combined signal at the output and in the known training sequence
is minimized. The calculated weights are then used to form a beam pattern.
 48

The third class of algorithms is termed blind algorithms (BA) [6],[7]. These
algorithms are based on prior knowledge of the signal properties of the transmitted
signal. Depending on which statistical properties of the transmitted signal are exploited,
we are able to apply different algorithms to determine the signal matrix from the
received sample data.

3.4 Overview of LMS Adaptive FIR

The proposed LMS adaptive FIR filter consists of two basic processes. The first
is a filtering process that involves computing the output of the FIR filter, produced by a
set of tap inputs, and also generating an error estimate by comparing this output to a known
desired response. The second is an adaptive process involving the automatic adjustment
of the tap weights of the filter according to the error estimation computed in the first
process. These two processes combine to form a feedback loop around the LMS
algorithm described [8].

The system considered throughout this thesis is shown in Figure 3.2. At

sampling instant k, the input signal u(k) represents the signal sent by the transmitter.
The interference signal nn(k) represents the interference experienced by the receiver.
The signal r(k) is defined as the output from the unknown channel, 1/H, which is then
added with nn(k) to form the received signal y(k). The signal y(k) is then passed through
the equaliser, F, to give the signal x(k). Finally, x(k) is compared with the original
transmitted signal u(k), to give the error signal e(k).
 49

Interference Signal
nn(k)

Figure 3.2 Block diagram of proposed adaptive equalisation system.

The role of the equaliser is to resolve the distortion of the channel while minimising
the effect of additive noise at its output [9]. For an unknown channel 1/H, an equaliser with
the transfer function F = H produces an overall channel-equaliser transfer function of
F/H = 1. This implies that in the case of no interference being experienced, the output
from the equaliser, x(k), will be the original transmitted signal u(k). We can think of F
as being an equaliser of 1/H, or an estimator of H.

3.5 Standard LMS Algorithm

There are several assumptions that need to be made with regards to the system
being considered. Reference can be made to Figure 3.2 while reading the following
assumptions. We assume that the unknown channel 1/H is linear, time invariant and
able to be modelled as a discrete-time IIR filter with n taps.
H= h1,h2, hn-d (3.1)
 50

The time invariant, n-tuple, IIR modelled, unknown channel 1/H is a

sparse channel with only mn nonzero (active) taps, and 120= 1.

The LMS adaptive FIR filter (equaliser) has a tap delay line structure and a length of n.
F 1
( 0 = Lk, (3.2)

The tap coefficients of F(k) are initially set to zero.

Fi(0) = 0, for i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n-1 (3.3)

The input signal u(k), and interference signal nn(k) are assumed to be zero
mean, bounded and wide-sense stationary processes. They are also assumed to be
uncorrelated with each other over time.

In order to calculate the output r(k) from the unknown channel 1/H, the system
requires knowledge of the last n –1 values of r. That is, the vector
R(k) = [r(k-1), r(k-2), r(k-3), r(k-n-1)] (3.4)

is used to calculate the output as

1/(1) r(k) = H(1) — H(2: n) RT (k)) (3.5)
where H(1) = ho, and H(2:n) = h2, hn-d

The output signal then has the interference signal nn(k) added to it to produce
the received signal
y(k) = r(k) + nn(k) (3.6)

The received signal y(k) is then added to an array of the last n-1 received signals
to form the received signal vector

Y k
( ) = [y(k), A-4 y(k-2), y(k-n-111 (3.7)
 51

This vector is then input into the adaptive equaliser F to produce the estimate x(k) of
the transmitted signal
x(k) = F(k-1)Y T(k) (3.8)
the estimate x(k) is then compared to the original transmitted signal u(k) to provide an error
signal
e(k) = u(k) — x(k) (3.9)

Ideally, the error signal e(k) should be equal to the interference signal nn(k).
This would indicate that the LMS adaptive equaliser has successfully estimated H. It can
be shown that the tap weights of the equaliser F are functions of the sampling instant k.
This indicates that the tap weights of the adaptive equaliser are time dependent, since
they are continuously being adapted.

The LMS algorithm adjusts the tap weights, or coefficients of the FIR equaliser
in an attempt to minimise the mean squared error (MSE) e2 (k). However, the MSE
requires large amounts of memory, so the instantaneous error e(k) is used to estimate the
gradient of the MSE surface [8].

Eventually, the Standard LMS equation the FIR equaliser is given by

F(k)= F(k-1) + Y(k) e(k) (3.10)
where Y(k) is the received signal vector from (3.7) and p is the step-size parameter.
 52

3.6 Stability of the LMS Algorithm

A crucial parameter affecting the stability and convergence rate of the LMS
algorithm is the value of the step-size parameter, 11. There is a trade-off between the
rate of convergence and stability of the LMS adaptive equaliser. A large p value results
in a faster convergence rate, but a reduction in the accuracy and stability of the
equaliser.

On the other hand, a small /I value gives greater accuracy and stability but a
slower convergence rate [10]. In [9], [11], the value of p is said to usually be chosen
within the range:

0<p 2< k (3.11)

2
Eu (i)
i=k-n+1
 53

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND RESULT

4.1 Analysis of Smart Antenna Simulation

In this case all adaptive array smart antenna simulations have a sum of 5000
input signals of the training sequence have signed values of 1 or -1 to simulate a
transmitter sending binary values. Although there are 5000 sampling instants, the results
only show up to 150 intervals due to the extremely high rate of convergence of the
system. The step-size parameter µ for the Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm is set to
0.008. to keep simulation as realistic as possible, especially for those simulations with
more than one multipath, each multipath experiences a different gain, which contains
both amplitude and phase components. It was found that the amplitude of the gain had
the most effect on the system, with the phase having little to no effect at all.

The carrier frequency, fc of transmitted training sequences is set to 400MHz,

which means the value of the wavelength λ is set to 0.75m. To satisfy an element
spacing d of λ/2 then means that d is set to 0.375m. Simulations with only one
transmitted signal, the propagation delay from transmission to reaching the first antenna
 54

element is set to 100µs, and for those with a second transmitted signal, the second
propagation delay is set at 150µs.

Even though only four simulation results are being presented, there were many
other simulations that were used to progress to the final simulations. The gain and noise
terms were initially left out of the system to ensure that the simulations were achieving
the correct result in the ideal environment. Also, in order to reach a simulation of
signals with three multipaths, a simulation with two multipaths was first examined.
Such simulations have not been included to avoid repetition.

4.2 Result for One White Signal with One DOA

To ensure that the system worked correctly, the first simulation investigated was
the reception of one signal with the one path that indicates the direction of arrival (DOA)
at the base station at angle of 60°. A gain with amplitude of 0.5 was introduced to the
input signal as it was propagated to the antenna. Figure 4.1 illustrates that the received
signal error converges at approximately 54 sample intervals and reaches 0.01 after 43
intervals.

The mean received signal error after convergence lies approximately at 0.0006.
Figure 4.1 shows that the beam pattern of the system correctly steers the main beam
in the direction of 60 with beam strength of two. This is due to the signal experiencing a
gain of amplitude 0.5, which reduces the power of the signal by half. To counter this,
the beam adjusts its gain to the inverse of the signal power in order to receive a signal
similar to the original signal.
 55

Figure 4.1 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white signal with 1
DOA.

Figure 4.2 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal with 1 DOA
 56

4.3 Result for One White Signal with Three DOAs

The next simulation is again for the transmission of one training sequence, but
this time with three multipaths that have directions of arrival of 60°, 30° and -20°. Each
multipath arrives at the antenna system with a difference of one sampling period 1/fc, so
we can denote the signals arriving at time instant t as u(t), u(t-1), and u(t-2).

The corresponding gains introduced to each of the multipath components have

amplitudes of 0.5, 0.66, and 1.0. In this instance, three different weight vectors are
used in the adaptive antenna system, one for each multipath. This means that three
LMS equations are running simultaneously to each produce a main lobe in the direction
of a multipath.

Figure 4.3 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 1 white signal with 3
DOAs.
 57

The received signal error plot shown in Figure 4.3 illustrates the effects of
having different gain terms. The smaller the gain amplitude, the longer it takes for the
antenna array to adapt and correctly estimate the transmitted signal.

The number of intervals for the received signal error of each multipath to
converge to 0.01 is 38, 22 and 9 respectively. The mean values are approximately
0.005, 0.0015 and 0.00034. The mean of the 1st multipath is approximately 10 times
more than the mean when only one path exists.

Figure 4.4 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 1 white signal with 3 DOAs

In Figure 4.4 it shows that the antenna systems beam pattern. It also demonstrates
its ability to steer separate beams in multiple directions and nulls in the directions of
interferers.
 58

Once again, the gain of each main beam is the inverse of the gain introduced to each
corresponding multipath component. To prove that the weights are able to place nulls in
the interference directions, the gain of DOA1 in the directions of DOA2 and DOA3 are
0.0133 and 0.0151 respectively.

This means that when receiving the 1st multipath signal, the other two multipath
signals are also received but with multiples of 0.0133 and 0.0151, which we can deem as
negligible. This is also the case for the reception of the other two multipaths.

4.4 Result for Two White Signals with One DOA Each

The simulation of transmitting two different signals with one DOA each is in
effect the same as sending one signal with two multipaths separated by at least one
sample period. This is because in both situations the two signals are uncorrelated with
each other.

The 1st signal is exposed to a gain with amplitude 0.5 and the 2nd signal 1.0.
Figure 4.5 once again shows that it takes longer for the system to converge when the
gain term is smaller. In this case two LMS equations are running simultaneously to
determine the weight vectors to produce the two beams in each desired direction.
 59

Figure 4.5 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white signals with 1
DOA each.

The beam pattern in Figure 4.6 shows the two beams from each set of weights is
able to correctly identify the DOAs of each signal as being 60° and –25°. The gain of the
1st set of weights in the direction of the 2nd signal is 0.0537 and the gain of the 2nd set of
weights in the direction of the 1st signal is 0.0105, demonstrating the smart antenna's
ability to distinguish between desired signals and interfering ones.

Figure 4.6 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white signals with 1 DOA
each.
 60

4.5 Result for Two White Signals with Three DOAs Each

The final smart antenna simulation is the most complex and provided the most
unexpected results. In this simulation we transmit two training sequences, each with
three multipath components. However, the 2nd and 3rd multipath components of each signal
are both set to arrive at the antenna array one sample period behind the 1st multipath.
Essentially, this means that the 2nd and 3rd multipaths are arriving at the base station at the
same time but from different directions.

As can be seen from Figure 4.7, although there were three multipaths for each
signal in the system, only two sets of received signal errors are being displayed. That is,
only four unique weight vectors exist. This is because the weight vectors for the 2nd and 3rd
multipaths are exactly the same due to these signals arriving at the same time. This
means that for multipath components of the same signal that arrive at the same time, only
one weight vector is needed. Also, the mean received signal error of the 1st multipath of
the 1st signal is roughly the same as for one signal with three multipaths, lying at
approximately 0.003.

Figure 4.7 Smart antenna simulation received signal error for 2 white signals with 3
DOAs each.
 61

Figure 4.8 Smart antenna simulation beam pattern for 2 white signals with 3 DOAs
each.

After this finding, it was expected that the main beam would either be directed in
the direction of the closest multipath or the one with the greatest gain. However, the beam
pattern shown in Figure 4.8 displays the four different beam patterns but the patterns for
the 3rd multipath of both signals have two main lobes in the correct directions of the 2nd and
3rd multipaths. The gains of these beams are half what they would normally be and
swapped between the multipath components.

This was a major result, to prove the ability for weight vectors to steer multiple
beams in multiple directions. Where as before this, it was always under the impression,
that each set of weight vectors could only steer one beam in one specific direction.
 62

4.6 Smart Antenna Summary

The smart antenna simulations confirmed that smart antenna systems have an ability
to distinguish between signals of interest and interferers by directing beams in the
directions of the desired signals and nulls in the directions of interferers. These
interferers can either be other transmitted signals from other mobile or multipath
components of the same signal. The major finding of the smart antenna simulations,
and perhaps the major finding of the whole thesis, is that adaptive array smart antenna
systems are able to deploy multiple main beams in multiple directions if multipaths of the
same desired signal arrive at the base station at the same time.

Given that we know that the antenna system can direct beams in the direction of
a desired signal and nulls in the direction of interferers, let us consider three multipaths of
one signal as in One White Signal with Three DOAs. The signal output from the 1st
antenna array weight vector is essentially u(t). Similarly, the outputs from the 2nd and 3rd
antenna array weight vectors are essentially u(t-1) and u(t-2). It is then applied time
delay filters of 27; and Ts, where Ts is the sample period, to the signals u(t) and u(t-1)
respectively. These signals can then be summed together constructively to increase the
received signal power, therefore increasing SNR and providing better performance, as
shown below:

Figure 4.9 Block diagram of time delay summing system.

 63

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Overall conclusion

This thesis has examined adaptive array smart antenna systems and the effects
that multipath components had on their performance. The results confirmed the great
interest in smart antenna systems as they proved that smart antenna systems could steer
beams for reception in the direction of desired incoming signals. Furthermore, they
can also place nulls in the direction of interfering signals.

It was also found that signals from multiple users might as well be multipath
components from the one signal arriving at different times. This is because both are
uncoil-elated with the desired transmitted signal.Both multipaths arriving at the smart
antenna at different times and at the same time were investigated. When investigating
multipaths arriving at the same time, it was found that only one set of weights is
needed no matter how many multipaths are arriving at the same time. The major
finding of the thesis was that a set of weights is not only able to steer a beam in a
desired direction, but also able to steer multiple beams in multiple desired directions.
 64

In theory, the inclusion of appropriate time delay filters at the output of the
smart antenna system would facilitate the constructive summation of the output signal,
therefore resulting in an increased signal power, meaning an increase in SNR and
therefore performance is achieved.

Once again, these results confirm why smart antennas have gained such popularity
and increased attention and that they will be the future of mobile communications.

5.2 Future Work

The analysis of the adaptive array smart antenna system can be expanded in many
ways. The theory of the time delay filters at the output of the smart antenna system could be
investigated to prove that this can in fact be done. Only the reception of signals has
been investigated, which logically leads to an investigation of transmission and then
combining the two together.

Perhaps other future work may look at applying smart antennas into a CDMA
system. Particularly, incorporating certain types of receivers into the system may enhance
the system by receiving only the strongest multipaths instead of all the multipaths
arriving at the antenna.
 65

REFERENCE

[1] L. C. Godara, Application of Antenna Arrays to Mobile Communications, Part

I: Performance Improvement, Feasibility, and System Considerations,
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[2] Wong, K.K., Murch, R.D. & Letaief, K.B. 2001. Optimizing Time and Space
MIMO Antenna System for Frequency Selective Fading Channels. IEEE Journal
on Selected Areas in Communications, July, pp.1395-1406.

[3] Rappaport, T.S. 1996 Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice,

Prentice Hall Communications Engineering and Emerging Technology Series.

[4] Oeting, J. 1983. Cellular Mobile Radio — An Emerging Technology. IEEE

Communications Magazine, November, pp. 10-15.

[5] Rosol, G. 1995. Base Station Antennas: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3. Microwaves &
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[6] Brickhouse, R.A., and Rappaport, T.S. 1997. A Simulation Study of Urban In-
Building Frequency Reuse. IEEE Personal Communications Magazine,
February, pp. 19-23.

[7] Liberti, J. C. & Rappaport, T.S. 1999. Smart Antennas for Wireless
Communications: IS-95 and Third Generation CDMA Applications, Prentice Hall
Communications Engineering and Emerging Technology Series, NJ.

[10] Haykin, S. 1996. Adaptive Filter Theory, Third Edition, Prentice Hall Inc., pp.
365 — 405. How, L. 2001. Signed LMS Adaptive Filtering with
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Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
 66

[11] Homer, J., Mareels, I., Bitmead, R., Wahlberg, B., & Gustafsson, F. 1998.
LMS Estimation via Structural Detection. IEEE Transactions on Signal
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[12] Pattan, B. 2000. Robust Modulation methods and Smart Antennas in Wireless
Communications, Prentice Hall PTR, NJ.

[13] Zooghby, A. 2001. Potentials of Smart Antennas in CDMA Systems and

Uplink Improvements. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, pp. 172177.

[14] Widrow, B., Mantey, P. E., Griffiths, L. J., and Goode, B. B. 1967. Adaptive
Antenna Systems. Proc. of the IEEE, December.

[15] Monzingo, R. & Miller, T. 1980. Introduction to Adaptive Arrays, Wiley and
Sons, NY.

[16] Frost, 0. L., III. 1972. An Algorithm for Linearly Constrained Adaptive Array
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[17] Jing Jiang, R. Michael Buehrer, and William H. Tranter, Antenna Diversity in
Multiuser Data Networks, IEEE Trans. Comm., vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 490-497,
Mar. 2004.
[18] Jeffrey H. Reed, Software Radio: A modern approach to radio engineering,
Prentice Hall Communications Engineering and Emerging technology series
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[19] S. Choi and J. H. Reed, “Smart Antenna API,” a power point presentation
submitted to Technical Committee SDRF, June 15, 2004.
 67

APPENDICES

Matlab simulation

a) One White Signal with One DOA.

%Least Mean Square of a Smart Antenna Simulation

%Able to Simulate a Smart Antenna System receiving a white input signal in a single
source

u = sign(randn(1,5000)); %input from source

N = length(u); %number of input signals
n = 8; %number of antenna elements
nn = (randn(N,n)+j*randn(N,n))*0.1; %noise input of SA
mu = 0.008; %step-size
T1 = 100*10^(-6); %time for signal to arrive at first element
fc = 4*10^8; %carrier frequency
c = 3*10^8; %speed of light
lambda = c/fc; %wavelength
d = lambda/2; %element spacing
DOA = 60; %Direction Of Arrival for u
DOA_rad = DOA*pi/180; %DOA in radian
sin_DOA= sin(DOA_rad); %DOA_rad in sinusoidal waveform
r = zeros(1,n); %receieved signal for each element
y = zeros(1,n); %r plus noise
x = zeros(1,N); %received signal estimation
e = zeros(1,N); %error between u and x
B = zeros(1,n); %mean squard error
 68

F = zeros(1,n); %initialize SA weight vectors to zero

expA = 0; %phase delay due to propagation time
expB = zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
Gain = 0.5*(exp(j*pi/3)); %Gain experienced by u

for k = 1:N
U = Gain*[u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k),u(k)];
for m =1:n
expA = exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
expB(m) = exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_DOA/lambda);
r(m) = U(m)*expA*expB(m);
y(m) = r(m)+nn(k,m);
end;
x(k) = y*F';
e(k) = u(k)-x(k);
F = F+mu*y*conj(e(k));
B(k) = e(k)*e(k)';
end;

figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B),'b');
hold on; hold off;
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);

grid on; grid off;

zoom on;
title('1 WHITE SIGNAL');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U-X] ^2 Error');
 69

angle_min = -90*pi/180;
angle_max = 90*pi/180;
angle_incr = 1*i/180;
q=0;
F=conj(F);

for angle1 = angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max

q = q+1;
angle2(q) = 2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;

for t = 1:n
G(t) = exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;

beam = abs(F*G');

end;

angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;

figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range, beam,'b');
hold on; hold off;
view(90,-90);
zoom on;
 70

b) One White Signal with Three DOAs

% Able to simulate a Smart Antenna System receiving 3 White input multipath

% signals from two sources and distinguishing each multipath.

u1=sign(randn(1,5000)); %1st multipath input for 1st signal

u2=[0,u1]; %2nd multipath input for 1st signal
u3=u2; %3rd multipath input for 1st signal
v1=sign)randn(1
N=length(u1); %number of input signals
n=8; %number of antenna inputs
nn=(randn(N,n)+j*randn(N,n))*0.1; %noise inputs for SA
mu=0.008; %step-size
fc=4*10^8; %carrier frequency
T1=100*10^(-6); %time for first signal to arrive at first element
T2=T1+1/fc; %time for second signal to arrive at first element
T3=T2+1/fc; %time for third signal to arrive at first element
c=3*10^8; %speed of light
lambda=c/fc; %wavelength
d=lambda/2; %element spacing
DOA1=60; %direction of arrival at u1
DOA2=30; %direction of arrival at u2
DOA3=20; %direction of arrival at u3
DOA_rad1=DOA1*pi/180; %radians of DOA1
DOA_rad2=DOA2*pi/180; %radians of DOA2
DOA_rad3=DOA3*pi/180; %radians of DOA3
sin1=sin(DOA_rad1); %sine of DOA_rad1
sin2=sin(DOA_rad2); %sine of DOA_rad2
sin3=sin(DOA_rad3); %sine of DOA_rad3
r=zeros(3,n); %received signals at each signal
y=zeros(3,n); %r plus noise
 71

x=zeros(3,N); %transmitted signal estimation

e=zeros(3,N); %error between u and x for each signal
B=zeros(3,n); %squard error for each signal
F=zeros(3,n); %initalize SA weight vectors to zero
exp1A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u1
exp2A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u2
exp3A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u3
exp1B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
exp2B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
exp3B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
Gain1=0.5*(exp(j*pi/3)); %Gain experienced by u1
Gain2=0.66*(exp(j*pi/6)); %Gain experienced by u2
Gain3=1.0*(exp(j*pi/4)); %Gain experienced by u3

for k=1:N
U1=Gain1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
U2=Gain2*[u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k)];
U3=Gain3*[u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k)];

for m=1:n
exp1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
exp1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin1/lambda);
exp2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T2);
exp2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin2/lambda);
exp3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T3);
exp3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin3/lambda);

r(1,m)=U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)
;
y(1,m)=r(1,m)+nn(k,m);
 72

r(2,m)=U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)
;
y(2,m)=r(2,m)+nn(k,m);

r(3,m)=U3(m)*exp3A*exp3B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+U2(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)
;
y(3,m)=r(3,m)+nn(k,m);
end;

x(1,k)=y(1,:)*F(1,:)';
e(1,k)=u1(k)-x(1,k);
F(1,:)=F(1,:)+mu*y(1,:)*conj(e(1,k));
B(1,k)=e(1,k)*e(1,k)';

x(2,k)=y(2,:)*F(2,:)';
e(2,k)=u2(k)-x(2,k);
F(2,:)=F(2,:)+mu*y(2,:)*conj(e(2,k));
B(2,k)=e(2,k)*e(2,k)';

x(3,k)=y(3,:)*F(3,:)';
e(3,k)=u3(k)-x(3,k);
F(3,:)=F(3,:)+mu*y(3,:)*conj(e(3,k));
B(3,k)=e(3,k)*e(3,k)';
end;

figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B(1,:)),'b');
xlim([0,150]);
 73

ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;

semilogy(abs(B(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;

semilogy(abs(B(3,:)),'g');
hold off;

xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
grid on; grid off;
title('1 WHITE SIGNAL USING 3DOA');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U-X] ^2 Error');
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);

angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
F(1,:)=conj(F(1,:));
F(2,:)=conj(F(2,:));
F(3,:)=conj(F(3,:));

for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
 74

G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;

beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
beam3(q)=abs(F(3,:)*G');
end;

angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;

figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam3,'g');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);
zoom on;
 75

c) Two White Signals with One DOA

%Able to simulate a Smart Antenna System receiving and distinguishing 2 white input
signals.

u1=sign(randn(1,5000)); %source 1 input

v1=sign(randn(1,5000)); %source 2 input
N=length(u1); %number of input signals
n=8; %number of antenna elements
nn=(randn(N,n)+j*randn(N,n))*0.1 %noise input for SA
mu=0.008; %step-size
F1=zeros(1,n); %initialize 1st DOA weight vectors to zero
F2=zeros(1,n); %initialize 2nd DOA weight vectors to zero
T1=100*10^(-6); %time for 1st signal to arrive at first element
T2=150*10^(-6); %time for 2nd signal to arrive at first element
fc=4*10^8; %carrier frequency
c=3*10^8; %speed of light
lambda=c/fc; %wavelength
d=lambda/2; %element spacing
DOA1=60; %direction of arrival for u1
DOA2=-25; %direction of arrival for u2
DOA_rad1=DOA1*pi/180; %DOA1 in radians
DOA_rad2=DOA2*pi/180; %DOA2 in radians
sin1=sin(DOA_rad1); %sine of DOA1
sin2=sin(DOA_rad2); %sine of DOA2
r=zeros(2,n); %received signals at each signal
y=zeros(2,n); %r plus noise
x=zeros(2,N); %transmitted signal estimation
e=zeros(2,N); %error between u and x for each signal
B=zeros(2,n); %squard error for each signal
F=zeros(2,n); %initalize SA weight vectors to zero
 76

exp1A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u1

exp2A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of v1
exp1B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
exp2B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
Gain1=0.5*(exp(j*pi/3)); %Gain experienced by u1
Gain2=1.0*(exp(j*pi/4)); %Gain experienced by u2

for k=1:N
U1=Gain1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
V1=Gain2*[v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k),v1(k)];

for m=1:n
exp1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T1);
exp1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin1/lambda);
exp2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*T2);
exp2B=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin2/lambda);

r(1,m)=U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m)+V1(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m);
y(1,m)=r(1,m)+nn(k,m);

r(2,m)=V1(m)*exp2A*exp2B(m)+U1(m)*exp1A*exp1B(m);
y(2,m)=r(2,m)+nn(k,m);
end;

x(1,k)=y(1,:)*F(1,:)';
e(1,k)=u1(k)-x(1,k);
F(1,:)=F(1,:)+mu*y(1,:)*conj(e(1,k));
B(1,k)=e(1,k)*e(1,k)';

x(2,k)=y(2,:)*F(2,:)';
e(2,k)=v1(k)-x(2,k);
 77

F(2,:)=F(2,:)+mu*y(2,:)*conj(e(2,k));
B(2,k)=e(2,k)*e(2,k)';
end;

figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(B(1,:)),'b');
hold on;
xlim([0,100]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
semilogy(abs(B(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold off;
grid on; zoom on;
title('2 WHITE SIGNALS');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U,V-X] ^2 Error');
legend('1st Sig','2nd Sig',4);

angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
F(1,:)=conj(F(1,:));
F(2,:)=conj(F(2,:));

for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
 78

G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;

beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
end;

angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;

figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('1st Sig','2nd Sig',4);
zoom on;
 79

d) Two White Signals with Three Doa

% Able to simulate a Smart Antenna System receiving 2 White input multipath

% signals from 3 sources and distinguishing each multipath.

u1=sign(randn(1,5000)); %1st multipath input for 1st signal

u2=[0,u1]; %2nd multipath input for 1st signal
u3=u2; %3rd multipath input for 1st signal
v1=sign)randn(1,5000)); %1st multipath input for 2nd signal
v2=[0,v1]; %2nd multipath input for 2nd signal
v3=v2 %3rd multipath input for 2nd signal
N=length(u1); %number of input signals
n=8; %number of antenna inputs
nn=(randn(N,n)+j*randn(N,n))*0.1; %noise inputs for SA
mu=0.008; %step-size
fc=4*10^8; %carrier frequency
Tu1=100*10^(-6); %time for first signal to arrive at first element
Tu2=Tu1+1/fc; %time for second signal to arrive at first element
Tu3=Tu2; %time for third signal to arrive at first element
Tv1=150*10^(-6); %time for first signal to arrive at second element
Tv2=Tv1+1/fc; %time for second signal to arrive at second element
Tv3=Tv2; %time for third signal to arrive at second element
c=3*10^8; %speed of light
lambda=c/fc; %wavelength
d=lambda/2; %element spacing
DOAu1=60; %direction of arrival at u1
DOAu2=30; %direction of arrival at u2
DOAu3=-20; %direction of arrival at u3
DOA_radu1=DOAu1*pi/180; %radians of DOAu1
DOA_radu2=DOAu2*pi/180; %radians of DOAu2
 80

DOA_radu3=DOAu3*pi/180; %radians of DOAu3

sin_u1=sin(DOA_radu1); %sine of DOA_radu1
sin_u2=sin(DOA_radu2); %sine of DOA_radu2
sin_u3=sin(DOA_radu3); %sine of DOA_radu3
DOAv1=-50; %direction of arrival at v1
DOAv2=0; %direction of arrival at v2
DOAv3=45; %direction of arrival at v3
DOA_radv1=DOAv1*pi/180; %radians of DOAv1
DOA_radv2=DOAv2*pi/180; %radians of DOAv2
DOA_radv3=DOAv3*pi/180; %radians of DOAv3
sin_v1=sin(DOA_radv1); %sine of DOA_radv1
sin_v2=sin(DOA_radv2); %sine of DOA_radv2
sin_v3=sin(DOA_radv3); %sine of DOA_radv3
ru=zeros(3,n); %received first signal at each element
yu=zeros(3,n); %ru plus noise
xu=zeros(3,N); %transmitted 1st signal estimation
eu=zeros(3,N); %error between u and x for each multipath of 1st signal
Bu=zeros(3,N); %squared error of multipath for 1st signal
Fu=zeros(3,n); %initalize SA weight vectors to zero
rv=zeros(3,n); %received second signal at each element
yv=zeros(3,n); %rv plus noise
xv=zeros(3,N); %transmitted 2nd signal estimation
ev=zeros(3,N); %error between v and x for each multipath of 2nd signal
Bv=zeros(3,N); %squared error of multipath for 2nd signal
Fv=zeros(3,n); %initalize SA weight vectors to zero
expu1A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u1
expu2A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u2
expu3A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of u3
expu1B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
expu2B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
expu3B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
 81

expv1A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of v1

expv2A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of v2
expv3A=0; %phase delay due to propagation time of v3
expv1B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
expv2B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
expv3B=zeros(1,n); %additional delay at each element
Gainu1=0.5*(exp(j*pi/2)); %Gain experienced by u1
Gainu2=0.66*(exp(j*pi/6)); %Gain experienced by u2
Gainu3=0.75*(exp(j*pi/4)); %Gain experienced by u3
Gainv1=0.6*(exp(j*pi/7)); %Gain experienced by v1
Gainv2=0.8*(exp(j*pi/5)); %Gain experienced by v2
Gainv3=0.7*(exp(j*pi/3)); %Gain experienced by v3

for k=1:N
U1=Gainu1*[u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k),u1(k)];
U2=Gainu2*[u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k),u2(k)];
U3=Gainu3*[u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k),u3(k)];
V1=Gainv1*[v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K),v1(K)];
V2=Gainv2*[v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K),v2(K)];
V3=Gainv3*[v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K),v3(K)];

for m=1:n
expu1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu1);
expu1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u1/lambda);
expu2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu2);
expu2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u2/lambda);
expu3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tu3);
expu3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_u3/lambda);

expv1A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv1);
expv1B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v1/lambda);
 82

expv2A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv2);
expv2B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v2/lambda);
expv3A=exp(-j*2*pi*fc*Tv3);
expv3B(m)=exp(-j*2*pi*(m-1)*d*sin_v3/lambda);

ru(1,m)=U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*ex
pu3B(m)

+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(
m);
yu(1,m)=ru(1,m)+nn(k,m);

ru(2,m)=U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*ex
pv1B(m)

+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(
m);
yu(2,m)=ru(2,m)+nn(k,m);

ru(3,m)=U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*ex
pv2B(m)

+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(
m);
yu(3,m)=ru(3,m)+nn(k,m);
 83

rv(1,m)=V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*ex
pv3B(m)

U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)
;
yv(1,m)=rv(1,m)+nn(k,m);

rv(2,m)=V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(m)+V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*ex
pu1B(m)

+U2(m)*expu2A*expu2B(m)+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(
m);
yv(2,m)=rv(2,m)+nn(k,m);

rv(3,m)=V3(m)*expv3A*expv3B(m)+U1(m)*expu1A*expu1B(m)+U2(m)*expu2A*ex
pu2B(m)

+U3(m)*expu3A*expu3B(m)+V1(m)*expv1A*expv1B(m)+V2(m)*expv2A*expv2B(
m);
yv(3,m)=rv(3,m)+nn(k,m);
end;

xu(1,k)=yu(1,:)*Fu(1,:)';
eu(1,k)=u1(k)-xu(1,k);
Fu(1,:)=Fu(1,:)+mu*yu(1,:)*conj(eu(1,k));
Bu(1,k)=eu(1,k)*eu(1,k)';

xu(2,k)=yu(2,:)*Fu(2,:)';
 84

eu(2,k)=u2(k)-xu(2,k);
Fu(2,:)=Fu(2,:)+mu*yu(2,:)*conj(eu(2,k));
Bu(2,k)=eu(2,k)*eu(2,k)';

xu(3,k)=yu(3,:)*Fu(3,:)';
eu(3,k)=u3(k)-xu(3,k);
Fu(3,:)=Fu(3,:)+mu*yu(3,:)*conj(eu(3,k));
Bu(3,k)=eu(3,k)*eu(3,k)';

xv(1,k)=yv(1,:)*Fv(1,:)';
ev(1,k)=v1(k)-xv(1,k);
Fv(1,:)=Fv(1,:)+mu*yv(1,:)*conj(ev(1,k));
Bv(1,k)=ev(1,k)*ev(1,k)';

xv(2,k)=yv(2,:)*Fv(2,:)';
ev(2,k)=v2(k)-xv(2,k);
Fv(2,:)=Fv(2,:)+mu*yv(2,:)*conj(ev(2,k));
Bv(2,k)=ev(2,k)*ev(2,k)';

xv(3,k)=yv(3,:)*Fv(3,:)';
ev(3,k)=v3(k)-xv(3,k);
Fv(3,:)=Fv(3,:)+mu*yv(3,:)*conj(ev(3,k));
Bv(3,k)=ev(3,k)*ev(3,k)';
end;

figure(1);clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(Bu(1,:)),'b');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;
 85

semilogy(abs(Bu(2,:)),'r');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;

semilogy(abs(Bu(3,:)),'g');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold off;

grid on; grid off;

title('2 WHITE SIGNAL USING 3DOA FOR 1st SIGNAL');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U-X] ^2 Error');
legend('DOA1_Sig1','DOA2_Sig1','DOA3_Sig1',4);

subplot(2,1,1);
semilogy(abs(Bv(1,:)),'m');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;

semilogy(abs(Bv(2,:)),'c');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
hold on;

semilogy(abs(Bv(3,:)),'k');
xlim([0,150]);
ylim([10^-7,10^1]);
 86

hold off;

grid on; grid off;

title('2 WHITE SIGNAL USING 3DOA FOR 2nd SIGNAL');
xlabel('Sample Interval');
ylabel('[U-X] ^2 Error');
legend('DOA1_Sig2','DOA2_Sig2','DOA3_Sig2',4);

angle_min=-90*pi/180;
angle_max=90*pi/180;
angle_incr=1*pi/180;
q=0;
Fu(1,:)=conj(Fu(1,:));
Fu(2,:)=conj(Fu(2,:));
Fu(3,:)=conj(Fu(3,:));
Fv(1,:)=conj(Fv(1,:));
Fv(2,:)=conj(Fv(2,:));
Fv(3,:)=conj(Fv(3,:));

for angle1=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max
q=q+1;
angle2(q)=2*pi*d*sin(angle1)/lambda;
for t=1:n
G(t)=exp(j*angle2(q)*(t-1));
end;

beam1(q)=abs(F(1,:)*G');
beam2(q)=abs(F(2,:)*G');
beam3(q)=abs(F(3,:)*G');
end;
 87

angle_range=angle_min:angle_incr:angle_max;

figure(2);clf;
polar(angle_range,beam1,'b');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam2,'r');
hold on;
polar(angle_range,beam3,'g');
hold off;
view(90,-90);
legend('DOA1','DOA2','DOA3',4);
zoom on;