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How To Evaluate An Oscilloscope
How To Evaluate An Oscilloscope
Application Note
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Electronic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Introduction
Wave properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Analog versus digital signals . . . . . . . . . 4
Electronic technology permeates
What is an Oscilloscope and
Why Do You Need One? . . . . . . . . . . . 5 our lives. Millions of people use
Signal integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 electronic devices such as cell phones,
What an oscilloscope looks like . . . . . . 6 televisions, and computers on a daily
An oscilloscope’s purpose . . . . . . . . . . . 7 basis. As electronic technology has
Types of oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 advanced, the speeds at which these
Where oscilloscopes are used . . . . . . . 10 devices operate have accelerated.
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Today, most devices use high-speed
Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 digital technologies. which are malfunctioning. They can
Basic front-panel controls . . . . . . . . . . 11 also help you determine whether or
Softkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Engineers need the ability to not a newly designed component
Basic measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 accurately design and test the behaves the way you intended.
Basic mathematical functions . . . . . . . 16 components in their high-speed Oscilloscopes are far more powerful
Important Oscilloscope digital devices. The instrumentation than multimeters because they allow
Performance Characteristics . . . . . . 17 engineers use to design and test their you to see what the electronic signals
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 components must be particularly well- actually look like.
Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 suited to deal with high speeds and
Sample rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 high frequencies. An oscilloscope is an
Memory depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oscilloscopes are used in a wide range
example of just such an instrument. of fields, from the automotive industry
Update rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Oscilloscope connectivity . . . . . . . . . . 20 to university research laboratories,
Oscilloscopes are powerful tools that to the aerospace-defense industry.
Oscilloscope Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 are useful for designing and testing
Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Companies rely on oscilloscopes
electronic devices. They are vital in to help them uncover defects and
Passive probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
determining which components of a produce fully-functional products.
Active probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Current probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
system are behaving correctly and
Probe accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Electronic Signals
The main purpose of an oscilloscope Wave properties second is called the root-mean-square
is to display electronic signals. By (RMS) amplitude. To calculate the RMS
viewing signals displayed on an Electronic signals are waves or pulses. voltage of a waveform, square the
oscilloscope you can determine Basic properties of waves include: waveform, find its average voltage and
whether a component of an electronic take the square root.
system is behaving properly. So, to Amplitude
understand how an oscilloscope Two main definitions for amplitude For a sine wave, the RMS amplitude
operates, it is important to understand are commonly used in engineering is equal to 0.707 times the peak
basic signal theory. applications. The first is often referred amplitude.
to as the peak amplitude and is defined
as the magnitude of the maximum Phase shift
displacement of a disturbance. The Phase shift refers to the amount
of horizontal translation between
two otherwise identical waves. It is
measured in degrees or radians. For
a sine wave, one cycle is represented
by 360 degrees. Therefore, if two sine
waves differ by half of a cycle, their
relative phase shift is 180 degrees.
peak amplitude
Period
RMS amplitude
The period of a wave is simply the
amount of time it takes for a wave to
repeat itself. It is measured in units of
seconds.
Frequency
Every periodic wave has a frequency.
The frequency is simply the number
of times a wave repeats itself within
Figure 1. Peak amplitude and RMS amplitude for a sine wave one second (if you are working in units
of Hertz). The frequency is also the
reciprocal of the period.
period
2 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Electronic Signals (continued)
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 3
Electronic Signals (continued)
Triangular/sawtooth waves Analog versus digital signals is, therefore, discretized into minute
In a triangular wave, the voltage varies intervals. One second it might be
linearly with time. The edges are called Analog signals are able to take on any 11:54 and then it jumps to 11:55
ramps because the waveform is either value within some range. It is useful suddenly. Digital signals are likewise
ramping up or ramping down to certain to think of an analog clock. The clock discrete and quantized. Typically,
voltages. A sawtooth wave looks hands spin around the clock face discrete signals have two possible
similar in that either the front or back every twelve hours. During this time, values (high or low, 1 or 0, etc.). The
edge has a linear voltage response the clock hands move continuously. signals, therefore, jump back and forth
with time. However, the opposite edge There are no jumps or discreteness between these two possibilities.
has an almost immediate drop. in the reading. Now, compare this to
a digital clock. A digital clock simply
Pulses tells you the hour and the minute. It
A pulse is a sudden single disturbance
in an otherwise constant voltage.
Imagine flipping the switch to turn the
lights on in a room and then quickly
turning them off. A series of pulses is
called a pulse train. To continue our
analogy, this would be like quickly
turning the lights on and off over and
over again.
Complex waves
Waves can also be mixtures of
the above waveforms. They do not
necessarily need to be periodic and
can take on very complex wave
shapes.
Figure 7. A pulse
4 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One?
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 5
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One? (continued)
What an oscilloscope looks like You send your signals into the An example of what the back panel of
oscilloscope via the channel inputs, an oscilloscope looks like is seen in
In general, modern digitizing which are connectors for plugging Figure 9.
oscilloscopes look similar to the one in your probes. The display is simply
seen in Figure 8. However, there are the screen where these signals are As you can see, many oscilloscopes
a wide variety of oscilloscope types, displayed. The horizontal and vertical have the connectivity features found
and yours may look very different. control sections have knobs and on personal computers. Examples
Despite this, there are some basic buttons that control the horizontal axis include CD-ROM drives, CD-RW drives,
features that most oscilloscopes have. (which typically represents time) and DVD-RW drives, USB ports, serial
The front panel of most oscilloscopes vertical axis (which represents voltage) ports, and external monitor, mouse,
can be divided into several basic of the signals on the screen display. and keyboard inputs.
sections: the channel inputs, the The trigger controls allow you to tell
display, the horizontal controls, the the oscilloscope under what conditions
vertical controls, and the trigger you want the timebase to start an
controls. If your oscilloscope does not acquisition.
have a Microsoft® Windows®-based
operating system, it will probably have
a set of softkeys to control on-screen
menus. Display Horizontal control section
Trigger
control
section
Vertical
control
section
6 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One? (continued)
An oscilloscope’s purpose the x and y-axes are broken into voltage measured by channel 1 versus
divisions by a graticule. The graticule the voltage measured by channel 2.
An oscilloscope is a measurement enables you to make measurements This mode is called the XY-mode of
and testing instrument used to display by visual estimation, although with an oscilloscope. It is useful when
a certain variable as a function of modern oscilloscopes, most of graphing I-V plots or Lissajous patterns
another. For example, it can plot on these measurements can be made where the shape of these patterns
its display a graph of voltage (y-axis) automatically and more accurately by tells you the phase difference and
versus time (x-axis). Figure 10 shows the oscilloscope itself. the frequency ratio between the two
an example of such a plot. This is signals. Figure 11 shows examples
useful if you want to test a certain An oscilloscope can also do more of Lissajous patterns and the phase
electronic component to see if it is than plot voltage versus time. An difference/frequency ratio they
behaving properly. If you know what oscilloscope has multiple inputs, represent.
the waveform of the signal should called channels, and each one of these
be after exiting the component, you acts independently. Therefore, you
can use an oscilloscope to see if could connect channel 1 to a certain
the component is indeed outputting device and channel 2 to another.
the correct signal. Notice also that The oscilloscope could then plot the
180 degrees; 1:1 ratio 90 degrees; 1:1 ratio 90 degrees; 1:2 ratio 30 degrees; 1:3 ratio
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 7
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One? (continued)
Types of oscilloscopes makes the display act as a three- The attenuator scales the waveform.
dimensional plot (in other words, x-axis The vertical amplifier provides
Analog oscilloscopes is time, y-axis is voltage, and z-axis is additional scaling while passing the
The first oscilloscopes were analog intensity). waveform to the analog-to-digital
oscilloscopes, which use cathode- converter (ADC). The ADC samples and
ray tubes to display a waveform. The downside of an analog digitizes the incoming signal. It then
Photoluminescent phosphor on oscilloscope is that it cannot “freeze” stores this data in memory. The trigger
the screen illuminates when an the display and keep the waveform for looks for trigger events while the
electron hits it, and as successive an extended period of time. Once the time-base adjusts the time display for
bits of phosphor light up, you can phosphorus substance deluminates, the oscilloscope. The microprocessor
see a representation of the signal. that part of the signal is lost. Also, you system performs any additional
A trigger is needed to make the cannot perform measurements on the postprocessing you have specified
displayed waveform look stable. waveform automatically. Instead you before the signal is finally displayed on
When one whole trace of the display have to make measurements usually the oscilloscope.
is completed, the oscilloscope waits using the grid on the display. Analog
until a specific event occurs (for oscilloscopes are also very limited in Having the data in digital form enables
example, a rising edge that crosses the types of signals they can display the oscilloscope to perform a variety
a certain voltage) and then starts the because there is an upper limit to of measurements on the waveform.
trace again. An untriggered display is how fast the horizontal and vertical Signals can also be stored indefinitely
unusable because the waveform is not sweeping of the electron beam can in memory. The data can be printed or
shown as a stable waveform on the occur. While analog oscilloscopes are transferred to a computer via a flash
display (this is true for DSO and MSO still used by many people today, they drive, LAN, USB, or DVD-RW. In fact,
oscilloscopes, which will be discussed are not sold very often. Instead, digital software now allows you to control
below, as well.) oscilloscopes are the modern tool of and monitor your oscilloscope from a
choice. computer using a virtual front panel.
Analog oscilloscopes are useful
because the illuminated phosphor does Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs)
not disappear immediately. You can Digital storage oscilloscopes (often
see several traces of the oscilloscope referred to as DSOs) were invented to
overlapping each other, which allows remedy many of the negative aspects
you to see glitches or irregularities of analog oscilloscopes. DSOs input a
in the signal. Since the display of the signal and then digitize it through the
waveform occurs when an electron use of an analog-to-digital converter.
strikes the screen, the intensity of Figure 12 shows an example of one
the displayed signal correlates to the DSO architecture used by Agilent
intensity of the actual signal. This digital oscilloscopes.
Channel
memory
Trigger Time-base
8 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One? (continued)
Mixed signal oscilloscopes (MSOs) a small number of analog channels Portable/handheld oscilloscopes
In a DSO, the input signal is analog (2 or 4) and a larger number of digital As its name implies, a portable
and the digital-to-analog converter channels (see Figure 13). oscilloscope is one that is small
digitizes it. However, as digital enough to carry around. If you need
electronic technology expanded, Mixed signal oscilloscopes have the to move your oscilloscope around
it became increasingly necessary advantage of being able to trigger on to many locations or from bench to
to monitor analog and digital a combination of analog and digital bench in your lab, then a portable
signals simultaneously. As a result, signals and display them all, correlated oscilloscope may be perfect for
oscilloscope vendors began producing on the same time base. you. Figure 14 shows an example
mixed signal oscilloscopes that can of a portable instrument, the
trigger on and display both analog Agilent InfiniiVision 2000 X-Series
and digital signals. Typically there are oscilloscope.
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 9
What Is an Oscilloscope and Why Do You Need One? (continued)
Types of oscilloscopes
10 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Measurements
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 11
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Measurements (continued)
Trigger controls
As we mentioned earlier, triggering
on your signal helps provide a stable, Trigger voltage
usable display and allows you to
synchronize the scope’s acquisition
on the part of the waveform you are
interested in viewing. The trigger Rising edge triggering
controls let you pick your vertical
trigger level (for example, the voltage Figure 18. When you trigger on a rising
at which you want your oscilloscope to edge, the oscilloscope triggers when the
trigger) and choose between various trigger threshold is reached
triggering capabilities. Examples of
common triggering types include:
12 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Measurements (continued)
Pulse-width triggering – Pulse usually have a button associated with acquisition. Some of today’s higher
width triggering is similar to glitch each particular channel that enables performance oscilloscopes can capture
triggering when you are looking for you to turn them on or off. There may up to 32-GHz bandwidth signals in a
specific pulse widths. However, it is also be a selection that allows you single-shot utilizing real-time sampling
more general in that you can trigger to specify AC or DC coupling. If DC
on pulses of any specified width and coupling is selected, the entire signal Equivalent-time sampling –
you can choose the polarity (negative will be input. On the other hand, AC Equivalent time sampling builds up the
or positive) of the pulses you want to coupling blocks the DC component and waveform over several acquisitions. It
trigger. You can also set the horizontal centers the waveform about 0 volts samples part of the signal on the first
position of the trigger. This allows (ground). In addition, you can specify acquisition, then another part on the
you to see what occurred pre-trigger the probe impedance for each channel second acquisition, and so on. It then
or post-trigger. For instance, you can through a selection button. The input laces all this information together to
execute a glitch trigger, find the error, controls also let you choose the type recreate the waveform. Equivalent time
and then look at the signal pre-trigger of sampling. There are two basic ways sampling is useful for high-frequency
to see what caused the glitch. If you to sample the signal: signals that are too fast for real-time
have the horizontal delay set to zero, sampling (>32 GHz).
your trigger event will be placed in Real-time sampling – Real-time
the middle of the screen horizontally. sampling samples the waveform often
Events that occur right before the enough that it captures a complete
trigger will be to the left of the screen image of the waveform with each
and events that occur directly after
the trigger will be to the right of the
screen. You also can set the coupling
of the trigger and set the input source
you want to trigger on. You do not
always have to trigger on your signal,
but can instead trigger a related signal.
Figure 20 shows the trigger control
section of an oscilloscope’s front
panel.
Input controls
There are typically two or four analog
channels on an oscilloscope. They
will be numbered and they will also
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 13
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Measurements (continued)
Figure 21. The Trigger Type menu appears when you push the
softkey underneath the trigger menu
14 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Basic Oscilloscope Controls and Measurements (continued)
Peak-to-peak voltage
This measurement calculates the
voltage difference between the low
voltage and high voltage of a cycle on
your waveform.
RMS voltage
This measurement calculates the
RMS voltage of your waveform. This
quantity can then be used to compute
the power.
16 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Important Oscilloscope Performance Properties
8 digital
channels 4 analog channels
Figure 25. Analog and digital channels on an Agilent MSO 2000 X-Series oscilloscope
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 17
Important Oscilloscope Performance Properties (continued)
Sample rate channels are used simultaneously, the If we kept increasing the sample
sample rate may decrease. Therefore, rate for the waveform in this above
The sample rate of an oscilloscope it is wise to check how many channels example, the sampled points would
is the number of samples the you can use while still maintaining eventually look almost continuous. In
oscilloscope can acquire per second. It the specified maximum sample rate. fact, oscilloscopes usually use sin(x)/x
is recommended that your oscilloscope If the sample rate of an oscilloscope interpolation to fill in between the
have a sample rate that is at a least is too low, the signal you see on the sampled points.
2.5 times greater than its bandwidth. scope may not be very accurate. As
However, ideally the sample rate an example, assume you are trying to For more information about
should be 3 times the bandwidth or view a waveform, but the sample rate oscilloscope sampling rates,
greater. only produces two points per period see application note, Evaluating
(Figure 26). Oscilloscope Sample Rates vs.
You need to be careful when you Sampling Fidelity: How to Make the
evaluate an oscilloscope’s sample rate Now consider the same waveform, Most Accurate Digital Measurements.
banner specifications. Manufacturers but with an increased sample rate that
typically specify the maximum sample samples seven times per period
rate an oscilloscope can attain, (Figure 27).
and sometimes this maximum rate
is possible only when one or two It is clear that the greater the samples
channels are being used. If more per second, the more clearly and
accurately the waveform is displayed.
Figure 26. Waveform where the Figure 27. Waveform where the
sample rate yields two data points sample rate yields seven data
per period points per period
18 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Important Oscilloscope Performance Properties (continued)
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 19
Important Oscilloscope Performance Properties (continued)
Figure 28. Visual depiction of dead-time. The circles highlight two infrequent events that
would not be displayed
20 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Oscilloscope Probes
The oscilloscope is just one piece Inductive loading―appears as ringing Active probes
of the system that determines how in your signal. It occurs because of the
accurately you are able to display and inductive effects of the probe ground To operate an active probe, the probe
analyze your signals. Probes, which lead, so use the shortest lead possible. requires a power supply to power-
are used to connect the oscilloscope up active devices within the probe
to your device under test (DUT), are Passive probes itself. The required power supply is
crucial in terms of signal integrity. If sometimes supported with a USB
you have a 1-GHz oscilloscope but Passive probes contain only passive cable connection, an external “box”,
only have a probe that supports a components and do not require a and sometimes it is supplied by
bandwidth of 500 MHz, you are not power supply for their operation. They the scopes mainframe itself. Active
fully utilizing the bandwidth of your are useful for probing signals with probes use active components to
oscilloscope. This section discusses bandwidths less than 600 MHz. Once amplify or condition a signal. They are
the types of probes and when you this frequency is surpassed, a different able to support much higher signal
should use each one. kind of probe is required (an active bandwidths and are, therefore, the
probe). probes of choice for high-performance
Loading applications.
Passive probes are typically
No probe is able to perfectly reproduce inexpensive, easy to use, and rugged. Active probes are considerably more
your signal, because when you They are a versatile and accurate expensive than passive probes. Active
connect a probe to a circuit, the probe type of probe. Types of passive probes probes also tend to be less rugged and
becomes part of that circuit. Part of the include low-impedance resistor-divider the probe tip on active probes tend to
electrical energy in the circuit flows probes, compensated, high-resistance be heavier. However, they provide the
through the probe. This phenomenon passive divider probes, and high- best overall combination of resistive
is called loading. There are three types voltage probes. and capacitive loading and allow you
of loading: resistive, capacitive, and to test much higher-frequency signals.
inductive. Passive probes usually produce
relatively high capacitive loading and The Agilent InfiniiMax Series probes
Resistive loading―can cause the low resistive loading. are high-performance probes. They use
amplitude of your displayed signal to a damping resistor in the probe tips
be incorrect. It can also cause a circuit to significantly reduce loading effects.
that is malfunctioning to start working They also have very high bandwidths.
when the probe is attached. It is a
good idea to make sure the resistance
of your probe is greater than ten times
the resistance of the source in order to
get an amplitude reduction of less than
ten percent.
Oscilloscope Fundamentals 21
Oscilloscope Probes (continued)
Current probes are used to measure Probes also come with a variety of
the current flowing through a circuit. probe tips. There are many different
They tend to be big and have limited types of probes tips, everything from
bandwidth (100 MHz). bulky tips that can wrap around cables
to tips the size of several hairs. These
tips make it easier for you to access
various parts of a circuit or a device
under test.
22 Oscilloscope Fundamentals
Conclusion
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Oscilloscope Fundamentals 23
www.agilent.com