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PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISATION OF VARNISH FROM POLYSTYRENE FOR

THE PROTECTION OF BANANA LEAVES

Research · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3959.7527

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 KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISATION OF VARNISH FROM

POLYSTYRENE FOR THE PROTECTION OF BANANA LEAVES

Done by:

Juvenal MUKURARINDA GS20080189

And

Jean François Régis NISENGWE GS20080262

RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITED IN A PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR’S DEGREE OF SCIENCE IN
APPLIED CHEMISTRY, ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY OPTION.

Kigali, November 2011

TOWARD A BRIGHER FUTURE

i
 DECLARATION

We, MUKURARINDA Juvénal and NISENGWE Jean Francois Régis, have read and understood
KIST education’s policy on academic dishonesty and plagiarism. We hereby confirm that this is
our own work and that we have not plagiarized any part of it.

Juvénal MUKURARINDA

Signature …………………………Date…15th November, 2011

Jean François Régis NISENGWE

Signature …………………………Date……15th November, 2011

This research proposal has been submitted with the approval of the following university
supervisors.

Supervisor: Prof. Elena KOVALEVA

Signature……………………………Date…15th November, 2011

Co-Supervisor: Mr. Theoneste NKURUNZIZA

Signature……………………………Date…15th November, 2011

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express the deepest appreciation to our Supervisors Prof. Elena KOVALEVA
and Mr. Theoneste NKURUNZIZA for their invaluable assistance. Without their guidance and
persistent help this dissertation would not have been possible.

We would like to thank our parents, sisters and brothers, and fellow students whose help and
support led to the completion of this work.

Finally, we also thank Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) and the government of
Rwanda for their support.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... iv
LIST OF EQUATIONS ......................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vi
TABLE OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... vi
ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ viii
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................... 1
1.4 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4.1. Main objective................................................................................................................................ 2
1.4.2. Specific objectives ......................................................................................................................... 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................. 3

2.1 Varnish manufacturing........................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.1 Components of classic varnish ........................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2. Characteristics and properties of varnish ....................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Types of varnish .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.4 Uses of varnishes ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.2. Polystyrene as raw material for varnish preparation .......................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Structural features and properties of polystyrene ............................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Preparation of polystyrene .............................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3 Types and importance of polystyrene ............................................................................................. 7
2.3 Banana leaves as building materials ................................................................................................... 9

3.0 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 10

3.1 Background ....................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Collection of raw materials ............................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Varnish production............................................................................................................................ 10

iv
 3.4 Physical characterization of prepared varnishes ............................................................................... 10
3.4.1 Viscosity ....................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.2 Non-volatile content ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.3 Density .......................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.4 Thickness of the coated banana leaves.......................................................................................... 12
3.4.5 Test of the protective properties of prepared varnishes on banana leaves .................................... 12

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................................. 14

4.1Physical parameters of the prepared varnishes. ................................................................................. 14
4.1.1 Viscosity ....................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1.2 Drying time ................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1.3 Thickness of the coated banana leaves.......................................................................................... 15
4.1.4 Non-volatile matter ....................................................................................................................... 15
4.1.5 Varnish density properties vis a vis non volatile contents ............................................................ 15
4.1.6 Viscosity properties vis a vis thickness of the prepared varnishes ............................................... 16
4.2 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.1 Viscosity ....................................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.2 Thickness ...................................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.3 Non-volatile matter ....................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.4 Drying time ................................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Protective properties ......................................................................................................................... 18

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................... 19

5.1 CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................... 19
5.2 RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................................................... 19

6.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 20

v
LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 1: Non volatile content ................................................................................................. 11

Equation 2: Density....................................................................................................................... 11

Equation 3: Volume ...................................................................................................................... 12

Equation 4: Thickness ................................................................................................................... 12

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Physical properties of various varnishes prepared in laboratories in comparison to

commercial AMEKI varnish ......................................................................................................... 14

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Polystyrene structure ....................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2: Synthesis of styrene ......................................................................................................... 7

Figure 3: Synthesis of polystyrene .................................................................................................. 7

Figure 4: Varnish production experiment ..................................................................................... 10

Figure 5: Relationship between viscosity and drying time ........................................................... 15

Figure 6: Density vs. NVC............................................................................................................ 16

Figure 7: Viscosity vs. thickness .................................................................................................. 16

vi
ACRONYMS
ASTM: American Standards for Testing and Materials

CGS: Centimeter gram second

cP: centipoises

ISO: international standards organization

μm: Micro meter

NVC: Non-Volatile Content

vii
 ABSTRACT

Varnish can be produced from both natural and synthetic resins. Our research work focused on
the production of varnish from one of the synthetic resins, polystyrene. Five different
polystyrene solutions prepared in toluene (6%, 10%, 14%, 18%, 22% of w/v) were determined
for density, viscosity, non-volatile content, thickness, waterproof property and drying time using
Densimeter, “Haake viscotester”, watch glass and calculation method. To assess the quality of
the varnish, a comparison to AMEKI color Ltd varnish was made based on softness, tenderness
and shininess film on drying.

Based on the results obtained the varnish with 18% of w/v was chosen as the best one among
others. The physical parameters for the best varnish namely density, drying time, thickness,
viscosity and non-volatile content were found to be 0.896 g/cm3, 6 minutes, 63.11 μm (one-layer
coating) & 102.21 μm (two layers coating) , 120 cP , 21.05%, respectively. The scratch test,
cracking test and waterproofing property test were also used to check the protective property of
the varnishes and showed that this varnish with 18 % w/v resisted the scratch test and water was
spread on the coated banana leaves and it was percolated the banana leaves except the one which
was coated with 18% hence chosen to be the best one.

Key words: Polystyrene, Varnish, Viscotester, Waterproofing

viii
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

For years, varnish has been used in wood protection and decoration. Varnish is traditionally a
combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. During the production of varnish
different kinds of resins may be used; natural or synthetic.

Polystyrene, a thermoplastic substance used in packaging, is among the synthetic resins found as
waste in nature after they have been used. It has been found that polystyrene can be a raw material
for varnish production. This project aimed at producing and characterizing the varnish made from
polystyrene.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Polystyrene takes very long time to decompose in the environment, thus it is considered a pollutant
when chucked in the environment. However varnish production would then contribute in reducing
pollution by polystyrene through varnish production.

Polystyrene is not easily recycled because of its light weight (especially when colloidal suspension
of a gas is in a liquid) and its low scrap value. This ensures a constant supply of raw material for
varnish production.

Banana leaves can be used as a building material but when not protected they can be easily damaged
by water, insects and so on. One of the ways to protect banana leaves is to coat them with varnish.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Varnish can be used in coating materials built from natural fibers for example bricks made from
banana leaves in order to protect them from the environmental threat such as aunts, termites.

1
Furthermore, this production of varnish will be cost effective as it is simple and requires no
sophisticated equipments.

1.4 OBJECTIVES

1.4.1. Main objective

The main objective of this research is to produce and characterize varnishes made from different
concentration of polystyrene-based waste products for protecting banana leaves.

1.4.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives of the study are:

 To determine the best concentrations for the production of varnish from polystyrene wastes.

 To study the following physical properties of the varnish produced from polystyrene wastes
such as viscosity, density, drying time, thickness and non-volatile content.

 To test the waterproofing, cracking and scratching resistance properties of the different
varnishes.

2
 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Varnish manufacturing

A varnish is an unpigmented colloidal dispersion or solution of natural or synthetic or both resins in

oils in absence or presence of thinners (Senapati, 2002).

The manufacture of varnish involves the mixing and blending of various ingredients such as resins,
thinners and drying oils to produce a wide range of products. Usually, chemical reactions are
initiated by heating. On industrial scale varnish is cooked in either open or enclosed gas-fired kettles
for periods of 4 to 16 hours at temperatures of 93 to 340°C (Stenburg, 1959).
Once coated, varnishes dry on the surface by evaporation, oxidation and polymerization of its
constituents leaving behind a hard, transparent, glossy, lustrous and durable film.

2.1.1 Components of classic varnish

The classic varnish is composed of three main components: resins, drying oils and solvents or
thinners (Morgans, 2000)

2.1.1.1 Resins

The resin in varnish provides an element of hardening, resistance to weathering, durability,

resistance to chemical action and waterproofness. Resins in use are natural (shellac, kauri, rosin,
copal, dammer and manila) and synthetic resins (phenol aldehyde, alkyds, urea formaldehyde,
terpene polymers.

2.1.1.2 Drying oils

The drying oils dry by oxidation and polymerization. The oils used are linseed, tung, dehydrated
castor, soyabean, oitica, perilla, fish oils.

3
2.1.1.3 Solvents or thinners

The solvents or thinners generally used are turpentine, petroleum spirit, coal tar naphta, kerosene,
xylol, butyl and ethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, toluene, acetone

2.1.2. Characteristics and properties of varnish

A good varnish should be soft, tender, dry quickly, produce glossy and shining film on drying. It
should not shrink or crack after drying. It must adapt itself to the contraction/expansion of coated
material like wood due to temperature. Varnishes are generally applied by brush and the brushing
properties are determined largely by the viscosity. If this is too high, brush drag will be experienced
and the varnish will be difficult to spread; if too low, the varnish will form runs on vertical surfaces
and the film will be excessively thin (Morgans, 2000).
The drying time of a varnish is dependent on the composition but, in addition, it is influenced by
film thickness, temperature and humidity of the air, nature of the substance acted upon in a
biochemical reaction and the amount of light reaching the surface (Morgans, 2000). The property
which is important from a practical viewpoint is the resistance of the film to mechanical injury and
this depends on a combination of hardness and toughness.

2.1.3 Types of varnish

There are two types of varnishes. Spirit varnishes and oleoresinous (oil) varnishes

2.1.3.1 Spirit varnishes

These are solutions of natural resins like shellac, rosin, copal, dammar, kaurigum. In methylated
spirit or some other completely volatile non film forming solvent. These varnishes dry rapidly but
undergo cracking and peeling in absence of plasticizers.

2.1.3.2 Oleoresinous varnishes (oil varnishes)

These are homogeneous solutions of one or more natural or synthetic resins in drying oil and a
volatile solvent. Some plasticizers can also be added to the oil. This type of varnish dries up by
evaporation of volatile solvent, followed by oxidation and polymerization. Consequently, such

4
varnishes take comparatively longer periods (nearly 24 hours) for drying, but the film producing is
hard, quite lustrous and durable (Senapati, 2002).

2.1.4 Uses of varnishes

The main use of oil varnishes has been the finishing of wood for improving the appearance and
intensifying the ornamental grains of wood surfaces (Morgans, 2000)

Varnishes can also be used to fight against corrosion. The inventive method for protecting from
corrosion and scale deposit and restoring tubes of heat-exchanging equipment consists in applying a
polymeric coating on the internal surface of tubes by gradually and rotationally moving an excessive
volume of polymeric material therealong and in hardening said material. (Golovin,et al., 2010).

2.2. Polystyrene as raw material for varnish preparation

Polystyrene (Poly (1-phenylethane-1, 2-diyl)), is an aromatic polymer made from the
aromatic monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is commercially manufactured
from petroleum by the chemical industry (Polystyrene).

For many years, polystyrene has been used for different purposes such as packaging material,
disposable cups making, CD cases making and many more. However, it has been found that when no
longer used polystyrene-based products are discarded in nature where they become pollutants.
Furthermore, it is known that resins are ones of the most vital components of varnish. Polystyrene
being a resin was thought to be a raw material for varnish production. Hence, these polystyrene-
based products can be used in varnish production (Goodier, 1961).

2.2.1 Structural features and properties of polystyrene

2.2.1.1 Structural features

Polystyrene is represented by the chemical formula, C8H8 and is made up of two chemical elements,
carbon and hydrogen (Denis H, et al, 2005).

5
 H2C CH
n
Figure 1: Chemical structure of a building block unit of polystyrene complex

2.2.1.2 Properties of polystyrene

The unique physical and chemical properties of polystyrene makes it good material for a wide range
of applications. In solid form, polystyrene is a colorless and rigid plastic. However, this material
may also be returned to a liquid state by heating and used again for molding or extrusion

Polystyrene is transparent, light, and has excellent moisture resistance. It has good electrical
insulation characteristics. Polystyrene is hard but brittle and has a density of 1.050 g/cm3. Most of
the polystyrene properties are due to properties of carbon. It is highly flammable and burns with an
orange yellow flame, giving off soot, as a characteristic of all aromatic hydrocarbons. Polystyrene,
on oxidation, produces only carbon dioxide and water vapor (Goodier, 1961).

2.2.2 Preparation of polystyrene

Polystyrene is manufactured by the addition polymerization of styrene monomer unit. The main
manufacturing route to styrene is the direct catalytic dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene.

600 0c
H3C CH CH CH2 + H2
Cr2O3/Al2O3
Ethyl benzene Styrene

6
 Figure 2: chemical synthesis of synthesis of styrene from ethyl benzene

The reaction shown above has a heat of reaction of  121 KJ/mol (endothermic). Nearly 65% of all
styrene is used to produce polystyrene.

The overall reaction describing the styrene polymerization is:

BF3 n
n
CCl4 H2C CH
H2C CH
polystyrene
styrene

Figure 3: Synthesis of polystyrene from styrene

This reaction is carried out in an inert organic solvent environment, which provides the reaction
medium for this cationic polymerization reaction.

2.2.3 Types and importance of polystyrene

In general, there are four main types of polystyrene: sheet, foams, copolymers and oriented
polystyrene (OPS) (Goodier, 1961).

2.2.3.1 Sheet or molded polystyrene

Polystyrene is economical, and is used for producing plastic model assembly kits, plastic cutlery, CD
"jewel" cases, smoke detector housings, license plate frames, and many other objects where a fairly
rigid, economical plastic is desired. Production methods include thermoforming and injection

7
molding.
Polystyrene petri dishes and other laboratory containers such as test tubes and microplates play an
important role in biomedical research and science (Mihai, et al, 2007)

2.2.3.2 Foams

Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and are therefore often used as building insulation
materials, such as in structural insulated panel building systems. They are also used for non-weight-
bearing architectural structures (such as ornamental pillars). PS foams exhibit also good damping
properties, therefore it is used widely in packaging (Mihai et al, 2007)

 Expanded polystyrene
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam. It is usually white and made of
pre-expanded polystyrene beads. Familiar uses include molded sheets for building insulation and
packing material ("peanuts") for cushioning fragile items inside boxes. Sheets are commonly
packaged as rigid panels, which are also known as "bead-board". A growing use of EPS in
construction is insulating concrete forms.(Heneault et al, 2007)

 Extruded polystyrene foam

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells, offers improved surface roughness and
higher stiffness and reduced thermal conductivity.
Extruded polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building, particularly architectural
models. Because of the extrusion manufacturing process, XPS does not require facers to maintain its
thermal or physical property performance. Styrofoam is a trademarked name for XPS; however, it is
often also used in the United States as a generic name for all polystyrene foams (Goodier, 1961).

2.2.3.3 Copolymers
Pure polystyrene is brittle, but hard enough that a fairly high-performance product can be made by
giving it some of the properties of a stretch material, such as polybutadiene rubber.

2.2.3.4 Oriented polystyrene

Oriented polystyrene (OPS) is produced by stretching extruded PS film, improving stiffness
(Heneault et al, 2007).

8
2.3 Banana leaves as building materials

From centuries, mankind has used natural fibre for various types of application including building
materials. Most of the developing countries are very rich in agricultural and natural fibre. Except a
few exceptions, a large part of agricultural waste is being used as fuel. All these natural fibres have
excellent physical and mechanical properties and can be utilised more effectively in the development
of composite materials for various building applications (Amit and Jha, 2004)

Emergence of polymers in the beginning of the 19th century has provided the researcher new
dimensions to use natural fibre in more diversified fields. At the same time, necessity has also
increased the interest in synthetic fibre like glass fibre which, due to its superior dimensional and
other properties seems to be gaining popularity and slowly replacing natural fibre in different
applications. As a result of this change in the raw material and production process of synthetic fibre
based composites, energy consumption has increased(Amit & Jha, 2004).

The environmental loss suffered by society due to pollution generation during the production and
recycling of these synthetic based materials has once again drawn attention to the use of natural
fibre. The renewed interest resulted in new ways of natural fibre modifications/use and brought it to
be at par/superior to synthetic fibres. Now it is in use from making rope to spacecraft applications
and the building industry has also come up as one of its main beneficiaries.

In most of the countries, users have explored the possibilities of using natural fibre from different
plants, which includes bagasse, cereal straw, corn stalk, cotton stalk, kenaf, rice husk/rice straw and
banana leaves. The latter are used in manufacturing of building boards, fire resistance fibre
board(Amit& Jha, 2004).

9
 3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Background
The materials from which varnishes were produced are polystyrene waste based-materials. The
materials to be protected are banana leaves. The procedure for the production was divided into two
parts: varnish production and characterization of that varnish.

3.2 Collection of raw materials

The raw materials were composed of foam polystyrene, banana leaves and the solvent which was
toluene. The polystyrene wastes were obtained from KIST premises (office and ground). Banana
leaves were collected from Kigali; Toluene was taken from KIST4 Chemistry Lab.

3.3 Varnish production

The experiment of production was carried out also in KIST4 Chemistry Lab. Five different varnishes
products were generated by mixing weight (in grams) to volume (in ml) (w/v) various quantities of
polystyrene and toluene as follows 6%, 10%, 14%, 18% and 22%.
After all polystyrene had been dissolved, the beakers were closed with an aluminum foil to avoid
oxidation and evaporation. Hence varnish was produced.

Figure 4: Raw materials and the Varnish produced from them

3.4 Physical characterization of prepared varnishes

All these different varnishes were studied with regard to physical properties. The following
parameters were examined: viscosity, time taken to dry, density, non-volatile content, thickness and
waterproofing.

10
3.4.1 Viscosity
The viscosity was measured using Haake viscotester (ISO 3219: 1993). The spindles of the
viscotester probes were immersed into the varnishes accordingly and the viscosities were observed
from the machine.

3.4.2 Non-volatile content

Non-volatile matter of vanishes is a residue by mass obtained after evaporation from the oven at
high temperature. It was measured using glass watch, drying oven and analytical balances (accuracy
0.1 mg) (ISO 3251:1993). The produced Varnishes were weighted using watch glass and recorded
then after they were taken to oven at the temperature higher than that of the room temperature in the
pursuit of the evaporation the mass again of the residue were recorded.

To calculate non-volatile matter (NV) in % of mass the following equation is used:

Equation 1: Non volatile content

𝒎𝟏
𝑵𝑽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ,
𝒎𝟐

Where m2 – mass of test probe of vanish, g;

m1– mass of a residue, g.

3.4.3 Density

The density of the polystyrene-based varnishes was measured with the Mettler Toledo densimeter.
However, the density of AMEKI varnish was measured using the pycnometer (ISO 2811-1:1997).

The density of product in g/cm3 can be calculated at test temperature by the formula:

Equation 2: Density
(𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟎 )
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒕) = ,
𝑽

Where m2 – mass of pycnometer with test material, g ;

11
 m0 – mass of empty pycnometer at test temperature, g;

t – Temperature for testing (23 C or other accepted temperature)

v- Volume of pycnometer

The volume of pycnometer (V) in ml is calculated by the formula:

Equation 3: Volume
(𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟎 )
𝑽= ,
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

Where m1 – mass of pycnometer with water, g;

m0 – mass of empty pycnometer, g;
Density of water at 23 C and other accepted temperature

3.4.4 Thickness of the coated banana leaves

After producing, all the varnishes including that from AMEKI were coated using the brush on dried
well weighed and measured banana leaves. Considering the fact that all the varnishes produced were
less viscous, it was thought to coat banana leaves with two layers of varnish in order to increase the
protective aspect of the varnishes. Their thicknesses were then measured and their different
behaviors are indicated in the part of results.

The formula used to calculate the thickness is as follows:

Equation 4: Thickness
[𝒎(𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)−𝒎(𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)]
𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 = ,
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚×𝑨

Where A: surface of the coated banana leaf

3.4.5 Test of the protective properties of prepared varnishes on banana leaves

The following tests were carried out on the produced varnishes as follow:

 Water proofing: This test were performed using observation with naked eyes throughout the
week by looking and spraying water three times a day (morning, noon and evening) on five
varnishes coated to banana leaves labeled differently.

12
 Scratch test: Five varnishes were coated onto banana leaves were tested using a needle by
taking each banana leave coated with different portion of varnish then scratch and see which
from the five coated banana leaves would resist to the test. (ISO 1518:1992 (E))

 Cracking: After coating banana leaves, we kept them at the safe place in the laboratory and
later than four days through observation with naked eyes we came to conclude which from
them was resisted to cracking.

13
 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1Physical parameters of the prepared varnishes.

Physical characteristics of five different samples of polystyrene-based varnish produced in the
laboratory and varnish from AMEKI were measured. They are the following: Viscosity, Drying
time, Density, Thickness, Non-volatile content and Protective properties

Table 1: Physical properties of various varnishes prepared in laboratories in comparison to commercial

AMEKI varnish
Samples

%of Thickness
w/v density Thickness of of two
Toluene drying in 1-layer layers viscosity NVC
polystyrene(g) (ml) time(min) g/cm3 coatings(μm) (μm) (cP) (%)

1 3 50 6 3 0.877 31.89 63.55 19 8

2 5 50 10 3 0.883 47.55 72.73 31 14.28

3 7 50 14 4 0.890 59.47 92.76 70 16.27

4 9 50 18 6 0.896 63.11 102.21 120 21.05

5 11 50 22 6 0.897 120 189.57 180 28

AMEKI 60 0.907 31.8 198.17 1570 36.5

4.1.1 Viscosity
The viscosity of varnishes increases as mass of the resin (polystyrene) increases. An increase in
viscosity from the first sample to the fifth sample prepared is slight compared to the sharp increase
from the fifth sample to that of AMEKI varnish, probably going to 9 times.

4.1.2 Drying time

The drying time of a varnish is the time taken by that varnish to dry and thus leave a dried surface.
Drying time of vanish samples prepared increases from sample 1 to sample 5 as their mass increases.
The drying time of AMEKI color was found to be very different from the polystyrene-based
vanishes.

14
 70
y = 0.0373x + 1.3074
60
R² = 0.9979
50

Drying time (min)

40

30
drying time(min)
20

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
viscosity( cP)

Figure 5: Relationship between viscosity and drying time of the different types of Varnishes

4.1.3 Thickness of the coated banana leaves

In one-layer and two layers polystyrene-based coatings, as expected, the thickness increases from
sample 1 to sample 5. For AMEKI varnish the thickness of one layer and two layers coatings was
found lower and higher than for that of the varnishes produced, respectively.

However, the thickness of AMEKI varnish on two-layers coating, unlike on one-layer coating,
became higher than that of polystyrene-based varnishes. This was due to the fact that the second
coating found it hard to force the first dried layer to shrink.

4.1.4 Non-volatile matter

Non-volatile content increases from Sample 1 to Sample 5. Non-volatile content for AMEKI varnish
was found to be higher than of Sample 5. This is due to the difference in density and the composition
of the prepared varnishes and that of AMEKI whom evaporation is totally different.

4.1.5 Varnish density properties vis a vis non volatile contents

As density was increasing the evaporation decreases in the same line from sample 1 to sample 5 thus
the non volatile matter increase. Figure below shows the close relationship between the two
parameters.

15
 40
y = 924.69x - 803.83
35
R² = 0.9367
30
25

NVC (%)
20
15 NVC

10
5
0
0.875 0.88 0.885 0.89 0.895 0.9 0.905 0.91
Density (g/cm3 )

Figure 6: Relationship between the density properties and the non volatile content

4.1.6 Viscosity properties vis a vis thickness of the prepared varnishes

As it was shown, some parameters are correlated to others. Viscosity was increasing the thickness
was also increasing due to slight decrease of the evaporation from sample one to sample five of the
prepared varnishes. The figure below shows the correlation between viscosity and thickness of the
varnishes.

200
180 y = 0.7099x + 44.536
160 R² = 0.8882
140
Thickness (μm)

120
100 Thick of 1-layer
coatings(μm)
80
60 Thick of two layers (μm)
40
y = 0.4716x + 24.793
20 R² = 0.8849
0
0 50 100 150 200
Viscosity (cP)

Figure 7: Viscosity of the prepared varnishes vis a vis their thicknesses

16
4.2 DISCUSSION

4.2.1 Viscosity
The increase in viscosity from sample 1(19 cP) to sample 5 (180 cP) is attributed to increase in
polystyrene quantity. As for the big difference in viscosities between sample 5 and AMEKI varnish
(1570 cP), it might be due to the difference in molecular weights of the polystyrene and that of
AMEKI varnish. Polystyrene’s molecular (104.15 g/mol) is lower than that of most resins from
which popular varnishes are made such as polyurethane, alkyds, nitrocellulose,

4.2.2 Thickness
The increase in thickness from sample 1 (31.89 μm) to sample 5 (120 μm) may be due to the
increase in mass of the resin (polystyrene). The unexpected drop in thickness from sample 5 ( 120
μm) to AMEKI varnish (31.80 μm) might be due to the process of oxidation while drying. During
oxidation, the oxygen is trapped into the long chains of unsaturated fatty acids in what is known as
cross-linking. This results in the varnish clinging intimately onto the coated surface, hence the
thickness decreases. Because our varnishes did not contain any oil their thicknesses did not
experience any cross-linking, thus they have high thickness compared to the AMEKI varnish which
contains a drying oil.

However, the thickness of AMEKI varnish on two-layers coating, unlike on one-layer coating,
became higher than that of polystyrene-based varnishes. This was due to the fact that the second
coating found it hard to force the first dried layer to shrink.

4.2.3 Non-volatile matter

As shown in the results, non-volatile content increased from Sample 1 to Sample 5. Non-volatile
content for AMEKI varnish was found to be higher than of prepared samples and this is due to the
fact that the molecular mass of the resins that make AMEKI varnish are higher than polystyrene that
makes other varnishes thus lower the evaporation (wileth et al, 1995)

4.2.4 Drying time

The big difference in drying time of Sample 5 (6min) and AMEKI varnish (60 min) is due to the
equally big difference in viscosity.Drying time increase as the viscosity increase(Morgans, 2000).

17
4.3 Protective properties

The results of the tests showed that all the samples resisted water and that only sample 4 with 18%
of weight to volume (w/v) resisted the scratch. As for the cracking, it was found that again only
sample 4 did not show signs of cracking while other varnishes had started to show signs of cracking.

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 5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The varnish produced by mixing 9 grams of polystyrene with 50 mL of toluene (18% of w/v)was
found to be the best mixture among the others relying on parameters and on the protective
properties. It was found it had viscosity 120 cP, density 0.896 g/cm3 at 23.10C, non volatile content
21.05% and drying time 6 min.

Due to the fact that polystyrene is soft with light weight in production of varnish there is no need of
incorporating drying oils as intended to other types of varnishes.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Surfaces stabilizer which works at the surface to repair damage from UV light and Anti-skinning
agents which allow the varnish to maintain a wet surface upon exposure to the oxygen were not
added to the final produced varnishes because of the lack of these chemicals here in Rwanda. Further
work is required to fully demonstrate suitability of this varnish for the proposed application and
testing to establish the effects of such additions on properties.

19
 6.0 REFERENCES

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Cohen, Joshua T et al (2002). "A comprehensive evaluation of the potential health risks associated
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Considine, D. M. (1974). Chemical and process technology encyclopedia, McGraw-Hill.Inc, New

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Denis H. et al (2005), “styrene” ullman’s Encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. Wiley.VCH, German

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Stenburg R.L. (1959)”controlling atmospheric emissions from paint and varnish operations, Part I”
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