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The work-energy theorem: the effect of varying mass

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2001 Phys. Educ. 36 61

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 FEATURES

The work–energy theorem:

the effect of varying mass
Ronald Newburgh
Extension School, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Abstract
This paper examines the work–energy theorem of classical physics and
applies it to two situations with non-constant mass. The first is that of a
rocket burning fuel. The second is that of a proton in a particle accelerator
reaching relativistic speeds. The analysis leads to a reformulation of the
work–energy relation in terms of momentum and velocity rather than force
and displacement. This allows graphical determinations of kinetic energy
that are both simple to make and clear even to beginning students. The use
of graphical integration obviates the necessity of using calculus for the
non-constant mass situations. An unexpected result is the invariance of this
reformulation even for the relativistic case.

Introduction Perhaps even more important is the result

A student recently asked a question that prompted
me to re-examine the work–energy theorem and
its relation to kinetic energy. His question was
quite simple. What is the meaning of a plot of
velocity versus momentum for a body since an
‘area’ in momentum–velocity space is an energy?
The question is one with several far-reaching
implications. The first of these leads to a re-
examination of the work–energy theorem and
allows a graphical interpretation of the kinetic
energy. The graphical interpretation offers a
fresh look at kinetic energy that has considerable
pedagogic merit, as judged from student response.
This result alone would justify the analysis.
However, the graphical technique has shown itself
to be more general and powerful, allowing, as it
does, treatment of time-varying mass. Graphical
integration allows one to determine net work
or change in kinetic energy quite simply. The
paper examines both the rocket problem with non-
constant mass and particles moving at relativistic
velocities. This approach makes these two topics
far more accessible to beginning students than do
more conventional techniques.
that a simple equation in elementary mechanics,
namely the one relating work, momentum and
velocity, is equally valid in relativistic mechanics.
Let me stress that this does not mean that there
are two equations that are covariant but rather
that there is one equation that is the same in
both relativistic and classical mechanics. This
was a completely unexpected consequence of the
analysis.
Net work and momentum
Let us begin with the definition of the net work
done on a body undergoing a displacement. For
simplicity we shall consider a net force acting
parallel to the displacement. The infinitesimal net
work, dWnet , is given as
dWnet = Fnet dx (1)
where Fnet is the net force and dx the infinitesimal
displacement. The total net work for a body
going from x1 to x2 is obtained from integrating

0031-9120/01/010061+04$30.00 © 2001 IOP Publishing Ltd PHYSICS EDUCATION 61

R Newburgh

equation (1) or

x2
Wnet = Fnet dx. (2)
x1

We can plot this force versus displacement and

produce figure 1. The net work done on the object
is the area under the curve. Note that an ‘area’ in
the force–displacement plane has units of newtons
× metres, or joules.
Rewriting equation (1) leads to another view
of the net work. Using Newton’s second law, we
write Figure 1. Plot of an arbitrary force versus
displacement. The area under the curve from x1 to x2
dW = (dp/dt)dx = dp(dx/dt) (3) represents the change in kinetic energy over that
= (dp)v interval.

or
dW/dp = v.
Integrating equation (3) gives the total work as


W = v dp (3a)

in which p is momentum, t time and v velocity.

This is a less common but equally valid form of the
work equation. We shall now apply this form of
the equation to several quite different situations.

Figure 2. Plot of velocity versus momentum for a

Work and constant mass
For a body whose mass is constant the momentum
is always linear with velocity, since
p = mv. (4)
In other words, the momentum has the same
functional dependence on time as does the
velocity. Therefore plotting velocity versus
momentum gives the linear graph of figure 2. The
plot applies no matter how the force varies with
time, as long as the mass is constant. An ‘area’
in the momentum–velocity plane has the units
(newtons × seconds)(metres/seconds) or joules.
Evaluating the area for the range from zero velocity
to the maximum velocity, we find the net work to
be
Wnet = 21 vmax pmax = 21 m(vmax )2 . (5)
This last term is the well-known expression for the
kinetic energy. More generally we can write
body of constant mass. Since the mass is constant, the
momentum is a linear function of velocity. The area
under the graph represents the net work or the change
in kinetic energy as the body accelerates from zero
velocity to a maximum value.
The rocket with varying mass
Consider a rocket accelerated vertically. Its engine
has a continuous exhaust fired straight out from the
rocket tail. The exhaust velocity of the gas with
respect to the rocket is u. The fuel burns at the
constant rate µ such that
dm/dt = −µ. (6)
The gravitational force is −mg. For simplicity
we shall take g to be constant and neglect air
resistance. This is the only external force acting
on the system. Therefore we may write the net
force as
Wnet = KE. (5a)
The net work therefore equals the change in the Fnet = dp/dt = m dv/dt + u dm/dt
kinetic energy of the body during its displacement. = m dv/dt − µu = −mg. (7)

62 PHYSICS EDUCATION
 The work–energy theorem

The mass m is a function of time and may be

written as
m = m0 − µt = m0 [1 − (µ/m0 )t] (8)
in which m0 is the initial mass.
Rewriting equation (7), we obtain
(µ/m0 )u
dv = −g dt + dt. (9)
1 − µt/m0
Integrating, we find for the velocity
v = −gt − u ln[1 − (µ/m0 )t]. (10)
Combining this with equation (8) yields for the
momentum
p = mv Figure 3. Plot of velocity versus momentum for the
= m0 [1 − (µ/m0 )t] rocket whose specifications are given in table 1. The
area under the graph represents the net work done on
× {−gt − u ln[1 − (µ/m0 )t]}. (11) the rocket. The graph is concave upwards because it
does not include the work done on the ejected fuel.
To provide a numerical example take the
exhaust velocity u to be 2 × 103 m s−1 , the initial
mass m0 to be 100 kg, and the rate of change of Particle moving at relativistic velocities
mass µ to be (m0 /100) kg s−1 . Table 1 gives the
values for mass, velocity and momentum for a An elementary particle in an accelerator such as
range of times from 1 to 50 seconds. Figure 3 a cyclotron can reach relativistic speeds. Since
is a plot of velocity versus momentum for these mass is velocity dependent at such speeds, the
values. momentum (as with the rocket problem) is no
By applying equation (3a) it is easy enough longer linear with velocity. The expression for
to calculate the area under the graph of figure 3. the relativistic momentum is
As before, it represents the net work done on the
system. However, one must remember that the p = m0 v/(1 − v 2 /c2 )1/2 (12)
system changes mass continuously by expelling
gases. This expelled gas carries energy supplied in which c is the velocity of light. Figure 4 is
previously by the motor. As a result work done a plot of velocity versus the momentum divided
on the system does not equal the change in kinetic by the rest mass (p/m0 ). Notice how different
energy of the rocket alone. It must also include the equation (12) is from equation (11), as is figure 4
continuous change in kinetic energy of the exhaust from figure 3. Unlike figure 3, figure 4 is
gas as well. This is the reason that the graph of concave downward. The momentum increases
figure 3 has a concave upward form. more rapidly than it does in the classical case
of constant mass. It also differs from the rocket
Table 1. The values of mass, velocity and momentum problem in that there is no physical loss of
from 1 to 50 s for the rocket.
mass during the acceleration process but rather an
Time Mass Velocity Momentum increase. How do we interpret the area under the
(s) (kg) (m s−1 ) (kg m s−1 ) graph? The total energy, E, of a relativistic body
1 99 10.3 1.02 × 103 may be written as
5 95 53.6 5.09 × 103
10 90 113 1.02 × 104 E = mc2 = m0 c2 /(1 − v 2 /c2 )1/2 . (13)
20 80 250 2.00 × 104
30 70 419 2.94 × 104
Combining equations (12) and (13) leads to
40 60 630 3.78 × 104
50 50 896 4.48 × 104
E = c(p2 + m0 c2 )1/2 . (14)

PHYSICS EDUCATION 63
R Newburgh
Figure 4. Plot of velocity expressed as a fraction of
light velocity versus the momentum divided by the rest
mass. The graph represents the change in relativistic
kinetic energy as the proton accelerates.
The relativistic kinetic energy, T , equals the total
energy minus the rest energy or
T = E − m0 c 2 . (15)
Differentiating equation (15) we find
dT /dp = dE/dp
d (17). The only difference between the relativistic
= [c(p 2 + m0 c2 )1/2 − m0 c2 ]
dp
= pc/(p2 + m0 c2 )1/2
= pc2 /c(p 2 + m0 c2 )1/2
= pc2 /E = v. (16)
Equation (16) is identical with equation (3) except
for the change in the definition of kinetic energy.
The area under the graph is

I wish to thank William Boone, a student in my
kinetic energy, this change does not always equal
the net work.
We have treated three cases, two classical and
one relativistic. The mass is constant for the first
case (figure 2), and the velocity is linear with
momentum. Here the net work done on the object
equals its change in kinetic energy.
The second case (figure 3) treats a rocket with
non-constant, continuously varying mass. The
change in mass is a consequence of the continuous
mass loss from the fuel combustion. The change
in kinetic energy does not equal the net work, since
some of the net work is done on the lost mass. The
kinetic energy at any instant is that of the rocket
plus the amount of fuel on board, not that of the
rocket plus the original fuel.
The relativistic case (figure 4) is like the
first one, in that no mass is lost. However,
because of the relativistic mass increase with
velocity, the momentum increases more rapidly
than if the momentum were linear with velocity.
Moreover, all the work done on the particle by the
accelerator equals the increase of kinetic energy
defined relativistically. Thus, once again, net work
equals the change in kinetic energy.
Perhaps the most striking fact of this analysis
is the universality of equations (3), (16) and
and classical cases is the generalization of the
definition of kinetic energy. As I implied in the
introduction, this generalization is a consequence
of the invariance of the equation relating work,
momentum and velocity in both classical and
relativistic physics.
Acknowledgments
T = v dp. (17) class at the Harvard Extension School, who first
raised the question of the meaning of the pv plot.
Rosser [1] has an especially good treatment of this This paper is an attempt to answer his question.
material. Received 17 April 2000, in final form 15 August 2000
PII: S0031-9120(01)13415-5
Discussion

Figures 2, 3 and 4 are plots of velocity versus

Reference
momentum and, as such, represent the change in [1] Rosser W G V 1964 Introduction to the Theory of
kinetic energy according to equations (3a) and Relativity 1st edn (London: Butterworths)
(17). Though they do represent the change in pp 184–5

64 PHYSICS EDUCATION