Vapor Phase Toxicity of Plant Essential Oils to Cadra cautella

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Author(s): Mi-Jin Sim , Dong-Ro Choi , and Young-Joon Ahn
Source: Journal of Economic Entomology, 99(2):593-598. 2006.
Published By: Entomological Society of America
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-99.2.593
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1603/0022-0493-99.2.593

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 STORED-PRODUCT

Vapor Phase Toxicity of Plant Essential Oils to Cadra cautella

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
MI-JIN SIM, DONG-RO CHOI,1 AND YOUNG-JOON AHN2
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Republic of Korea

J. Econ. Entomol. 99(2): 593Ð598 (2006)

ABSTRACT The toxicities of 44 plant essential oils against larvae of Cadra cautella (Walker) were
examined using direct contact and vapor phase toxicity bioassays and compared with the lethal activity
of chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon, dichlorvos, and fenthion, four widely used organophosphorus in-
secticides. Responses varied according to plant material used and exposure dose and time. In a Þlter
paper contact toxicity bioassay, potent toxicity was produced from buchu leaf, niaouli, and rosemary
oils at 2.4 mg/cm2 and armoise, cypress, galbanum, and mace oils at 4.7 mg/cm2. In vapor phase toxicity
bioassays with larvae, cypress, galbanum, niaouli, and rosemary oils were much more effective in
closed containers than in open containers, indicating that the lethal effects of these oils were largely
because of action in the vapor phase. As judged by 24-h LC50 values, potent fumigant action was
observed with niaouli oil (64.7 mg/liter air) and rosemary oil (64.6 mg liter/air). Cypress and galbanum
oils exhibited weak fumigant activity. These essential oils were less active than dichlorvos (0.86
mg/liter air). Little or no fumigant action was observed with chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon, and
fenthion. Essential oils described herein, particularly niaouli and rosemary oils, merit further study as
potential larvicides for the control of C. cautella.

KEY WORDS Cadra cautella, natural insecticide, natural fumigant, essential oil, mode of action

The almond moth, Cadra cautella Walker, is one of the
most economically important stored-product pests. If
not managed properly, this insect causes serious dam-
age directly from larval feeding on a variety of dried
fruits and stored vegetable matter (Sedlacek et al.
1996). Additionally, frass and silk-Þlled larval galleries
cause signiÞcant contamination of the commodity
(Sedlacek et al. 1996). Control of C. cautella popula-
tions worldwide is primarily dependent on repeated
applications of contact insecticides as space and struc-
tural treatments or as protectants, and on fumigants
such as methyl bromide and phosphine (White and
Leesch 1995). Although effective, their repeated use
has disrupted biological control systems and led to
outbreaks of some insect species (Brower et al. 1996)
and has often resulted in the development of resis-
tance (Champ and Dyte 1977, Subramanyam and Hag-
strum 1995, White and Leesch 1995) and had unde-
sirable effects on nontarget organisms (Brower et al.
1996). Increasing levels of resistance to the most com-
monly used insecticides have caused multiple and
overdosed treatments, fostering safety issues for hu-
man health by residue in stored products and serious
environmental concerns (Hayes and Laws 1991,
White and Leesch 1995). Commonly used organo-
1 National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology, Suwon
440-707, Gyeonggi Province, Republic of Korea.
2 E-mail: yjahn@snu.ac.kr.
phosphorus insecticides, such as chlorpyrifos-methyl
and dichlorvos, will be phased out in the near future
in the United States by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), under the 1996 Food Quality and
Protection Act (Anonymous 2002). Also, the use of
methyl bromide will be prohibited in the near future
because of its ozone depletion potential (Anonymous
1993). These problems have highlighted the need for
development of selective control alternatives for C.
cautella, particularly with fumigant action for ease of
application to breeding places of the larvae.
Plant essential oils may provide potential alterna-
tives to currently used insect control agents because
they contain a potential source of bioactive chemicals
and are commonly used as fragrances and as ßavoring
agents for foods and beverages (Isman 2001, Sellar
2001, Lawless 2002). Because of this, much effort has
been focused on plant essential oils or their constit-
uents as potential sources of commercial insect con-
trol agents. Little work has been done to manage C.
cautella by using plant essential oils, although efÞcacy
of essential oils against stored-product insects has
been well described by Singh and Upadhyay (1993),
Ho (2001), and Kim et al. (2001).
This article describes a laboratory study to assess the
potential of plant essential oils for use as commercial
insecticides. Toxicities of 44 commercially available
essential oils were examined against C. cautella larvae.
Contact and fumigant toxicities of the essential oils

0022-0493/06/0593Ð0598$04.00/0 䉷 2006 Entomological Society of America

594 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Vol. 99, no. 2

Table 1. List of 44 plant essential oils tested for insecticidal activity

Essential oil Source plant Essential oil Source plant

Almond, sweet Prunus dulcis Helichrysum Helichrysum angustifolium
Amyris Amyris balmacifera Howood Cinnamomum camphora
Angelica root Angelica archangelica Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis
Aniseed Pimpinella anisum Lavandin grosso Lavandula intermedia
Armoise Artemisia vulgaris Litsea cubeba Litsea cubeba
Buchu leaf Agothosma betulina Lovage root Levisticum officinale
Calamus Acorus calamus Mace Myristica fragrans
Cananga Cananga odorata Melissa Melissa officinalis
Carrot seed Daucus carota Myrrh Commiphora myrrha
Cascarilla bark Croton eluteria Neroli Citrus aurantium
Cedarleaf Thuja occidentalis Niaouli Melaleuca viridiflora
Cedarwood, Chinese Cupressos funebris Origanum Origanum vulgare
Cedarwood, Texas Juniperus mexicanus Parsley herb Petroselinum crispum
Cedarwood, Virginia Juniperus virginiana Parsley seed Petroselinum crispum
Celery seed Apium graveolens Pine needle Abies sibirica
Cinnamon bark Cinnamomum zeylanicum Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis
Coriander herb Coriandrum sativum Sassafras Sassafras albidum
Cypress Cupressus sempervirens Savoury Satureja hortensis
Davana Artemisia pallens Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus
Dillweed 32% Anethum graveolens Valerian Valeriana officinalis
Galbanum Ferula galbaniflua Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens
Guaiacwood Bulnesia sarmienti Yarrow Achillea millefolium

were compared with those of chlorpyrifos-methyl,
diazinon, dichlorvos, and fenthion. Larvicide route of
action of the essential oils also was investigated.
Materials and Methods
Materials. Forty-four plant essential oils used in this
study were purchased from Berjè (BloomÞeld, NJ)
and are listed in Table 1. Chlorpyrifos-methyl (95.6%
purity), diazinon (96% purity), dichlorvos (95% pu-
rity), and fenthion (95.6% purity) were obtained from
the Department of Agricultural Biology, National In-
stitute of Agricultural Science and Technology, Rural
Development Administration, Suwon, Gyeonggi Prov-
ince. All other chemicals were of reagent grade.
Insects. Cultures of C. cautella were maintained in
the laboratory for 5 yr without exposure to any known
insecticide. They were reared in plastic containers (23
by 17 by 12 cm) containing sterilized artiÞcial diet
(150 g of corn meal, 50 g of corn powder, 50 g of wheat
ßour, 2 g of dried yeast, 2 g of vitamin complex, and 50
ml by weight glycerin) at 25 ⫾ 1⬚C and 45Ð50% RH.
Under these conditions, longevities of eggs, larvae,
pupae, and adults of C. cautella were 4 Ð 6, 16 Ð21, 8 Ð12,
and 6 Ð10 d, respectively.
Contact Toxicity Bioassay. A Þlter paper contact
bioassay was used to evaluate the toxicity of plant
essential oils and insecticides used against C. cautella
larvae (12Ð14 d old after hatching). Test larvae sur-
vived for ⬎3 d without food. In a preliminary exper-
iment with larvae, 11.8 mg/cm2 was found to be an
appropriate starting concentration for a primary
screening of insecticidal activity of plant essential oils.
Larvae were exposed to three amounts of essential oils
(11.8, 4.7, and 2.4 mg/cm2), each of which was dis-
solved in 50 ␮l of ethanol and applied to Þlter papers
(Whatman no. 2, 4.25 cm in diameter). If an essential
oil gave ⬎80% mortality at 11.8 mg/cm2, further bio-
assays were carried out. Control Þlter papers received
50 ␮l of ethanol. After drying in a fume hood for 2 min,
each Þlter paper was placed on the bottom of a petri
dish (5 by 0.9 cm). Groups of 20 larvae were placed in
each petri dish and a small amount of the artiÞcial diet
was supplied. The container was then covered with a
lid.
Treated and control (ethanol only) larvae were
held at the same conditions used for colony mainte-
nance. Mortalities were determined 1, 2, and 3 d after
treatment (DAT). All treatments were replicated
three times. Chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon, dichlor-
vos, and fenthion served as standards for comparison
in contact toxicity tests. The lethal activity was clas-
siÞed as follows: strong, mortality ⬎80%; moderate,
mortality 80 Ð 61%; weak, mortality 60 Ð 40%; and little
or no activity, mortality ⬍40%.
Vapor Phase Toxicity Bioassay. Fumigant activity of
the test essential oils and insecticides against C. cau-
tella larvae (12Ð14 d old after hatching) was investi-
gated by the vapor phase toxicity bioassay. Groups of
20 larvae were placed in each container (5 by 0.9 cm),
and a small amount of the artiÞcial diet was provided.
Both sides were then covered with 200-mesh screen to
allow free entrance of vapors from the essential oils
and insecticides. Each Þlter paper (Whatman no. 2,
4.25 cm in diameter), treated with Þve to seven con-
centrations of each essential oil and insecticide in 50
␮l of ethanol, was placed on the bottom of a polyvinyl
chloride container (620 ml). The container was then
covered with gauze, onto which the screened con-
tainer containing larvae was placed. This prevented
direct contact of test larvae with the test oil and in-
secticide. Each polyvinyl chloride container was then
covered with a convex-shaped lid. Control Þlter pa-
pers received 50 ␮l of ethanol.
In a separate experiment, susceptibility of C. cau-
tella larvae (12Ð14 d old after hatching) to the action
of the test essential oils in the vapor phase was exam-
ined as described above. Each Þlter paper was treated
April 2006 SIM ET AL.: ESSENTIAL OIL TOXICITY TO C. cautella 595

Table 2. Mortalities of essential oils against C. cautella larvae Table 3. Mortalities of selected essential oils against C. cautella
by using the filter paper contact toxicity bioassay, exposed to 11.8 larvae by using the filter paper contact toxicity bioassay, exposed
mg/cm2 to 4.7 mg/cm2

Mortality (mean ⫾ SE)b (%) Mortality (mean ⫾ SE)b (%)

Essential oila Essential oila
1 DAT 2 DAT 3 DAT 1 DAT 2 DAT 3 DAT
Angelica root 100 ⫾ 0.0a Armoise 96 ⫾ 2.4a 100 ⫾ 0.0a
Armoise 100 ⫾ 0.0a Buchu leaf 6 ⫾ 3.8c 87 ⫾ 3.3a 96 ⫾ 2.3a
Buchu leaf 23 ⫾ 2.7e 100 ⫾ 0.0a Cypress 63 ⫾ 3.3b 90 ⫾ 5.8a 93 ⫾ 3.3a
Cascarilla bark 77 ⫾ 3.3b 88 ⫾ 4.4b 88 ⫾ 4.4a Galbanum 90 ⫾ 4.0ab 92 ⫾ 3.9a 92 ⫾ 5.0a
Cedarleaf 100 ⫾ 0.0a Mace 98 ⫾ 1.7a 98 ⫾ 2.0a 98 ⫾ 2.0a
Cedarwood, Chinese 10 ⫾ 1.7f 76 ⫾ 4.3bc 88 ⫾ 4.4a Niaouli 89 ⫾ 2.4ab 100 ⫾ 0.0a
Cypress 77 ⫾ 3.3b 100 ⫾ 0.0a Rosemary 83 ⫾ 3.3ab 97 ⫾ 3.3a 100 ⫾ 0.0a
Dillweed 85 ⫾ 2.9b 85 ⫾ 2.9b 92 ⫾ 6.0a
Galbanum 100 ⫾ 0.0a Means within a column followed by the same letter are not signif-
Howood 30 ⫾ 2.9cd 36 ⫾ 1.2d 94 ⫾ 2.6a icantly different (P ⫽ 0.05, Bonferroni method 关SAS Institute 1999兴).
Hyssop 47 ⫾ 3.3c 57 ⫾ 3.3cd 87 ⫾ 3.3a a
Essential oils exerting 80% mortality at 4.7 mg/cm2 3 DAT are
Mace 100 ⫾ 0.0a presented.
Niaouli 100 ⫾ 0.0a b
n ⫽ 60.
Parsley herb 42 ⫾ 1.7cd 80 ⫾ 5.8b 80 ⫾ 5.8a
Rosemary 100 ⫾ 0.0a
leaf and cypress oils gave 100% mortality 2 DAT. After
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not signif- 3 d of exposure, ⬇92 and 87% mortality was obtained
icantly different (P ⫽ 0.05, Bonferroni method 关SAS Institute 1999兴). from dillweed and howood oils and cascarilla bark,
a
Essential oils exerting ⬎80% mortality at 11.8 mg/cm2 3 DAT are
presented. cedarwood (Chinese) and hyssop oils, respectively.
b
n ⫽ 60. There was no mortality of ethanol-treated larvae dur-
ing the contact toxicity bioassay.
The essential oils exerting ⬎80% mortality, at 11.8
with 414.4 mg/liter air of cypress oil, 414.4 mg/liter air mg/cm2, against C. cautella larvae were tested at 4.7
of galbanum oil, 322.6 mg/liter air of niaouli oil, or mg/cm2 for their lethal activity (Table 3). Only es-
322.6 mg/liter air of rosemary oil and was placed on sential oils producing ⬎80% mortality are presented.
the bottom of a polyvinyl chloride container. The Armoise, galbanum, and mace oils produced 96, 90,
container was then covered with gauze, onto which and 98% mortality 1 DAT, respectively, whereas cy-
the screened container containing 20 larvae was press, niaouli, and rosemary oils gave 90, 100, and 97%
placed. Each polyvinyl chloride container was then mortality 2 DAT, respectively. Buchu leaf oil exhibited
either covered with a convex-shaped lid (method A) 6 and 96% mortality 1 and 3 DAT, respectively.
to investigate the potential vapor phase toxicity of the Because of potent lethal activity of seven essential
test oils or left uncovered (method B). oils at 4.7 mg/cm2, the toxicity of these oils at 2.4
Treated and control (ethanol only) larvae were mg/cm2 were compared with those of four commonly
held at the same conditions used for colony mainte- used insecticides, chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon, di-
nance. Mortalities were determined 24 h after treat- chlorvos, and fenthion (Table 4). Niaouli and rose-
ment. All treatments were replicated three times. The mary oils gave 85 and 83% mortality 1 DAT and 100 and
LC50 values were calculated by probit analysis (SAS 90% mortality 2 DAT, respectively. Buchu leaf oil
Institute 1999). Fumigant activity was considered sig- caused 60 and 92% mortality 2 and 3 DAT, respec-
niÞcantly different when 95% CL failed to overlap. tively. Little or no mortality was observed with ar-
Statistical Analysis. The percentage of mortality was moise, cypress, galbanum, and mace oils.
determined and transformed to arcsine square-root
values for analysis of variance (ANOVA). Treatment Table 4. Mortalities of selected essential oils against C. cautella
means were compared and separated by the Bonfer- larvae by using the filter paper contact toxicity bioassay, exposed
to 2.4 mg/cm2
roni multiple comparison method (SAS Institute
1999). A paired t-test was used to test for signiÞcant Mortality (mean ⫾ SE)b (%)
differences between two treatment methods (SAS In- Materiala
1 DAT 2 DAT 3 DAT
stitute 1999). Means ⫾ SE of untransformed data are
reported. Buchu leaf 2 ⫾ 2.0d 60 ⫾ 4.6b 92 ⫾ 2.0a
Cypress 30 ⫾ 5.8c 33 ⫾ 3.3bc 40 ⫾ 5.8b
Galbanum 37 ⫾ 1.3c 37 ⫾ 1.3b 40 ⫾ 1.5b
Niaouli 85 ⫾ 3.5b 100 ⫾ 0.0a
Results Rosemary 83 ⫾ 3.3b 90 ⫾ 5.8a 90 ⫾ 5.8a
Filter Paper Contact Toxicity. Toxic effects of plant Chlorpyrifos-methyl 100 ⫾ 0.0a
Dichlorvos 100 ⫾ 0.0a
essential oils used against C. cautella larvae at 11.8 Diazinon 6 ⫾ 3.2d 100 ⫾ 0.0a
mg/cm2 are recorded in Table 2. Those essential oils Fenthion 6 ⫾ 3.2d 10 ⫾ 1.2c 100 ⫾ 0.0a
that produced ⬍80% mortality are excluded from the
table. Lethal activity varied according to plant mate- Means within a column followed by the same letter are not signif-
icantly different (P ⫽ 0.05, Bonferroni method 关SAS Institute 1999兴).
rial used and exposure time. Angelica root, armoise, a
Essential oils exerting ⬎40% mortality at 2.4 mg/cm2 3 DAT are
cedarleaf, galbanum, mace, niaouli, and rosemary oils presented.
acted rapidly, causing 100% mortality 1 DAT. Buchu b
n ⫽ 60.
596 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Vol. 99, no. 2

Table 5. Mortalities of selected essential oils against C. cautella diazinon, and fenthion. There was no mortality of
larvae by using the vapor phase toxicity bioassay during a 24-h ethanol-treated larvae during the vapor phase toxicity
exposure
bioassay.
Mortality
Essential Concn, (mean ⫾ SE)a (%)
oil mg/liter air Discussion
Ab Bb
Cypress 414.4 91 ⫾ 3.3 3 ⫾ 2.5***
Plant essential oils have potential as natural prod-
Galbanum 414.4 93 ⫾ 3.1 2 ⫾ 1.7*** ucts for controlling C. cautella larvae because some are
Niaouli 322.6 100 ⫾ 0.0 5 ⫾ 3.1*** selective to certain pests, often biogdegrade to non-
Rosemary 322.6 100 ⫾ 0.0 8 ⫾ 3.3*** toxic products, and have few or no harmful effects on
nontarget organisms or the environment (Singh and
*** SigniÞcantly different at P ⱕ 0.001, according to a paired t-test.
a
n ⫽ 60.
Upadhyay 1993; Barton 1999; Isman 2000, 2001). They
b
A, vapor in closed containers; B, vapor in open containers. can be applied to stored products in the same way as
other conventional insecticides. They also provide
useful information on resistance management because
Chlorpyrifos-methyl and dichlorvos produced 100% certain plant extracts or phytochemicals can be highly
mortality 1 DAT, whereas diazinon and fenthion gave effective against insecticide-resistant pests (Schmut-
terer 1992, Ahn et al. 1997). In addition, some essential
100% mortality 2 and 3 DAT, respectively.
oils or their constituents have been proposed as al-
Larvicide Route of Action. Experiments were con-
ternatives to commonly used insecticides such as
ducted to determine whether the lethal activity of chlorpyrifos-methyl, dichlorvos, and methyl bromide
essential oils used against C. cautella larvae was attrib- because they were exempted for minimum risk pes-
uted to contact or vapor phase toxicity. Two different ticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
treatment methods (A and B) were tested (Table 5). Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) requirements (Anonymous
Responses varied with treatment methods. After 24 h 1996). Many essential oils are known to possess various
of exposure to 414.4 mg/liter air, there was a signiÞcant bioefÞcacies such as ovicidal, repellent, antifeedant,
difference in lethal activity of cypress oil between and biocidal activities against various stored-product
exposure in a closed container (method A), which insects (Hill and Schoonhoven 1981; Singh and Up-
resulted in 91% mortality, and exposure in open con- adhyay 1993; Desmarchelier 1994; Ho 2001; Kim et al.
tainer (method B), which resulted in 3% mortality 2001, 2003a, b). El-Nahal et al. (1989) stated that the
against C. cautella larvae. Similar differences in the exposure period seemed to be more important factor
response of C. cautella larvae to galbanum, niaouli, and affecting the efÞciency of the vapors of Acorus calamus
rosemary oils in treatments A and B were likewise L. essential oil than the dosage to adults of Þve stored-
observed. product insects. Some plant-derived materials were
Vapor Phase Toxicity. Fumigant action of cypress, effective against insects for only a relatively short
galbanum, niaouli, and rosemary oils against C. cautella period, typically a few days (Schmutterer 1992). In the
larvae was elucidated by the vapor phase toxicity bio- current study, toxic effects varied according to plant
material used and exposure dose and time. Potent
assay (Table 6). Chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon, di-
lethal activity against C. cautella larvae was observed
chlorvos, and fenthion served as standards for com-
with armoise, buchu leaf, cypress, galbanum, mace,
parison in fumigant toxicity tests. As judged by 24-h niaouli, and rosemary oils. The lethal action of ar-
LC50 values, potent fumigant toxicity was produced moise, galbanum, and mace oils was very rapid. The
from niaouli oil (64.7 mg/liter air) and rosemary oil lethal action of buchu leaf oil was slower, and 96%
(64.6 mg/liter air). Cypress and galbanum oils exhib- mortality was only obtained 3 DAT, whereas lethal
ited weak activity. These essential oils were less active action of cypress, niaouli, and rosemary oils was in-
than dichlorvos (0.86 mg/liter air). Little or no fumi- termediate. Mixtures of these essential oils might be
gant action was observed with chlorpyrifos-methyl, effective against C. cautella over a relatively long pe-
riod. Killing effects of the test essential oils against C.
cautella larvae seemed to be not attributed to anti-
feedant effects but to direct toxicity on the basis of the
Table 6. Fumigant toxicity of selected essential oils and insec-
ticides to C. cautella larvae by using the vapor phase toxicity Þnding that larvae survived for ⬎3 d without food.
bioassay during a 24-h exposure Elucidation of the mode of action of natural insec-
ticidal products or insecticides is important for insect
LC50, control because it may give useful information on the
Material n Slope ⫾ SE 95% CL
mg/liter air
most appropriate formulation, delivery means, and
Cypress oil 180 6.6 ⫾ 1.63 196.9 183.6Ð214.2 resistance management. Many plant essential oils have
Galbanum oil 240 7.2 ⫾ 1.23 240.3 226.5Ð262.8 fumigant action (El-Nahal et al. 1989; Shaaya et al.
Niaouli oil 180 6.3 ⫾ 1.44 64.7 58.6Ð73.2
Rosemary oil 180 4.7 ⫾ 0.71 64.6 57.2Ð71.5 1997; Ahn et al. 1998; Kim et al. 2003a, b). The essential
Chlorpyrifos-methyl 60 ⬎600 oil of the sawdust from Thujopsis dolabrata Siebold et
Diazinon 60 ⬎600 Zuccarni variety hondai Makino is highly toxic to
Dichlorvos 240 10.8 ⫾ 1.70 0.86 0.81Ð0.90 nymphs of Reticulitermes speratus (Kolbe), and adults
Fenthion 60 ⬎600
of Sitophilus oryzae (L.), Callosobruchus chinensis
April 2006 SIM ET AL.: ESSENTIAL OIL TOXICITY TO C. cautella
(L.), and Lasioderma serricorne (F.) and acts as a
fumigant (Ahn et al. 1998). In the current study, cy-
press, galbanum, niaouli, and rosemary oils were much
more effective in closed versus open containers
against C. cautella larvae. These results indicate that
the route of action for the oils was largely in the vapor
phase via the respiratory system, although the exact
mode of action of these oils remains unknown. Par-
ticularly, niaouli and rosemary oils showed potent
fumigant activity, but they were less effective than
dichlorvos. Neither chlorpyrifos-methyl, diazinon,
nor fenthion exhibited fumigant action. The fumigant
action of essential oils could be a great advantage for
controlling C. cautella populations in stored products.
Results of this study indicate that niaouli and rose-
mary oils may be useful as insect control fumigants for
C. cautella, provided that a carrier producing a slow-
release effect can be selected or developed. Rosemary
oil is found as a minimum risk pesticide product under
FIFRA and is exempt from toxicity data requirements
by the EPA (Anonymous 1996). For practical use of
these oils as novel fumigants to proceed, further re-
search is required on safety issues for human health.
Other areas requiring attention are insecticidal con-
stituents against C. cautella larvae from the essential
oils and formulations to improve the insecticidal po-
tency and stability and to reduce cost.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from the Rural De-
velopment Administration (20050301-033-202-055-02-00)
and the Ministry of Education and Human Resources De-
velopment for Brain Korea 21 Project of the Korean Gov-
ernment to Y.J.A.
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