Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 4 (2018) 88e92

H O S T E D BY Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/future-journal-of-
pharmaceutical-sciences/

Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils

of selected Apiaceous fruits
Noha Khalil a, *, Mohamed Ashour b, Sahar Fikry c, Abdel Naser Singab b, Osama Salama a
a
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmaceutical Industries, Future University in Egypt, 11835, Cairo, Egypt
b
Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, 11566, Cairo, Egypt
c
Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Pharos University, 21311, Alexandria, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Antimicrobial properties of plants essential oils are continuously investigated to use them as potential
Received 6 February 2017 drug candidates to overcome the problem of microbial drug resistance. The aim of this research is to
Accepted 11 October 2017 study the antimicrobial effects of the essential oils of ten Apiaceous fruits [Pimpinella anisum L. (anise),
Available online 15 March 2018
Carum carvi L. (caraway), Apium graveolens L. (celery), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Cuminum
cyminum L. (cumin), Anethum graveolens L. (dill), Foeniculum vulgare L. (fennel), Petroselinum crispum L.
Keywords:
(pasley), Daucus carota L. var. sativus (yellow carrot) and Daucus carota L. var. boissieri (red carrot)].
Antimicrobial
Results of agar-well diffusion method revealed that the maximum inhibition zones were obtained with
Apiaceae essential oil
Cumin
cumin, coriander and caraway oils against the standard bacterial strains Escherichia coli, Bordetella
Coriander bronchiseptica followed by Staphylococcus aureus.
Caraway Results of viable count time-kill method revealed that coriander oil had the highest antimicrobial
GC/MS activity with more than 99.99% killing of the exposed cells of the standard E. coli and Bordetella bron-
chiseptica standard strains. GC/MS was carried out to identify the chemical composition of the most
active oils. The percentage of identified compounds by GC/MS was 92.5%, 99.43% and 98.66% for cumin,
coriander and caraway oils, respectively. Monoterpenes were the most abundant components in the
three oils.
© 2017 Future University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction researches aim at understanding their chemical composition to

It is crucial nowadays to search for other sources of promising
antimicrobial agents and strategies for the treatment of serious
gram negative and gram positive infections due to the emergence
of multidrug resistance in common pathogens. Toxicity and carci-
nogenicity of synthetic additives have led scientists in food industry
to search for alternatives specially naturally occurring antimicrobial
agents [1]. The medicinal effects of many common spices and herbs
indicate the presence of antioxidant and antimicrobial constituents
in their tissues [2]. Essential oils are complex mixtures comprising
many single compounds. Each of these constituents contributes to
the beneficial or adverse effects of these oils. Therefore, many
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: noha.hassan@fue.edu.eg (N. Khalil), ashour@pharma.asu.edu.
eg (M. Ashour), saha.fikry@pua.edu.eg (S. Fikry), nasersingab@hotmail.com
(A.N. Singab), osalama@fue.edu.eg (O. Salama).
Peer review under responsibility of Future University.
allow practical application [3]. Many oils have proven to be
promising antimicrobial agents [4]. Plants from family Apiaceae are
commonly used as food, flavoring agents and for medical purposes
and are also known as nutraceutical plants. Based on many studies,
it seems that several species in this family are good sources for
phytochemicals with potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory
properties [5]. Many members of this family have culinary uses
and are very common in Egypt. In our work, we selected the most
common Apiaceous members used traditionally in Egypt. The work
was on the essential oil fraction since this family is popular for its
richness in the essential oil content; that is mentioned traditionally
to have several medicinal values. The essential oil of these Apia-
ceous fruits is also used in the food industry. These essential oils
have been reported to have several medicinal effects. Anise oil is
used as digestive, carminative and antispasmodic [6]. Caraway oil
has been reported to have antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic
activities [7e9]. Celery oil has antibacterial and antifungal effects
[10]. Coriander oil has antimicrobial and insecticidal effects [11,12].
Cumin oil has antimicrobial, antifungal and hypoglycemic effects

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fjps.2017.10.004
2314-7245/© 2017 Future University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 N. Khalil et al. / Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 4 (2018) 88e92
[13,14]. Dill oil has antispasmodic effects [15]. Fennel oil has been
reported to have antifungal, antioxidant, and hypoglycemic effects
[16,17]. Parsley oil has anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory
effects [18]. Red and yellow carrot oils have antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities [19]. In this paper we investigate the anti-
microbial activity of essential oils of the fruits of Pimpinella anisum
L. (anise), Carum carvi L. (caraway), Apium graveolens L. (celery),
Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Cuminum cyminum L. (cumin),
Anethum graveolens L. (dill), Foeniculum vulgare L. (fennel), Petro-
selinum crispum L. (pasley), Daucus carota L. var. sativus (yellow
carrot) and Daucus carota L. var. boissieri (red carrot) cultivated in
Egypt by two different methods; agar-well diffusion method and
viable-count method. Moreover, to identify the chemical compo-
sition of the most potent oils, GC/MS was carried out. Further
studies on these oils using other antimicrobial assays and appli-
cation of a suitable pharmaceutical dosage form is needed to find
other sources of antimicrobial drugs other than synthetic ones to
overcome the problem of multidrug resistance.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Plant material
The Apiaceous fruits were collected from a cultivated field at El-
Sharkeyya governorate, Nile delta of Egypt in 2010. Plants were
identified and authenticated according to Boulos [20].
2.1.1. Essential oils isolation
One hundred grams of whole fruits from each studied species
were submitted to hydro-distillation for 4 h using a Clevenger
apparatus according to the procedure described in the Egyptian
pharmacopeia (2005) [21]. Oils were dried over anhydrous sodium
sulfate and stored in dark vials at 4
C until analysis. Yields,
expressed as 100 g of dried weight, were stated in mean ± standard
deviation of three replicates.
2.2. Essential oil analysis
2.2.1. Gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID)
The GC analyses were carried out on a Focus GC ® (Thermo fisher
scientific®, Milan, Italy) equipped with TR5-MS fused bonded col-
umn (30 m  0.25 mm x 0.25 mm) (Thermo fisher scientific®,
Florida, USA) and FID detector; carrier gas was nitrogen (1.5 ml/
min); the operating conditions were: initial temperature 40
C,
1 min isothermal followed by linear temperature increase till
230
C at a rate of 4
C/min. 230
C, then 5 min isothermal. Detector
and injector temperatures were 300 and 220
C, respectively. The
split ratio was 1: 20. Chrom-card® chromatography data system ver.
2.3.3 (Thermo Electron Corp. ®, Florida, USA) was used for recording
and integrating of the chromatograms. Average areas under the
peaks of three independent chromatographic runs were used for
calculation the percentage composition of each component.
2.2.2. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)
The analyses were carried out on Focus GC ® (Thermo fisher
scientific®, Milan, Italy) equipped with the same column and con-
ditions mentioned in the GC/FID. The capillary column was directly
coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometer Polaris Q, (Thermo
Electron Corp. ®, Milan, Italy). The injector temperature was 220
C.
Helium carrier gas flow rate was 1.5 ml/min. All the mass spectra
were recorded with the following condition: filament emission
current, 100 mA; electron energy, 70 eV; ion source, 250
C; diluted
samples were injected with split mode (split ratio, 1: 15). Com-
pounds were identified by comparison of their spectral data and
retention indices with Wiley Registry of Mass Spectral Data 8th
89
edition, NIST Mass Spectral Library (December 2005), our own
laboratory database and the literature [22].
2.3. Sources of microbial cultures
The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils was evaluated
using laboratory reference strains (American Type Culture Collec-
tion “ATCC” for bacteria and Candida albicans, obtained from Lab-
oratory of Microbiology, Pharco pharmaceuticals company, Egypt:
Gram-positive bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538),
Micrococcus luteus (ATCC 9341). Gram negative bacteria: Escherichia
coli (ATCC 8739), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027), Bordetella
bronchiseptica (ATCC 4617), fungal microorganisms: Candida albi-
cans (ATCC 10231). Microbial inocula of bacterial and yeast cultures
were prepared as suspensions in Roux bottles using Trypticase soy
agar (TSA) and Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) media according to
USP procedure.
2.4. Antimicrobial screening
2.4.1. Preparation of the essential oils emulsion
Ten percent w/w essential oils emulsion was prepared using
Tween 80 as emulsifying agent. The resultant emulsion was ster-
ilized by filtration through 0.45 mm hydrophilic membrane filter
and stored at 4
C in well closed sterile container.
2.4.2. Determination of antimicrobial activity by the agar-well
diffusion method
The antibacterial activity was performed with the agar diffusion
method [23]. Fifty ml-portions of the melted sterile TSA, SDA
maintained at 50
C, were inoculated, each with 100 ml of properly
diluted inoculum and mixed well. The inoculated medium was
poured into sterile petri dish (15 cm) and allowed to solidify. Wells,
each 6 mm, were cut through the agar using sterile cork porer and
the agar removed leaving empty wells which was filled with 10% w/
w oil emulsion. Maintain the plates at room temperature for about
2 h and then incubate the plates at 30-35
C for 24 and 48 h in case
of bacteria and yeast respectively. The resultant inhibition zones
were measured and the average values are taken.
2.4.3. Determinations of the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC)
Aliquots of each essential oil emulsion were properly diluted
with sterile water, inoculated with the overnight culture of the
tested organism diluted with water, vortexed and incubated at
37
C. At specified time period, the inoculated systems were vor-
texed and aliquots were decimally diluted with sterile saline and
the numbers of viable cells were determined by transferring 40 ml
portion of each dilution onto the surface of over dried TSA plates.
These plates were incubated at 37
C for 48 h, the numbers of
developed colonies were counted and the average number of cells
calculated as cfu/ml. Controls lacking tested essential oils were
included in the test.
2.4.4. Standard drugs
Fluconazole (Sigma) was used as positive controls for the fungi
and chloramphenicol (Sigma) was the positive control for bacteria.
3. Results
3.1. Essential oils isolation
Hydrodistillation of the selected Apiaceous fruits gave essential
oil yield as follows:
90 N. Khalil et al. / Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 4 (2018) 88e92

were selected to confirm their antibacterial activity by using viable

Yield (% v/w) Essential oil count time-kill method (Table 2).
The results revealed that the three oils, during 5 min, killed
2.3 ± 0.27 Anise
1.8 ± 0.24 Caraway
more than 99.999% of the exposed cells of the standard E. coli and
1.2 ± 0.13 Celery Bordetella bronchiseptica standard strains. Staph. aureus was more
0.7 ± 0.03 Coriander resistant where 99.8% of the exposed cells were killed during
3 ± 0.41 Cumin 30 min exposure to coriander oil emulsion and only 73.56% and
1.4 ± 0.18 Dill
50.82% were the killing percentage during the same exposure time,
1.9 ± 0.28 Fennel
1.6 ± 0.16 Parsley 30 min, with cumin and caraway oils, respectively. During 60 min
1 ± 0.12 Red carrot exposure time the killing percentage was >99.93%, 97.83%, 54.09%
1 ± 0.11 Yellow carrot and for coriander, cumin, and caraway respectively.

3.3. Chemical composition of the most active essential oils

3.2. Antimicrobial activity
The in vitro antimicrobial activity of the selected Apiaceous
essential oils against the microorganisms employed and its activity
potentials were qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by the
presence or absence of inhibition zones, zone diameters and MIC
values in comparison with the standard antimicrobial drugs
chloramphenicol and fluconazole.
Results of agar-well diffusion method revealed that the
maximum inhibition zones were obtained with cumin, coriander
and caraway oils against the standard bacterial strains Escherichia
coli, Bordetella bronchiseptica followed by Staphylococcus aureus
(Table 1). On the other hand, the remaining essential oils showed
much smaller inhibition zones as celery, dill, parsley, anise and
fennel, or no inhibition at all as red and yellow carrot. All tested oils
had no inhibitory effect on Candida albicans.
Therefore, the three essential oils cumin, caraway and coriander
which showed the maximum inhibition zones as mentioned above
The most active antimicrobial essential oils (caraway, coriander
and cumin) were analyzed by GC/MS. Table 3 shows the chemical
composition of the essential oils together with the retention times
of the compounds. A total of 10, 18, 15 compounds were identified
from the essential oil of caraway, coriander and cumin respectively,
which represented 98.66%, 99.43% and 92.5% of the three oils
respectively. Limonene (46.48%) and carvone (50.6%) were the
major identified compounds in caraway oil, while linalool (70.93%)
was the major identified compound in coriander oil, and cumi-
naldehyde (25.17%) was the major identified compound in cumin
oil.
4. Discussion
Essential oils are highly rich in lipophilic compounds that could
dissolve in the biomembrane of microorganisms and interact with
membrane lipids and proteins; this can result in cell disruption,

Table 1
Antimicrobial Activity of Apiaceous essential oils determined by Agar-Well diffusion method.

Test Organisms Inhibition Zone (mm)

Blank STD Caraway Coriander Cumin Celery Dill Parsley Anise Fennel Red Carrot Yellow Carrot

Staph. aureus ATCC 6538 () 18 15 17 16 11 14 12.3 10 13.2 () ()

E. coli () 18 19 19 19 12 13 11 10 10 () ()
ATCC 8739
Micrococcus luteus () 12 () 10 13.3 12 12 11 10 9 () ()
ATCC 9341
P. aeruginosa () 8 () () () () () () () () () ()
ATCC 9027
Bordetella bronchiseptica () 17 18 19 19.5 12.7 () () () () () ()
ATCC 4617
Candida albicans () 15 () () () () () () () () () ()
ATCC 10231

Table 2
Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils of Cumin, Coriander and Caraway Determined by Viable-Time kill Method.

Test organisms Contact time (min) Viable count cfu/ml (% killing)

STD Cumin Caraway Coriander

E. coli 0a 2.25  107 2.3  107 2.125  107 1.825  107

(ATCC 8739) 5 50  101 25  101 50  101 25  10
(>99.999) (>99.999) (>99.999) (>99.999)
Bordetella bronchiseptica 0a 2.6  107 2.5  107 1.875  107 2.30  107
(ATCC 4617) 5 50  101 50  101 50  101 25  101
(>99.999) (>99.999) (>99.999) (>99.999)
Staph. aureus 0a 110  107 2.08  107 1.525  107 109  107
(ATCC 6538) 30 200  101 0.55  107 0.75  107 205  101
(99.89) (73.56) (50.82) (99.87)
60 1.5  104 0.45  106 0.7  107 1.25  104
(99.98) (>97.83) (54.09) (99.93)

Average of three determinations carried out by surface viable count method.

a
0 contact time referred to the control experiment (Lacking tested oil emulsion).
 N. Khalil et al. / Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 4 (2018) 88e92 91

Table 3
The main volatile constituents identified in the essential oils of caraway, coriander and cumin fruits.

Compounds Kovat's index (RI) Rel. abundancea (%) Methods of identifications

Cal. Reported Caraway Coriander Cumin

a-Thujene 928 930 e e 0.47 RI,MS

a-Pinene 933 939 0.07 4.17 2.44 RI, MS,AT
Camphene 948 954 e 0.72 e RI,MS,AT
Sabinene 972 976 0.10 0.08 0.58 RI,MS,AT
b-Pinene 980 979 e 0.30 13.56 RI,MS,AT
b-Myrcene 992 991 0.35 0.58 e RI,MS,AT
a-Phellanderene 1004 1003 e e 0.79 RI,MS,AT
p-Cymene 1028 1025 e 3.63 17.50 RI,MS,AT
Limonene 1032 1029 46.48 2.36 0.71 RI,MS,AT
d-Carene 1036 1031 e e 0.36 RI,MS
1,8-Cineole 1038 1031 e e 0.17 RI,MS,AT
g-Terpinene 1065 1060 e 2.58 12.15 RI,MS,AT
Terpinolene 1090 1089 e 0.45 e RI,MS
Linalool 1111 1097 0.18 70.93 e RI,MS,AT
Camphor 1163 1146 e 3.33 e RI,MS,AT
Terpinene-4-ol 1182 1177 0.21 0.39 e RI,MS,AT
cis-Pinocarveol 1186 1184 e 0.06 e RI,MS
cis-Dihydrocarvone 1188 1193 0.11 e e RI,MS
trans-Dihydrocarvone 1191 1201 0.28 e e RI,MS
Myrtenol 1192 1196 e e 0.48 RI,MS,AT
Linalool acetate 1252 1257 e 4.78 e RI,MS,AT
Carvone 1256 1243 50.60 0.92 e RI,MS,AT
Cuminaldehyde 1262 1242 e e 25.17 RI,MS
trans-Carveol 1266 1217 0.28 e e RI,MS
a-Terpinen-7-al 1313 1285 e e 10.89 RI,MS
Myrtenyl acetate 1335 1327 e 0.65 e RI,MS
p-Mentha-1,4-dien-7-al 1346 e e e 7.12 RI,MS
Geranyl acetate 1386 1381 e 1.63 e RI,MS
b-Caryophyllene 1422 1419 e 1.87 0.11 RI,MS,AT
Number of identified compounds 10 18 15
Total % of identified compounds 98.66 99.43 92.5

Compounds are listed in order of their retention on TR-5MS column.

e ¼ not detected.
a
MS: Identification based on mass spectral data; RI: identification based on retention index relative to standard n-alkanes; AT: Identification based on co-chromatography
with authentic samples.

leakage of cell content and finally cell death [24,25]. This may
explain the antimicrobial activity of cumin, coriander and caraway.
GC analysis of the three most active oils showed that oxygenated
monoterpenes in Cumin oils accounted for 43.66% of the total
compounds identified. This is attributed mainly due to cumi-
naldehyde (25.17%). While in Caraway oil, both monoterpenes and
oxygenated monoterpenes represented the major constituents
representing 46.48 and 51.27% respectively. This is attributed to the
two major compounds in these oils; limonene and carvone (46.48
and 50.6% respectively). Coriander oil had a very high percentage of
oxygenated monoterpenes representing 77.34%, attributed mainly
due to linalool (70.93%).
In previous reports, Cuminaldehyde alone showed good anti-
bacterial activity against multidrug resistant strains from Salmo-
nella spp. This was followed by moderate activities against E. coli,
Staph. aureus and B. licheniformis strains. Therefore the potent
antibacterial activity obtained for the Cumin essential oil may be
attributed to it in addition to a synergetic effect of other oil
component. However, cuminaldehyde was not able to show any
antimicrobial activities against Pseudomonas fluorescens [26].
The reported antimicrobial activity for the major Caraway
essential oil components, limonene and carvone, is in accordance
with previously published data regarding those components [27].
For limonene, an antimicrobial activity against many Gram þ ve
and Gram eve bacteria was recorded. Moreover, limonene can
cause a compensatory response to cell wall damage through over
expression of several genes involved with the cell wall integrity
signaling pathway leading to alteration in the structure and func-
tion of the cell wall [28]. In vitro bioactivity evaluation of isolated
carvone revealed that it was active against a wide spectrum of
human pathogenic fungi and bacteria. The activity of this oxygen-
ated monoterpene was found to be comparable to the bioactivity of
the oil in which they occurred [27].
Linalool is also known for its antibacterial activity especially
against Gram eve bacteria. It gave marked MIC values against
S. tyhimurium, E. coli and several Vibrio spp. [29] which complies
with the obtained results for Coriander essential oil.
5. Conclusion
From the above mentioned data it could be concluded that the
three selected oils cumin, caraway and coriander have a potent
bactericidal activity against Gram-ve bacterial strains E. coli and
Bordetella bronchiseptica and showed a moderate or weak bacteri-
cidal effect against the Gram þ ve strain Staph. aureus. It proved, in
addition, that Coriander essential oil is the most effective one
among the ten tested oils.
The essential oils of these three fruits were subjected to gas
chromatography in order to determine the major constituents
which may be responsible for their marked antimicrobial activity.
The percentage of identified compounds was 92.5, 99.43 and
98.66% for the Cumin, Coriander and Caraway oils, respectively.
These three oils could be further tested on more resistant strains.
They can also be used in suitable pharmaceutical dosage form to
treat infections especially urinary tract infections caused by E. coli.
Role of funding source
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
92 N. Khalil et al. / Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 4 (2018) 88e92

References [16] M.T. Ghanem, H.M. Radwan, S.M. Mahdy, Y.M. Elkholy, H.D. Hassanein,
A.A. Shahat, Phenolic compounds from Foeniculum vulgare (Subsp. Piperitum)
(Apiaceae) herb and evaluation of hepatoprotective antioxidant activity,
[1] W. Feng, X. Zheng, Essential oils to control Alternaria alternate in vitro and
Pharmacogn. Res. 4 (2012) 104e108.
in vivo, Food Control 18 (2007) 1126e1130.
[17] N.A. El-Soud, N. El-Laithy, G. El-Saeed, M.S. Wahby, M. Khalil, F. Morsy,
[2] K.K. Ghaima, N.M. Hashim, S.A. Ali, Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of
N. Shaffie, Antidiabetic activities of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. essential oil in
ethyl acetate extract of nettle (Urtica dioica) and dandelion (Taraxacum offi-
streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, Maced. J. Med. Sci. 4 (2011) 139e146.
cinale), J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 3 (2013) 96e99.
[18] Y. Alireza, D. Saeed, S. Daneshmandi, B. Kambiz, H. Mohammad, Immuno-
[3] H.J.D. Dorman, S.G. Deans, Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial
modulatory effect of Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) essential oil on immune
activity of plant volatile oils, J. Appl. Microbiol. 88 (2000) 308e316.
cells, Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 34 (2012) 303e308.
[4] D. Kalemba, A. Kunicka, Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential
[19] N. Khalil, M. Ashour, A.N. Singab, O. Salama, Chemical composition and bio-
oils, Curr. Med. Chem. 10 (2003) 813e829.
 Ljiljana, S. Slavica, Antibacterial activity of some plants from logical activity of the essential oils obtained from yellow and red carrot fruits
[5] L. Brkovi c, C.
cultivated in Egypt, J. Pharm. Biol. Sci. 10 (2015) 13e19.
family Apiaceae in relation to selected phytopathogenic bacteria, Kragujev. J.
[20] L. Boulos, Flora of Egypt, Al Hadara Pub, Cairo, Egypt, 1999.
Sci. 28 (2006) 65e72.
[21] C.A.o.P.A. (CAPA), Egyptian pharmacopeia, fourth ed., Ministry of Health and
[6] A. Zargari, Medicinal Plants, Tehran University Press, Tehran, Iran, 1996.
Population, Cairo, Egypt, 2005.
[7] S. Deb Roy, S. Thakur, A. Negi, M. Kumari, N. Sutar, G.K. Jana, In vitro antibiotic
[22] R.P. Adams, Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatog-
activity of volatile oils of Carum carvi and Coriandrum sativum, Int. J. Chem.
raphy/quadrupole Mass Spectroscopy, third ed., vol. 1, Illinois: Allured Pub
Anal. Sci. 1 (2010) 149e150.
Corp, 2004, p. 456.
[8] V. Rodov, Y. Vinokur, N. Gogia, I. Chkhikvishvili, Hydrophilic and lipophilic
[23] S. Deans, G. Ritchie, Antibacterial properties of plant essential oils, J. Food
antioxidant capacities of Georgian spices for meat and their possible health
Microbiol. 5 (1978) 165e180.
implications, Georgian Med. News 179 (2010) 61e66.
[24] M. Wink, Evolutionary advantage and molecular modes of action of multi-
[9] M. Kamaleeswari, N. Nalini, Dose-response efficacy of caraway (Carum carvi L.)
component mixtures used in phytomedicine, Curr. Drug Metab. 9 (2008)
on tissue lipid peroxidation and antioxidant profile in rat colon carcinogen-
996e1009.
esis, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 58 (2006) 1121e1130.
[25] M. Wink, M.L. Ashour, M.Z. El-Readi, Secondary metabolites from plants
[10] S. Baananou, I. Bouftira, A. Mahmoud, K. Boukef, B. Marongiu, N.A. Boughattas,
inhibiting ABC transporters and reversing resistance of cancer cells and mi-
Antiulcerogenic and antibacterial activities of Apium graveolens essential oil
crobes to cytotoxic and antimicrobial agents, Front. Microbiol. 3 (2012) 130.
and extract, Nat. Prod. Res. 27 (2013) 1075e1083.
[26] N. Rasheeha, H. Iftikhar, T. Abdul, T. Muhammad, Antimicrobial activity of the
[11] I. Kubo, K. Fujita, A. Kubo, K. Nihei, T. Ogura, Antibacterial activity of coriander
bioactive components of essential oils from Pakistani spices against Salmo-
volatile compounds against Salmonella choleraesuis, J. Agric. Food Chem. 52
nella and other multi-drug resistant bacteria, BMC Complement. Altern. Med.
(2004) 3329e3332.
13 (2013) 265e275.
[12] U.R. Pathipati, Fumigant and contact toxic potential of essential oils from plant
[27] K. Aggarwal, S. Khanuja, A. Ateeque, K. Santha, Antimicrobial activity profiles
extracts against stored product pests, J. Biopestic. 5 (2012) 120e128.
of the two enantiomers of limonene and carvone isolated from the oils of
[13] C. Romagnoli, E. Andreotti, S. Maietti, R. Mahendra, D. Mares, Antifungal ac-
Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa, Flavour Fragr. J. 17 (2002) 59e63.
tivity of essential oil from fruits of Indian Cuminum cyminum, Pharm. Biol. 48
[28] T.C. Brennan, J.O. Kromer, L.K. Nielsen, Physiological and transcriptional re-
(2010) 834e838.
sponses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to d-limonene show changes to the cell
[14] H.S. Lee, Cuminaldehyde: aldose Reductase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitor
wall but not to the plasma membrane, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 79 (2013)
derived from Cuminum cyminum L. seeds, J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (2005)
3590e3600.
2446e2453.
[29] R. Roger, S. Samira, O. Eric, B. Pierre, Composition and antimicrobial activity of
[15] N. Gharib, A. Heidari, Antispasmodic effect of Anethum graveolens fruit extract
essential oils of Cinnamosma fragrans, Food Chem. 114 (2009) 680e684.
on rat ileum, Int. J. Pharmacol. 3 (2007) 260e264.