CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Plant, animal, and microbes represent an unlimited source of

compounds with medicinal properties (Emebu et al., 2010). Since

ancient time, humans have been using spices as nutritional agents

(Egwim et al., 2008). According to the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA), spice is an “aromatic vegetable substance in

the whole, broken, or ground form, the significant function of which

in food is seasoning rather than nutrition” and from which “no

portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been

removed” (Edeoga et al., 2012).

More than 100 varieties of spices are produced throughout the

world. Asia is the main leader for the production of spices,

particularly of cinnamon, pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and ginger, while

Europe grows mainly basil, bay leaves, celery leaves, chives,

coriander, dill tips, thyme, and watercress. In America, instead,

pepper, nutmeg, ginger, allspice, and sesame seed are mainly

produced (Burkil et al., 2011).

1
Spices and herbs have played a dramatic role in civilization and in

the history of nations. The delightful flavour and pungency of spices

make them indispensable in the preparation of palatable dishes. In

addition, they are reputed to possess several medicinal and

pharmacological properties and hence find position in the

preparation of a number of medicines (Emmanuel et al., 2015).

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Many maritime routes were developed to India and China with

an ultimate desire to develop a spice route. In the late 13th century,

Marco Polo’s exploration of Asia established Venice as the most

important trade port. Venice remained prosperous until about

1498. The Portuguese explorer, Vasco de Gama, sailed around

Africa’s Cape of Good Hope to reach Calicut, India. He returned

with pepper, cinnamon, ginger and jewels, and also deals for the

Portuguese to continue trade with India (Dike et al., 2010) has

presented a very interesting history of spices. In 1492, Christopher

Columbus arrived in America while searching for a direct western

route to the Spice Islands. Though he did not find the Spice Islands,

Columbus brought allspice, vanilla and red peppers from the West

2
Indies back to his Spanish supporters. Conflict developed over who

would dominate this prosperous trade. Wars over the Indonesian

Spice Islands broke out between the expanding European nations

and continued for about 200 years, between the 15th and 17th

centuries. In 1780, the Dutch and English fought a war over the

spice trade and the Dutch lost all spice trading centres. The

Americans began their entry into the world spice race in 1672

(Bosch et al., 2005). From the beginning of history, the strongest

nations have controlled the spice trade. The same is true today; the

USA is now the world’s major spice buyer, followed by Germany,

Japan and France. In short, the trade in spices, usually carried out

along the many historic spice routes, has been one of the most

important commercial activities throughout ancient and modern

times. The importance placed on spices is reflected by economic

developments that began early in many ancient civilizations, where

spices found applications in food preservation, cooking and

traditional medicine. Asia still grows most of the spices that once

ruled the trade, including cinnamon, pepper, nutmeg, clove and

ginger. However, more and more spices are being planted in ©CAB

International 2008. Chemistry of Spices (eds V.A. Parthasarathy, B.

3
Chempakam and T.J. Zachariah) 1 2 V.A. Parthasarathy et al. the

Western hemisphere, along with a wide variety of herbs and

aromatic seeds. Brazil is a major supplier of pepper. Guatemala is a

leading producer of cardamom. Grenada grows nutmeg and ginger,

and allspice is grown in Jamaica. Nicaragua, El Salvador and the

USA grow sesame seed. Europe and the USA produce many herbs

and Canada grows several aromatic seeds (Trease et al., 2013).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Turmeric and Curry leaves are consumed by many people

without knowing the nutrients present in them. There is a need to

examine the Phytochemical and proximate compositon of the spices

in order to enlighten the public.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Due to the valuable nature of Turmeric root and Curry

leaves, this study is therefore geared towards the comparative

proximate and Phytochemical analysis of Turmeric root and Curry

leaves

The aim of this study is therefore to:

1. Examine the Phytochemical properties of turmeric root and

Curry leaves and carry out proximate analysis of the two.

4
2. Analyze the medicinal properties of the turmeric root and

curry leaves

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This project is limited to the comparative proximate

composition and Phytochemical analysis of Turmeric root and

Curry leaves.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Curry (plural curries) is an umbrella term referring to a

number of dishes originating from the Indian subcontinent. The

common feature is the use of complex combinations of spices or

herbs, usually including turmeric, cumin, ginger, and fresh or dried

hot chilies. The use of the term is generally limited to dishes

prepared in a sauce. Curry dishes prepared in the southern states

of India may be spiced with leaves from the curry tree (Tadhani et

al., 2013).

There are many varieties of dishes called 'curries'. For

example, in original traditional cuisines, the precise selection of

spices for each dish is a matter of national or regional cultural

tradition, religious practice, and, to some extent, family preference.

Such dishes are called by specific names that refer to their

ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods. Spices are used both

whole and ground; cooked or raw; and they may be added at

different times during the cooking process to produce different

results. The main spices found in most curry powders of the Indian

6
subcontinent are coriander, cumin, and turmeric; a wide range of

additional spices may be included depending on the geographic

region and the foods being included (fish, lentils, red or white meat,

rice, and vegetables). Curry powder, a commercially prepared

mixture of spices, is largely a Western creation, dating to the 18th

century. Such mixtures are commonly thought to have first been

prepared by Indian merchants for sale to members of the British

Colonial government and army returning to Britain (Otunola et al.,

2014).

Turmeric  is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast

Asia, and requires temperatures between 20 and 30 °C (68 and

86 °F) and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive.

Plants are gathered each year for their rhizomes, some for

propagation in the following season and some for consumption

(Biyiti et al., 2013).

When not used fresh, the rhizomes are boiled in water for about 30–

45 minutes and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are

ground into a deep-orange-yellow powder commonly used as

a coloring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially

7
for curries, as well as for dyeing. Turmeric powder has a warm,

bitter, black pepper-like flavor and earthy, mustard-like aroma.

Although long used in Ayurvedic medicine, no high-quality clinical

evidence exists for use of turmeric or its main

constituent, curcumin, as a therapy (Oyonode et al., 2014).

2.1 TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

Any of various aromatic vegetable productions as pepper,

cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, allspice, ginger, cloves, etc., used in

cookery to season and to flavour sauces, pickles, etc.; a vegetable

condiment or relish, usually in the form of a powder; also, as

condiments collectively (Andzouana et al., 2012).

The famous spice author Rosengarten describes a spice as a

product which enriches or alters the quality of a thing, for example

altering the taste of a food to give it zest or pungency; a piquant or

lasting flavouring; or a relish. The term 'spice' is thus used to cover

the use of spices, herbs and certain aromatic vegetables to impart

odour and flavour to foods. A conventional classification of spices is

based on degree of taste as:

• aromatic spices

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• herbs and aromatic vegetables (Okafor et al., 2016).

2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TURMERIC PLANT

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Monocots

Clade: Commelinids

Order: Zingiberales

Family: Zingiberaceae

Genus: Curcuma

Species: C. longa (Bangash et al., 2012).

2.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CURRY PLANT

Kingdom Plantae – Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Rutaceae – Rue family

Genus Murraya J. Koenig

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Species Murraya koenigii (L.) (Oduro et al., 2010).

2.2 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF SPICE (CURRY LEAF AND

TURMERIC ROOT)

CURRY LEAF

Curry leaf is found almost throughout India up to an altitude

of 1500 mtrs. It is much cultivated for its aromatic leaves.

Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) is an important perennial tree

vegetable. Its leaves are used mainly to improve the taste and

flavour of foods. Leaves are slightly pungent and retain their flavour

even after drying. Ground curry leaf with mature coconut kernel

and spices forms an excellent preserve. It grows wild in the foothills

and plains of the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. In south

India, especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, at least one

curry leaf plant is found in each homestead. Recently it has gained

importance as a commercial crop. It is cultivated commercially in

Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is also cultivated in West Bengal,

Assam and Deccan Plateau. Climate and soil Curry leaf can be

cultivated in a wide range of soils. Red sandy loam soil is ideal for

its cultivation. It can tolerate temperature up to 37°C. But below

16°C, its growth is affected. Varieties There are 2 improved varieties

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of curry leaf - DWD 1 and DWD 2. Both of these have a good aroma.

They have an oil content of 5.22% and 4.09% respectively. They are

mainly cultivated in Karnataka. DWD 1 is sensitive to winter

season. During winter its growth is poor, whereas DWD 2 is winter

insensitive. It gives higher yield than DWD 1. ‘Senkaampu’ is a local

cultivar grown in many parts of Tamil Nadu (Obiajunwa et al.,

2016).

The leaves of curry leaf tree is a spice. The tree is an aromatic

deciduous one, five meter in height, 15-40 cm in diameter. It is

cultivated mainly in homesteads but to a certain extent on a

plantation scale.

TURMERIC

Turmeric as an aromatic medicinal plant was known to

Indians since ancient times. Many scientists and historians argue

that the South Asia is the original home of Turmeric, from there it

might have spread to countries in the South East Asia and pacific

islands where Turmeric is cultivated. (Amaechi et al., 2012). It was

recorded that turmeric was grown wildly in the forest regions of

Java, Indonesia as early as 5th century AD. There are Sanskrit

texts belong to 5 and 6th centuries AD describe the usages of

11
turmeric. Marco Polo mention the usages of Turmeric in China.

Turmeric is widely cultivated mainly in India , China, Taiwan,

Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Java, Brazil, Peru, many parts of Africa and

Australia (Nkafamiya et al., 2013).

Turmeric is known in different names across the world. It is

widely reported that the word Turmeric might have originated from

the Latin word Terra Meritta which means sacred soil. Also the

word Turmeric could have originated from its metallic look and is

commonly called Saffron in many parts of the world. In India it is

known by different names in different languages such as Manjal in

Tamil and Malayalam, Arishina in Kannada, Pasupu in Telugu,

Haladi in Sanskrit and Haldi in Hindi and many other North Indian

languages (Akinyeye et al., 2013).

Turmeric is an herbaceous perennial plant that grows up to

1meter tall with many branches with yellow to orange, cylindrical,

aromatic rhizomes. The leaves are alternate and arranged in two

rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade. From

the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The rhizomes are the most

widely used part of the plant as cooking ingredient, medicine and

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color dye though the leaves and the stems are used for many

purposes mainly cooking (Ngbede et al., 2014).

The most important chemical components of turmeric are a group

of compounds called curcuminoids. The best-studied compound is

curcumin, which is a main ingredient in powdered turmeric.

Turmeric also has many important volatile oils include turmerone,

atlantone, and zingiberene. Oil and oleo resins extracted from

Turmeric are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry.

Turmeric has nearly 40 different genres and 400 species. The

most common varieties of Turmeric are Curcumin longa, Curcuma

aromatica, curcuma amada, curcuma algustifolia, curcucuma

zidoria. (Ndagui et al., 2013).

The oleoresin extracted from Turmeric is widely used in cooking to

give attractive colors to the dishes. The resin is of thick oily in

nature and is deep brown in color. The oleoresin contains 30-40%

curcumin and 15-20% curcumin oil

Turmeric oil is produced by distilling turmeric powder which

consists of many Ketons and alcohols . R Termeron and Termeron

are the Ketons which give turmeric its colour and flavor.

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 In India Turmeric is an integral ingredient in most of the Vedic

rituals. It is an essential ingredient in many medicines prepared

under the Indian systems of medicines such as Ayurveda, Siddha

and also many ethnic and folk medicinal practices. In many

communities Turmeric has always been part of rituals and

ceremonies related to fertility and wellbeing for human beings and

nature. Many Indian traditions believe that Turmeric is a “divine

plant” given to human beings by God (Muhammed et al., 2011).

In the great Ayurvedic medical texi books such as Charaka

Samhita, Susrutha Samhita, Vaagbhada Samhita and Haritha

Samhithas, Turmeric is recommended in a number of medical

preparations. Though turmeric has been used as a favorite

antibiotic and de toxic agent to cure burns, cuts and to eliminate

foreign substances from the body, it is highly recommended to use

it in the cooking for daily intake as a disease prevention measure ,

for adding color and taste to the food. A daily intake of food with

turmeric is something almost every Indian tradition recommends to

control for the prevention of many body disorders and diseases.

India produces nearly 94% of the total turmeric production in the

world and it enjoys nearly 50% of the global market. Turmeric

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grown in the Western Ghats is considered as the finest variety

though Africa, Indonesia and South America also produce good

quality Turmeric (Megnanou et al., 2012).

Required Climate for Growth of Curry and Turmeric

curry

Curry tree plant loves the warm, humid surroundings and

subtropical and tropical heat. There, it is easy to grow even for a

beginner. It needs full sun and moderate watering to thrive.

Planting Curry Tree

Curry should be grown outside, in the sunniest spot in a garden,

regular watering should be done in the next two months and the

white flowers should be pinched off in the first two years to

appreciate healthy growth. Once settled, it’ll start to grow up

quickly. Gardeners in a cooler zone where winters are harsh

should grow it in a container. Spring is the best season for planting

which is in a 5-gallon container and upgrade the size of it as the

growth progresses. It can tolerate mild freezing temperature but

needs a lot of care in winter, in too much cold it shed its leaves and

goes dormant until spring and start a new growth again (Matos et

al., 2013).

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In the beginning, it’s a slow grower and reaches a height of 6-10

inches in a year (depending on the climate and growing conditions),

Regular pruning or picking of leaves is essential to promote the

fresh foliage growth. Use nitrogen rich fertilizer in a month or two to

boost the growth (don’t fertilize in dormant stage of the plant, which

occurs in the winter in cooler areas)

TURMERIC

A) Climatic Requirements for Turmeric Cultivation:

Turmeric is a tropical crop, which requires hot and moist climate, It

also requires 110C to 400C temperature for proper growth, It is very

sensitive to low temperature and it is grown as unirrigated crop in

heavy rainfall area and as irrigated crop in moderate rainfall area

(Martin et al., 2017)

B) Soil Requirements for Turmeric Cultivation:

Turmeric requires well drained, loose and friable loamy or alluvial

soil. Heavy black or clayey soils are unsuitable as rhizome

development is not proper and it cannot stand in water logged

or alkaline soil (Adanlawo et al., 2015).

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2.3 PESTS AND DISEASES OF SPICE (CURRY AND TURMERIC)

CURRY LEAVE

Jumping lice

This insect is active throughout the year and breeds from March to

November. Adults are found under the leaf surface and hop out

when slightly disturbed (Marita et al., 2014)

Type of injury

The damage is caused mostly by nymphs than the adults. Leaf

curling, defoliation and death of shoots may result from the attack.

The bugs also inject certain toxins along with saliva which cause

drying and death of branches (Kunle et al., 2013).

Besides they excrete honey dews resulting in the superficial black

coating on the leaves.

The damage is so long lasting that the branches look sickly and the

vitality of the plants deteriorates. The plant stops growing.

Leaf spot

Leaf spot disease can be controlled by spraying Carbendazim 1 g/lit

of water. Spraying Sulphur compounds should be avoided. (Trease

et al., 2013).

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TURMERIC

Pests of Turmeric: 

1. Shoot Borer: The caterpillar bores into rhizomes and feeds on

it. 

Control: Spray 0.1 % Malathion. 

2. Leaf Roller: Caterpillar remains in leaf folds and feds within. . 

Control: Spray 0.05 % Dimethoate. 

3. Scale Insects: The scales, damage the rhizomes both in field and

in storage

Control: Dip seed rhizomes in 0.05 % Malathion or Dimethoate for

30 minutes before storage or planting. 

Diseases of Turmeric: 

1. Leaf Blotch: Small oval, rectangular or irregular brown spots

appear on either side of leaves and soon become dirty brown. Yield

is reduced. 

Control: Spray 0.2 % Diethene M-45. 

2. Leaf Spot: Brown spots of different size appear on the upper

surface of young leaves. The spots are whitish or grayish in the

center. Subsequently, the whole leaf gets covered and leaves dry up.

The rhizomes do not develop well. 

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Control: Spray 0.3 % Zineb or 1 % Bordeaux mixture. 

3. Rhizome Rot: Leaves dry up starting from the margins. Collar

region becomes soft, water soaked and the plants, collapse,

Rhizome decay follows (AOAC, 2013).

Control: 

a. Treat the seed rhizomes with 0.3 % Diethane M-45 for 30

minutes before sowing and also before storage. 

b. Under field conditions, drench the beds with 0.3 % Diethane M-

45. (Trease et al., 2014).

2.4 HARVESTING OF SPICES (TURMERIC ROOT AND CURRY

LEAVES)

The method used for harvesting herbs and spices is

dependent on the plant part desired. (Krishnaswamy et al.,

2014).

Harvesting

Tools for harvesting can include hand pruners, a sharp knife, or

scissors. Your hands will also work well in pinching off leaves,

seeds, or fruits.

Leaves should be free of insect damage and other blemishes and

harvested just after the dew has evaporated from the plant in

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the morning. Leaves are at their peak flavor anytime before

flowering and develop "off " flavors after flowering.

If harvesting the entire plant, wait until just before the flower

buds open. If the plant is an annual (see fact sheet on

Nomenclature for more information on plant life cycles), cut it off

at the soil line. If it is perennial, cut off no more that one third of

the stems (Kouakou et al., 2013).

Seeds and fruits should be harvested after they reach maturity

and on a dry day. For most plants, this is when the fruit has

changed from green to tan, brown, or black.

Preserving

Rinsing and Storing

After harvesting, leaves and whole plants should be rinsed in

cold water and patted dry. Herbs and/or spices intended for

refrigerating, freezing, or drying should be preserved as soon as

possible for the best flavor and color.

When storing, remember to label the container with the name of

the herb or spice and the date harvested.

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Refrigerating Herbs

After rinsing, place herbs loosely in a plastic bag, and place the

bag in a refrigerator. The herbs will remain fresh for a few days

to a week. Another method is to place whole plants or sprigs in a

jar or cup with about 1 inch of water, cover the herbs with a

plastic bag and place in a refrigerator. If the water is changed

daily, herbs can last up to two weeks using this method.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum) and oregano (Origanum spp.) should be

used on the day harvested because they will not hold well in the

refrigerator. Fennel stalks (Foeniculum vulgare) dry out quickly

and should be used within 3 to 4 days of harvest (Kokate et al.,

2017).

Freezing Herbs

After rinsing, gardeners have the option of freezing sprigs, whole

leaves, or leaves cut or torn into smaller sections. Herbs can

simply be placed in freezer containers or bags and placed in a

freezer.

Alternatively, herbs can be placed in a single layer on a cookie

sheet and then frozen. Once the herbs are frozen they can be

placed in freezer containers or bags. This method prevents the

21
herbs from freezing in clumps, and it may be easier to remove

individual quantities for cooking.

In general, blanching herbs before freezing will sacrifice flavor

but retain better color. If one opts to blanch, place the herbs in

a colander and pour boiling water over them for about one

second. Basil is one herb that should always be blanched. It will

blacken if not blanched prior to freezing. Once frozen, herbs can

last for six months to a year. Generally, herbs will retain their

flavor though some will change slightly (Kimobonguilla et al.,

2014).

Frozen herbs can be used in cooking without defrosting. When

using frozen herbs in uncooked foods, they should be thawed

and excess water may need to be drained prior to adding to the

foods. In this case, the texture may be softer than when freshly

harvested.

2.5 USES OF SPICES (CURRY LEAVES AND TUMERIC ROOT)

The main nutrients found in curry leaves are carbohydrates,

energy, fiber, calcium, phosphorous, iron, magnesium, copper,

and minerals.  It also contains various vitamins like nicotinic acid

22
and vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin E, antioxidants, plant

sterols, amino acids, glycosides, and flavonoids. Also, nearly zero fat

(0.1 g per 100 g) is found in them (Kuilgou et al., 2012).

The other chemical constituents present in curry leaves are

carbazole alkaloids. Research studies held by the Department of

Home Economics at Kenmei Women’s Junior College in Hyogo,

Japan showed that alkaloids found in the leaves possess

antioxidant properties.  Carbazole alkaloids include mahanimbine,

murrayanol, mahanineoenimbine, O-methylmurrayamine A, O-

methylmahanine, isomahanine, bismahanine and bispyrayafoline.

Further studies conducted at the Department of Horticulture at

Michigan State University suggested that these chemicals

have insecticidal and antimicrobial properties as well, specifically

mosquitocidal properties (Kawo et al., 2016).

Good for Eyesight

Curry leaves contain high amounts of vitamin A and

therefore is good for eyesight. Vitamin A contains carotenoids

which protect the cornea, the eye surface. Deficiency of vitamin A

23
may cause night blindness, cloud formations in front of the eye

and even loss of vision in some cases (Kawo et al., 2016).

Radioprotective and Chemo-protective

Studies on the extracts of curry leaves have shown positive

results in reducing the effects of chemotherapy and

radiotherapy. They also offer protection against chromosomal

damage, protection of bone marrow, and prevention of free

radicals becoming active in the body.

Protect Against Pathogen Attack

Research on curry leaves has revealed that they are also effective

in fighting bacterial and fungal infections. The leaf extracts from

the plant have been comparable to popular mainstream

antibiotic drugs.

Protect the Liver

The liver plays a major role in the digestive process and it

needs to be protected from any attack by free radicals, as well as

from viral and bacterial attacks that can result in infection.

24
Research on curry leaves has indicated that the tannins and

carbazole alkaloids present in the leaves exhibited good hepato-

protective properties. They are also helpful in protecting the liver

from various diseases such as hepatitis and cirrhosis (Iheanacho

et al., 2016).

Skin Care

Curry leaves are also helpful in skin care. The juice or paste

of the leaves can be applied to burns, cuts, bruises, skin

irritations, and insect bites for a quick recovery and clean

healing.

USES OF TURMERIC

1. Cooking

Run out of turmeric? No problem. The extract of dried turmeric

leaves soaked in water can serve the same purpose. It will impart

the same golden yellow hue you expect from the powder. As

such,  haldi  leaves are extensively used in Indian, Thai and

Malaysian cooking. Turmeric has a bitter-astringent flavour but in

Mangalorean cuisine, turmeric leaves are used to cook a sweet dish

25
called Patholi. Patholi  is a sweet rice dumpling steamed in turmeric

leaves! It is also commonly known as Haldikolyache Patholi in

Konkani (Trease et al., 2012).

2. Boosts Digestion

Crushed turmeric or haldi leaves can help boost digestion and

reduce problems of gas and bloating. Curcumin is said to trigger

bile production, which is one of the main components of digestion.

Increased secretion of bile juice aids smoother digestion.

3. Strong Anti-inflammatory Properties

Due to the strong anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin,

turmeric leaves could prove to be a boon for those suffering

osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. According to experts the

bio-active compound can help alleviate the pain. However, having

turmeric in large quantities may not be the best idea either. Consult

your doctor for the ideal amount. (Iheanacho et al., 2014).

4. Beauty Benefits

Curcumin, the star compound of haldi leaves, could prove to

be your best companion through all your beauty woes too. Turmeric

26
leaves can be crushed into a paste and applied to the skin. The

paste will help keep your skin soft, smooth and glowing. It will also

help keep the dark spots or blemishes away.

5. Antiseptic Properties

Curcumin, the therapeutic component of turmeric is also packed

with anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-viral properties

which boosts healing. Take some turmeric leaves, crush them,

gradually add some water and make it into a paste. Apply this paste

on minor burns, cuts and injuries and see its healing effects

yourself.

2.6 MEDICINAL POTENTIAL OF SPICE (TURMERIC AND

CURRY LEAVES)

CURRY LEAVES

1. Curry leaves tea can detoxify your body. There are many

factors that lead to weight gain, like eating too much food,

having unhealthy and processed items, having a diseased

digestive tract, skipping breakfast, and having a lot of

accumulated toxins in the body. Curry leaves tea can take

care of the last one - accumulated toxins - by detoxifying your

27
 body and making it conducive to burn more fat and store less.

2. It improves your digestion. Tea prepared from curry leaves has

a distinct herbal and earthy aroma because of the medicinal

compounds in it, which are capable of improving your

digestion and in preventing diarrhoea.

3. It reduces blood sugar. When you have too many sugary foods

and drinks, your blood sugar tends to spike up suddenly. And

since your body does not need so much sugar to fuel it, the

extra sugar is converted into fat and stored in your body for

the future. Curry leaves can prevent this blood sugar spike,

thus preventing fat build-up in your body and also protecting

it from the ill-effects of diabetes.

4 It is a powerful antioxidant. Curry leaves contain a powerful

chemical compound in them called carbazole alkaloid, which

is capable of scavenging free radicals in the body and killing

the bacteria, thus protecting the body from inflammation and

infections. The other compound in curry leaves capable of the

same effect is linolool, which gives it its characteristic aroma.

5 It can heal wounds and burns.

28
 You can use the boiled leaves left over after you sieve your tea

to make a wound-healing paste for minor cuts, wounds, and

burns. This property of curry leaves is bestowed upon it by the

compound mahanimbicine in it, which is known to accelerate

wound healing and also in restoring the hair follicles at the

wound.

6 It can prevent weight gain.

Drinking a cup of curry leaves tea every day can prevent

weight gain and cholesterol build-up in the body through its

medicinal compound mahanimbine, a carbazole alkaloid.

7 It can ease constipation and prevent diarrhoea. (Harboune et

al., 2012).

As mentioned in a previous point, curry leaves improve ones

digestion by strengthening the digestive tract, especially the

intestines. But that's not all curry leaves can do. These leaves have

a mild laxative property and can ease constipation. And in case of

diarrhoea or food poisoning, consuming its tea can kill the harmful

microbes in the gut and reverse the accelerated peristalsis (Hyde et

al., 2016).

29
TURMERIC

Blocking cancer

Doctors at UCLA found that curcumin, the main component in

turmeric, appeared to block an enzyme that promotes the growth of

head and neck cancern

In that study, 21 subjects with head and neck cancers chewed

two tablets containing 1,000 milligrams of curcumin. An

independent lab in Maryland evaluated the results and found that

the cancer-promoting enzymes in the patients’ mouths were

inhibited by the curcumin and thus prevented from advancing the

spread of the malignant cells.

Powerful antioxidant

The University of Maryland’s Medical Center also states that

turmeric’s powerful antioxidant properties fight cancer-causing free

radicals, reducing or preventing some of the damage they can

cause. While more research is necessary, early studies have

indicated that curcumin may help prevent or treat several types of

cancer including prostate, skin and colon.

30
Lower risk of Alzheimer's disease

A 2017 study revealed that curcumin may improve memory and

mood swings in people who suffer from mild cases of memory loss.

Researchers had a group of 40 adults between the ages of 50 and

90 take either a curcumin or placebo pill for 18 months. At the end,

the memory and attention of participants who took the curcumin

pill improved by 28 percent (Gruberne et al., 2014).

While the exact reason why turmeric can improve memory

isn't known, doctors believe it's because the spice has anti-

inflammatory properties. "It may be due to its ability to reduce brain

inflammation, which has been linked to both Alzheimer's disease

and major depression," Gary Small from UCLA told NDTV.

Potent anti-inflammatory

Dr. Randy J. Horwitz, the medical director of the Arizona

Center for Integrative Medicine and an assistant professor of clinical

medicine at the University of Arizona College of Medicine in Tucson,

wrote a paper for the American Academy of Pain Management in

31
which he discussed the health benefits of turmeric (Friis et al.,

2013).

“Turmeric is one of the most potent natural anti-inflammatories

available,” Horwitz states in the paper.

He went on to cite a 2006 University of Arizona study that

examined the effect of turmeric on rats with injected rheumatoid

arthritis. According to Horwitz, pretreatment with turmeric

completely inhibited the onset of rheumatoid arthritis in the rats. In

addition, the study found that using turmeric for pre-existing

rheumatoid arthritis resulted in a significant reduction of

symptoms.

Osteoarthritis pain relief

Turmeric may also be helpful with another type of arthritis. Some

research has shown that taking turmeric extract can ease the pain

of osteoarthritis. In one study,reports WebMD, turmeric worked

about as well as ibuprofen for relieving osteoarthritis pain (FAO,

2013).

32
Indigestion and heartburn aid

Curcumin works with the gallbladder, stimulating it to make bile,

which may help with digestion. In Germany, turmeric can be

prescribed for digestive problems. Some research shows that

turmeric may help upset stomach, bloating and gas. Turmeric may

also help reduce the occurrence of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in

people who are otherwise healthy (Emmanuel et al., 2014)

Heart disease

Studies have suggested curcumin may help prevent the buildup of

plaque that can clog arteries and lead to heart attacks and strokes.

Impact on diabetes

Early studies suggest that taking turmeric daily can cut down the

number of people with prediabetes who develop diabetes

33
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 APPARATUS, REAGENTS AND EQUIPMENT

Apparatus

 Heating mantle

 Flat buttom flask

 Measuring cylinder

 Cotton wool

 Test tubes

 Crucible

 Weighing balance

 Furnace

 Whatmann filter paper No. 42 (125mm)

 Beakers

 Stirring rod

Reagents

 Ferhling’s solution

 Dilute HCl

 KOH

34
 Ethanol

 Olive oil

 Chloroform

 Concentrated H2SO4

Equipment

 Muffle furnace

 Oven

 refrigerator

 Grinding machine (Blender)

 Water bath

3.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Collection and Preparation of samples (turmeric and curry

leaves)

Fresh leaves of curry and turmeric were purchased from a

Lokoja International Market, Kogi state, Nigeria

3.3 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The turmeric and curry leaves were separated, washed and

air-dried at room temperature (24 0C) and then pulverized, crushed

into fine powder and weighed. Ethanolic extracts of turmeric roots

35
and curry leaves were each prepared by soaking 10g of the dry

powdered turmeric and curry leaves and in 100ml of absolute

ethanol at room temperature for 48hrs (for thorough extraction).

The extract was then filtered first through a Whatmann filter paper

No. 42 (125mm) and then through cotton wool. The extract was

thereafter concentrated using a rotary evaporator with the water

bath set at 60◦C to one-tenth its original volume and then finally

freeze dried. The dried residue (crude extract) was then stored at

4ºC. Portions of the crude plant extract and peels residue were

weighed and used for phytochemical screening (Roberto et al.,

2017).

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.4 METHODS FOR PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING

Phytochemical screening was performed using standard

procedures (Sofowora, 1993, Trease and Evans, 1989, Ayoola et al.,

2008).

3.4.1 TEST FOR SAPONINS

0.5ml of extracts was added to 5ml of distilled water in two

separate test tubes and the solutions were shaken vigorously and

observed for a stable persistent froth. The frothing was mixed with 3

36
drops of olive oil and shaken vigorously after which it was observed

for the formation of an emulsion.

3.4.2 TEST FOR TRITERPENOIDS

0.5ml of the extract was dissolved in 1ml of chloroform. 1ml of

acetic anhydride was added, followed by the addition of 2ml of

concentrated H2SO4. Formation of reddish violet colour indicates

the presence of triterpenoids.

3.4.3 TEST FOR TANNINS

Two methods were used to test for tannins:

(a) To 10ml of freshly prepared 10% KOH in a beaker, 0.5ml of

extract was added and shaken to dissolve. A dirty precipitate

observed indicated the presence of tannin.

(b) About 0.5ml of the extract was boiled in 10ml of water in a

test tube and then filtered. A few drops of 0.1% ferric chloride was

added and the solution observed for brownish green or a

blueblack colouration

3.4.4. TEST FOR REDUCING SUGAR (FEHLINGˈS TEST)

0.5ml of the extract was dissolved in 5ml distilled water and

filtered. The filtrate was hydrolysed with dilute HCl, neutralized

with alkali (NaOH) and heated with Ferling`s A and B solutions.

37
Formation of red precipitate indicated the presence of reducing

sugars.

3.4.5 TEST FOR ANTHRAQUINONES

0.5ml of the extract was boiled with 10ml of H2SO4 and filtered

while hot. The filtrate was shaken with 5ml of chloroform, the

chloroform layer was pipette into another test tube and 1ml of

dilute ammonia was added. The resulting solution was observed for

colour changes.

3.4.6 TEST FOR STEROIDS

0.5ml of the extract was dissolved in 10ml of chloroform and

equal volume of concentrated H2SO4 was added by the sides of the

test tubes. Reddish upper layer and yellowish sulphuric acid layer

with green fluorescence indicate the presence of steroids.

3.4.7 TEST FOR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES (KELLER-KILLIANI

TEST)

To 0.5ml of extract dissolved in 5ml water was added 2ml of

glacial acetic acid solution containing one drop of ferric chloride

solution. This was underlayed with 1ml of concentrated H 2SO4. A

brown ring at the interface indicated the presence of a deoxysugar

characteristics of cardenolides. A violet ring may appear below the

38
brown ring while in the acetic acid layer a greenish ring may form

just above the brown ring and gradually spread throughout this

layer.

3.4.8 TEST FOR FLAVONOIDS

Two methods were used to test for flavonoids:

(a) A portion of the extract was heated with 10ml of ethyl acetate

over a steam bath for 3 minutes, the mixture was filtered and

4ml of the filtrate was shaken with 1ml of dilute ammonia

solution. A yellow colouration indicated the presence of

flavonoids.

(b) Dilute ammonia (5ml) was added to a portion of an acqueous

filtrate of the extract. Then, concentrated sulphuric acid (1ml)

was added. A yellow colouration indicated the presence of

flavonoids.

3.4.9 TEST FOR ALKALOIDS

Extracts were dissolved individually in dilute HCl and filtered.

(a) Filtrates were treated with Mayer`s reagent (potassium

mercuric iodide). Formation of a yellow coloured precipitate

indicates the presence of alkaloids.

39
(b) Filtrate was treated with Dragendroff`s reagent (solution of

potassium bismuth iodide). Formation of red precipitate

indicates the presence of alkaloid. Filtrate was treated with

Hager`s reagent (saturated picric acid solution). Presence of

alkaloid is confirmed by the formation of yellow coloured

precipitate.

3.5 METHODS FOR PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

The powdered leaves and roots were taken for proximate

analysis. The moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein (nitrogen x

6.25) and crude fibre contents were determined using the standard

methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC,

2000). Carbohydrate content was estimated based on the net

difference between the other nutrients and the total percentage

composition.

After the preparation process, the sample was analyzed for

moisture, ash, crude fiber, fat/lipid, crude protein and

carbohydrate content and these were conducted in the

chemistry/biochemistry laboratory of Kogi state polytechnic Lokoja,

Kogi state.

40
 The proximate analysis was carried out in triplicate according

to the AOAC (1990) methodology. The energy content (kj) of the

samples was estimated by multiplying the % of crude protein, crude

lipids and carbohydrate with the recommended factors of 2.

3.5.1 MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

Moisture content of food is of great important to every food

processor as a number of biochemical and physiological changes in

food which depend very much on the moisture content. Therefore

moisture content determination is one of the vital components of

food determination in the laboratory. This analysis is carried out to

determine the amount of moisture content contained in the sample

using the methods described by AOAC (1990).

Procedure

A clean crucible was dried to a constant weigh in an air oven

at 1050c for 30 minutes, cooled in a desiccator and weighed (w1).

2 gram of the sample flour (curry leaves and turmeric root) was

accurately weighed into the clean, preweighed crucible (w2) and

place into a hot oven at 1050c for 6-8 hours until a constant weight

was obtained.

41
 The crucible and its content was removed and placed in a

desiccators for 30 minutes to cool after which it was weigh again

(w3).

The percentage moisture content was saturated for the sample

using the expression below;

W 2−W 3
% moisture content = W −W X 100
2 1

Where, W1 = weight of empty crucible.

W2 = weight of empty crucible + sample before oven drying.

W3 = weight of empty crucible + sample after oven drying.

3.5.2 ASH CONTENT DETERMINATION

Ash in food constitute the residue remaining after all moisture

has been removed as well as organic materials (carbohydrates,

protein, fats, vitamins, organic acid etc.) this analysis is carried out

in order to determine the inorganic matter of sample after burning

(incinerating) in muffle furnace. The ash content was determined

using the official method of AOAC (1984).

Procedure

42
 A clean crucible was dried to a constant temperature, weighed

and ignite to a muffle furnace of 5500c for 1 hour and cooled in the

desiccator.

2g of the sample flour was weighed into the crucible and

weighed again (W2).

The crucible and its content was transfer into the muffle
furnace and the temperature was gradually increased until it
reaches 5500c. The temperature was maintained for 8hrs. The
appearance of the gray white indicates complete oxidation of all
organic matter in the sample.

After ashing, the crucible was removed and cooled in a

desicator and weighed (W3). The ash content present in the sample
was obtained using the formula;

Loss of Weig h t
%Ash content = Weig h t of Sample X 100

W 3−W 1
% Ash content = W −W X 100
2 1

W1 = Weight of empty curcible

W2 = weight of sample in crucible before incineration

W3 = weight of sample in the curable after incineration.

3.5.3 CRUDE FIBER DETERMINATION

43
 Crude fiber represent the organic residue after the materials
have been treated under standard condition with boiling sulphuric
acid and boiling dilute sodium hydroxide. Crude fiber is made
largely of cellulose together with a little lignin include materials that
are indigestible in human and animal organism. This analysis is
carried out in order to estimate the amount of fiber in the sample.

Procedure

2g of the grinded sample (curry leaves and turmeric root) was

Poured in a clean round bottom flask and hydrolyzed with 200ml of

1.25% sulphuric acid solution (H2S04) and boiled for 30minutes

under reflux. The solution was quickly filtered and the insoluble

matters was washed several times in hot distilled water to make it

acid free.

The acid free residue of the sample was decanted into a round

bottom flask and boiled again for another 30 minutes with 200ml of

1.25% sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH). The insoluble residue

was washed with hot distilled water to make it base free.

The residue was dried to a constant weight in an oven at

1000c, cooled in a desiccator and weighed (C1). It was later

incinerated in muffle furnace at 600 0c for 2-4 hours, and weighed

44
(C2) then cooled in a desiccators and weigh again (c3). The percent

crude fiber was calculated using the following expression.

C2−C 3
% crude fibre = X 100 Where, W = weight of original sample
W

(C2-C3)= The loss in weight on washing (incineration).

3.5.4 CRUDE FAT/LIPID DETERMINATION

Lipids are characterized by their sparingly solubility in water

and their considerable solubility in organic solvent. The study have

shown that fat makes up to about 99% of lipid fraction of a food. In

food analysis total lipid content is what determines rather than the

true fat content. This analysis is carried out to determine the

quantity or amount of fat present in the sample (curry leaves and

turmeric seed).

Procedure

Crude fat was determined by either extraction method using

soxhlet apparatus also known as the dry extraction method for fat;

it consist of extracting dry samples with some organic solvent, since

all the fat materials e.g. fats, phospholipids, sterols, fatty acid,

45
carotenoids pigments, chlorophyII etc are extracted together,

therefore the results are frequently referred to as crude fat.

2g of the sample was weighed and wrapped in filtered paper,

placed in a fat free thimble and then introduced in the extraction

tube. About 200ml of petroleum ether was poured into a flat bottom

flask (cleaned and dried) and filtered into the apparatus.

The water and heater (heating mantle) were turned in to start

extraction. After 4-6 siphoning, the either was allowed to evaporate

and the beaker was disconnected before the last siphoning.

Rotary vacuum evaporator was used to evaporate the solvent

leaving the extracted lipid in the soxhlet. The filter paper containing

the sample was removed from the thimble and dried to a constant

weight in the oven at 700c, cooled in a desiccators and weighed (w3),

the percent lipid content was determined as follows.

Weig h t of lipid extracted

% lipid content (W/W) = Weig h t of direct sample X 100

W 2−W 3
% lipid (W/W) = W −W X 100
2 1

Where, weight of lipid extracted (crude fat) is given by loss in weight

(W2-W1) of the thimble content after extraction.

46
3.5.5 CRUDE PROTEIN DETERMINATION (FORMOL

TITRATION METHODS).

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are

therefore polymers of amino acids, most of which are alpha-amino

acids having the general formula NH2CHR2COOH. It is the only

macronutrient in food that contains high content of nitrogen. The

nitrogen in protein, this becomes the basic of the estimation of

protein in food. This is achieved by the determination of the

percentage of nitrogen. The analysis was carried out to determine

the percentage of crude protein present in the sample (curry leaves

and turmeric seed).

Procedure

2g of the sample (curry leaves and turmeric seed).was weighed

into a beaker and dissolved with 10ml of the distilled water. The

sample was pipette into a separate conical flask and two drops of

phenolplithalein indicator was added.

The solution was neutralized carefully with a few drops of

sodium hydroxide until a faint pink colour was noted.

47
 2ml of neutralized formaldehyde was added to each sample

using a clean syringe and the solution was swirled and left to stand

for 2 minutes.

The resulting solution of the sample was then titrated with

standard sodium hydroxide until a permanent pink color was

achieved. The burette readings were taken for each sample. The

process was repeated 3 times so as to obtain the average volume of

the readings

BLANK PREPARATION PROCEDURE

The blank readings were obtained by titrating 2ml of 40%

formaldehyde solution plus 10ml of distilled water with 0.1ml NaOH

(sodium hydroxide solution).

The percentage crude protein was obtained using the following

formula.

% crude protein = Va – Vb x formal factor

Where Va = volume of 0.1 NaOH used to titrate after addition of

formaldehyde

Vb = volume of 0.1m NaOH used to titrate blank formula factor =

4.26.

48
Va-Vb= formaldehyde value

Therefore: %crude protein = Va –Vb x 4.26

3.5.6 TOTAL CARBOHYDRATE DETERMINATION

This was determined using the AOAC (Association of official

agricultural chemists) (1984) standard. The percentage of the

remaining constituents are summed up and subtracted from 100.

The value obtained from the procedures gave the crude

carbohydrate contents of the sample. Carbohydrate can be

calculated using the following expression.

% carbohydrate = 100- crude protein + crude lipid + ash + moisture

content + crude fibre)

49
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

The results of the phytochemical screening of the ethanolic

extract of turmeric and curry leaves showed the presence of various
secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins,
tannins, triterpenoids, reducing sugars and cardiac glycosides
(Table 1). These finding suggest that both turmeric and curry leaves
are potential source of natural antioxidants that could serve great
importance as therapeutic, anti-inflammatory, anti-analgesic spice
and anti-hyperlipidemic agent.
Table 1: Phytochemical screening of turmeric and curry leave

Phytochemicals Turmeric Curry leave

Flavonoid -ve +++
Saponins -ve ++
Tannins -ve -ve
Steroids +++ -ve
Alkaloids +++ -ve
Triterpenoids ++ -ve
Anthraquinone -ve +
Reducing sugar -ve -ve
Cardiac glycosides -ve -ve
Key

+++ Highly present

++ Moderately present
+ Slightly present
-ve Absent

50
Table 2: Proximate analysis of turmeric and curry leaves

Proximate Curry leave (%) Turmeric root (%)

composition
Moisture content 3.00 ± 0.10 1.50 ± 0.14
Crude protein 1.27 ± 0.07 2.13 ± 0.22
Crude fibre 1.50 ± 0.14 3.00 ± 0.22
Ash content 23.00 ± 0.53 17.00 ± 0.24
Crude fat/Oil 10.00 ± 0.40 13.50 ± 0.24
Carbohydrate 61.22 ± 0.17 49.37 ± 0.20
Values are means ± SD for 3 determinations

The result in Table 2 indicate that the curry leaves and turmeric in

percentage (%) are highly rich in carbohydrates and moderate in

proteins, fibers, ash, fats/oil and moisture content.

4.2 DISCUSSION

Many common plants based foods and herbs contain powerful

phytochemical substances that can improve the quality of our

health. Phytochemicals protect us against many diet related

diseases. Results of the phytochemical screening of turmeric shows

the absence of flavonoid, Cardiac glycoside, Tannin and Reducing

sugar but there is presence of Triterpenoids, Alkaloids, Steroids and

Anthraquinone while in curry leaves the result shows the absence

of Tannin, Reducing sugar, Triterpenoids, Anthraquinone, Steroid,

Cardiac glycoside and Alkaloids but there is presence of Saponin

and Flavonoids
51
The leaves of curry and turmeric root contained crude protein value

of 1.27% and 2.13% respectively which is higher than protein

content of Momordica foecide (1.20%) leaves consumed in Nigeria

and Swaziland, Lesianthera africanas (13.1%) (Hassan and Umar,

2006; Ogle and Grivetti, 1985; Isong and Idiong, 1997),

Amaranthus candatus (20.5% DW), but lower than Piper guineeses

(29.78% DW).

Curry leaves and turmeric had carbohydrate value of 61.22%

and 49.37% respectively and which is lower than reported values

for Corchorus tridens (75.0% DW) and sweet potatoes leaves

(82.8%) (Asibey-Berko and Taiye, 1999). Thus the carbohydrate

content contributes to the energy value in turmeric and curry

leaves. Carbohydrates are essential for the maintenance of life in

both plants and animals and also provide raw materials for many

industries (Ebun-Oluwa and Alade, 2007).

Curry leaves and Turmeric root had a crude fat value of

10.00% and 13.50% respectively, thus contributes to the energy

value of turmeric and curry leaves. Dietary fat increases the

palatability of food by absorbing and retaining flavours (Antia et al.,

2006). The moisture content value of turmeric and curry leaves was

52
relatively low. The low moisture content would therefore hinder the

growth of spoilage microorganisms and enhance shelf life (Ruberto

and Baratta, 2000).

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION S

5.0 CONCLUSION

The study revealed that Curry leaves had more nutritional

value than turmeric roots when compared and curry leaves

contained more appreciable amounts of nutrients, such as

phosphorus, energy, protein and phytochemicals than that of

turmeric roots. This indicates that they are both nutritionally

important, since their consumption provides essential nutrients

and non-nutrients need for human body health development and

also contribute to the medicinal value of the turmeric and curry

leaves and thus might be of medicinal and industrial importance.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the research and experiment carried out on the comparative

proximate and Phytochemical analysis of turmeric root and curry

leaves therefore, turmeric and curry leaves is recommended as a

constituent of human diet in the country with pharmaceutical

potentials and health benefits to consumers.

54
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