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March 2006
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Technical guide
Road drainage
The Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service
d'études techniques des routes et autoroutes - Sétra) is a technical department within the Ministry of
Transport and Infrastructure. Its field of activities is the road, the transportation and the engineering
structures.
The Sétra supports the public owner

The Sétra supplies State agencies and local communities (counties, large cities and urban
communities) with informations, methodologies and tools suited to the specificities of the networks in
order to:
• improve the projects quality;
• help with the asset management;
• define, apply and evaluate the public policies;
• guarantee the coherence of the road network and state of the art;
• put forward the public interests, in particular within the framework of European standardization;
• bring an expertise on complex projects.
The Sétra, producer of the state of the art

Within a very large scale, beyond the road and engineering structures, in the field of transport,
intermodality, sustainable development, the Sétra:
• takes into account the needs of project owners and prime contractors, managers and operators;
• fosters the exchanges of experience;
• evaluates technical progress and the scientific results;
• develops knowledge and good practices through technical guides, softwares;
• contributes to the training and information of the technical community.
The Sétra, a work in partnership

• The Sétra associates all the players of the French road community to its action: operational services;
research organizations; Scientific and Technical Network (Réseau Scientifique et Technique de
l'Equipement – RST), in particular the Public Works Regional Engineering Offices (Centres
d'études techniques de l'Equipement – CETE), companies and professional organizations;
motorway concessionary operators; other organizations such as French Rail Network Company
(Réseau Ferré de France – RFF) and French Waterways Network (Voies Navigables de France -
VNF); Departments like the department for Ecology and Sustainable Development…
• The Sétra regularly exchanges its experience and projects with its foreign counterparts, through
bilateral co-operations, presentations in conferences and congresses, by welcoming delegations,
through missions and expertises in other countries. It takes part in the European standardization
commissions and many authorities and international working groups. The Sétra is an organization for
technical approval, as an EOTA member (European Organization for Technical Approvals).
Technical guide
Road drainage
This document is the translation of the work

"Drainage routier" published in March 2006 under
the reference 0605.
Road drainage – Technical guide
This Road Drainage guide has been written by a working group, including:
• Marie-Odile Cavaillès (Sétra)
• Yasmina Boussafir (CETE Normandie-Centre - LRPC Blois)
• Marc Valin (CETE Nord-Picardie)
• Francis Van laethem (CETE Nord-Picardie - LRPC Lille)
The team has relied heavily on the in-depth work carried out in 1997 by:
- Jean-Louis Paute (CETE de L’Ouest - LRPC Saint-Brieuc), with inputs from:
- Yves Arnaud (CETE de Lyon - LRPC Clermont-Ferrand),
- Jean-Louis Aussedat (Scetauroute),
- Véronique Berche (CETE Normandie-Centre - LRPC Saint-Quentin),
- Patrice Bioche (CETE de L’Ouest - LRPC Angers),
- Pierre-Yves Bot (DDE du Morbihan),
- Didier Giloppe (CETE Normandie-Centre),
- Hervé Havard (LCPC),
- Alain Quibel (CETE Normandie-Centre).
Notes on reading the guide

- Bibliographical references: the numbers in square brackets [ ] in the text relate to the documents listed in
the bibliography in Appendix 5
- The abbreviations encountered in the text are explained in Appendix 6.1
- References to the glossary: words or expressions marked by * in the text relate to terms explained in
Appendix 6.2
"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 4 – septembre 2007

Contents
The Sétra supports the public owner ............................................................................2
The Sétra, producer of the state of the art....................................................................2
The Sétra, a work in partnership..................................................................................2
Contents..................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 1................................................................................................................. 11
1 - General notions about drainage ...................................................................... 11
1.1 - Definition of drainage .................................................................................... 12
1.2 - Criteria to be considering during a drainage study.................................... 14
1.2.1 - When is drainage necessary? .................................................................... 14
1.2.2 - Climatic or meteorological context........................................................... 15
1.2.3 - Hydrogeological context (see Appendix 1)............................................... 17
1.2.4 - Type of subgrades and pavement courses................................................. 19
1.2.5 - Unusual pavement points .......................................................................... 19
1.3 - Effects of drainage on the environment ....................................................... 21
Chapter 2................................................................................................................. 22
2 - Drainage in a new road project ....................................................................... 22
2.1 - General dimensioning rules .......................................................................... 23
2.1.1 - Designing the drainage project.................................................................. 23
2.1.2 - Optimizing the road project layout ........................................................... 23
2.1.3 - Subsequent maintenance and repair .......................................................... 23
2.1.4 - Geometric characteristics of drainage systems ......................................... 23
2.1.5 - Rules for evacuating drainage water ......................................................... 24
2.1.6 - Environmental impacts.............................................................................. 25
Impact on water..........................................................................................................25
Waste management.....................................................................................................25
2.1.7 - Flow rate assessment................................................................................. 26
Drainage of subgrades ...............................................................................................26
Pavement drainage.....................................................................................................27
2.2 - Earthworks ..................................................................................................... 28

2.2.1 - Site capacity and traffic............................................................................. 28
2.2.2 - Improvement in the hydric state of soils to be re-used; ............................ 30
2.2.3 - Interception of water ingress in cut........................................................... 31
Generalized water ingress and bank stabilization .....................................................31
Random water ingress ................................................................................................31
Unpredictable random water ingress.........................................................................31

2.2.4 - Interception of water ingress in fill ........................................................... 33

General case...............................................................................................................33
Special case of natural slopes ....................................................................................33
2.3 - Pavement formation levels ............................................................................ 35

2.3.1. - Subformation (below capping level) (PST): ............................................ 35
PST (Subformation (below capping level)) classification and improvement .............35
Treatment of singular points in the longitudinal section............................................40
2.3.2 - Capping layer ............................................................................................ 42
2.4 - Pavement......................................................................................................... 44
2.4.1 - Drainage systems in pavement courses..................................................... 44
2.4.2 - Drainage systems at singular points.......................................................... 47
Shoulder and emergency hard shoulder (BAU) .........................................................47
Median........................................................................................................................47
Dividing island, directional island and obstacle island .............................................47
Roundabout ................................................................................................................47
Chapter 3................................................................................................................. 48
3 - Drainage of an existing pavement ................................................................... 48
3.1 - Types of disorder encountered in pavements.............................................. 49
3.1.1 - Flexible pavements.................................................................................... 49
3.1.2 - Rigid or semi-rigid pavements .................................................................. 50
3.1.3 - Cement concrete pavements...................................................................... 50
3.1.4 - Bituminous material courses ..................................................................... 50
3.1.5 - Modular material pavements (paving blocks and slabs) ........................... 50
3.1.6 - List of singular pavement points with respect to drainage........................ 50
3.2 - Analysis ........................................................................................................... 52
3.2.1 - Compiling information.............................................................................. 52
3.2.2 - Putting the analysis together ..................................................................... 54
Marking systems .........................................................................................................54
Table interpretation....................................................................................................54
Decision model ...........................................................................................................55
3.3 - Definition of work solutions .......................................................................... 56

3.4 - Dimensioning or assessment of flow rates to be drained through the old pavement
.................................................................................................................................. 56
Chapter 4................................................................................................................. 58
4 - Characteristics of drainage systems and of materials used in them ............ 58
4.1 - Drainage structures and systems.................................................................. 59
4.1.1 - Deep ditches .............................................................................................. 60
Objective.....................................................................................................................60
Standard schemes .......................................................................................................60
Operating method.......................................................................................................62

Durability and maintenance.......................................................................................62

Elements required for dimensioning ..........................................................................62
4.1.2 - Cutoff drains.............................................................................................. 63
Objective.....................................................................................................................63
Shallow trench............................................................................................................................63
Deep trench ................................................................................................................................63
4.1.3 Grips and draining stacks ............................................................................ 68
Objective.....................................................................................................................68
4.1.4 - Fin drains at pavement edge (EDRC) ....................................................... 70
Objective.....................................................................................................................70
4.1.5 - Draining courses........................................................................................ 73
Objectives ...................................................................................................................73
4.1.6 - Shafts (vertical drainage) .......................................................................... 75
Objective.....................................................................................................................75
4.1.7 - Bank stabilization systems (shields and stacks)........................................ 78
Objective.....................................................................................................................78
4.2 - Stipulations on materials............................................................................... 81

4.2.1 - Draining and filtering materials ................................................................ 81
Filtering power...........................................................................................................81
Draining power ..........................................................................................................81
Other criteria..............................................................................................................83
Comment on porous concretes ...................................................................................83
4.2.2 - Geotextiles and related products ............................................................... 84
Role in the drainage structures ..................................................................................84
Main characteristics to be determined .......................................................................84
Filtering function........................................................................................................................84
Drainage function.......................................................................................................................84
Mechanical characteristics .........................................................................................................84

Elements required for choosing the geotextile ...........................................................88

4.2.3 - Drains or drain pipes ................................................................................. 90
Role and types ............................................................................................................90
Pre-coating.................................................................................................................92
Dimensioning: Flow rate - Diameter - Slopes ...........................................................92
4.3 - Ancillary structures ....................................................................................... 94

4.3.1 - Crossings.........................................................................................................94
4.3.2 - Inspection chambers .......................................................................................94
4.3.3 - Outlets .............................................................................................................94
Chapter 5................................................................................................................. 96
5 - Execution of work, application of quality assurance, completion of drainage work,
operation and maintenance ................................................................................... 96
5.1 - Execution of drainage work .......................................................................... 97
5.1.1 - Execution of work ..................................................................................... 97
Optimum work period.................................................................................................97
Managing interfaces...................................................................................................97
5.1.2 - Special drainage applications in earthworks phase................................... 98
Surface maintenance ..................................................................................................98
Evacuation of rainwater.............................................................................................98
A few rules for carrying out the work.......................................................................100
5.1.3 - Checks ..................................................................................................... 100
5.2 - Application of quality assurance in the drainage work............................ 101
5.2.1 - Quality Assurance Plan Organizational Scheme (SOPAQ).................... 101
5.2.2 - Site-specific Quality Assurance Plan (PAQ) .......................................... 101
5.2.3 - Quality Master Plan (SDQ) ................................................................... 103
5.3 - Completion of drainage work ..................................................................... 104
5.3.1 - Acceptance .............................................................................................. 104
5.3.2 - Handover of as-built drawing.................................................................. 104
5.4 - Drainage system operation and maintenance............................................ 104
5.4.1 - Inspection of structure with as-built drawing.......................................... 104
5.4.2 - Establishment of the zero point in the absence of an as-built drawing... 104
5.4.3 - Maintenance and repair work ................................................................ 105
Monitoring................................................................................................................105
Repairs and repair frequency...................................................................................105
Appendices ............................................................................................................ 106

Appendix 1 - Special hydrogeological* studies.................................................. 107
G11 mission, preliminary feasibility study ........................................................ 107
G12 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study ...................................... 107
G2 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study ........................................ 107

Appendix 2 - Improvement in hydric conditions of materials ......................... 108

Appendix 3 - Assessment of flow rates to be drained........................................ 110
3.1 - Through subgrades ..................................................................................... 110
3.2 - Through the pavement................................................................................ 112
3.2.1 - Diffuse infiltrations via the surface courses..................................................112
3.2.2 - Infiltration through the cracks (see Diagram 45) .........................................114
Sample estimation of a drainage system dimensioning. ..........................................................115
Checking the utility of draining ...............................................................................................115
Appendix 4 - Elements to establish the special technical clauses (CCTP) ...... 116
1 - Description of work to be carried out ........................................................... 116
1.1 - Localization of work.........................................................................................116
1.2 - General description of work reserved for the contractor ................................116
1.3 - Work not included in the contract....................................................................116
1.4 - References to drawings extracted from the capital investment project...... 116
2 - Quality assurance .......................................................................................... 116
3 - Material, product and component specifications .......................................... 116
3.1 - Required characteristics of drainage systems..................................................116
3.2 - Materials for earthworks and backfill..............................................................116
3.3 - Ancillary structures..........................................................................................117
4 - Work execution method (example for cutoff drains and EDRC) ................. 117
4.1 - Specifications on installation and setting out of systems .................................117
4.2. - Acceptance and storage of supplies and materials .........................................117
4.3 - Trench execution method .................................................................................117
4.4 - Laying specifications........................................................................................117
4.5 - Compacting specifications ...............................................................................117
4.6 - Dealing with singular points............................................................................117
4.7 - Installing inspection chambers, connections to outlets....................................117
4.8 - Ancillary work..................................................................................................117
4.9 - Using the road during the work .......................................................................118
5 - Checks and quality ........................................................................................ 118
5.1 - Compacting reference areas ............................................................................118
5.2 - Checks at hold points .......................................................................................118
Appendix 5 - Bibliography .................................................................................. 118

Standards: ........................................................................................................... 118
Technical documents:......................................................................................... 118
For information:.................................................................................................. 119
Appendix 6 - Abbreviations and glossary .......................................................... 120
6.1 - Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 120
6.2 - Glossary...................................................................................................... 120

Introduction
Varying amounts of water are found in the road environment, be it in the cut and fill banks, inside the
pavement itself or in the underlying soils or adjacent shoulders.
A well-drained pavement has better mechanical behavior in a subgrade whose bearing capacity is also
improved. The result of pavement and formation levels containing less water throughout the climatic cycles
is a considerable increase in pavement lifetime, less frequent maintenance sequences and effective
protection against the highly-damaging effects of freezing and thawing phenomena.
The terms "draining" and "drainage" are used to describe both the evacuation of run-off water and the
elimination of subsurface water. To avoid any confusion in the purpose and design of systems, clear
distinction is made between the specific functions of internal pavement draining systems and surface
drainage, as indicated in Chapter 1.
This guide is the first methods document on road drainage to encourage taking drainage needs in road
works systematically in account. It suggests solutions based on the type of structure, siting, dimensioning
and maintenance for new road projects, including earthworks and for existing pavements.
This document is intended for Project Engineers and Clients, managers, Design Offices and public works
contractors involved in studying, creating and maintaining road drainage.

Chapter 1
1 - General notions about drainage

1.1 - Definition of drainage

Road drainage relates to the collection and evacuation of water present in the subgrade and pavements. It
is one of three aspects of road drainage (see Technical Guide [21]), along with surface water evacuation
(surface drainage) and re-routing natural flows.
Drainage is an essential component in the pavement's good mechanical behavior and thus makes a
significant contribution to the durability of road structures.
Subsurface water to be drained comes from:
• infiltrations through the pavement towards the pavement layers and pavement/subgrade interfaces;
• infiltrations from the shoulders towards the pavement layers and pavement/subgrade interfaces fed by
the formation level;
• water ingress from the lateral surroundings towards the pavement/subgrade interfaces and the subgrade
originating from catchment areas, cuts and discharges from water tables.
Although the various drainage systems frequently use common outlets, it is essential to distinguish
between them, for they have distinctive functions: in particular, the drainage network conveying a so-called
"clean" water (not soiled) must not in any circumstances be disturbed by run-off water, which is frequently
polluted (mud, oils, vegetation, etc.) and flows faster (to prevent loading).
Diagram 1: distinction between the various road drainage systems

Précipitations Rainfall
Ruissellement Run off
Fossé de crête Ditch on crest
Evacuation Evacuation
Infiltrations dans la structure Infiltrations in the structure
DEBLAI CUT
Infiltrations Infiltrations
REMBLAI FILL
Drainage chaussée Pavement drainage

Drainage terrassement selon contexte Earthworks drainage depending on
hydrogéologique hydrogeological context
Drainage commun chaussée + terrain Common pavement + ground drainage
Equilibre avec une nappe éventuelle Equilibrium with any water table
Remontées capillaires Capillary rises
Nappe ou circulation d'eau sous-jacente Water table or underlying water circulation

1.2 - Criteria to be considering during a drainage study

1.2.1 - When is drainage necessary?
The French climate imposes systematic draining of the subgrades, capping layer and pavement.
It is however possible to avoid mandatory drainage in the following cases:
• favorable climate context; in the earthworks phase, the drainage must be analyzed with specific
reference to the hydrogeological context (see §1.2.2);
• very light heavy traffic (T5) for a correctly-dimensioned pavement;
• favorable hydrogeological context, subgrade and type of pavement courses in the short and long term
(see §1.2.3).
Diagram 2: subgrade, capping layer and pavement drainage.*

Ruissellements Run off
Déblai Cut
Contexte climatique Climatic context
Indice d'humidité Humidity index
Intensité du gel Frost intensity
Végétation Vegetation
Couche de chaussée Pavement course
Sols support Subgrades
Gel Frost
Equilibre avec une nappe éventuelle Equilibrium with any water table
Remblai Fill
Nature des sols support et couches de Type of subgrades and pavement courses
chaussées
Contexte hydrogéologique Hydrogeological context
Nappes, zones humides, sources Water tables, wetlands, springs

1.2.2 - Climatic or meteorological context

The mapping is based on the siting and density of meteorological stations.
Studies have shown that the French climate is normally wet to very wet (see map 1), with rare dry areas.
However, whatever the type of climate, humidity spread throughout the seasonal cycle, with heavy
concentrations over a few months, accentuates the risk of damage to pavements from moisture.
The degree of humidity in soils and pavement materials is linked to the climate and its fluctuations. Water
reduces the mechanical characteristics of soils and materials (see § 3.1).
This characteristic worsens when temperatures drop below freezing and the water freezes in the structures
(see map 2). This map takes into account the maximum frost index (exceptionally hard winter) read in 95
stations during the period 1951-1991.
The designer is advised to take the least favorable criterion on the edge of a zone.
Two contexts are possible depending on the geographical location of the project:
• where drainage can be avoided: dry climatic variations with moderate climatic variations;
• where drainage should be systematically planned: in wet to very wet climatic zones.
Map 1: humidity distribution in France. Map based on Météo France study [16].
The value of climatic indices on a particular site may be calculated more accurately when neighboring meteorological readings
are available. However, this greater accuracy can only be illusory, as the climate at a given point undergoes major fluctuations
and is not reproduced identically every year.
Légende Key
très humides avec de fortes variations very humid with major seasonal variations
saisonnières

humide avec de fortes variations saisonnières humid with major seasonal variations
sèche avec de fortes variations saisonnières dry with major seasonal variations
très humide avec variations saisonnières very humid with moderate seasonal
modérées variations
sèche avec variations saisonnières modérées dry with moderate seasonal variations
très humide sans variations saisonnières very humid with no seasonal variations

In conclusion, drainage is necessary in the majority of cases, except for dry zones with moderate
seasonal variations (southern Corsica, part of the Bouches-du-Rhône and part of Alsace (see map 1).
1.2.3 - Hydrogeological context (see Appendix 1).

This context must at least be defined in the geotechnical study. Additional studies will be performed on
special cases.
The hydrogeological context is:
• favorable when the pavement does not intercept any known hydrogeological system. This is often
the case of a pavement with long sections filled in or at the top of a relief.
• unfavorable: when the pavement intercepts hydrogeological systems with varying degrees of
durability or size. This scenario is frequently encountered in a succession of cut and fill or for mixed-
profile pavements. This is made worse when the crossfall accentuates water concentration in some
zones;
• very unfavorable when the alignment definitely intercepts known hydrogeological systems. These are
typically pavements with skimming profile on the plain, pavements in cuts and mixed-profile
pavements.
Note that depending on project progress, the context can become favorable by altering the geometric
criteria of the alignment: by raising the red line*, creating fills, modifying the alignment siting, etc.
Map 2: variation of atmospheric frost index*. Map based on Météo France study [16].
I ≥ 250 : regions marked by long winters with low temperatures (frost). The frost front penetrates in depth in the soil, hence
damage during the thaw. 100 ≤I≤ 250 : regions where the temperature fluctuates around 0°C. Some years the frost-
thaw cycles can affect the road foundation materials. I < 100 : regions marked by mild winters. Moderate frosts only have an

impact on certain flexible, lightweight pavement structures.

Indice de gel Frost index
°C x jours °C x days

1.2.4 - Type of subgrades and pavement courses

Subgrades
The bearing capacity performance of some subgrades can be seen to fall over time due to water infiltration
or rises in water table. These are "water-sensitive" soils. This characteristic is taken into account when
dimensioning the subformation (below capping level) and the thickness of the capping form.
Distinction must be made between soils of different types (see Table 14 in Appendix 2):
• favorable (porous soil): these are soils insensitive to water which require no special drainage
precautions (D, B1, B3, some C1 and C2);
• unfavorable (water-sensitive soils): their hydric state can improve or remain constant under the effect
of draining action, within reasonable timescales (A1, B2, B4, B5 and some B6);
• very unfavorable (impermeable soils): the water content of these water-sensitive soils hardly diminishes
through draining action if they are in wet hydric states initially, whilst remaining within reasonable deadlines
(A2, A3, A4, some B5 and B6).
Water circulates in rocks through cracks or general discontinuities (stratification, fracturing, etc.).
Few rocks disaggregate under the effect of water (unlike soil), but site traffic, blasting, re-use operations
and so on can change the part involved by the earthworks. In this case, the rocky zone likely to change
will be assimilated with a soil by the geotechnical engineer and classified under the same criteria.
The following distribution is frequently accepted:
• favorable: certain R1, certain R2, certain R4 and certain R6;
• unfavorable: R11, R21, R22, R32, R33, R41, R42, R61 and R62;
• very unfavorable: R12, R13, R23, R31, R34, R5, certain R43 and R63.
Materials making up the pavement courses
The mechanical performances of these materials are normally reduced in the presence of water. The
change varies, however, depending on the technique adopted and pathologies also appear based on the
type of pavement technique.
Distinction is made between techniques:
• favorable: these are structures that are hardly influenced by the presence of water when they are
constructed correctly such as material courses treated with hydrocarbon binder;
• unfavorable: materials processed with hydrocarbon binders and concrete courses have special
drainage needs relating to the appearance of cracks;
• very unfavorable: this involves untreated graded aggregates, where performance depends greatly on
the water content.
1.2.5 - Unusual pavement points

Some parts of a structure require draining more than others regardless of the meteorological and
hydrogeological* criteria or types of material. For example:
• medians and central islands;
• cut and fill transition zones;
• low points in longitudinal section;
• cut crossfall zones.

Photo 1: water accumulated in the central

island exists by the lowest point and flows
onto the pavement. (Photo CETE Normandie
- Centre/LRPC Blois)

1.3 - Effects of drainage on the environment

Drainage water is so-called "clean" (not soiled by the collection system) which is evacuated into the natural
environment via an outlet.
The environment is modified in varying degrees by building the drainage structures. The designer must be
aware of:
• regulations in force [15];
• State undertakings under the project in terms of the environmental protection and also with respect
to local residents.
Some negative effects from drainage and earthworks:
• the effect on vegetation, particularly shrubs near the structures through drying out of soils (and large
oak trees that were marked for preservation on the edge of the cut have rapidly turned into a major
hazard for users through decline and the risk of falling);
• reduction of wet zones which have been dried out (not dealt with in this guide);
• settling of structures built on barely compacted soils, host to a water table lowered without special
care (not dealt with in this guide);
• altered water flow directions through barriers.

Chapter 2
2 - Drainage in a new road project

There are three stages in a new road project:

• the earthworks;
• the formation levels (upper earthworks and capping layer);
• the pavements.
This chapter gives the general dimensioning rules and describes the draining requirements and specific
dimensioning rules for each stage.
2.1 - General dimensioning rules

2.1.1 - Designing the drainage project
The drainage must be examined at each project phase from the preliminary study until the work is carried
out. The study levels relating to the drainage project are defined in Appendix 1.
The design trend nowadays is to "stick" to the natural landscape as far as possible (objectives of road
calming, landscape integration, etc.).
2.1.2 - Optimizing the road project layout

The designer can adapt his project for optimum drainage by modifying the red line* and avoiding:
• long upwards gradients;
• slopes < 0.5%;
• low points in cut zone;
• cuts in water tables;
• wet zones.
2.1.3 - Subsequent maintenance and repair

The effect of drainage is taken into account in the mechanical dimensioning of the roadbed for its long-
term operation; it is therefore essential to organize the verification and schedule the maintenance of the
drainage system to increase its lifetime.
2.1.4 - Geometric characteristics of drainage systems

The geometric characteristics of drainage systems (height, depth, slope) depend on:
• the part of the structure to be drained (road foundation, shoulder, median, cut, structure abutments, etc.),
• the drainage system adopted;
• restrictions in project execution;
• the amounts of water to be evacuated;
• taking the pavement longitudinal slope into account;
• taking crossfalls into account, especially those accentuating concentrations of moisture at the low
points;
• the choice of the location of drainage systems in the cross section;
• the location of possible outlets.
A description of the various drainage structures and an indication of the orders of magnitude of the
dimensions of these structures can be found in Chapter 4.
The slope - a major parameter - must reconcile the following essential requirements:
• a minimum slope > 2% is necessary. Less slope (up to 0.5%) requires drains to be over-dimensioned and
more frequent maintenance. These values can vary from one structure to the next (see Chapter 4);
• too pronounced a slope (more than 5 to 10%), as found in mountain areas, for example, creates
excessive water speeds, especially with respect to problems of structure erosion (ditches, banks, etc.)
which dictate suitable precautions (stabilized ditches, partitioning of ditches, energy dissipation
structures and more crossings).

2.1.5 - Rules for evacuating drainage water

It is normally advantageous to avoid mixing drainage water, evacuated in priority towards the natural
environment, and road run-off water in order to optimize structure dimensioning. In some cases (e.g. in
southern France), drainage water added to storm water treatment basins can make them more efficient
(better water oxygenation and maintaining dead storage).
• in cut
The water is evacuated at the exit of the cut trench. Like the drainage systems, the collector installed at
the edge of the cut roadbed must be connected to a drain at the foot of the fill bank (ditch, trickle channel,
etc.) which leads to a natural outlet.
• in fill
The water drained by the collector is evacuated at the foot of the fill through drainage outfalls aligned to
the longitudinal slope (the lesser the slope, the lesser the distance must be between outfalls) and to the
minimum in the low points.
• in mixed profile
Water collected in cut are directed towards the ditch at the foot of the fill through under-pavement
crossings and returned to the banks by drainage outfalls, as for fills.

2.1.6 - Environmental impacts
Impact on water
- "1.1.0. Sounding, borehole, building of shaft or
Planned drainage activities and systems in the underground structure not intended for domestic
construction of road infrastructures are governed by the
use, created for the purposes of research or
authorizations and declarations provided for under Articles
monitoring or groundwaters or for temporary or
L.214.1 to L.214.6 of the Environmental Code (former
Article 10 of Law 92-3 on water of 3 January 1992). Water permanent sampling in the groundwaters,
policing applies to all surface, groundwater, state- or including in the water course water tables… D".
privately-owned, coastal maritime waters and wetlands.
- "1.1.1. Permanent or temporary samples
Decree 93-743 of 29 March 1993 sets the nomenclature of taken from a borehole, shaft or underground
operations thus subject to authorization (A) and structure in an aquifer system excluding water
declaration (D). The headings likely to involve drainage course water tables by pumping, draining,
work more especially are as follows: diversion or any other process: 1. Total,
Reminder: creating a drainage network alters the water maximum capacity of sampling facilities greater
content in the surrounding soils and diverts or interrupts than or equal to 80 m3/hour A
underground flows. These disturbances modify the site
ecology. These headings are designed to protect and 2. Total, maximum capacity of sampling
preserve groundwater bodies which are potentially major, facilities greater than 8 m3/hour but less than 80
fragile water resources. Similarly, protecting wetlands is a m3/h. D
national priority (environments with huge diversity and
ecological wealth). It is therefore important to prevent or - 4.1.0. Drying, priming, surface sealing, filling
limit their degradation. of wetlands and marshes, the dried or primed
Overall, drainage culminates in water originating from zone being:
varying points of the land being concentrated towards the
outlet. Water inputs are therefore greatly increased at a 1. Greater than or equal to 1 ha A
given point and there is no harm in assessing this action
particularly in sensitive ground to avoid disorders 2. Greater than 0.1 ha but less than 1 ha D"
appearing downstream.
- 4.2.0*. Creation of drainage networks to drain
Ideally, the discharge point chosen or found on the site is a surface area of:
a natural, already-existing flow zone, with no sign of
disorder and capable of absorbing the drained water. 1. Greater than or equal to 100 ha A
It is also useful to channel the drainage water from the
outlet to the natural receiving flow for a few meters to 2. Greater than 20 ha but less than 100 ha D
prevent in particular problems of erosion or the effect of
natural deposits. - 4.3.0. Structures, installations, works allowing
full water sampling in a zone where constant
In the event of accidental pollution, the manager must quantitative distribution measurements, in
monitor the outlets and discharge points. particular under Article 8-2 of the Law of 3
January 1992 on water, have provided for the
Waste management lowering of thresholds:
This involves materials extracted during work which in an
3
ideal scenario will be re-used. Excess cuts from the site 1. Capacity greater than or equal to 8 m /hour A
footprint must be evacuated in accordance with the Waste
Evacuation and Management Organization Scheme 2. In other cases D"
SOGED (see CCTP type earthworks).

2.1.7 - Flow rate assessment

Drainage of subgrades
The diagrams grouped in Appendix 3.1, with just one presented below (see Diagram 3), indicate the
orders of magnitude of the drainage flow rates (in liters per hour and for a length of 100 m) for a cutoff
drain capturing from a single side in miscellaneous contexts. These are distinguished by the permeability
of the medium, the depth of the water table and of the drawdown (see Diagram 4).
The diagrams show that for the majority of soils, regardless of the geometry of the water table or the
drawdown system, current drains 100-150 in diameter mm are theoretically largely over-dimensioned. In
practice, other phenomena have to be considered:
• the reduction in the useful diameter of the drain by out-of-roundness, crushing or obstruction
(accumulation of settled sediments, in particular for counterslopes, or the presence of roots, animals,
etc.);
• ingress of unwanted or unforeseen water: for example, if the drainage network is installed in the
earthworks phase, it is frequently not just the only outlet for the groundwaters but also for the storm
water during this period. In this case, the drain diameter is too small and the risk of obstruction from
mud is very real;
• difficulties in assessing soil permeability.
For all these reasons, we suggest:
• using drains 100 or 150 mm in diameter for all common scenarios (interior drawdown at 2 m and soils
with permeability less than or equal to 1.10-5 m/s);
• determining the necessary diameter after a specific hydrogeological study for all other scenarios. This
study will determine in particular the overdimensioning to be considered for the drain diameter (with
multiplication coefficient for flow rates ≥ to 3).
Diagram 3: water table flow rates according to soil permeability Diagram 4: flow rates according to the permeability of the
for a trench side and a length of 100 m medium, the depth of the water table and the drawdown.
Diagram 3 Diagram 3
Débits en l'heure pour 100 ml Flow rates in one hour for 100 ml
Epaisseur de la nappe Water table thickness
Diamètre drain Drain diameter
rabattement drawdown
Perméabilité des sols en m/s Soil permeability in m/s
Diagram 4 Diagram 4
Débits Flow rates
Rabattement Drawdown
Aquifère Aquifer
Imperméable Impermeable

Pavement drainage
(see Appendix 3.2 Assessment of flow rates to be drained through the pavement).
FT : transverse crack
PL : longitudinal crack
P : rainfall
FT : transverse crack
PL : longitudinal crack
P : rainfall
Diagram 5: schematic diagram of the various types of flow rates under pavements and shoulder.
• Qe, through the surface course;
• Qft, via the transverse cracks and Qfl via the longitudinal cracks;
• Qr, at the pavement-shoulder interface;
• Qa, corresponding to inputs from the shoulder and the lateral catchment area;
• Qi flow rates transiting at the interfaces;
• Qs flow rates feeding the subgrade.
The estimation by excess of the infiltration water flow rate is given by the sum:
Q = Qe + Qfl + Qft + Qr + Qa
New or repaired pavement
Minimum Maximum Theoretical

Designation assessed flow assessed flow maximum flow
rate rate rate(1)
Flow rate resulting from the permeability 125 l/h
Qe of the asphalt (changing with age and 0.0125 l/h 3.75 l/h (porous
t ) h lt )
Flow rate proportional to the number of
Qfl 1.25 l/h 25 l/h 250 l/h
transverse cracks and their opening
Flow rate proportional to the number of
Qfl longitudinal cracks (including Qr axis and 1.00 l/h 15 l/h 150 l/h
edge) and their opening
Flow rate proportional to the permeability
Qa 1.80 l/h 18 l/h 18 l/h
of the shoulder materials
Total flow rate evacuated by the

Q 4.06 l/h 61.75 l/h 543 l/h
pavement per linear meter
Total flow rate evacuated by the

406 l/h 6,175 l/h 54,300 l/h
pavement per 100 linear meters
Table 1: assessment of infiltration water flow rates.

(1) this scenario assumes that all the water from falling rain infiltrates a half-pavement of 3.50 m
The flow rate assessment culminates in a range of 400 to 6,000 l/h for 100 linear meters; for new and
repaired pavements the use of drains or drainage systems equivalent to Ø 100 to 150 mm should suffice.

2.2 - Earthworks
In the earthworks phase, the difficulties (machine progress, compacting, roadbed and bank stability) more
often than not relate to excessive water. It is therefore obviously a distinct advantage to carry out this
phase in dry periods.
Drainage in this phase can in part remedy the difficulties encountered, but when this need for drainage
appears during the work phase and has not been scheduled in the project it is frequently too late to take
effective action: the improvement actions will have a bearing on costs and timescales.
Drainage hypotheses should therefore be defined accurately during project design in conjunction with
meteorological and hydrogeological forecasts for the site (see chapter 1-2 Criteria to be considered
during a drainage study and Diagram 6).
The following objectives are pursued with drainage techniques during this work phase:
1 - Site bearing capacity and traffic;
2 - Improvement in the hydric state of materials to be extracted;
3 - Interception of water ingress in cut;
4 - Interception of water ingress in fill (stabilization of cutting banks and sometimes natural slopes).
2.2.1 - Site capacity and traffic

The bearing capacity varies according to the water content, above all for compressible soils that are
difficult to drain.
A variety of solutions may be suggested depending on the type of soil, the position of the water table and
the meteorological conditions.
1st drainage by ditches or lateral trenches for porous soils; the efficiency of this system will also
depend on the state of the surface, hence the importance of shaping the surface (cross slope).
there are two possibilities when the drainage is insufficient to improve the bearing capacity:
• introducing non-water-sensitive materials into the road for construction traffic:
- sufficiently dimensioned, this road could be re-used in the capping layer;
- frequently built using draining gravelly materials (water trap), the road should be designed for rapid
evacuation of infiltrated waters (accentuated rooftop profile and side ditches, even subsoil drains on the
base);
• processing soils according to needs and possibilities.
Remember that good practices impose maintaining outlets and ditches and repairing surfaces (shaping,
smoothing and compacting) see CCTG Travaux [8].
The special case of compressible zones must be dealt with separately: although the problem of bearing
capacity can be solved by building thick roads as work progresses (possibly after cleaning), the problems
raised by the amplitude and length of settling under excess load frequently forces the use of special
drainage techniques; these are designed to purge the water from the subgrade more rapidly via vertical
drains or more highly-specialized techniques. These special methods are not dealt with in this guide [14].

Diagram 6: the three main causes of a need for drainage in the earthworks phase
Météorologie défavorable Unfavourable meteorology
Circulation d'eau libre (zones humides, nappe Free water circulation (wetlands, water table)
phréatique) en surface ou dans un déblai on the surface or in a cut
BESOIN DE DRAINAGE NEED FOR DRAINAGE
Matériaux en états hydriques humides Materials in humid hydric states

2.2.2 - Improvement in the hydric state of soils to be re-used;

Improvement is only possible within materials conducive to drainage and on condition that there is
sufficient drainage time before the material is extracted (see Appendix 2). This requires installing the
drainage system well before the earthworks themselves.
Do not however expect a miracle: the timescales are too long and the suction too high in the majority of
compressible soils, with the result that it is impossible to achieve sufficient drop in water content for re-use
as is (even if the drainage provides a genuine improvement).
Complementary solutions consist of encouraging evaporation (swelling - installation in compressible and
extended layers), mixing with drier materials, treating with hydraulic binder (usually quicklime) or of
applying the material too wet in suitable conditions (average or low compacting but in return limited
thicknesses to avoid too much settling). These techniques are expanded in the guide Creating fills and
capping layers [9].
The most common systems for improving the hydric state of cut materials, fill subgrades and soils used for
a construction traffic road are:
• deep ditches;
• fin or cutoff drains in the bank (which can sometimes be installed before earthworks, even without a
gravity outlet, by pumping or negative pressure - vacuum pump);
• vertical drainage (see Table 2).
Drainage system Conditions for use Disadvantages
System suitable for pre-earthworks to improve Generates cut materials for

hydric conditions of soils with average to low evacuation or storage.
permeability lending themselves to drainage Site safety organization (restricted
(Table 14, Appendix 2). access, signaling, suitable bank
Deep ditch May be created using traditional methods, for slope, etc.)
operating depths ≤ 5 meters (possible 6 or 7 Reduction in overall volume of re-
methods depending on the shovels). usable cut.
Suitable for slopes in the order of 2.5% or less. Not suitable for easily-eroded
materials.
Preferred system when long-term cutting bank Needs specific equipment and
stabilization or reduced interstitial pressure is material resources which must be
also an issue. planned in advance.
Suitable for stabilizing homogeneous materials Needs as-built drawings and
and lowering a water level. scheduled maintenance.
Design for common structures up to 6 or 7
Trench or fin drain meters deep and up to 20 meters with special
equipment (cutting machine).
Suitable for all longitudinal section slopes.
Generates little cut and integrates discreetly
with the project.
Can operate temporarily without gravity outlet
(vacuum pump).
Suitable for drawdown of water table located in Needs specific equipment and
alternating permeable and barely permeable material resources which must be
Vertical drainage by
layers. planned in advance.
pumping Above all suitable for very permeable soils Site restrictions.
where flow rates are high.
Suitable for water table drawdown in sandy Needs specific equipment

Vertical drainage by materials and may show bubbling* phenomena. resources which must be planned
wellpoint in advance. Site restrictions.
Table 2: systems for improving hydric states of soils (the most commonly used)

2.2.3 - Interception of water ingress in cut

Generalized water ingress and bank stabilization
This is the traditional scenario where the "red line" intercepts the "blue line", i.e. when the earthworks
descend below the level of the water table. Earthwork conditions could be improved partly if:
• the longitudinal section is extended to its maximum taking into account the landscape integration
objectives;
• the drainage network is installed early enough (see previous §);
• the earthworks are scheduled for low water periods1.
A special hydrogeological study is essential in all cases of this type (see Appendix 1). It will specify in
particular the flow rates and bank stability conditions and will suggest suitable counter-measures (water
table drawdown, drainage shield, etc.).
The solutions as the same as for the previous scenario §2.2.2 (ditches, trenches, shafts, etc.). The basic
difference lies in the slope stabilization: although the previous solutions can cut the water ingress, they
cannot necessarily guarantee bank stability (particularly for the ditches).
Cutoff drains, lateral ditches and the installation of such systems as shields and draining stacks can
provide this stability (note that it can sometimes be possible to apply these systems to one side only when
the flow directions are clear and cut across the cut).
Remember also that the "damproof course" solution can sometimes be an interesting variant (particularly if
the course can also act as retaining structure - sheet piling, diaphragm walls) (see Diagram 7).
Random water ingress

The draining stack is the most frequent solution applied in the most common random water inflows
(springs, fault zone, etc.). The water is evacuated towards a draining collector at the foot of the bank linked
to an outlet.
When faced with certain rocky materials where flows take preferential paths, for example limestones and
their karstic networks, these special cases call on specific solutions (ditches, collectors, shafts) which are
not dealt with in this guide.
Unpredictable random water ingress

The geotechnical study does not always localize all the random water ingress. In the simplest scenarios,
the drainage structures could be installed and dimensioned definitively during the earthworks. The contract
would provide for an estimated quantity, with greater detail provided as work progresses by contradictory
observations.
In addition, when potential disorders are free from danger for both the structure and users and the water
ingress are not visible when work takes place, one pragmatic solution is also to carry out the minimum
work, namely simple shaping, on the banks and let one winter go by.
This can localize the water ingress accurately (frozen water, higher flow rates, appearance of first
disorders) before carrying out drainage work.
Diagram 7: interception of the water table, lateral damproofing

and stabilization of cutting banks by damproof course or
Photo 2: ditch, used during the earthworks phase and part of damproof retaining structure

the final project, intercepting water ingress circulating at the

interface between sands and a clay substrate (A85 -
Romorantin Theillay)
(1) The water tables vary the most frequently with the seasons; the "high waters" occur most often in winter-spring and the "low waters" in summer and
early autumn.
Diagram 7 Diagram 7
Ecran non armé au coulis argile-ciment Non-reinforced fin with clay-cement slurry
Niveau d'eau Water level
Drainage des eaux résiduelles Drainage of residual water
Niveau imperméable Impermeable level
Ecran rigide (parois armée, palplanches) Rigid fin (reinforced wall, sheet piling)
Fiche Sheet

2.2.4 - Interception of water ingress in fill

General case
Interception by drainage of water ingress in fill scenarios takes place in the following circumstances (see
Diagram 8 and Table 3):
Special case of natural slopes

Surface or deep drainage is one of the most efficient and most frequently used techniques to stabilize
unstable natural slopes (see guide Stabilization of landslides [17]). It is however useful to know that the
majority of these disorders are simply reactivating old disorders and they can therefore more often than not
be detected by a comprehensive geotechnical* and hydrogeological* study before the work (see Appendix
1).
Case a by the pavement or miscellaneous networks

Case b by the cut and fill transition zone
Case c by resurgences on the slope flank underneath the fill
Case d by capillary rises
Case e via low points in the longitudinal section
Case f by stopping on an obstacle (structure pier*)
Diagram 8: identification of potential water supply routes to the fill

DEBLAI CUT
Zone altérée Altered zone
Chaussée ou réseau divers Pavement or miscellaneous networks
Ouvrage Structure
Nappe Water table
REMBLAI FILL
Suggested systems
Case Drainage requirements
(no dimensioning)
Cut and fill transition
The transition zone made up of altered, This zone can be replaced by draining materials
2 frequently permeable materials encourages combined with drains at the bottom of the cavity
water infiltration and the formation of water linked to an outlet.
traps.
Surface resurgences
The geotechnical study must list water
appearances or resurgences on the slope These zones are drained via a draining course
3
flank. These zones found underneath the fill and a drain linked to an outlet.
are the cause of slow, continuous infiltrations
which can "undermine" the fill base.

Outcropping water table zone

It suffices to intercept the rising water with a
Fill in compressible materials like silts or fly ash
draining course of a thickness greater than the
can encourage capillary water rises in the body
estimated settling and of at least 1 meter.
of the fill when the fill subgrade is in a
4 Wetlands can also be drained to evacuate the
compressible zone or outcropping water table.
water from the subgrade and improve the
This phenomenon is all the more apparent
bearing capacity by trenches/fin drains or deep
when the material used is made up of
ditches.
compressible soils in a dry state.
Low points in longitudinal section

The low points in longitudinal section are
5 Creation of draining stacks linked to an outlet.
drained in traditional fashion to prevent water
accumulating in water-sensitive materials.
Obstacles and friction points such as

If the material making up the technical fill is
engineering and retaining structures must be
insensitive to water, the drainage will be by
6 drained to prevent water accumulating in
gravity; otherwise, solutions using a
contact with the fill, on the uphill side of the
geocomposite could be envisaged.
slope.
Table 3: drainage solutions for the various interception cases for water ingress in fill

2.3 - Pavement formation levels

They comprise two entities:
• the capping layer;
• the upper earthworks, the surface of which makes up the subformation level.
These entities and their classification are addressed in the guide "Creating fills and capping layers [9] see
Diagram 9.
2.3.1. - Subformation (below capping level) (PST):

Two problems are answered by defining the drainage needs for the subformation (below capping level)
(PST):
• the PST classification under the guide [9] and any improvements to it: all soils, except those
insensitive to water (naturally or after treatment) have mechanical properties which alter when the
water content increases. Draining operations are therefore essential when the PST is located in an
unfavorable hydric context and moreover formed of material sensitive to water and frost;
• the treatment of singular points in the longitudinal section: some singular points in the longitudinal section
or cross section are potential accumulation zones for infiltration water and thus require a specific drainage
system. Non-exhaustive examples: cut and fill transition zones, low points in fill, pronounced slopes and
low points in crossfalls.
PST (Subformation (below capping level)) classification and improvement

The upper earthworks, the surface of which makes up the subformation level, may be made up of:
• the existing soil (depth considered around 1 m);
• a lesser depth of existing soil treated with hydraulic binders;
• a variable depth of substitution or input material.
The possible scenarios are defined in the guide to Creating fills and capping levels [9]. This document
claims to distinguish between seven PST cases (PST0 to PST6) depending on the type of medium
(existing soil or fill), its sensitivity to water and its hydric state. The PST quality (bearing capacity)
differentiates four subformation level categories (AR1 to AR4).
To provide for PST drainage requirements and possible systems, the subgrades (particularly their drainage
capability), extreme water table levels (piezometry) and random water ingress zones need to be
understood and identified. The geotechnical engineer will specify in particular whether specific studies are
necessary to detail the initial information. It may be important in some cases to carry out a hydrogeological
study over at least on year.
Knowledge of materials and hydrogeological conditions influences earthworks strategies.
The drainage project adopted will be the result of economic comparison of the various subformation
improvement techniques (drainage, treatment or substitution) in terms of feasibility and effectiveness and
techniques (especially depths) adopted when dimensioning the pavement structure.
Distinction can be made between three scenarios in terms of drainage:
• in cut or skimming profile: it will be advantageous in most cases to provide for a useful structure in
the earthworks phase which could be taken over as the final structure. The safety aspect must be
taken into account at the project design stage (see guides [18] and [20]). Table 4 gives the PST-AR
re-dimensioning thanks to the drainage systems;
Diagram 9: definition of various terms

plates-formes roadbeds

Plate-forme support de chaussée Formation level

Accotement Shoulder
Chaussée roulement, base, fondation Surface course, base, foundation
Arase terrassement Subformation level
partie supérieure des terrassements subformation (below capping level)
1 m en déblai ou remblai 1 m in cut or fill

Initial Long-term
Water Initial Final PST-
Type of soil bearing bearing Drainage structures
table PST-AR AR
capacity capacity
Washed
Natural soil
by the PST0- Drawdown by deep
sensitive to water zero Very low PST1-AR1
water AR0 ditches, trenches, etc.
state th
table
Natural soil
sensitive to water Very low Very low PST1 Drainage pointless
state h
Natural soil
Intermittent Drawdown by deep PST3-AR1
sensitive to water Good Low PST2-AR1
water table ditches, trenches, etc.
state m
No water
Natural soil table or
Low (rain PST3- Drainage of pavement
sensitive to water water Good PST3-AR2
infiltration) AR1 and capping layer (1)
state m table
lowered
Washed
Natural soil
by the Good to PST4- Lowering by deep ditches, PST4-AR2
improved by Variable
water very good AR2 trenches, etc. (2)
treatment
table
Washed
PST 5 and
Soil not sensitive by the PST 5 Drawdown by deep
Good Good 6 AR 2,3,4
to water water and 6 ditches, trenches, etc.
(2)
table

Table 4: PST - AR redimensioning thanks to drainage systems

Chaussée et couche de forme Pavement and capping layer
Maxi Max.
Maxi en hiver Max. in winter
(1) see § 2.3.2: as the aim is to avoid humidification of the pavement subgrade, this will be the preferential domain for edge of pavement fin drains
(EDRC). Note that the drainage systems at the base of the capping layer (for capping layers comprising very permeable materials) such as drains and
draining courses, although essential cannot guarantee no infiltration.
(2) drainage remains necessary to reduce the structure's sensitivity to frost and improve earthworks conditions.

• in fill: no PST drainage (except for special

cases);
• when drainage is necessary for the PST and
capping layer, it could be wise to plan a joint
structure independently of the surface drainage
system, as shown in schematic Diagram 10.
If appropriate, attention should be paid to installing
support anchoring (see § 4.1.2) in relation to the
drainage network to avoid perforations.
The structures are miscellaneous, longitudinal
drains, trenches, EDRC, draining courses, draining Diagram 10: cutoff drain installed at the foot of the cutting bank
stacks, etc. (see Chapter 4). to drain the PST
If necessary the drainage system may be

supplemented by:
• transverse drains in the subformation (below
capping level) (see Diagram 11);
• drains slanting from the axis ("fishbone"), so that
they flow into longitudinal drains an axial
longitudinal drain (see Diagram 12).
The distance between two drains and the drain depth
must be dimensioned according to the
hydrogeological and geotechnical characteristics of
the site and the project. Diagram 11: sample complex draining system (slope -
subformation level)
Diagram 12: Distribution of drains or additional grips
Diagram 10 Diagram 10
Cunette Trickle channel
Regard de visite Inspection chamber
Accotement ou bande d'arrêt d'urgence Shoulder or emergency hard shoulder
Chaussée Pavement
Couche de forme Capping layer
Talus Bank
Axe chaussée Pavement axis
Collecteur principal Main collector
tranchées latérales - tranchée axiale - tranché lateral trenches - axial trench - transverse
transversale trench
DRAINS LATERAL, AXIAL, LATERAL, AXIAL AND TRANSVERSE
TRANSVERSAL DRAINS
VUE EN PLAN PLAN VIEW
DRAINS LATERAL, AXIAL, OBLIQUE LATERAL, AXIAL AND OBLIQUE
DRAINS
AXE CHAUSSEE PAVEMENT AXIS
Treatment of singular points in the

longitudinal section
The earthworks subformation level or the PST must
be drained in the following cases from the
longitudinal section: low points, cut and fill
transition zones and major slopes.
• Low points: they will be systematically drained
by a draining stack system;
• cut and fill transition zone: it is treated
specifically and virtually systematically. The aim
is to purge the surface materials and drain any
water inflows from the cut (see Diagrams 13 and Diagram 13: sample use of a draining course at the cut and fill
14); interface, used to improve the altered zone - cross-sectional
view
• zones with pronounced slope (≥ 5%) and
moreover in a major linear (≥ 500 meters)
encouraging water collection and their possible
loading at courses in aggregate material (PST or
capping layer). The solution to prevent this
scenario is regular water capture by draining
stacks. (see Diagram 15).
Diagram 14: sample use of drains in cut and fill transition zone -
plan view
Diagram 15: schematic diagram of positioning transverse drains

every section or every two sections at the earthworks
subformation level - cross-sectional view
Arase de terrassement Subformation level
DEBLAI CUT
REMBLAI FILL
Couche drainante Draining course
Captages éventuels sur la pente Any inflows on the slope
zone de transition transition zone
distance à définir en fonction de la distance to be defined based on the depth of
profondeur de la zone altérée the altered zone
Matériau drainant Draining material
Drain relié à un exutoire Drain connected to an outlet
fossé de pied ditch at foot
fossé de crête ditch on crest
REMBLAI FILL
POSITION DU DRAIN EN EPI POSITION OF DRAIN IN STACK
DEBLAI CUT
Sens de la pente Direction of slope
Regard dans la berne Inspection chamber in soft verge
DEBLAI CUT
Zone de transition déblai - remblai Cut and fill transition zone:
Epi drainant Draining stack
Arase de terrassement Subformation level
REMBLAI FILL

2.3.2 - Capping layer

The capping layer dimensioning is provided for in the guide Creating fills and capping layers [9]:
• where a capping layer is made up of the existing soils: the drainage is only necessary underneath
the water table level, to prevent the table rising into the capping layer or the project becoming
waterlogged. The most frequent solution is lateral trenches;
• for a capping layer treated with hydraulic binders: the treated material could be considered as neutral
(indifferent to the drainage), but drainage is however necessary underneath the water table level to
prevent water rising through cracking. The most frequent solution is lateral trenches which may be
combined with PST drainage;
• for a brought-in capping layer of material insensitive to water: drainage is essential when there is
danger of creating a real water trap which could be fed by storm water as soon as it is installed, before
being covered by the pavements. Side trenches are more often than not used for the drainage, either
by side longitudinal drains arranged at the bases of the capping layer combined, if necessary, with
PST drainage (see Diagrams 16, 17, 18 and 19).
In all circumstances, if the discharge is towards a ditch, the designer will take care to adjust the outlets
above the maximum water level in the ditches. (see Diagram 20).
Diagram 16: in cut or skimming profile in zone outside water

table
Diagram 19: installation of drain on edge of capping layer.
Diagram 17: in cut or skimming profile in zone under drained

water table
Diagram 20: adjustment of outlets
Diagram 18: in fill
PST peu perméable PST with low permeability

Tranchée axiale complémentaire si nécessaire Additional axial trench if necessary
Tranchée drainante latérale Lateral cutoff drain
continuité hydraulique hydraulic continuity
drain disposé sur le fond de la couche de drain laid on the bottom of the capping layer
forme
drain disposé en encoche au fond de la drain laid in slot at the bottom of the capping
couche de forme (à privilégier) layer (preferred)
Géotextile Geotextile
Encoche Slot
Sillon Groove
Sur arase (à éviter) On subformation level (to be avoided)
CAS A EVITER TO BE AVOIDED

2.4 - Pavement
The mechanical characteristics and performances of a pavement structure can diminish very clearly over
time in the presence of water which is frequently the cause of normally irreversible pathologies:
appearance of depressions*, edge subsidence, crazing, rising mud and slab rocking. Methods of draining
the pavement itself are therefore also sought.
Diagram 21: required functions and possible emplacements of drainage systems

Drainer les interfaces de chaussées dans le Drain the pavement interfaces in the median
TPC
Drainer le TPC Drain the median
Drainer les interfaces de chaussées en rive Drain the pavement interfaces at the edge
exutoire outlet
pente slope
Couches d'assise Road foundations
Drainer sous la chaussée Drain underneath the pavement
Sens de circulation de l'eau Water circulation direction
Infiltration de l'eau Water infiltration
The pavement structure drainage needs are closely linked to the type of materials and singular points
(median and emergency hard shoulder).
Refer to Chapter 3 for a description of disorders encountered in pavements if there is no drainage and for
a list of singular points in the pavement in terms of drainage.
2.4.1 - Drainage systems in pavement courses

Table 5 summarizes the main drainage requirements, by providing inputs for response in terms of possible
drainage system.

Pavement
Drainage requirements Possible drainage systems
course
Bituminous No drainage requirement in

materials the strict sense (except for
porous asphalts), but
protective role for underlying
courses through:
• pavement maintenance
and repair, damp-proofing,
etc.;
• checks on joint compacting
and course bonding.
Material • evacuation of water • maintenance and repair: damp-proofing of surface pavement;

treated with infiltrating in the cracks. • prevention: pre-cracking of courses treated with hydraulic
hydraulic binders:
binders • solution 1: lateral drainage in the height of the course at the
pavement edge shoulder or median side (depending on cross-section
slope), by trenches or fin drains
• solution 2: lateral drainage by the shoulders or the median
(depending on the cross-section slope), made up of draining material
and evacuation of water through drains towards an outlet.
Concrete • evacuation of water • prevention: damproofing of cracks with seals made from
infiltrating in the cracks. impermeable products (shut-off joint, construction joint,
longitudinal and transverse joints, contacts between the slab and
the median, the emergency hard shoulder or the shoulder);
• creation of a draining course under the concrete structure;
• for reinforced concrete structures, lateral drainage via:
- solution 1: longitudinal structures such as trench or fin drain;
- solution 2: shoulders in draining material and evacuation of water
through drains to an outlet.
Untreated • evacuation of free water, • prevention and maintenance and repair: damp-proofing of
graded reduction in interstitial surface pavement;
aggregates pressures; • choice of a porous untreated graded aggregate:
• elimination of accumulated - solution 1: lateral drainage in the height of the course at the
water in the low points. pavement edge shoulder or median side (depending on cross-
section slope), by trenches or fin drains;
- solution 2: lateral drainage by the shoulders or the median
(depending on the cross-section slope), made up of draining
material with greater permeability than untreated graded
aggregates and evacuation of water through drains towards an
outlet;
• transverse drainage of low points by draining stacks.
Table 5: drainage systems according to drainage requirements

dalle béton épaisse thick concrete slab
étanchéification des fissures et des joints sealing of cracks and joints
GNT GNT

couche drainante draining course

béton armé continu continuously reinforced concrete
béton maigre lean concrete
matériau drainant draining material
tranchées ou écrans drainants cutoff or fin drains

2.4.2 - Drainage systems at singular points

Shoulder and emergency hard shoulder (BAU)
The infiltrated water under the shoulder or emergency hard shoulder (BAU) must be evacuating by drain at
the low point of the cross section or by a deep lateral ditch when the structure continues under the BAU to
the ditch.
Median
It must be possible to offset the drainage structure from the median axis to allow the installation of brackets
for rails. lampposts and run-off water collection systems.
The drainage system must carry the collected water through the cut and fill towards a semi-crossing or
upstream of an underground passage structure (portal frame, frame or metallic duct) also towards a semi-
crossing.
The drain must be deep enough in all circumstances to bear the site traffic without damage (see Chapter
4.3.1, crossing characteristics). It should be position to be able to collect water circulation above a level
with low permeability (normally the formation level).
For pavements with reversed crossfalls, the waters tend to concentrate in the median. Provision must
therefore be made for an underground drain above the collector (see Diagram 22).
Dividing island, directional island and obstacle island

Depending on the formation level slope, one or two drains (plugged upstream) will be placed at the
pavement edge underneath the island and connected at the end of the structure by a semi-crossing
towards a collection system at the pavement edge. These drains must be strong enough to avoid being
crushed when installing the island constituent materials.
Roundabout
Safety regulations specify underground systems rather than lateral ditches.
Diagram 22: installation of a cutoff drain in the median

the drain is therefore particularly vulnerable to being pierced blind before being installed Inspecting this drain once work has
finished seems an elementary precaution
Imperméabilisation Damproofing
Regard de visite à construire en deux étapes Inspection chamber to be built in two stages
Chaussée future Future pavement
Evacuation latérale sous-chaussée Lateral sub-pavement evacuation
Drain Drain

Chapter 3
3 - Drainage of an existing pavement

Excessive water content in the pavement courses due to infiltration from a variety of sources (run-off
water, subsurface water, etc.) causes a marked acceleration in pavement ageing. This damage is even
greater with the addition of frost and thaw phenomena.
The pavement surface courses let through not inconsiderable quantities of water, especially when they
show early signs of ageing.
This chapter describes the damage noted for each type of pavement and suggests an approach in putting
together the analysis so that possible drainage solutions can be envisaged.
3.1 - Types of disorder encountered in pavements

3.1.1 - Flexible pavements
Untreated graded aggregates (GNT) forming the foundation for flexible pavements have a mechanical
behavior that depends greatly on their water content. Increases in residual water content lowers the
modulus of rigidity and heightens permanent damage.
The GNT pavement structures must more than any other be carefully drained, for developing pathologies
appear rapidly over several meters (see Photo 3). A failure to drain under-dimensioned pavements
therefore results in:
• permanent damage. The most characteristic is longitudinal rutting with wide curve radius created by
the passage of HGV wheels, leaving tracks of anything up to 0.80 m wide. Note also the appearance of
depressions* at edges;
• longitudinal cracking in the wheel paths. This appears in the wheel paths, branches out and turns
into a tighter mesh crazing.
A flexible pavement subjected to infiltrations before a frost accelerates both these types of damage during
the thaw.
Photo 3: sample rutting of a flexible pavement caused by the Photo 4: erosion developed around a crack in the hydraulic
untreated foundation and the subgrade (photo Sétra) aggregates of reinforced structures, RN 59 at St. Dié
(photo J.L. BIETH, CETE de l’EST - LRPC Strasbourg)

3.1.2 - Rigid or semi-rigid pavements

Materials treated with hydraulic binders are little or not at all sensitive to the action of water thanks to the
mechanical characteristics provided by the hydraulic setting.
Water infiltrations are encouraged in the following cases:
• where there are transverse cracks from shrinking, which makes the cracks larger and reduces the
bonding between courses;
• when vertical cracking reaches the subgrade; this causes the loss of bearing capacity, the
development of pumping phenomenon, rising mud, then circular crazing and finally depressions and
potholes (see Photo 4);
• when the joint between the paths formed at implementation has a compacting defect.
The same types of damage are seen in mixed structures (although more rarely), relating to the type of road
foundation. This damage is nevertheless attenuated by the depth of the bituminous layers.
3.1.3 - Cement concrete pavements

For rigid pavements, the "pumping" triggered by water accumulating in line with the slab joints and at
the edges has been recognized as the major cause of concrete pavement damage through slab
rocking and the "staircase" effect (see Photo 5).
3.1.4 - Bituminous material courses

The effect of the water has little significance compared with damage from mechanical fatigue. On the other
hand, the appearance of cracks will encourage water to infiltrate in the underlying structures.
There is no need to drain these courses, but they must be maintained and repaired, for it guarantees
damproofing by protecting the underlying courses.
3.1.5 - Modular material pavements (paving blocks and slabs)

Water can accumulated in the sand bedding course.
3.1.6 - List of singular pavement points with respect to drainage

Certain singular points require specially-adapted drainage, such as:
• central islands and medians (frequently made up of untreated graded aggregate or lean concrete)
(see Photo 6);
• structure piers.
Water infiltration and concentration is easy due to high permeability or to major cracking or poor
surface state.
The gradual accumulation of water can create a mechanically-weak zone or, more often than not, a
bleeding point for the accumulated water, which creates a sensitive zone (skidding and frost which are
accident factors, especially for 2-wheelers).
Photo 5: sample damage in a concrete pavement (photo Sétra) Photo 6: resurgences from central islands (photo CETE

Normandie-Centre, LRPC Blois)

3.2 - Analysis
The analysis must distinguish between water-related damage and damage pertaining to structure under-
dimensioning or another structural quality problem.
3.2.1 - Compiling information

The following six main parameters are used to assess the danger of this damage developing rapidly in the
presence of excess water:
• lack of pavement damproofing (r): the overall poor state of the pavement, pavement permeability,
cracks etc. are behind water infiltrating into the structure;
• surface water drainage (a): non-existent ditches, failure to maintain and repair ditches and
shoulders, ponding, raised shoulders, significance of noted flow rates and unfavorable topographical
context;
• hydrogeological environment (h) of the pavement: amount of water fed by the water catchment,
water resurgences, outcropping water table and capillary water rises;
• the effectiveness of any internal drainage system (d): poor state of drains and outlets;
• water sensitivity and drainage capability of subgrades (s);
• and the water sensitivity and drainage capability of the pavement material courses (m).
Drainage needs are analyzed from field observations (constant inspection of the itinerary which will
detect sensitive sectors and balance conflicting interests between insufficient drainage and a structural
pavement defect).
In addition to the itinerary scheme, the information compiled should include a damage survey, an as-built
file for drainage systems if one exists and, if necessary, a geotechnical* or hydrogeological* study. A
visual inspection could also be envisaged for the inspection chambers and outlets, to take soundings,
deflection measurements, etc.

Table 6: sample synopsis of marks on an itinerary (mark 0 = no problem, mark 2 = major problem).
LEGENDE KEY
sablons very fine sands
alluvions alluvial deposits
ruisseau stream
rivière, fleuve river
émergence de la nappe water table emergence
écoulements naturels natural flows
Profil en long Longitudinal section
remblai fill
déblai cut
profil mixte mixed profile
Etanchéité du revêtement Pavement damproofing
Assainissement superficiel Surface drainage
Environnement hydrogéologie Hydrogeological environment
Drainage de la chaussée Pavement drainage
Sol support Subgrade
Matériaux de la chaussée Pavement materials
Note de risque global Overall risk mark

3.2.2 - Putting the analysis together

The analysis can be carried out using the tools described in the following paragraphs.
Marking systems
A risk mark is attributed to each section identified in an analysis and observation table. By adding the risk
factors together, the itinerary scheme can identify the sensitive zones theoretically requiring drainage. The
most sensitive zones are given the highest mark.
The hydric conditions of the itinerary are assessed by "homogeneous" 200 m-long sections for each of the
parameters r, a, h, d, s and m described below and by using a three-level marking system:
0 = conditions not propitious to damage from water (and frost);
1 = average conditions potentially contributing to the appearance or rapid development of damage from
water (and frost);
2 = determining conditions for the appearance or rapid development of damage from water (and frost);
Table interpretation
Pavement damproofing, r
r = 0: bituminous asphalt surface course in good condition (asphalt compactness > 93% in 95% of
measurements);
r = 1: asphalt surface course not compact enough or made up of a surface dressing in good condition;
-7
r = 2: relatively permeable surface course >10 m/s with unsealed cracks.
Surface drainage, a
a = 0: surface drainage maintained and effective (ditches in good condition, damproofed shoulders or
excellent run off from shoulders to the ditches, etc.), topographic context propitious to run off (road in fill >
1 m in height). The longitudinal profile provides satisfactory flow for run-off water;
a = 1: ineffective surface drainage, average run off water flow (vegetation in the ditches), water course on
edge of pavement despite the shoulders being flush, permeable shoulders with plant growth. The road (or
the section in question) is a mixed profile or cut and fill in succession;
a = 2: totally ineffective surface drainage, non-existent ditches or in poor condition, raised or highly-
damaged shoulders retaining the run-off water. The road (or the section in question) is on flat ground. The
water flows in the ditches and the drainage structures is very mediocre and the outlets are not functioning.
Hydrogeological environment of the pavement, h
h = 0: the water table does not exist or is very deep (more than 5 m below the pavement). The pavement
does not intercept water circulation nor permanent or temporary resurgence;
h = 1: potential supply in subsurface waters from lateral water catchment;
h = 2: mixed profile with upstream feed, cut and fill transition zone, very powerful lateral water catchment
(pavement fed with water by circulation through cracks in the rock or by more permeable layers in the
natural geotechnical profile). The water table varies in a range which cuts across the PST, even the
capping layer and the pavement foundation.
Pavement drainage, d
d = 0: an internal drainage system in good condition exists. Its position in the cross section means that it
evacuates water circulations in the pavement structure and in the subgrade, more especially in the critical
zones;
d = 1: a drainage system exists, it is satisfactorily located in the cross section, but the state of maintenance
of the drainage network is such that it is not totally effective;
d = 2: no drainage system or system not functioning or unsuitable for the local context.
Subgrade sensitivity, s
s = 0: soil insensitive to water or treated subgrades (with effect lasting over time);
s = 1: soils assumed sensitive to water, but showing no signs of this;
s = 2: water-sensitive soils.
Sensitivity of pavement foundation materials, m
m = 0: Continuously reinforced concrete, bitumen graded aggregate (base and foundation);
m = 1: hydraulic graded aggregates, concrete, mixed structure;
m = 2: Untreated graded aggregates.

Decision model
The summary mark is established by elementary sections at least 100 meters long. It corresponds to the
hydric risk mark = r + a + h + d + s + m.
This mark is the risk from a combination of unfavorable factors and is used to assess an itinerary
regardless of its state.
The risk mark varies between 0 and 12 and shows up the sensitive zones based on the following risk
scale:
• no risk of change: 0 to 3
• low risk: 4 to 7
• major risk of change: 8 to 12.
Highlighting sensitive zones under the procedure described above defines the intervention sections when
the following converge:
• zones with the highest risk marks: high risk mark between 8 and 12;
• analysis of the structural pavement state: deflections dm > 200/100 mm, significant damage survey of
disorders (slab rocking, mud rising, longitudinal rutting, etc.).
Where a high risk mark and a poor structural condition of the pavement converge, this means that the pavement damage is due
to water or is aggravated by it and that the drainage work is justified.
No convergence means that the damage is caused otherwise (structure under-dimensioned for the traffic, poor quality
materials, etc.). In these circumstances, installing drainage systems will not alone provide the expected solution.

3.3 - Definition of work solutions

There are many possible drainage systems. The analysis of parameters used to produce the risk mark
must help define them. Table 7 summarizes the various possible actions (drainage systems themselves
are described in greater detail in Chapter 4); these resources should not worsen the situation with respect
to the treatment of lateral obstacles when reprofiling ditches, for example [20].
3.4 - Dimensioning or assessment of flow rates to be

drained through the old pavement
(see Appendix 3.2).
The drainage system in an old pavement must evacuate the excess water in the pavement structure and
possibly the subgrade up to 1 m under the pavement structure (PST); it would be possible to make do with
drains or equivalent systems of Ø 100 to 150 mm for a maximum flow rate well below 10000 l/h for 100
linear meters: a drain Ø 100 to 150 mm will nearly always be sufficient.
The other cases will be studied specifically: water table drawdown, major cracking or severely-damage
surface state.
Parameter Drainage requirements Possible solutions and drainage systems
Pavement Damproofing the pavement Installation of a dressing, bridging, milling and

damproofing repairing the surface course.
(r)
Surface Re-establishing the flows, prevent water Overhaul of drainage systems:

drainage (a) stagnation • examination of water flow directions, increasing
slopes, creations of more efficient outlets;
• cleaning and reprofiling ditches;
• making shoulders flush;
• creating surface grips(1);
• damproofing and overhaul of trickle channels;
• checking the state of outlets and inspection
chambers;
• cleaning channels;
• modifying the longitudinal section (of the pavement
or existing drainage systems) or the cross section;
Unfavorable Interception of water inflows, water table • capturing water inflows in the bank by stacks or
hydrogeologic drawdown beneath the PST level, creation drainage shields;
al or maintenance and repair of outlets. • lowering of water table level (subhorizontal drain,
environment Depending on how complex the situations trench or fin drain, pumping);
(h) are, a hydrogeological study may be • interception of surface water feeds (deep ditch,
necessary to dimension the structures and trench or fin drain);
define their characteristics.
Pavement Overhaul or repair of drainage network • cleaning channels;

drainage (d) • checking and overhauling drains, outlets and
inspection chambers;
Subgrade Protection of water-sensitive subgrades from • interception of surface water feeds or water
sensitivity (s) possible infiltrations. Improvement in hydric infiltrations via the shoulders (trench or fin drain);
state of soils when they lend themselves to
this (see Table 14, Appendix 2) is a difficult
objective and sometimes takes a long time. In • repair of pavements and/or soil substitution;
some cases (very unfavorable soils), drainage
provides no improvement.
Pavement Evacuation of subsurface waters, protection • creation of drains at pavement edge;

material of underlying layers by maintenance and/or • damproofing of the surface and cracks, reprofiling,
sensitivity (m) repair of the surface course. programming maintenance and repair campaign.
Table 7: solutions and systems according to drainage requirements

(1) in compliance with safety rules

Chapter 4
4 - Characteristics of drainage systems and of materials
used in them

The purpose of this chapter is firstly to describe the most common drainage systems and their main
characteristics. This description should assist the designer in ensuring that his planned drainage method is
clearly suitable and to define the corresponding specifications.
The second section is devoted to stipulations over the materials used in these structures.
4.1 - Drainage structures and systems

The drainage systems described in this chapter are as follows:
• Deep ditches;
• Cutoff drains;
• Grips (and draining stacks);
• Fin drains at pavement edge (EDRC);
• Draining courses;
• Shafts (vertical drainage);
and although not really roadbed drainage structures, bank stabilization systems (shields, stacks).
Photo 7: trench dug mechanically (photo CETE Nord-Picardie)

4.1.1 - Deep ditches

Objective
This type of ditch, over 50 cm deep, basically performs two functions: it collects the run-off water and
enables the water table to be lowered in certain conditions.
It is used extensively in provisional phase during earthworks, when it can sometimes make operations
easier by reducing the water content of soils to be extracted (easier re-use and improved trafficability), see
Appendix 2.
The sensitivity of the receiving medium could occasionally prohibit or limit the use of this technique where
the run-off and internal drainage waters are mixed.
Standard schemes
Final structure: (see Diagram 23).
For a deep ditch to be effective in draining pavement courses and the subgrade, it must be positioned as
close as possible to the pavement (1 to 2 m from the pavement edge) and combined with a shoulder in
draining material.
For the national road network and given road safety constraints, it is almost impossible these days to use
the deep ditch as a final drainage structure for the pavement subsurface water. Safety regulations impose
a minimum safety zone of seven meters for new, multi-function roads and four meters for existing roads.
Even when installing safety rails, there must be a recovery zone 2 meters wide between the edge of the
pavement and the straight line of the rail [18] [19] and [20].
Therefore, at very best, the deep ditch axis will be more than four meters from the pavement, which makes
it virtually impossible for it to fulfill its role as drainage structure. It is therefore preferable to replace the
deep ditch with a buried drainage system (cutoff drain).
Provisional structure during earthworks: (see Diagram 24).
One possible variant is creating cuts per half roadbed. Natural ground fill is used at the foot of the bank.
The longitudinal slope of the ditch must be between 0.5% and 2.5% (watch out for stagnation or gullying
problems).
The gutter will be located at least 0.20 m below the capping course at the edge or 1 m below the
subformation level (for the earthworks phase).
The deeper the ditch, the more effective it will be.
Diagram 24: changes in profile as the earthworks become

Diagram 23: deep longitudinal ditch deeper (temporary structure)
Zone de récupération Recovery zone
Corps de chaussée Pavement body


Cheminement de l'eau Water routing
Accotement en matériau drainant Shoulder in draining material

Operating method
A mechanical shovel is used most of the time. The side slopes are sometimes too steep: the stability of the
slope of the ditch bank must be checked (obvious condition for its effectiveness); this must not exceed
what is allocated to this material in the cutting bank.
Where the soils are sensitive to erosion, the banks may be covered with a permeable stabilizing layer:
riprap or geotextile-based synthetic materials.
The deep ditch often is the least onerous solution for a temporary drainage structure in earthworks phase
and the easiest to achieve. One variant is to create cuts per half roadbed, thereby providing the cut with
more advantageous drainage conditions.
The ditch must be at least one meter below the planned formation level for the earthworks to drain the PST
also. The water is evacuated from the end of the ditch by gravity via the gutter or by pumping at the ditch
end when unavoidable.
Durability and maintenance

Refer to the guide Current road drainage maintenance and repair [10].
Inasmuch as the previously-mentioned installation conditions are complied with, the deep ditch can fulfill its
function totally. It is easy to check its operation and maintenance except when the ditch bank slopes are
too steep or when the water stagnates at the bottom and the bank has no protection.
Maintenance normally consists of mowing once or twice a year, possibly collecting waste in advance, and
in cleaning and reforming the profile every five to ten years.
Conversely, it can play a highly unfavorable role and feed the pavement or capping layer with water if it is
not deep enough or maintained correctly (when the ditch is obstructed or the water can no longer flow
along the gutter towards an outlet).
Elements required for dimensioning

• project geometry (particularly bank slopes);
• safety considerations;
• water table (depth, seasonal and annual variations, flow direction, permeability) and all elements
required to calculate the dewatering flow rates;
• soil type: Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the drainage capability of soils according to their
classification.
Special points to be examined:
• stability of the cutting bank or ditch slope. This evacuation requires mechanical soil elements (friction
angle and soil cohesion) and stability calculations;
• sensitivity to gulling and disturbances (general case for sandy soils A1, B5, B6, D1 and D2) see
Appendix 2, Table 14;
• sensitivity of receiving medium when run-off and internal drainage waters are mixed.

4.1.2 - Cutoff drains

Objective
The purpose of cutoff trenches is to:
• drain the subgrade;
• lower the water level under the roadbed (short- or long-term gain in bearing capacity, frost-thaw
protection).
They are basically used when the water table must be lowered to create the cut, wherein lies the
fundamental difference with fin drains at the pavement edge. Their depth may vary for a major cut (current
maximum six meters in mechanized trench).
They can sometimes only be used in provisional phase for the earthworks (even if there is no gravity
outlet, with discharge via traditional or vacuum pumping).
Standard schemes
Several standard schemes can be proposed depending on the installation depth and objectives sought:
Shallow cutoff drains (maximum of about 2.5 m). (see Diagram 25).
A geotextile is used as a filter if the draining material is liable to clogging by the surrounding soil.
Deep cutoff drains (2.5 to 6 m) (see Diagram 26).
These structures are used above all when creating a cut where the water table has to be lowered and
the banks are very high. In this case, installing a geotextile is difficult, if not to say impossible. The drain
alone is therefore protected by a geotextile coating.
Cutoff drains installed sufficiently early before work commences can lower the water table level and make
earthworks easier. Their location at this time is such that they help stabilize the cutting bank in the final
phase.
Operating method
Shallow trench
This is dug with a mechanical shovel (most frequently) or a mechanical ditcher. Its width varies according
to the tool used: 0.30 to 0.50 m, even more (see Photos 8 and 9).
It is filled with draining material (with a permeability higher than the surrounding material), which may be
surrounded by a geotextile filter to make this structure long-lasting.
At its base, a drain is normally laid on the correctly-shaped trench bottom.
The installation of a drain will be mandatory if the materials are likely to be carried along in the presence of
water. The draining material can in some cases be made up of porous concrete.
Deep trench
This alternative to ditches takes up less land (less footprint, less extracted material and therefore less
evacuation or storage) and reaches greater depths, with a maximum in the order of six meters when
mechanized ditchers can be used1.
The trench has the advantage of inserting discreetly into the landscape and can be used as a final
drainage structure for future banks or the PST in skimming profile.
It will go at least one meter underneath the provisional earthworks subformation level so that it also drains
the PST. (see Diagram 27).

Diagram 25: shallow cutoff drains Diagram 26: deep cutoff drain
(1) The use of such high-output machines, capable of digging 1 km of trench per day in good conditions, is however limited to loose compressible soils,
without blocks and with sufficient bearing capacity.
hauteur drainante draining height
avec géotextile sans tuyau drainant with geotextile without cutoff drain
remblai fill
géotextile geotextile
matériaux drainants draining materials
avec géotextile sans tuyau drainant intérieur with geotextile without inside cutoff drain
tuyau drainant cutoff drain
sans enveloppe géotextile avec drain without geotextile envelope with pre-coated
préenrobé drain
matériaux drainants draining materials
tuyau drainant cutoff drain

Table 8 below specifies the various implementation possibilities depending on installation depth.
These structures should not collect surface and subsurface water at the same time:
• the load placed on the network by the surface water produces the reverse effect from the one
sought;
• the pollution risks and loads are not the same, which complicates the treatment chains prior to
discharge into the natural environment.

Cutoff drain creation requires checks on products and their appropriate implementation. It is important to
provide for drain inspection chambers:
• sufficiently large inside (recommended 0.70 x 0.40 meter) to facilitate the introduction of
hydrocleaning equipment;
• at 100-metre intervals maximum (ideally at 70 to 80 meters).
Where cutoff drains are installed before the earthworks, it is essential to ensure that they are in good
condition and functioning correctly at the end of the earthworks phase (no breaks, joint dislocation,
crushing, clogging); major repairs once pavements have been laid are difficult and onerous.
These structures also demand regular maintenance and repair thanks to duly established as-built
drawings, with inspections of ancillary structures (checking flows at inspection chambers and outlets) and
drain cleaning.
An annual inspection and hydrocleaning every three to five years1 are advisable.
Tool Draining system
Depth
Shovel Ditcher (1) Geotextile Bare drain Coated drain (2)
Slight (< 1 m) Yes no Yes Yes no
Average (1 m to around 2.5 m) Yes no Yes Yes no
no Yes Yes Yes no
Deep (2.5 - 6 m) no Yes no no Yes

Table 8: implementation possibilities according to the installation depth
(1) if no block - (2) by geotextile
Photos 8 and 9: cutoff drain installed with a ditcher in a motorway roadbed (photo CETE Nord-Picardie, LRPC Lille)

(1) Average value, the actual frequency should be based on the results of the annual inspection


• project geometry;
• water table (depth, seasonal and annual variations, flow direction, permeability) and all elements
required to calculate the dewatering* flow rates;
• soil type:
- Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the drainage capability of soils according to their classification;
- the grading (in particular d85*) is used to determine the opening of the geotextile filtering;
• special points to be examined:
- survey elements to make sure there are no networks or blocks buried and to check soil resistance
on the vertical wall;
- drain resistance (to shocks or becoming out-of-round, according to standard NF P 16-351 [5];
- - position of support anchoring (rails, panel, anti-noise wall, lamp post).
Diagram 27: sample deep cutoff drain

Limite d'emprise Footprint limit
Tranchée drainante Cutoff drain
DEBLAI CUT
Arase terrassement Subformation level
Niveau de nappe Water table level
Niveau de rabattement Drawdown level

4.1.3 Grips and draining stacks Elements required for dimensioning

Objective • water table (depth, seasonal and annual
The grip should be installed under shoulders in water variations, flow direction, permeability) and all
accumulation zones (low points). Its purpose is to elements required to calculate the dewatering* flow
evacuate water percolating through the pavement. It rates;
must always be combined with a draining course or a • soil type:
draining capping layer for which it is the outlet - soil type: Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the
(towards a ditch or cutoff drain). drainage capability of soils according to their
classification;
The drain stack is a variant of the transverse grip - the grading (in particular d85*) is used to
installed under the roadbed. Its role is normally to determine the opening of the geotextile
recover the water from the low or singular points (for filtering.
example change from a cut to a fill). It can also
occasionally reinforce the draining course Other survey elements are useful in ensuring,
(prescreening the water table). amongst other things, the regularity of the future
cavity bottom and the lack of elements likely to attack
Standard schemes the geotextile.
(see Diagrams 28, 29 and 30)
These systems are fairly shallow (normally 0.3 to 0.6
m) with potentially variable widths (0.3 to 1 m); they
are produced in draining material and may or may
not contain a perforated drain to speed up the water
evacuation. Their transverse cross sections thus lend
themselves to a shallow cutoff drain (see previous
paragraph). A geotextile envelope is necessary in Diagram 28: lateral grip linked to the capping layer
clogging, compressible soil.
Operating method
As they are fairly shallow they do not normally pose
any special problem (dug with a mechanical shovel).
It is however important to make sure that slopes are
regular (above all if they are very long, case of
draining stacks). Diagram 29: longitudinal grip with drain

As these structures are totally covered, it is difficult to
maintain them regularly unless they are enclosing
accessible drains.
Basic maintenance must focus on the outlet to
prevent any loading which would cause water to rise
towards the pavement. Diagram 30: draining stacks (under the capping layer or
draining course)
chaussée pavement
couche de forme capping layer
saignée latérale lateral groove
pente minimum 4% minimum 4% slope
épaisseur minimale minimum thickness
fossé latéral lateral ditch
chaussée pavement
couche de forme capping layer
saignée longitudinale longitudinal groove
drain drain
fossé latéral lateral ditch

Pente longitudinale variable Variable longitudinal slope
Pente transversales > ou = 5% Transverse slope > or = 5%
Espace variable selon les sols 5 à 20m Variable space depending on the soils 5 to 20
m

• in a median axis;
4.1.4 - Fin drains at pavement • at the pavement edge in contact with pavement
edge (EDRC) structure in semi-rigid or possibly rigid structure,
when the material in the shoulder is less
Refer to the Guide EDRC [12] for further
permeable than in the pavement.
information on this system.
Depending on circumstances, the EDRC can vary
Objective in installation depth depending on whether the
project involves just the pavement or includes its
A soil drained efficiently becomes a non-saturated subgrade:
soil; its water content stays at a level that is dictated
• when draining flexible pavement, an improved
by its suction characteristics and water movements
hydric state is sought over the entire pavement
in such a soil are complex.
height and over at least the upper 0.30 m of the
The main objective of EDRC is to improve the subgrade;
hydric state of materials in the pavement and • for rigid or semi-rigid pavements, the depth of the
subgrade, over a thickness dependent on the system will be limited to the pavement with the
pavement type, to evacuate water which has essential role of evacuating the infiltration water at
penetrated the pavement and limit water ingress interfaces, cracks and/or joints without damproofing;
from shoulders. Unlike the cutoff drain, EDRC
cannot be installed very deep (1.5 m maximum) and • to evacuate interstitial over-pressures during the
must not be used to lower a water table. thaw, the installation must be deeper than the depth
of frost corresponding to the frost warning index
Whereas the normal goal is to improve the overall depending on the pavement type in question;
bearing capacity of the pavement, using the EDRC
can also be advisable to control dessiccation* and • when draining the PST, the installation depth can
improve protection from frost-thaw. be limited to 50 cm underneath the subformation
level when the aim is preventive protection against
water infiltration and improved hydric states of soils.
Standard schemes
The EDRC is a product which is either
manufactured and installed on site with specific
machines, or is constructed on site. It
is basically made up of a geotextile
filter, enveloping a draining core,
possibly with a collecting system in its
lower section (see Photo 10). A
manufactured fin drain is far thinner
than a fin drain constructed on site (2
to 4 cm for the first and 15 to 25 cm
for the second.
The functions vary depending on
whether the road is new or old and
whether the pavement is flexible or
rigid. Diagram 31: standard cross section of a pavement fitted with
The EDRC is normally positioned an EDRC located where the shoulder meets the pavement
where the shoulder meets the road structure
structure (see Diagrams 31 and 32).
It can be installed:
• laterally at the foot of the cutting
bank;
• laterally under the extreme edges
of the capping or foundation layers
for flexible pavements;
Photo 10: sample manufactured fin drain
(photo CETE Nord-Picardie, LRPC Lille)
Diagram 32: installation of an EDRC at the pavement edge

hauteur de recouvrement de l'EDRC (> 0,06 EDRC recovery height (> 0.06 m)
m)
hauteur de l'EDRC EDRC height
hauteur drainante draining height
profondeur de pose laying depth
profondeur sous le corps de chaussée depth beneath the pavement body
L'EDRC comporte un système d'évacuation The EDRC has an evacuation system for
des eaux infiltrées. Il est plaqué contre le infiltrated water. It is set against the edge of
bord de la chaussée dans une tranchée étroite the pavement in a narrow trench whose upper
dont la partie supérieure est étanché après part is sealed after backfilling. The lateral
remblaiement. Le fossé latéral est réduit à un ditch simply plays a trickle channel role to
rôle de cunette pour l'élimination des eaux de eliminate the run-off water.
ruissellement.
Coté chaussée Pavement side
Coté accotement Shoulder side
enveloppe géotextile filtrante filtering geotextile envelope
remblai fill
âme intérieure à fort indice de vide inside core with high vacuum index
drain ou zone drainante drain or draining zone

Operating method
An EDRC can be installed in one of two ways - manual after digging the trench or mechanized
(recommended).
It is normally installed in a narrow trench at a depth of between 30 cm and 1 meter.
The width of the cavity depends on the mechanical shovel or ditcher used (30 to 50 cm). The space is
subsequently backfilled with compacted extracted material.
It is advisable to use a laser to shape the slope and make it more regular. When installed manually, the
EDRC must be held in place on the vertical wall pavement side during backfilling. The EDRC is placed
automatically during mechanized installation by the box section which holds it against the wall pavement
side.
Site material is used for the backfilling. However, it is important to remove the largest blocks (max. 100
mm) as far as possible.
Whenever possible, the trench should be partially backfilled, alternating with compacting in accordance
with the stipulations in the guide Backfilling Trenches [11].

EDRC installation requires checks on products and their appropriate implementation (particular attention
should be paid to the problem of compacting the trench). The covers on the drain inspection chambers
must resist rolling loads and be large enough inside (recommended 0.70 x 0.40 m) to facilitate the
introduction of hydrocleaning materials.
They also demand regular maintenance and repair thanks to duly established as-built drawings, with
inspections of ancillary structures (checking flows at inspection chambers and outlets) and drain cleaning.
In automated installation, the EDRC have nevertheless the advantage of guaranteeing quality, more
especially when inserted in trenches with a gentle slope.
An annual inspection and hydrocleaning every three to five years are advisable1.

Technically, an EDRC is chosen according to the following criteria:
• geometric: the height of the EDRC (He) varies according to pavement characteristics (type,
thickness, position) and the type of problem to be solved (drainage, frost/thaw, dessiccation);
• hydraulic: the necessary longitudinal evacuation capacity depends mainly on the EDRC
transmissivity characteristics and the permeability of the surrounding ground;
• predictable installation constraints: obstacles or buried networks in old pavements, trench resistance
(type of material) and soil type and grading.

4.1.5 - Draining courses

Objectives
The draining course is made up of very permeable aggregate material to intercept an upwards or
downwards water current. It is therefore found:
• slotted between pavement and subgrade; it recovers any water ingress through the pavement and
above all water inflows from the subgrade, for example:
- under a concrete pavement structure, to drain infiltration water vertically;
- on cut and fill interface to evacuate water ingress from the cut roadbed and prevent it flowing
towards the fill (substitution or draining of the cut and fill transition zone);
- underneath a cut or skimming profile pavement, when the water table (or any other water inflow
underneath the roadbed) is likely to rise up to the structure (terminology can vary - this may be
referred to as a substitution of the upper earthworks section or as an aggregate capping layer, with
specific dimensioning);
- in flat zones or those liable to flooding, as courses standing in the way of capillary water rises (fill
base in draining material);
- underneath a fill in a compressible or wet zone (draining base);
- under the pavement and the fill in mixed profile;
• slotted between an impermeable layer (invert, geomembrane) and the subgrade. The objective here
is to intercept water ingress from the subgrade and reduce the sub-pressures.
Important comment: although this scenario moves away from the context of the guide, it is important to remember that the
draining course may also intercept the entrained air or the fermentation gases underneath the geomembrane.
This arrangement is essential when the soils in question contain fermentable organic matter (surface soils and peaty or silty
organic layers) or when the water table is nearby.
Standard schemes
(see Diagrams 33 and 34)
Diagram 33: draining course in cut Diagram 34: draining course in fill
Collecteur Collector
Exutoire Outlet
Pente Slope
Cote des plus hautes eaux Dimension of highest waters
Pente Slope
Collecteurs Collectors

Operating method
Made up of aggregate draining materials, the draining courses are laid by traditional blade earthwork
machines. The courses must be laid on a soil with sufficient bearing capacity and well shaped to avoid
depressions and ruts (on a soil with little bearing capacity, shaping takes place afterwards whereas the
draining material is pushed forwards in a single layer, sufficiently thick to avoid being deformed under the
weight of machines).
To create draining courses which can be assimilated with special capping layers, the specifications in the
guide Creating fills and capping layers [9] will be applied.
The thickness depends on the flow rates to be collected (drains can be inserted for major flow rates), but
above all on the transient role played by this course during the earthworks phase (road) or its incorporation
in the capping layer which it can replace partially or totally. When faced with compressible soils with low
permeability, the thickness required to evacuate the flow rates could be reduced (< 0.10 m), but the
implementation conditions (insufficient bearing capacity, deformability) frequently impose a thickness of >
0.40 m.
Laying a geotextile at the base is necessary when the percentage of fines is > 5%.
A geosynthetic variant can nevertheless be envisaged:
• if the flow rates are limited;
• if the mechanical role of this layer is reduced (sufficient subgrade bearing capacity to support the site
traffic);
• and if the differential settling of the subgrade does not exceed a few centimeters.
This then involves geocomposites* which may include a draining core or mini-drains.

Once covered over, the draining course cannot be inspected nor maintained. It is therefore essential to
dimension it carefully by ensuring a good safety margin (for example, by taking a safety coefficient at least
equal to 2 into account when calculating the flow rates).
The outlets and dewatering collectors must be installed and maintained as in the previous systems
(inspection chamber every 70-80 m of sufficient size, annual inspection and hydrocleaning every three to
five years)1.

• Project geometry.
• Water table (hydraulic head and head variations, permeability) and all elements required to calculate the
dewatering* flow rates;
• Soil type:
- Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the drainage capability of soils (soils which may be drained and
draining soils which may be used in a draining course) according to their classification;
- the grading (in particular d85) is used to determine the opening of the geotextile filtering;
- other survey elements are useful in ensuring, for example, the regularity of the future cavity
bottom and the lack of elements likely to harm the geotextile;
- the envisaged bearing capacity on installation must also be taken into account.

4.1.6 - Shafts (vertical drainage)

Objective
Shafts evacuate water vertically on an ad hoc basis by raising it to a surface outlet. They are most
frequently used as temporary installations during earthworks. (see Diagram 35).
The zone where the water table level is lowered (drawdown influence zone) varies according to soil
permeability.
Thus, for a line of shafts to play a barrier role, the distance between the shafts can be fairly loosely spaced
(20-30 m) in very permeable soils (permeability > 10-5 m/s), but should be closer together (up to less than
1.5 m apart) in soils with low permeability (< 10-6 m/s).
In the first case, traditional shafts take preference; they are fitted with submerged centrifugal pumps and
the raising height will not be limited (except by the power of the pumps). In the second scenario, narrow
shafts (diameter < 10 cm) are normally used, connected to the surface by a vacuum pump. The raising
height is then limited to 6-7 m (see Diagram 36).
Note that some shaft-type systems, but without pumps, can aim to bring two different aquifers into contact
with each other:
• to draw down and inject water from the upper aquifer towards the deep aquifer (injection shaft, see
Diagram 37);
• or to reduce the water pressure in the lower aquifer by allowing it to expand towards the upper
aquifer (discharge shaft, see Diagram 37);
Given the potential implementation problems of these systems (clogging, maintenance, pollution, etc.),
they are only used in exceptional circumstances and are not dealt with here.
Preference may be given to using shafts instead of the deep cutoff drain in special contexts such as:
• potential very high dewatering* flow rates (which correspond to a major drawdown influence zone,
frequently higher than 500 m);
• drawdown depth to be modulated selectively for environmental problems (for example, to limit setting
under nearby constructions);
• significant drawdown depth above the maximum depth of mechanized trenches (about 6 m)1 (see §
4.1.2);
• no gravity outlet to drawdown dimension.
Standard schemes
(see Diagram 36).
Diagram 35: schematic diagram of vertical shaft drainage Diagram 36: vertical drainage methods
(1) In certain special cases, draining panels can be used (boring with grab or cutter), where the depth can be considerably more than the 6 m of current
mechanized trenches.
Rayon d'influence du rabattement Drawdown influence radius

Pompe Pump
Niveau de la nappe initial (statique) Initial water table level (static)
Niveau de la nappe rabattu (dynamique) Lowered water table level (dynamic)
Imperméable Impermeable
Puits Shaft
exhaure dewatering
Pointes filtrantes Filtering points
Vers pompe à vide Towards vacuum pump
Aquifère Aquifer
Pompe Pump
En vert : In green:
Tubage plein Full piping
En jaune : In yellow:
tubage perforé (crépine) perforated piping (perforated casing)
niveau imperméable impermeable level

Operating method
Know-how and specific equipment adapted to each individual case is required to create these structures:
• hole boring by jetting, pipe ramming, hammering and rotation with or without boring fluid (water, mud,
air);
• metal or PVC tubing, perforated casing pieced on (manufactured) or not, perforation type and
density, filter in natural (sand or gravel) or manufactured (sand+resin filter, geotextile) material;
• pump types and power;
• shaft spacing (and number of lines for a linear structure) to be determined;
• installation of a temporary collector up to the outlet.

Drawdown structures are only used as temporary measures during earthworks except for extremely
special cases. Problems of durability and maintenance do not arise.

• detailed hydrodynamic characteristics (aquifer geometry, discontinuities, vertical and horizontal
permeabilities, transmissivity, drainage porosity, flow direction and piezometric variations);
• soil type:
- Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the drainage capability of soils according to their classification;
- the grading (in particular d85*) is used to determine the opening of the geotextile filtering;
• special points concerning these techniques:
- sensitivity of nearby structures to differential settling (frequent in this type of operation) and supply
deficits (nearby bodies of water and water courses in equilibrium with the level of the water table).
Diagram 37: shaft-type systems

Puits d'injection Injection shaft
niveau imperm. imperm. level
Aquifère Aquifer
Puits de décharge Discharge shaft
niveau imperméable impermeable level

4.1.7 - Bank stabilization systems (shields and stacks)

Objective
They aim to intercept the water in the banks (and thus contribute to roadbed drainage) but also to act as a
retaining mass to increase the general stability. They are therefore used in downwards cuts (even
temporarily) below the level of the water table. Finalizing the system and above all its geometry
necessitates specific calculations dominated by the mechanical characteristics of the surrounding soils.
Standard schemes
The shield (see Diagram 38) replaces the existing soil with a soil mass draining and applying friction
over an extended length (in the entire potentially unstable zone). Except where the draining material
could act as a filter for the surrounding soil (infrequent), the mass is laid on a filtering geotextile and
closed at the foot by a drain pipe intended to facilitate and accelerate the evacuation of the water
collected. It is essential for this drain pipe to be plugged upstream.
The stack (see Diagram 39) is based on an analogue principle and in this case the substitution is
perpendicular to the cut axis.
The stack system is preferable to the shield system when short-term bank stability (when laying the
draining system) is truly critical or when there are random water ingress. Other parameters such as the
flow rate quantities, bank aesthetics, grass seeding problems and the volumes of materials to be moved
must also be taken into account, but can vary from one site to the next.
Special techniques are used to stiffen the shield slope itself (mix of sand and synthetic threads, nailing with
piles or angle irons.
Operating method
By principle intended to stabilize very unstable banks, these structures are often created under difficult
site conditions (critical stability, water ingress, soils with little bearing capacity). For shields, progressing
using limited-length pins are used to improve stability during the site duration.
A slow-rate mechanical shovel is most frequently used for the earthworks and to lay the mass.
Given the frequently difficult conditions, there is little need to focus on the regularity of the sides or the
bottom of the extraction zone, which can be and stay irregular (above all, do not reprofile with extracted
materials). On the other hand, the regularity of the slope of the collection and evacuation drain pipe is
essential; to overcome problems of accuracy, avoid adopting slopes of less than 5 cm per meter for the
stacks and 2 cm for the shields.
Any necessary planting can be made by slotting in a geotextile filter and using a honeycomb geosynthetic*
or a geogrid*.
Note that in some special cases, a geocomposite* can be used instead of or in addition to the draining
material (see Diagram 40).
Diagram 38: draining shield Diagram 39: draining stacks

Masque drainant Draining shield

Obturation en amont Upstream plugging

Vers exutoire Towards outlet
Collecteur - drain longitudinal Collector - longitudinal drain
Eperon Stack
obturation amont upstream plugging
Drain transversal Transverse drain
vers exutoire towards outlet
Collecteur- drain longitudinal Collector - longitudinal drain


The draining mass is buried and therefore maintenance is impossible. The evacuation drain must be
accessible and include inspection chambers every 25 to 50 m (depending on the safety level required) for
the shields and at every tap in the longitudinal collector for the stacks.
A full inspection (including via video in the drains) is a good idea when the site is finished and an accurate
as-built drawing is essential.
In terms of maintenance, a visual survey should be planned (assessment of flow rates and above all of
clogging) of the state of the drain holes at each inspection chamber and more frequently at the beginning
of the structure's life; for example inspections at one month, three months, six months and one year.
Hydrocleaning is recommended at least every three to five years (more frequently if the previous
monitoring has shown a trend towards rapid incrustation).

• project geometry (particularly the natural cross slope of the ground);
• hydrodynamic characteristics of the soils (aquifer geometry, discontinuities, permeabilities, flow
directions and piezometric variations);
• soil type: Table 14 in Appendix 2 indicates the drainage capability of soils according to their
classification;
• special points concerning these techniques:
- block size distribution* and grading (in particular d85* of the soils) to assess the state of the cavity
bottom and the opening of the geotextile filtering;
- detailed geomechanical characteristics (cohesion C and internal friction angle of surrounding soils).
Diagram 40: geocomposite used instead of or in addition to the draining material.

Géocomposite filtre-drain Filter-drain geocomposite
Masque drainant Draining shield

4.2 - Stipulations on materials

4.2.1 - Draining and filtering materials
Drainage consists of moving water as fast as possible from an aquifer medium to a drainage structure and
beyond that to an outlet. Filtering tempers this passage by retaining the elements making up the aquifer
medium.
Filtering power
The filtering power of a material over another material is assessed via particle size characteristics and
rules based on these characteristics.
In most cases it can be tricky to apply these rules, as they are established for homogeneous soils and call
on materials that are frequently very elaborate and costly. A geotextile is therefore more often than not
used for this role. Under these conditions the addition material simply has to evacuate the water rapidly
and therefore has a draining role only.
For "rustic" structures with no geotextile and which are therefore both filtering and raining (in earthworks
phase, for example, or when it is impossible to use a geotextile), a road aggregate with 0-30 or 3-40
continuous grading1 (a hollow aggregate is easier to clog) may be used, with:
• less than 5% fines under 80 µm;
• a sand equivalent (ES) higher than 50, or VBS ≤ 0.1;
• a passing fraction at 2 mm of less than 10% for a porous concrete drain coating and less than 15%
for a PVC drain pipe coating.
(see Diagram 41).
Note that for deep mechanized trenches, where it is rarely possible to lay an envelope geotextile, the filter
is placed direction around the drain ("geotextile sock") and the aggregate is simply used to fill the trench.
The only requirement is ease of installation and self-tightening and the following will thus be requested:
• rolled rather than crushed aggregate;
• continuous grading;
• particle size (D) limited to 20 mm (narrow trench);
• a percentage of fines of less than 80 µm limited to 5%.
Draining power
This is the ease with which the water flows within the material, or more specifically the reduction in head
losses (of energy) by friction. The greater the voids the better the water flow, the ideal being to reduce the
friction to the minimum as in the pipes. Incompatibility with the filtering power becomes clear.
Diagram 41: particle size curves continuous or discontinuous shape

(1) Each grading class is represented and the shape of the curve tends towards the diagonal. The reverse is true of the discontinuous grading where the
curve is very hollow.
Pourcentage des refus cumulés Percentage of accumulated rejections
SABLE FIN FINE SAND
GROS SABLE COARSE SAND
GRAVIERS GRAVELS
CAILLOUX PEBBLES
GALETS MOELLONS BLOC SHINGLE RUBBLE BLOCK
granularité continue continuous grading
courbe "creuse" "hollow" curve
Dimensions des tamis en mm Sieve dimensions in mm

As an indication, the characteristics of a draining only aggregate (behind a filter) could be as follows:
• hollow aggregate (see above);
• ES (sand equivalent) > 50 or VBS ≤ 0.1 g of blue per 100 g of soil;
• passing fraction at 2 mm < 10%;
• a percentage of fines of less than 80 µm limited to 5%.
Other criteria may also be adopted to take the limits relating to the structure into account, in particular:
• the installation (D far below 3 or 4 times the layer thickness);
• damage risks for the textile filters (it is preferable to reduce the grading with crushed materials);
• a very clean material (without filler with a percentage of fines < 1% for a draining only material.)
The most commonly used gradings are less than 30-40 mm.
Table 9 suggests a classification for untreated granular materials based only on their drainage capability
from three parameters:
D: the dimension of the largest components
f: the fines content (passing fraction at 80 m)
d10 the particle dimension corresponding to the 10% passing fraction
Other criteria
For the soils:
• the mechanical strength and above all the sensitivity to the attrition* (in the first instance, LA and
MDE coefficients below or equal to 45);
• frost resistance (in principle respected with the mechanical characteristics);
• resistance in terms of the aggressivity of the waters in the medium or the water used for declogging
(incompatibility of limestone aggregates and acid media).
For GNT developed materials (category C aggregates, even D with conditions): the values are stated
in standard XPP 18-540 [3]/
Comment on porous concretes

This technique seems little used but it has certain advantages:
• in certain cases of sites with difficult access when compacting can cause problems;
• when the networks are dense and compacting possibilities are few and far between;
• when the draining zone must have high mechanical resistances.
A porous concrete has a porosity of between 15 and 25% and will have compressive resistance criteria
after 90 days close to 10 MPa. The mineralogical nature of aggregates and the type of hydraulic binder will
be chosen based on the aggressivity of local waters.
Material f d10 Permeability Type
in % in mm in m/s
0/D according to NF P 98-129 <5 ≥ 0.1 10-6< K ≤ 10-5 draining GNT

(14 < D < 31.5 mm)
0/D, (14 < D < 31.5 mm) ≤2 ≥ 0.8 ≥ 10-5 very draining material
d/D ( D ≤ 40 mm) ≤1 ≥8 ≥ 10-1 very draining material
Table 9: classification of untreated granular materials

4.2.2 - Geotextiles and related products

The geotextiles and related products improve the mechanical and hydraulic behavior of the soil and their
use in road techniques has developed widely in highly diverse fields: there are now a vast number of
products on offer.
There are five main functions - separation, filtering, drainage, reinforcement and protection. The properties
required vary depending on the anticipated functions.
Role in the drainage structures

In the drainage structures, the geotextiles and related products are used to replace the sometimes
complex granular draining systems which are both difficult to dimension and costly to implement. They will
be made in the main by one or more layers of fine synthetic tangled fibers woven or non-woven
(thermobonded or lashed) possibly combined with other geosynthetics (geospacers, mini-drains, etc.)
where preference is given to drainage and filtering functions. (see Diagram 42).
As for the granular materials, the drainage function characterizes the ability of the geotextile to collect and
convey the water in its thickness (notion of transmissivity). This capacity could vary depending on the
thickness and therefore its behavior when compressed (compressive creep).
The filtering function acts as a barrier to the conveyance of the soil particles which could migrate under
hydrodynamic forces, whilst allowing free circulation of water through the filter. In the case of geotextile,
the soil is frequently re-organized and a filter layer forms where the geotextile is in contact with the soil.
The mechanisms are complex and depend on the geotextile's functional characteristics (opening of
characteristic filtering, permeability perpendicular to the plane, etc.). This is the preferred function when the
geotextile is in contact with the soil and envelopes the drain or the draining material. (see Diagram 43).
To these functional characteristics must be added mechanical and minimum durability characteristics to
prevent damage to the geotextile during implementation and during the lifetime of the structure.
Standard NF EN 13252 [7] defines the required characteristics for use in the drainage structures. Table 10
below is an extract.
Main characteristics to be determined

Filtering function
Characteristic filtering opening O90. It must be less than d85 of the soil multiplied by a variable
coefficient C depending on the use scenarios (filter only or filter-drain), the soil characteristics and the
hydraulic conditions. This calculation method is explained in standard G38-061 [6].
Permeability perpendicular to the plane: velocity index VH50. The permeability of the geotextile is
specified from the permeability of the soil with a variable corrective factor depending on the use scenarios
(type of structure) and the compressive creep characteristics of the geotextile. For common (non sensitive)
structures, the VH50 value varies from 0.5 to 30 mm/s.
Resistance to water penetration. This parameter does not appear in Table 10. It expresses the minimum
thickness of the amount of rainfall required for the water to start penetrating the geotextile. The value
normally required is less than 50 mm.
Drainage function
Flow rate capability in the plane (equivalent to the transmissivity). It must correspond to the minimum
transmissivity required to evacuate the flow rates affected by a coefficient. This coefficient, which is also
found in standard G38-061, can vary from 3 to 100.
Mechanical characteristics
Apart from damage when being laid, the resistance to traction, deformation under maximum load,
resistance to dynamic perforation and other parameters not taken up in Table 10, can be added to the list
of required parameters, if necessary.

Diagram 43: formation of a natural stable filter upstream of the

Diagram 42: use of geotextiles for the drainage structures geotextile
masque drainant draining shield
couche drainante par géocomposite draining course by geocomposite
tranchée drainante cutoff drain
couche drainante granulaire granular cutoff drain
SOL EN PLACE EXISTING SOIL
Zone de réarrangement des grains Particle re-arrangement zone
GEOTEXTILE GEOTEXTILE

It is impossible to define value ranges given the variability and specific features of the possible scenarios.
Overall, the conclusion will be drawn that the values must tend towards an optimum which can vary
depending on the uses. Thus:
• there must be maximum flexibility at the irregular cavity bottoms, particularly in the cutoff drains; this
is less important in shaped and compacted cavity bottoms;
• resistance to traction and deformation under maximum load will be chosen based on the
deformability and bearing capacity of the subgrade, with an extension of at least 50% in loose or
irregular soils;
• the resistance to static puncturing and the resistance to dynamic perforation limit the risk of damage
in contact with irregularities;
• the thickness and the compressive creep can alter the transmissivity.
Table 10: required characteristics for use in drainage structures

Caractéristiques Characteristics
Méthode d'essai Test method
Fonction Function
Filtration Filtering
Séparation Separation
Renforcement Reinforcement
Résistance à la traction Resistance to traction
Déformation sous charge maximale Deformation under maximum load
Résistance à la traction des coutures et joints Resistance to the traction of welts and seals
Poinçonnement statique (essai CBR) Static puncturing (CBR test)
Résistance à la perforation dynamique (chute Resistance to dynamic perforation (falling
de cône) cone)
Caractéristiques en frottement Characteristics under friction
Fluage en traction Creep in traction
Endommagement à la mise en œuvre Damage on laying
Ouverture de filtration caractéristique Characteristic filtering opening
Perméabilité perpendiculairement au plan Permeability perpendicular to the plane
Durabilité Durability
Conformément à l'annexe B In accordance with Appendix B
Résistance aux agents climatiques Resistance to climatic agents
Résistance au vieillissement Resistance to ageing
Résistance au vieillissement chimique Resistance to chemical ageing
Résistance à la dégradation microbiologique Resistance to microbiological degradation
Pertinence : Relevance:
essentielle pour l'harmonisation essential for harmonisation
s'applique à toutes les conditions d'utilisation applies to all conditions of use
s'applique à des conditions spécifiques applies to all specific conditions of use
d'utilisation
indique que les caractéristiques ne sont pas indicates that the characteristics are not
applicables à la fonction en question applicable to the function in question
Il convient de considérer avec attention la It is important to pay particular attention to
validité de ces essais dont le principe peut de the validity of these tests, where the principle
pas être applicable à certains types de may only be applicable to certain types of
produits (par exemple les géogrilles). product (for example the geogrids).
Si les propriétés mécaniques (traction et Mechanical properties (traction and static
poinçonnement statique) sont indiquées H puncturing) indicated H mean that the
cela signifie que le producteur doit fournir les producer must provide data for these two
données pour ces deux propriétés. L'emploi d properties. Using one only (resistance under
l'une seulement (résistance en traction ou traction or static puncturing) is sufficient in
poinçonnement statique) est suffisant dans la the specification.
spécification.

Elements required for choosing the

geotextile
Depending on the drainage system being built, the
main data to be collected are as follows:
• structure type and geometry (dimensioning
depends on the position of the geotextile in the
structure and its function - vertical or horizontal
draining or filtering);
• the flow rate to be drained and therefore the
hydrodynamic characteristics of soils;
• grading of soils (type of soil to be filtered) or the
material in which the flow is produced;
• the type of aggregate used;
• the constraints applied to the geotextile (height
of material overspill, installation depth, for a
draining course, its thickness and the rigidity of
subgrade, hydraulic head).
The CE marking is specified in standard NF EN
13252 [7]. This is mandatory legal marking for the
free circulation of goods within the European
Community.
Voluntary ASQUAL certification is a sign of quality: it
is an added plus to the CE marking and guarantees
the stated characteristics under a specific reference
framework.
Warning:
standard NF G 38 061 is currently being revised as
it refers to obsolete French standards replaced by
the CEN standards listed in Table 10 and which are
not strictly equivalent. Caution is advised, therefore,
when using it to determine geotextile characteristics,
particularly the filtering opening and even more the
permeability, as there is no possible correlation
between the old "permittivity" and the CEN
"permeability" standard.
Photo 11: flexible, ringed drain with plant coating (coconut)

(photo CETE Nord-Picardie/LRPC)

Photo 12: flexible, ringed drain with synthetic geotextile

coating (photo CETE Nord - Picardie/LRPC)
Photo 13: rigid, ringed drain with trickle channel (photo CETE
Nord - Picardie/LRPC)
Photo 14: "road" drain with trickle channel

(photo CETE Nord - Picardie/LRPC)

4.2.3 - Drains or drain pipes

Role and types
Drains or drain pipes are designed to:
• collect the water via their periphery;
• facilitate its rapid evacuation (drainage function in the true sense of the term). When they do not
collect water via their periphery, even though it can be customary to call them drains, they are in fact
only simply pipes which are not dealt with in this guide.
They can take a variety of shapes (round or tunnel-shape, egg-shaped or with a flat bottom) and materials
(earthenware, now no longer used, sandstone, porous or fibrous concrete and above all synthetic
materials, basically polyethylene and PVC). The material and the shapes determine the rigidity of
components which are fundamentally of type types: longitudinal components of variable length but limited
to a few meters (round or tunnel section, concrete or synthetic materials) and very long crowns for flexible
shapes (round section and synthetic materials ) (see photos 11, 12, 13 and 14).
Water is collected at the periphery by diffuse pores (porous concrete) or by variable-size slots or
perforations (fibrous concretes and synthetic materials). These holes may be spread the length of the
periphery or located in the upper part only (drains with trickle channel).
Note lastly that most drains in thin, synthetic material are reinforced against becoming out-of-round and
crushing by splines (ringed shapes). These splines retain the longitudinal flexibility but increase the
internal roughness (reduced flow rates). Certain rigid models therefore have two envelopes, one outside
with splines with a smooth one inside.
As an indication, Tables 11 and 12 give a few of their main characteristics and their preferred areas of
use.
Drain or draining collector in Synthetic drain or draining Flexible, synthetic ringed
concrete or sandstone collector, rigid or with trickle drain
channel(1)
Length Variable, 0.5 to 1 m 4 to 6 m Crowns
Diameter 75 to over 1000 mm 80 to 630 mm 5 to 200 mm
Perforations Variable, up to 13 mm 0.8 to 3.5 mm About 1 mm
Perforation Circumference or upper part Circumference or upper part Circumference
position
Major Heavy and brittle Semi-rigid Crushes
disadvantage
Table 11: main drain characteristics

Perforations or slots in Preferred use Use to be avoided
Flexible, ringed Total surface area Mechanized laying with Shallow depth (risk of
drains(2) considerable depth (at least being flattened)
3)
> 1 m)(
Rigid drains Total surface area Shallow depth Heterogeneous soils

with perched water
tables
Drains with Upper part High flow rates
trickle channel Erosive soils (risk of
carrying fines along)
Pre-coated Upper part or total surface Erosive soils (risk of
drains area carrying fines along)
Table 12: preferred areas
(1) see standard NF P 16-351 [5]

(2) In accordance with the new fascicule 70 title II § II 6, "agricultural drains (reference to standard NF U 51.101) can be used under non-traffic spaces". The filters
must however be dimensioned as for traditional road structures (characteristic filtering opening O 90, see § 4.2.2) and not according to normal agricultural drainage
practices which, with a wider opening, encourage the water to flow through with the added risk of also encouraging the movement of fine elements.

(3) The choice of the drain based on installation depth depends on the mechanical resistance of the material and the general laying context: any surface
rolling load, width of the cavity, backfill material and compacting method.

Laying depths for road drains are defined by standard NFP 16-351: without surface rolling load and from
0.8 m deep, ND category drains will be used. SD category drains will be chosen for all other
circumstances.
No standard gives guidance on agricultural drains: in this case a minimum depth of about a meter will be
accepted.
Pre-coating
Pre-coating (before laying via a filter fixed on the drain) is always stipulated, as it reduces the risk of
carrying fine particles from the soil considerably and thus the risks of internal obstruction in the drain and
surface disorder (settling).
A suitably-dimensioned geotextile is used for this purpose (rules in previous paragraph, especially
regarding the filtering opening).
The use of plant fibers (coconut) which is often suggested is to be avoided due to the risks of putrefaction,
particularly if the drain is laid in a zone alternates between flooding and dewatering.
Dimensioning: Flow rate - Diameter - Slopes

The flow rate can be calculated with traditional formulae incorporating diameter and slope; Diagram 44 is
given as an indication for ringed drains (coefficient of roughness 45).
The diameter must be determined based on captured flow rates; however, given uncertainties over the
"soil" parameters (homogeneity, permeability, etc.), it is essential to over-dimension (by at least two). This
coefficient should be increased even further when the drainage network is installed before or during the
earthworks (higher flow rates and inevitable partial clogging).
It is also essential to take every precaution to avoid obstructions:
• installation of grills or valves to prevent animals from intruding;
• no planting of trees or shrubs near or directly above the drain.
Slope is a major factor.
The gentler the slope of the drains, the more the diameter of the drain must be over-dimensioned to take
account of retention and sedimentation zones in the drainage network. Conversely, slopes that are too
pronounced can generate erosion and cavitation phenomena between the soil and the drain. It is
preferable to reduce pronounced slopes by drops at inspection chambers.
A poorly-leveled drain (or insufficiently maintained) produces water retention zones with the reverse effect
of drainage: better not to drain at all than to drain badly.

The main parameter is the resistance to the various loads such as compacting or site traffic which can
cause serious damage to drains (by crushing or deformation) or the asphalt and therefore restrict or even
prevent the drain structure from working immediately it goes into operation.
Standard NF P 16-351 [5] indicates minimum rigidity and shock-resistance values for plastic pipes, but in
all circumstances with a risk of crushing (drains laid within a draining course, for example), reference areas
are recommended to approve the products based on their behavior on implementation or under traffic.
Note that the new version of fascicule 70 (title II § II-6) indicates that "agricultural drains can be used for
non-traffic spaces". For these pipes, see standard NF U51-101 [2].
When the site is over, the acceptance procedure stipulates an inspection of all inspection chambers, outlet
and discharges as well as video soundings of theoretically the most critical sections.
The subsequent survey intervals must be set based on the structure in which the drains play a role
(trench, stack, draining course, etc.). It is essential to maintain the outlet and orifices in good condition.

Diagram 44: flow rate for ringed drains based on the slope and diameter
débit en l/s flow rate in l/s
pente en mm/m slope in mm/m

4.3 - Ancillary structures

For safety reasons, these structures must be taken into account at the design stage and in accordance
with the general principles of the guide Dealing with lateral obstacles [20].
4.3.1 - Crossings
Crossings are buried pipes channeling the water so that it can cross the pavements underground. In
particular, they connect drainage structures located in a median or on one side of the pavement (mixed
profiles or pavements with a single crossfall) to collectors or an outlet located towards the downstream
side of the cross section.
These structural parts will be designed as traditional connections (non-draining pipes) or as extensions to
drainage structures (trenches, grips, stacks and fin drains). The draining part (steel ducts, PVC drain, etc.)
will ideally comprise a single element guaranteeing a continuous flow downstream.
Particular attention must be paid to the downstream connection in works phase, as joint dislocations can
generate disorders relating to water which infiltrates instead of flowing.
4.3.2 - Inspection chambers

In all shapes and sizes - round, square or rectangular -, inspection chambers can be prefabricated when
repeated or poured on site. They must be dimensioned correctly with a minimum of 0.70 x 0.70 m (to allow
a man or the hydrocleaner through in all circumstances) and must be flush with the finished ground level.
Some EDRC manufacturers offer prefabricated elements in PVC with a lower section that fits onto the
drain. These systems are suitable for depths of less than one meter. Their internal diameter of 0.40 m
and the adapted shape ("curve" entrance) allows the hydrocleaner to pass through. Some are
rectangular (0.40 x 0.70 m).
If they are not fitted to edge drains, they are installed away from the emergency hard shoulders on the soft
verge* and located where there is a change in direction or in a link section to comply with the maintenance
requirements. They have an invert in the lower part, a variable-height box section and a head into which
fits the removable cover.
Monitoring and maintenance inspection chambers should be installed about every 70 to 80 m and at all
places useful for maintenance. The maximum distance is 100 m to allow the hydrocleaner to move through
(in principle every three or five years). The installation must be determined accurately, making sure that the
inspection chambers do not open into zones where roadbed run-off water is concentrated (trickle channel,
for example).
The covers on the inspection chambers or outlet chambers, insofar as they are near traffic lanes, must
be calculated to resist major rolling loads (1/2 axle) depending where they are used (sidewalk, shoulder,
road path, etc.) When the chambers are located at the pavement edge, it is preferable, for safety
reasons, to provide them with lockable iron covers to limit dangers to user safety and maintenance
costs. The chambers must also be placed carefully so that maintenance engineers can access them in
total safety.
The condition of the chambers must be inspection on a very regular basis. It is also advisable to raise the
lids every year to check that the whole system is working properly and thus highlight any overloading.
4.3.3 - Outlets
These are points where water is discharged from the footprint and more generally anything that evacuates
water collected (ditch, piping, etc.). It is normally marked by an inspection chamber connecting the overall
drainage network and the specific drainage network from the roadbed.
For safety reasons, regardless of the longitudinal evacuation capacity of systems, there is every advantage
in not leaving too much distance between outlets. They can share a joint position with inspection
chambers. Wherever possible, the distance between a high point of the drain and an outlet located
immediately downstream or between two outlets located in the same flow must not exceed 500 m. A
specific collector must be installed if the configuration of the ground makes this impossible.
Water is normally discharged into a ditch, which must have a safety head if placed along a lane open to
traffic. In all circumstances, the drain exit must be marked by a concrete outlet head with an anti-rodent
grill. The drain head must be raised in the ditch bank so that it does not hinder mowing.
It can be useful to channel discharges in natural flow zones for a few meters at least, or even better as
far as the natural receiving flow. The most commonly used outfalls are components fitting together (tiles)
or arc of circle components (metallic half-ducts). The first system frequently ages poorly (joint
dislocation) more often than not due to incorrect installation.

Chapter 5
5 - Execution of work, application of quality assurance,
completion of drainage work, operation and maintenance

5.1 - Execution of drainage work

Please also refer to Chapter 7 in the guide Fin drains at pavement edge for the execution of work [12].
Once the investment decision has been taken, the quality of installation of drainage system structures is
the only real guarantee of pavement durability. At worst, this type of structure can feed pavements and
their subgrade with water, thereby creating far more rapid degradation that when no drainage system is
installed.
The implementation of the various drainage systems is dealt with in Chapter 4 of this guide, which
addresses the execution of work, special drainage applications in earthworks phase and inspections.
5.1.1 - Execution of work

Optimum work period
The optimum period for installing drainage systems depends on what stage of the work has been reached:
• where a deep structure to drain the water table drawdown is involved, it is important to choose a low-
water period (normally summer, early autumn) to take advantage of the water content of the soils,
incorporating the timescale provided for in the geotechnical* or hydrogeological* study;
• for surface structure drainage in earthworks and draining new or old pavements, rainy periods must be
avoided as for the earthworks, as the soil surface produces mud and therefore pollution during
implementation;
• for the special case of laying edge drains (cutoff drain or EDRC), the optimum period depends on the
targeted objectives:
- where the system is intended to attenuate harmful effects of increased humidity during rainy
periods or to increase protection against frost-thaw, the optimum period is when the water contents
are at their lowest, i.e. between July and October in France;
- when the aim is to control dessiccation*, the optimum period is more in late spring, early summer,
when the water content is not too low (before cracks appear);
- for curative work (cracks already evident), there is no longer an optimum period.
Managing interfaces
Most traditional drainage systems - grips, draining stacks, draining courses and cutoff drains - do not lend
themselves to construction which changes as work progresses from the earthworks phase to the
construction of the pavement itself. This scenario can, however, be envisaged with some types of
manufactured EDRC.
The laying of pavement edge drains varies according to whether or not the pavement and shoulder have
already been built. This aspect of site phases is a factor in the choice of longitudinal structures (cutoff
drain, manufactured fin drain, fin drain built on site).
Contract or contractor interfaces will be covered by hold points* when there are at least two contractors, to
check the continuity of the drainage structure.
Photo 15: poor site organization creating water stagnation at the low point of the road, despite the presence of ditches on
either side (photo CETE Normandie-Centre, LRPC Blois)

5.1.2 - Special drainage applications in earthworks phase

Earthworks involving fills, cuts and capping layers cannot be carried out without complying with some
elementary rules in controlling water.
Some of these provisions represent good earthworks practices and are mentioned in the CCTG Travaux
[8] fascicule 2 - Articles 5.10 Temporary site drainage and 5.15 Draining structures.
The earthworks (extraction, traffic, compacting, etc.) are made difficult by structures undermined by water
infiltration (drop in bearing capacities, breaking banks, gullying, etc.). The knock-on effect on deadlines
and costs are far from negligible (processing obligations, substitutions, execution delays, etc.).
Surface maintenance
It is primordial to maintain surfaces that have been or are going to be regraded, in both cut and fill. There
are many justifications for this operation which benefits contractor and project owner alike, for:
• it encourages run off, thereby reducing infiltration at the same time;
• it maintains the hydric state of materials and the bearing capacity of soils;
• it is favorable to machine traffic;
• it reduces the volume of soils to be processed;
• the work execution timescales are shortened.
Maintenance normally consists of:
• creating and maintaining a transverse slope of at least 4% (single crossfall or rooftop),
• regular leveling with a blade (grader or bulldozer) to remove the excess materials and reduce rutting
throughout the day, to ensure continuous run off,
• shaping and daily settling of surfaces by compacting preferably with tires, however insignificant, in
cut and in fill.
Evacuation of rainwater
Temporary structures are installed for this purpose; they are maintained on a daily basis in both rainy and
dry spells.
In cut, a continuous flow of water must be maintained at the foot of a bank connected to an outlet. In fill, to
prevent uncontrolled run off and gullying along banks, a ridge of earth at the edge of the bank channels the
water to a (temporary or final) outfall at the low point and carefully connected.
The banks of both cuts and fills must be protected against run-off water. In anticipation of a final structure
(if appropriate), temporary drainage outfalls can be installed. A ditch at the crest of the bank is frequently
dug for cuts: it will be important to remember it is there when the site comes to an end to avoid any water
stagnation at the top of a bank.
Water collected on the site must be returned to the natural environment in compliance with regulations in
the law on water and undertakings made the water policing file [15]. Materials in suspension (mineral
pollution at least from site mud) must be eliminated from the site water via settling tanks and possibly straw
dams or other before being returned to the natural environment.

Photo 16: sample cut without outlet. The accumulation of rainwater has created a "swimming pool" effect [the red arrow marks
a common point] (photo CETE Normandie-Centre, LRPC Blois)

A few rules for carrying out the work

• avoid forming basins or low points which are ideal water traps. Constructing underground passage
structures or creating cuts from a high point without installing an outlet can momentarily block a site
through water accumulation;
• watch out for maintaining a longitudinal slope towards an outlet to avoid creating a "swimming pool"
effect. Any situation of this nature which cannot be avoided should be included in the contract so that the
contractor is obliged to provide means despite everything of evacuating the water (pumping, drain
ramming, etc.).
• perform earthworks following the drop in water levels in soils with low permeability and where there
is a water table: work carried out too quickly could make the banks unstable, despite a correctly-
assessed slope, in the long term. An alternative solution is to lower the water table before soil
extraction commences;
• normally start the cuts with their downstream side in longitudinal section, so that they are drained
continuously;
• compact the fill edges as well as its heart, for poorly-compacted banks of a fill are liable to rapid
infiltration, thereby causing disorders. For safety reasons compactors do not operate on bank edges; it
is therefore advisable to create the roadbed with an excess width of at least equal to one meter, which
is subsequently removed with shovel or blade. This requires a larger soil footprint on a temporary
basis see Article 5.8 Fills in fascicule 2 of the CCTG [8];
• it frequently transpires that the drains are highly damaged after the earthworks or after laying the
pavement. Particular attention must be paid to this point if drain action is ultimately taken into account
in pavement dimensioning.
5.1.3 - Checks
Depending on the details in the control, miscellaneous checks are possible and may be carried out under
the responsibility of the contractor or the project engineer. This technical guide does not suggest a
standard distribution of checks between these two entities (Contractor-Project Engineer). Refer to Chapter
5.2.2 Quality Assurance plan for the list of checks with the hold points* and critical points*, given as an
indication, to be performed during and after the work has been carried out (see Table 13).

5.2 - Application of quality assurance in the drainage

work
For further information, refer to the guide Quality Assurance organization in earthworks [13].
Installing a drainage structure is an application of particular interest in a quality approach for two reasons:
• the care applied to the works in their smallest detail conditions the quality of the whole;
• bad workmanship is not easy to observe after installation and even less so to find. Total
reconstruction is very often their only remedy.
In this lies the advantage of a quality approach which monitors all the quality components at the time of
installation itself.
Whether or not drainage work is covered by specific contracts or is part of larger contracts (earthworks,
pavements), they must include drainage work quality assurance.
The project owner or his project engineer expresses his interest in the contractor's quality management
when the Contractor Tender Document (DCE) is being written. This DCE defines:
• the technical stipulations of the structure(s) to be built (CCTP);
• the organization of the quality assurance required from the contractor:
- checks under the responsibility of the contractor (CCTP);
- the critical points* (PC) and the holds points* (PA) (CCTP);
- the content of the SOPAQ (RC) and the PAQ (CCTP).
5.2.1 - Quality Assurance Plan Organizational Scheme (SOPAQ)

All the provisions adopted by contractor to satisfy the technical stipulations expressed in the Special
Technical Specifications (CCTP - see Appendix 4) must figure in the SOPAQ. The project engineer must
define in the Tender Regulations (RC) the requirements to be taken into account by the contractor to draw
up his SOPAQ. These needs are governed by the drainage system adopted and are explained in detail in
the Contractor Tender Document (DCE).
The SOPAQ includes the contractor's organization chart with the various functions, which services are sub-
contracted and the main sub-contractors, where the supplies come from, a description of the resources
and execution methods employed and the inspection resources and methods envisaged.
If the RC so requires, the contractor will describe in this document the special technical features of the
drainage process to be implemented, for example the ditching resources employed, the guiding type if a
ditched is used, assembling geosynthetics, compacting methods, operation of the road under the site, etc.
The contractor submits the SOPAQ with his proposal; it is his commitment in terms of quality assurance and
as such represents a key factor in the approach, for it serves firstly to judge proposals and secondly to
prefigure the PAQ.
The SOPAQ must be contractualized by the CCAP and is the contractual reference framework throughout
the site's lifetime.
5.2.2 - Site-specific Quality Assurance Plan (PAQ)

The contractor sets out a draft PAQ based on his SOPAQ during site preparations. Once finalized, the PAQ
is stamped by the project engineer.
The CCTP specifies that the PAQ includes the following items:
• a general organization note, including in particular:
- allocation of tasks;
- management of interfaces;
- organization of internal inspections;
- the principles of managing and processing non-conformities;
• the execution procedures defining:
- the resources and conditions for executing work;
- methods for the topographical installation and monitoring;
- checks and tests performed (type, frequency);

- hold points* and critical points* in addition to those defined in the CCTP;
• follow-up and result sheets, one sheet per basic task and/or per work day; these sheets prove to the
project engineer that the contract stipulations have been met. They also serve in establishing the as-built
file.
Table 13 gives some hold points* (PA) and critical points* (PC). Certain tasks common to earthworks
(signaling, safety, etc.) are not repeated in this table.

• Approval of prefabricated components PA

Checking the conformity with the contract specifications (manufactured EDRC, outlet
equipment, inspection chambers, geotextile, drains, piping, etc.).
• Approval of materials
Checking material characteristics and approval: composition of porous concrete, PA
untreated graded aggregates, granular filling materials, etc.
• Site safety
Work under traffic, bank stabilization, verticality of trench walls, etc. PC
• Checks on implementation
They include checking the following points at least:
- structure installations at the desired position in the cross section; PC
Greater rigor must be applied in the installation of structures at the end of the
earthworks phase
- structure width; PC
- structure depth and the regularity of the longitudinal slope: this can require an PC
accurate leveling reference system (laser, wire, etc.). All low points should be avoided
when building the structure;
- cleanliness and regularity of the cavity bottom; PC
- need for purges; PA
- connection of drains, channels and geotextiles in the cutoff drains, manufactured PC
stacks or filter envelopes of EDRC built on site, the integrity of assemblies once
passed through the box section;
- continuity of guiding systems, connections to inspection chambers and outlets and PC
checking they are working correctly, unless it is impossible to provide for structure
acceptance in this PA scenario;
- installation of ancillary structures in general (outlet exits, anti-rodent grills, etc.); PC
- verticality of longitudinal structure installation (fin in the box section, in the trench) PC
and their positioning against the interfaces to be drained;
- cleaning the structure surrounds; PC
- shaping the surface of the shoulder; PC
- conformity of the compacting material; PA
- compacting quality of courses laid (number and thickness of fill layers, type and PC
condition of materials, number of compacting passes, compacting width, compactor
speed) [11] after building a convenience area PC
which is marked by a hold point; PA
- regularity of supplies, their conformity and the absence of material segregation; PC
- filling regularity of trenches.
PC
Table 13: a few hold points (PA) and critical points (PC).
5.2.3 - Quality Master Plan (SDQ)

During site preparations, the project engineer in conjunction with the contractor and the outside inspection
the Quality Master Plan (SDQ). It is not contractual; it’s aim is the consistency expected in the quality
approach from each participant by examining the planned actions as a whole. It can change throughout
the site lifetime. It is the accurate description of all the tasks to be performed and if possible the people
designated to fulfill them.
This plan includes in particular:
• the Quality Assurance Plans (PAQ) of the various participants;
• the organization of the external check* with respect to the internal check*;
• the list of critical points* and hold points*;
• the management of interfaces between the services provided by the various contractors. These
interfaces are frequently behind a lack of quality.

5.3 - Completion of drainage work

5.3.1 - Acceptance
Acceptance is pronounced based on checks made at the end of the site. They can carried out by eye or by
sampling, by a surveyor, piezometry, soundings, excavation, geophysical method (georadar), video, etc.
The checks cover:
• conformity of the work;
• measurement of fill material compactness: this may be measured with a dynamic penotrometer.
Although this is only a selective test, it can be multiplied and used in a statistical sounding program;
• flow continuity: once the structures have been built, water from a tank can be injected into the
network via inspection chambers to check that the flows are definitely found downstream. This test
should be analyzed with care. A positive result does not necessarily guarantee the regularity of the
water flow. For EDRC, this method can only be interpreted if the fin has a leaktight collecting device at
its base.
The check may also be made with a video camera, combining with moving the hydrocleaner (direct check
on operation) through the parts of the drainage system made up of collectors that can usually be
inspected, which, let us not forget, limits the maximum distance between inspection chambers to 100
meters.
The trench can be opened in the event of a dispute.
5.3.2 - Handover of as-built drawing

Unlike the clean-up drainage systems, where virtually all components are on the surface and can therefore
be repaired, almost all components in a drainage network are underground, which makes them difficult to
check their existence or their state of repair. It is therefore essential that the road management
department is provided with an as-built drawing produced when the drainage network is constructed.
The as-built drawing indicates the actual location of systems, outlets, inspection chambers, etc.
5.4 - Drainage system operation and maintenance

Equipping a pavement with a drainage systems is an investment with an on-going objective: evacuating
the excessive water in the pavement and subgrade structures to prevent early and/or accelerated
degradation. The drainage networks must therefore be monitored and maintained in the same way as the
clean-up drainage.
5.4.1 - Inspection of structure with as-built drawing

Once the structure has been handed over, the maintenance department is advised to carry out a full
inspection of the structure based on the as-built file to recognize all the parts of the drainage system and in
the maintenance guide for these structures. This operation is essential prior to setting the inspection and
periodic maintenance schedule.
The following in particular will be located:
• accessibility and protection of inspection and outlet chamber covers;
• the position of outlet heads.
5.4.2 - Establishment of the zero point in the absence of an as-built

drawing
When there is no as-built file, the operating management department has a duty to create the "zero point"
when taking over the structure.

Initially, the contract documents will provide information on the planned drainage solutions. Their existence
must subsequently be checked in the field. As the systems are underground, an indication of their
presence can be given by the inspection chambers and outlets which must be located accurately. It is thus
possible to have an overall view of the systems.
• structure geometry and accessibility;
• slope of drain water flows;
• system connections to outlets;
• position of inspection chambers, diameters of drains, etc.;
• protection of outlet heads.
Secondly, and if necessary to understand the drainage system, recourse may be possible to openings as
indicated in § 5.3.1.
The zero point must specify the state of repair of all parts of the system so that a list of first maintenance
work essential for the structure to work correctly may eventually be drawn up.
The following in particular will be checked:
• that water is flowing in the ditches or channels or outfalls after a rainy spell and is being evacuated
(check on water flow levels in ditches compared with the drainage system outlets);
• that there are no mudslides at the outlets (their presence is a sign of a damaged geotextile filter in
the drainage system or even worse that it is missing).
All these observations must be indicated on the drainage network "zero point" drawing, so that priorities
can be set for repair activities depending on the extent of damage observed.
Whereas such provisions are not very restrictive for a specialist department in charge of expressway or
motorway maintenance, there is no guarantee that the same applies for departments in charge of current
networks in national or departmental roads. This task is nevertheless primordial and must be carried out by
any means possible.
5.4.3 - Maintenance and repair work

When the manager is obliged to establish a zero point and carry out backfit work, this involves a
preliminary task which must be studied following expert assessment.
The type and significance of the work should be defined from rules specified in Chapter 5.1.2.
Maintaining a drainage network has two parts - monitoring and repair.
Monitoring
Monitoring must be regular and carried out jointly with the clean-up drainage monitoring [10].
Note that the most propitious periods to detect functioning anomalies are during or immediately after a
rainy period.
Repairs and repair frequency

Refer to Chapter 4 of this guide for the maintenance and repair of the various drainage systems.

Appendices

Appendix 1 - Special hydrogeological* studies

Hydrogeological* studies potentially requested as part of the project which require special drainage
conditions (existence of a water table, capturing water inflows in the bank, etc.) will include, depending on
the reference geotechnical mission requested (standard NF P 94-500 [4]):
G11 mission, preliminary feasibility study

The geotechnical study will have highlighted the need for counter-measures, frequently with difficulties in
specifying orders of magnitude for these structures. The number and type of soundings has tremendous
impact on the accuracy of conclusions. The study will nevertheless specify in the report and/or in the
longitudinal geotechnical section the cuts and the section numbers concerned by any water inflows
detected.
It must also reveal the presence of water, specifying whenever possible:
• if there is a water table and monitoring its evolution for at least a year if not more if a high-capacity
water table is involved;
• if there are any water inflows;
• if the water is permanent or liable to dry up;
• if there are water circulations, known resurgences or any other element that only a field investigation
can bring to light.
It is also important to specify the meteorological context for taking the soundings; in dry spells the results
are frequently optimistic. Other sources of information could also be consulted: bibliography, regional
knowledge, field survey, etc.
The geotechnical study will also indicate, when this is predictable, if the structures are necessary on both
banks: it may be that the water ingress dry up in the bank opposite the preferred circulation direction of the
subsurface waters.
It will be necessary to specify:
• the presentation of major local hydrogeological units or underground flows in the context of regional
knowledge or prior experience;
• the approximate assessment of possible impact of the hydrogeology on the project;
• conversely, the predictable impact of the project on the local hydrogeology (altered flows, etc.);
• an assessment of uncertainties in the study over the information provided;
• the definition of the G12 standard study program to be undertaken on the topic.
G12 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study

This is a special study to validate the drainage hypotheses and define in detail the general construction
principles for drainage structures. To achieve this, the following must be defined:
• the detailed geometry of the aquifer1 reservoir1 (roof and wall positions, slopes, etc.);
• the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer1 (permeabilities, piezometric map, etc.);
• the report on feed and losses (with any tracings);
• the site equipment to monitor changes in the piezometry (installation of piezometers, etc.);
• the assessment of constraints caused by the aquifer in developing the project and conversely the
assessment of the predictable impact of the project on aquifer1 disturbances;
• an assessment of uncertainties in the study over the information provided;
• the definition of the G2 standard study program to be undertaken on the topic.
G2 standard mission, geotechnical* feasibility study

This mission is used to establish very accurately the structure's geometry and dimensioning. Phase 1
includes a few dimensioning design notes, estimated quantities, timescales and costs for building
structures and phase 2 the documents required for contractor tenders.

Appendix 2 - Improvement in hydric conditions of

materials
This involves creating structures intended to collect surface or underground water and drain the natural
ground; these temporary structures may be built into the final drainage systems of all types depending on
circumstances.
This work will provide the best conditions for carrying out the earthworks and a better material re-use rate.
However, it must be added that even if the initial situation is improved by reducing the water content of
materials, the drainage does not prevent treating the materials with suitable reagents in all cases.
When the goal is improve hydric state of materials, the studies will defined (see Appendix 1):
• the type of soils to be drained, their hydric state and geometry;
• the assessment of their permeability;
• the meteorological conditions during the soundings in particular and their impact in terms of drainage
needs;
• the characteristics of the water table or the hydrogeological conditions in general;
• the effects of the project on the environment (and vice versa);
• possible means of creating the drainage and the dimensioning.
The studies must obviously give a good idea of the least favorable hydrogeological conditions. Ideally,
water levels will be monitored over at least a year, specifying the climatic context (wet or drought year).
In addition to traditional sounding and field survey methods (piezometers, sample taking, pumping tests,
etc.), photointerpretation can offer certain advantages in detecting wetlands and hydric,
hydromorphological or phytographic indices.
Other sources of information may also be of interest: bibliography, regional knowledge, field survey, etc.
Special case: Drainage operations for subgrades in a fill (peaty, marshy or wetlands, generally
compressible zones) consolidate soils by evacuating the water. The techniques addressed in this guide
can be used for modest drainage operations to prepare access to a plot in non-compressible zones but
with very low bearing capacity (thickness of soils to be improved ≤ 1 m).
For compressible soils*, a specific study will take into account subgrade mechanics and imposed loads
(see guide Creating fills in compressible soils [14]).
Using drainage to lower the water content will be stipulated if the soil type so lends itself.
Normal Approximate time to
Soil identification permeability remove excess water
Soil description
(under NF P11-300) coefficient under favorable
(in m/s) meteorological conditions
A1, B5, some B6 Silts, fine clay sands 10-5 to 10-9 minimum 6 months,
even more
B1, B2, B4, D1 Fine sands, aggregates with little 10-3 to 10-5 3 to 6 months
clay
D2, D3, B3, R11, Clean aggregates, scree, 1 to 10-3 ≤ 3 months
R21, R22, R32, cracked and micro-fissured rock
R33, R41, R42, (limestone, clay schist,
R61, R62, puddingstone sandstone,
magmatic and metamorpic rock)
R12, R13, R23, Chalk, rocks altered under the Materials lending
R31, R34, R43, influence of water (soft themselves with
R63 limestone, clay rock, silts, difficulty to
altered hard rocks) improvement through
drainage except specific
study taking account of
the cracking, micro-
fissuring and intrinsic
permeability of
materials on site
C1, C2 Soils with large elements Refer to the

(Dmax > 50 mm) characteristics of the 0/50
mm fraction
A2, A3, A4, certain Clays, marls, sandy clays, salty 10-9 to 10-13 Materials not lending
B6, R5, R3 rock, changing clay rock, themselves to
unfissured rock improvement by
drainage
Table 14: identification of soils (according to standard NF P 11-300) which can be drained

Appendix 3 - Assessment of flow rates to be drained

3.1 - Through subgrades
Depending on the texture of the substrate and its intersection with the pavement, water ingress from a
water catchment of varying size can infiltrate the ground and feed the pavement "via the bottom".
It can often be tricky to identify (very low seasonal flow rates are sufficient to vary considerably the water
content of soils and the untreated materials in the structure).
It can also normally be detected during earthworks in wet spells.
Resurgences in a pavement in service are more easily revealed during dry weather after a wet spell.
Any diffuse resurgences in a localized zone can be captured by longitudinal cutoff drains or by using a
draining course. Note also the effectiveness of deep ditches in obstructing lateral water ingress in cut
zones.
However, when a random resurgence is detected, recourse to capture at a specific point is necessary.
In any event, the assessment of flow rates from detected resurgences must be provided by a standard G2
hydrogeological study (see Appendix 1).

Shown below are diagrams on the flow rates depending on the drawdown, the thickness of the water table
and the permeability of soils for a cutoff drain.
These diagrams attempt to show that the flow rate (and therefore the soil permeability) is not, in the main,
dimensioning with respect to the drain pipe, as far greater permeabilities (1E-3 et 1E-2) must be reached
before encountering evacuation problems with common drains.
The dimensioning will depend on other parameters (risk of obstruction, crushing or settling) which require a
high safety coefficient.
Thus, in the most common scenarios (silty clays or sandy clays with fine sand), a 150 mm pipe could be
adopted without major risk.
However, as soon as soils with high permeability (more than 1E-5) come into play, a specific
hydrogeotechnical study is highly recommended, to dimension the drainage network.
Permeability scale (reminder): Inf to 1E-9: clays

1E-7 to 1E-9: clay silts, clay sands, clay graded aggregates
1E-5 to 1E-7: silts, silty sands, silty graded aggregates
1E-5 to 1E-4: clean sands
more than 1E-4: fissured rocks (including chalk) and clean graded aggregates
In black: water table dewatering* flow rates according to soil permeability for one trench side (for the total trench flow rate,
double the figure obtained) and a length of 100 m. The four diagrams correspond to different water table depths (idle): 5, 10,
15 and 20 m.
In red: maximum flow rate of a ringed drain with a 2.5% slope, based on drain diameters 100, 150 and 300 mm.
rabattement drawdown
Diamètre drain Drain diameter
Débits en litres/heure pour 100 ml Flow rates in litres/hour for 100 ml
Perméabilité des sols en m/s Soil permeability in m/s

3.2 - Through the pavement

To dimension the drainage systems, which usually collect relatively modest effluents, it can be enough to
obtain an estimation by excess of water flow rates entering the pavement structure through the rainfall.
The various elements playing a role in determining the flow rate are presented in Diagram 45.
The principle of the calculation is to estimate the flow rates to be drained per linear meter of pavement
from daily duration D, rainfall P and the run off. It is assumed that infiltration takes place when the
surfacing is covered by a film or water (the pavement surface is subject to hydraulic gradient potential
equal to the unit). Distinction is made between:
• flow rates entering the pavement:
- Qe, through the surface course;
- Qft, via the transverse cracks or Qfl, via the longitudinal cracks;
- Qr, at the pavement-shoulder interface;
- Qa, corresponding to inputs from the shoulder and the lateral catchment area;
• flow rates transiting at the interfaces, Qi;
• flow rates feeding the subgrade. Qs.
3.2.1 - Diffuse infiltrations via the surface courses

The Qe flow rates depend on the permeability coefficient of the asphalt. Based on the permeability
coefficient (Table 15, column 2), for rainfall lasting one hour, the theoretical infiltration values in column 3
are obtained under the assumption that the pavement surface is fed permanently. In reality, taking the
levels and durations of rainfall into account produces the values in column 4, which give the proportion of
water infiltrating through an asphalt in relation to the rainfall1.
It is quite clear that an asphalt surface layer can only really resist infiltration when it is over 93%
compacted.
Diagram 46 has been established to illustrate this point with a dispersion of the compactness of ± 2 or 3
points from the average.
Diagram 45: schematic diagram of the various types of flow Diagram 46: relationship between the surface layer
rates under pavements and shoulder compactness and rain infiltrating the pavement
fissure transversale transverse crack
fissure longitudinale longitudinal crack
précipitations rainfall
Coefficient d'infiltration moyen Average infiltration coefficient
Compacité moyenne en % Average compactness as %
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Average annual infiltration
Permeability coefficient Theoretical infiltration (l/h)
Compactness (%) coefficient m (in %
(m/s) under constant feed
rainfall)
85 1.10-5 250 100

92 3.10-7 7.5 60
-7
93 1.10 2.5 30
-9
95 1.10 0.025 <5
Table 15: infiltration through an non-fissured, asphalt surface course for 1 linear meter of 7 m-wide pavement.
(1) Average of three standard rainfalls: 4 mm in four hours, 4 mm in twelve hours and 40 mm in twelve hours. These three cases are an accurate
simulation of a typical southern French climate. Higher rainfalls in the North can increase the values in columns (4).

3.2.2 - Infiltration through the cracks (see Diagram 45)

The infiltrations Qf via the cracks depend on their opening. Distinction is made between infiltration via
transverse cracks, Qft, and infiltrations via longitudinal or edge cracks, Qfl or Qr (see Tables 16 and 17).
Type Qa infiltrations from shoulders, the lateral water catchment, the interception of springs and confined
water tables by the pavement are trickier to assess. Wherever possible, any random water inflow, or one
limited in space, must be treated specifically.
The water flows transiting at the interfaces with flow rate Qi correspond to the various inputs caused by
contrasting permeabilities between neighboring courses and the fact that the interface zone has a higher
permeability than the full-thickness materials. The Qa infiltrations also feed the water flows at the interfaces.
These inputs trigger local saturation which encourages the flows in saturated conditions.
The Qi flow rates (of the interfaces) are lower than the infiltration through the surfacing, as the courses
must be loaded for them to appear, unless underground water ingress is intercepted by the pavement.
These flow rates are therefore considered to be negligible.
The Qs flow rate values (of the subgrades) are difficult to assess and without practical purpose for the
targeted objective or are dimensioned by a hydrogeological study.
When dimensioning an edge drain, the estimation by excess of infiltration water flow rate, Qt, reaching the
drainage system per linear meter in the pavement is given by the sum:
Qt = Qe + Qf + Qr + Qa
By way of indication, Table 18 gives an estimation of the total flow rate of infiltration water through a
pavement surfacing with shrinkage cracks and a longitudinal crack. The high valves emphasize the
advantage in bridging cracks and obtaining asphalts with an acceptable minimum compactness.
Opening of transverse cracks

(mm)
0.1 0.4 2.4

8.5 85 840
3
(65%) (100%) (100%) (1)
5.0 50 500
5
(50%) (100%) (100%) (1) Opening of longitudinal cracks (mm)
2.5 25 250
10 0.1 0.4 2.4
(30%) (100%) (100%) (1)
Table 16: infiltration via transverse cracks, in liters/hour,
1 (15%) 10 (70%) 100 (100%)(1)
for one linear meter of a 7 m-wide pavement based on the
distance between cracks (percentage of infiltrated water
Table 17: infiltration via a longitudinal crack or by an edge
with respect to rainfall)
joint for one linear meter of pavement in liters/hour (in
brackets, percentage of infiltrated water with respect to
rainfall)
(1) theoretical value very much higher than rainfall volume

Conditions Surfacing permeability coefficient (m/s)
3.10 -7 1.10 -7 1.10 -9

Non-fissured 60% 30% < 5%
With 0.1 mm transverse cracks
80% 70% 65%
every 3 m
With 0.4 mm longitudinal crack at
100% 95% 90%
edge
Table 18: combined impact of surfacing compactness and the presence of cracking on the percentage of water infiltrating
through a pavement surface course

Sample estimation of a drainage system dimensioning.

Let us examine the case of a half-pavement (3.50 m carriageway) with 2% longitudinal slope, made up of
an asphalt concrete (BB) + Foundation + Subgrade.
The data considered are:
- BB compactness = 92%;
- Existence of transverse cracking every 3 m, opening 0.1 mm;
- Existence of longitudinal cracking at the edge, opening 0.1 mm;
- Shoulder permeability, 10-6 m/s i.e. 3.6 mm/ h.
An EDRC 0.50 m deep, HD, with a projected collecting drain 90 mm in diameter. The goal is to estimate the
maximum flow it is likely to capture.
The flow rates entering the pavement are calculated per linear meter. They are the sum of three terms:
1. Qe = flow rate crossing the BB. C = 92% produces a theoretical infiltration of 7.5 l/h for a width of 7 m
(Table 15), hence Qe = 7.5 x 3.5/7 = 3.75 l/h;
2. Qft = flow rate due to the transverse cracking. Table 16 indicates an input of 8.5 l/h for a width of 7 m,
therefore Qft = 8.5 x 3.5/7 = 4.25 l/h;
3. Qr = flow rate due to the input at the edge. Table 17 indicates 1 l/h per linear meter.
Total flow rate from the pavement =
Qe + Qft + Qr = 9 l/h
which, under established rainfall conditions (extended duration) and where the subgrade has very low
permeability, will feed the edge drain.
To this must be added the flow rate capable of being collected by the face shoulder side of the drain, i.e. a
width of 1 m from the edge in question for a height of 0.50 m:
Qa = 10-6 × 1 × 0.5 × 3600 × 1000 = 1.8 l/h.
−3
The flow rate collected is therefore in the order of 11 l/h per linear meter, i.e. 3.10 l/s
The nomographs (supplier documentation) show that a 90 mm-diameter drain, with 2% slope, evacuates
15,000 l/h, i.e. 4.2 l/s. The distance between neighboring outlets could be 1 km (for 15,000/11 > 1,000 m),
but a limit of 500 m will be set.
Checking the utility of draining
The utility of draining can be checked. A relatively permeable subgrade would absorb the 9 l/h before the
drain. To achieve this it would require a permeability (assumed under saturated state) higher than:
9 × 10-3/3600/3.5= 7 × 10-7 m/s.
As soon as the subgrade is less permeable, temporary storage will occur in the foundation; failure to drain
this stored water may hinder the foundation from working correctly (an untreated graded aggregate will
lose tremendous rigidity during extended rainfall, a treated foundation could slip with the BB, etc.).
Comment: as shown by the calculations below, the results are closely linked to the permeability coefficient
value considered.
The risk of error is without practical consequence if the nature of the materials is such that they have very
high or very low permeability.
On the other hand, for the intermediate levels, major errors can slip in if the permeability coefficient is
estimated from identification characteristics alone. It is then necessary to refer to results of standardized
tests.

Appendix 4 - Elements to establish the special technical

clauses (CCTP)
This appendix does not represent a standard CCTP, more a canvas to be adapted to each site scenario. It
incorporates a concern over managing the quality of work.
It must be remembered that the drainage work is integrated, in a good many cases, with earthworks and
pavement construction work (or maintenance and repair or rehabilitation). This very generally includes
drainage work. How to manage interfaces between these various work aspects should be dealt with in one
or other of the CCTP.
1 - Description of work to be carried out

1.1 - Localization of work
1.2 - General description of work reserved for the contractor

- Description of type of drainage structure to be constructed
- Hydraulic data
- Geotechnical data
- Preparatory work
1.3 - Work not included in the contract
1.4 - References to drawings extracted from the capital investment project
2 - Quality assurance
- Service conditions for the drainage structure
- General provisions for controlling quality
- Degree of PAQ development
- Type of site
- Dealing with anomalies
- Quality Assurance Plan
- Critical points
- Hold points
- Organization of external check
- Organization of internal check
3 - Material, product and component specifications

3.1 - Required characteristics of drainage systems
- System typology
- Geometric, mechanical and hydraulic characteristics (see Chapter 4)
3.2 - Materials for earthworks and backfill

• Soils, untreated graded aggregates, d/D graded aggregates
- Classification Appendix 5 [1]. Size of largest elements compared with the thickness of the
compacted layer
- Type of materials according to the densification objective
- Special provisions or rejection of certain materials (frost susceptibility of soils, industrial by-
products)
- Aggressivity (chemical, biological) of certain soils or industrial by-products to installed networks or
some components like the geotextiles or geomembranes
- Composition of porous concretes, etc.
• Geotextiles

Geotextile certified, not certified for … (destination of geotextile), inspection …

Geotextile characteristics to be determined:
- Resistance to traction
- Deformation under maximum load
- Resistance to dynamic perforation
- Permeability to the water normally to the plane
- Filtering opening, Of, and resistance to water penetration
• Drains
- Drain destination, drain type, hydraulic characteristics, chemical stability, stability in terms of
atmospheric agents, collecting system for edge of pavement fin drain, etc.
• Edge of pavement fin drains
- Destination of the EDRC, hydraulic characteristics, thickness, height, etc.
- Prefabricated EDRC or manufactured on site.
- Related geotextile (Of), draining materials, porous concrete, characteristics of draining core,
material properties, hydraulic characteristics, flexibility and mechanical stability.
3.3 - Ancillary structures

Example: inspection chambers (dimensions, covers, etc., outlets (diameter, anti-rodent grill, outlet head).
4 - Work execution method (example for cutoff drains and EDRC)

4.1 - Specifications on installation and setting out of systems
- Plane installation (description of sections to be treated, distance from the lane axis)
- Leveled installation (section and water flow slopes).
4.2. - Acceptance and storage of supplies and materials
4.3 - Trench execution method

- Width (depending on process adopted), depth
- Preparation, opening the trench, characteristics of cavity bottom, any lagging
4.4 - Laying specifications

- Laying of bedding course materials, draining materials, drains and geotextiles
- Installation drawing (working drawing), cutting rolls, the geotextile, assembly by recovering by
welts, heat welding, stapling, bonding, wind action
- Laying in the trench
Laying EDRC
Laying the EDRC using laying material fitted with a box section
- EDRC manufactured on site or prefabricated
- Filling with porous concrete
- Laying the EDRC without box section
- Removing box section
- Preparing the cavity bottom
- Laying and anchoring the textile, laying materials.
4.5 - Compacting specifications

See guide Backfilling trenches [11]
4.6 - Dealing with singular points

Crossing carriageways, buried transverse networks
4.7 - Installing inspection chambers, connections to outlets
4.8 - Ancillary work

For example, damproofing course above an Edrc or a cutoff drain.

4.9 - Using the road during the work

- Protection provision, length of alternating traffic arrangement
- Packing up equipment in the evenings and at weekends, etc.
5 - Checks and quality

5.1 - Compacting reference areas
See guide Backfilling trenches [11]
5.2 - Checks at hold points

5.3 - Acceptance checks - As-built drawing
Appendix 5 - Bibliography
Standards:
[1] NF P 11-300: Earthworks execution. Classification for materials that may be used in the construction of
fills and capping layers in road infrastructures. AFNOR, September 1992.
[2] NF U 51-101: Agricultural drainage. Ringed pipes in unplasticised polyvinyl chloride. Specifications.
AFNOR - December 1987.
[3] XPP 18-540: Aggregates - definitions, conformity and specifications. AFNOR, October 1997.
[4] NF 94-500: Geotechnical missions - classification and specifications. AFNOR, June 2000.
[5] NF P 16-351: Plastics. Plastic piping systems for buried drainage. Civil engineering specification.
AFNOR, July 1998.
[6] NF G 38 061: Recommendations for the use of geotextiles and related products. Determination of
hydraulic characteristics and laying in drainage and filtering systems. AFNOR, February 1993 (currently
being revised).
[7] NF EN 13252: Geotextiles and related products - required characteristics for use in drainage systems.
AFNOR, November 2001.
[8] CCTG travaux (General Technical Clauses for works) – fascicule 2: General earthworks. AFNOR,
March 2003.
Technical documents:
[9] Creating fills and capping layers - Technical guide. Fasc. 1 and 2. Sétra – LCPC, September 1992,
Ref. D9233.
[10] Common road drainage maintenance and repair - Practical guide. Sétra, 1998, Ref. D9841.
[11] Backfilling trenches and repairing pavements - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 1994, Ref. D9441.
[12] Edge of pavement fin drains - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 1992, Ref. D9237.
[13] Quality assurance organization in earthworks - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 2000, Ref. D.9923.
[14] Creating fills in compressible soils - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 2000, Ref. D.0034.
[15] Water and the road - systems for dealing with rainwater - volumes 3 and 7 - Sétra guide, 1992,
Ref. B 9741.
[16] Climate characterization for pavement drainage. C. Devreton, 1997, study conducted by the
Central Department for Meteorological Exploitation. Météo-France.
[17] Stabilization of landslides - LCPC Technical guide - LPC technique and method, 1998.
[18] Development of main roads (ARP) - Technical guide. Sétra, 1994, Ref. B9668.
[19] Instruction on the Technical Development Conditions for Link Motorways (ICTAAL) - Technical
guide. Sétra, December 2000, Ref. B0103.
[20] Dealing with lateral obstacles - Technical guide. Sétra, 2002, Ref. E0233.

[21] Road drainage - Technical guide. Sétra, Ref. - to be published in 2006.
For information:
Law 92-3 of 3 January 1992 on water and it’s application decrees
Assistance in choosing draining and drainage solutions for existing roads (ACSARE) - Technical
guide. Sétra, 1993, Ref. D9232.
Designing and dimensioning pavement structures - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 1995, Ref. D9511.
Preventive maintenance of the national road network - Technical guide. Sétra – LCPC, 1979, Ref.
D7905.
Considering motorcyclists in infrastructure development and management - Technical guide. Sétra –
CERTU, 2000, Ref. E 0026.

Appendix 6 - Abbreviations and glossary

6.1 - Abbreviations
AR : Subformation level (Arase des terrassements)
BAC : Continuously reinforced concrete (Béton Armé Continu)
BAU : Emergency hard shoulder (Bande d’Arrêt d’Urgence)
BB : Asphalt concrete (Bêton bitumineux)
CCAG : General Conditions of Contract (Cahier des Clauses Administratives Générales)
CCTP : Special Technical Clauses (Cahier des Clauses Techniques Particulières)
EC : European Community (Communauté européenne)
DCE : Contractor Tender Document (Document de Consultation des Entreprises)
EDRC : Edge of pavement fin drain (Ecran Drainant de Rive de Chaussée)
ES : Sand equivalent (Equivalent de Sable)
GNT : Untreated graded aggregate (Grave Non Traitée)
LA : Los Angeles coefficient (coefficient Los Angeles)
(standard NF P 18-573) (norme NF P 18-573)
MDE : Micro-Deval coefficient (coefficient micro-Deval)
(standard NF P 18-572) (norme NF P 18-572)
QAP : Quality Assurance Plan (Plan d’Assurance Qualité)
PST : Subformation (below capping level) (Partie Supérieure des Terrassements)
RC : Tender Regulations (Règlement de Consultation)
SOGED : Waste Evacuation and Management Organization Scheme (Schéma d’Organisation de Gestion
et d’Évacuation des Déchets)
SOPAQ : Quality Assurance Plan Organizational Scheme (Schéma Organisationnel du Plan d’Assurance
Qualité)
SDQ : Quality Master Plan (Schéma Directeur de la Qualité)
TPC : Median (Terre-Plein Central)
VBS : methylene blue value of a soil (valeur de bleu d’un sol)
6.2 - Glossary
Terms in the glossary are marked with a * in this guide.
Aquifer: water-bearing zone which may be partially driven by gravity
Attrition: phenomenon modifying the grading layer due to the reduced size of certain particles. It may be
seen when the particles collide with each other or other obstacles.
Soft verge: the non-drivable section of the shoulder, between the stabilized structures and the banks or
trickle channels.
Block size distribution: size of rubbly components of a material.
Boiling: the boiling phenomenon is observed in certain soils when the normally upwards water pressure is
likely to liquefy this soil by placing particles in suspension in water and canceling out the effective stress -
quicksand is an example of this phenomenon.
External check: checking that the contractor's Quality Assurance Plan is applied and assessing the
reliability of the internal check by the Project Engineer.
Internal check: includes the internal check (by the Site Manager) and the external check (by the
contractor's Quality Manager).

d85: grading criterion determined on the particle size analysis curve: d85 is the diameter of soil
components, like 85% in weight of components in this soil are less than this diameter.
Cut: below the natural level of the ground
Dessiccation: loss of water contained in the soil.
Hydrogeological study: study providing information on the circulation of groundwaters and water table
behavior.
Geo-technical study: study of soils from all aspects of interest to the Civil Engineer.
Dewatering: drainage water
Depression: circular depression away from edge
Geocomposite: manufactured assembly of materials, where at least one component is a geosynthetic
product.
Geospacer: three-dimensional, polymer-based structure designed to create an air space in the soil and/or
other materials in the geotechnical and civil engineering fields.
Geogrid: flat, polymer-based structure comprising an open, regular network of tensile strength
components which may be assembled by extrusion, bonding or interweaving and where the openings are
larger than the constituents.
Geosynthetics: geotextile, geomembrane and related products.
Honeycomb geosynthetics: three-dimensional honeycomb or similar structure, permeable, polymer-
based, made up of interlinked geosynthetic strips.
Geotextile: flat textile material, permeable and polymer-based (natural or synthetic) which may be
unwoven, knitted or woven, used in contact with the soil or with other materials in geotechnics and civil
engineering.
Frost index: measurable quantity characterizing the hardness of a winter for pavement structures. It is
defined as being the absolute value of the sum of average below-zero daily temperatures for a given place
and period.
Blue line: line depicting the water surface in a profile
Red line: line depicting the surface of the pavement
Karstic network: karstic phenomena are the result of limestones being dissolved by infiltration water.
These phenomena manifest themselves on the surface and underground by creating networks of cavities
of varying degrees of continuity and size.
Subformation (below capping level): this is made up of material(s) located about 1 m below the capping
layer (or below the foundation layer if there is no capping layer)
Pier: vertical upright holding up the arches of a structure
Formation level: flat surface on which is laid the first pavement foundation; it is the formation level for the
capping layer or subformation level if there is no capping layer.
Hold points: points defined in an appropriate document, beyond which an activity must not proceed
without the approval of a designated organization or authority.
Critical points: situations for which it has been decided to perform an internal check on a participant, with
the external check being advised formally of the time of its execution and/or result.
Mixed profile: cross section of the roadbed, where one side is located in fill and the other in cut.
Skimming profile: cross section of the roadbed nearly at natural ground level.
Fill: volume of earth brought in to fill or raise the natural ground level.
Compressible soil: (or soft soil) is a soil that deforms easily such as loose sands, peats, loess, loams,
soft clays and certain clay silts.

This Road Drainage technical guide is the first methods
document to encourage taking drainage needs in road works
systematically in account. It suggests solutions based on the
type of structure, installation, dimensioning and maintenance
for new road projects, including earthworks and for existing
pavements.
This guide is intended for Project Engineers and Clients,
managers, Design Offices and public works contractors
involved in studying, creating and maintaining road drainage.
This document is awailable and can be downloaded on Sétra website:

http://www.setra.equipement.gouv.f The Sétra belongs
to the scientific and
technical network
of the French Public
Work Ministry (RST)
Photographers:: Alis (A28-Rouen/Alençon en construction) - Yasmina Boussafir (Cete Normandie-
Centre - Lrpc Blois) - Marc Valin (Cete Nord-Picardie) - Francis Vanlaethem (Cete Nord-Picardie -
Lrpc Lille)
The Sétra authorization is required for reproduction of this document (all or even part)
© 2007 Sétra - Reference: 0743A - ISRN: EQ-SETRA--07-ED40--FR+ENG

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March 2006

Translate August 2007

The Sétra supports the public owner

The Sétra, producer of the state of the art

The Sétra, a work in partnership

This document is the translation of the work

Notes on reading the guide

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 4 – septembre 2007

2.2 - Earthworks ..................................................................................................... 28

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 5 – septembre 2007

2.2.4 - Interception of water ingress in fill ........................................................... 33

2.3 - Pavement formation levels ............................................................................ 35

3.3 - Definition of work solutions .......................................................................... 56

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 6 – septembre 2007

Durability and maintenance.......................................................................................62

4.2 - Stipulations on materials............................................................................... 81

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 7 – septembre 2007

Elements required for choosing the geotextile ...........................................................88

4.3 - Ancillary structures ....................................................................................... 94

Appendices ............................................................................................................ 106

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 8 – septembre 2007

Appendix 2 - Improvement in hydric conditions of materials ......................... 108

Appendix 5 - Bibliography .................................................................................. 118

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 9 – septembre 2007

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 10 – septembre 2007

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 11 – septembre 2007

1.1 - Definition of drainage

Diagram 1: distinction between the various road drainage systems

Drainage chaussée Pavement drainage

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 13 – septembre 2007

1.2 - Criteria to be considering during a drainage study

Diagram 2: subgrade, capping layer and pavement drainage.*

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 14 – septembre 2007

1.2.2 - Climatic or meteorological context

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 15 – septembre 2007

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 16 – septembre 2007

1.2.3 - Hydrogeological context (see Appendix 1).

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 17 – septembre 2007

impact on certain flexible, lightweight pavement structures.

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 18 – septembre 2007

1.2.4 - Type of subgrades and pavement courses

1.2.5 - Unusual pavement points

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 19 – septembre 2007

Photo 1: water accumulated in the central

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 20 – septembre 2007

1.3 - Effects of drainage on the environment

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 21 – septembre 2007

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 22 – septembre 2007

There are three stages in a new road project:

2.1 - General dimensioning rules

2.1.2 - Optimizing the road project layout

2.1.3 - Subsequent maintenance and repair

2.1.4 - Geometric characteristics of drainage systems

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 23 – septembre 2007

2.1.5 - Rules for evacuating drainage water

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 24 – septembre 2007

2.1.6 - Environmental impacts

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 25 – septembre 2007

2.1.7 - Flow rate assessment

"Tools" Collection – Sétra – 26 – septembre 2007

New or repaired pavement

Minimum Maximum Theoretical

Total flow rate evacuated by the