THE RADAR EQUATI01

The log-norniiil distribution has also hccn considered for rcprcscriling target echo fluctua-
tions. It can be expressed as

<T>0 (2.42)

whore srf = standard deviation of In (a/om), and <rm = median of<r. The ratio of the mean to the
median value of a is exp (sJ/2). There is no theoretical model of target scattering that leads to the
log-normal distribution, although it has been suggested that echoes from some satellite bodies,
ships, cylinders, plates, and arrays can be approximated by a log-normal probability
distribution. 42'"
Figure 2.25 is a comparison of the several distribution models fora false alarm number of
10* when all pulses during a scan are perfectly correlated but with pulses in successive scans
independent (scan-to-scan fluctuation).
The fluctuation models considered in this section assume either complete correlation
between pulses in any particular scan but with scan-to-scan independence (slow fluctuations), or
else complete independence from pulse to pulse (fast fluctuation). These represent two extreme
cases. In some instances, there might be partial correlation of the pulses within a scan (moderate
fluctuation). Schwartz44 considered the effect of partial correlation for tliecascof two pulses per
scan (n — 2). The results for partial correlation fall between the two extremes of completely uncoi
related and completely correlated, as might be expected. Thus to estimate
o 5 to
is 20 Signo! lo noise

30
ratio per pulse - dB

rigure 2.25 Comparison of detection probabilities for Rice, log normal, chi-square with m =* 2 (Swerling
case .1) and nonfluctuating target models with n = 10 hits and false-alarm number nf = 10'. Ratio of
dominant-io-background equals unity (s = 1) for Rice distribution. Ratio of mean-lo-median cross section
for log-normal distribution = p.
 TO RADAR SYSTEMS

It is also called the gamma distribution. In statistics texts, 2m is the number of degrees of
freedom, and is an integer. However, when applied to target cross-section models, 2m is not
required to be an integer. Instead, m can be any positive, real number. When m = I, the
chi-square distribution of Eq, (2.40) reduces to the exponential, or Rayleigh-power, distribu
tion orEq. (2.39a) that applies to Swerling cases 1 and 2. Cases 3 and 4, described by Eq. (2.39b),
are equivalent to m = 2 in the chi-square distribution. The ratio of the variance to the average
value of the cross section isjeigual to m" "2 for the chi-square distortion. The larger the value
of m, the more constrained will be the fluctuations. The limit of m equal to infinity corresponds
to the nonfluctuating target. ;
The chi-square distribution is a mathematical model used to represent the statistics of the
fluctuating radar cross section. These distributions might not always fit the observed data, but .
they are fair approximations in many cases and are used nevertheless for convenience. The
chi-square distribution is described by two parameters: the average cross section <r. v and the
number of degrees of freedom 2m. Analysis 39 of measurements on actual aircraft Hying straight,
level courses shows that the cross-section fluctuations at a particular aspect are well fitted by the
chi-square distribution with the parameter m ranging from 0.9 to approximately 2 and with cr.»
varying approximately 15 dB from minimum to maximum. The parameters of the fitted
distribution vary with aspect angle, type of aircraft, and frequency. The value of m is near unity for
all aspects except at broadside; hence, the distribution is Rayleigh with a varying average value
with the most variation at broadside aspect. It was also found that the average value has more
effect on the calculation of the probability of detection than the value of m. Although the Rayleigh
model might provide a good approximation to the radar cross sections of aircraft in many cases, it
is not always applicable. Exceptions occur at broadside, as mentioned, and for smaller aircraft.38
There are also examples where no chi-square distribution can be made to fit the experimental
data.
The chi-square distribution has been used to approximate the statistics of
olher-ihan-aircraft targets. Weinstock 38'40 showed that this distribution can describe certain
simple shapes, such as cylinders or cylinders with fins that are characteristic of some satellite
objects. The parameter m varies between 0.3 and 2, depending on aspect. These have sometimes
been called Weinstock cases.
The chi-square distribution with m = t (Swerling cases 1 and 2) is the Rayleigh, or
exponential, distribution that results from a large number of independent scattercrs, no one of
which contributes more than a small fraction of the total backscatter energy. Although the
chi-square distribution with other than m = 1 has been observed empirically to give a reasonable
fit to the radar cross section distribution of many targets, there is no physical scattering /
mechanism on which it is based. It has been said that the chi-square distribution with m = 2
(Swerling cases 3 and 4) is indicative of scattering from one large dominanrscatterer together
with a collection of small independent scatterers. However, it is the Rice distribution that
follows from such a model. 67 The Rice probability density function is
p(o)> 1 +s a <r.v
exp a >0 (2.41)
<7,«

where s is the ratio of the radar cross section of the single dominant scatterer to the total cross
section of the small scatterers, and /0( ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order.38 This is a
more correct description of the single dominant scatterer model than the chi-square with m =
2. However it has been shown that the chi-square with m = 2 approximates the Rice when the
dominant-scatterer power is equal to the total cross section of the other, small scatterers, and so
long as the probability of detection is not large."