Diesel Filter Regeneration

7/1/13 Diesel Filter Regeneration
DieselNet Technology Guide » Diesel Particulate Filters
www.DieselNet.com. Copyright © Ecopoint Inc. Revision 2005.06b
Diesel Filter Regeneration

W. Addy Majewski
Abstract: The regeneration of diesel filters is characterized by a dynamic equilibrium between the
soot being captured and the soot being oxidized in the filter. Soot oxidation rates depend on the filter
temperature, soot load in the filter, and a number of other factors. Continuously regenerating filters
operate at a balance temperature, which can be determined through a laboratory measurement. To
facilitate filter regeneration on diesel engines in real operation the exhaust gas temperature has to be
increased or the soot ignition temperature has to be lowered using a catalyst.
Oxidation of Diesel Soot

Regeneration as Equilibrium Process
Determination of Balance Temperature
Continuous Regeneration
Periodic Regeneration
1. Oxidation of Diesel Soot
1.1 Introduction
Thermal regeneration of diesel particulate filters involves the oxidation of solid particulates to gaseous
products, preferably to CO2. Depending on the DPF system design and on the engine operating conditions
(exhaust gas temperature), the oxidation of carbon in diesel soot can occur via reactions with oxygen or
nitrogen dioxide:
Oxygen is present in diesel exhaust at sufficient concentrations at practically all operating conditions.
However, relatively high temperatures are necessary to achieve appreciable regeneration rates with
O2. Oxygen based regeneration is mostly seen in active DPF systems that do not utilize catalysts.
Nitrogen dioxide based regeneration can be conducted at lower temperatures than oxygen
regeneration. However, the NO2 concentrations must be increased, which is typically realized via
catalytic oxidation of NO (i.e., by increasing the NO2:NO ratio in NOx). Oxidation of soot by NO2
is the dominant regeneration mechanism in most catalytic (passive and active) DPF systems.
www.dieselnet.com/tech/dpf_regen.php#laboratory 1/21
Other, even more active oxidants are also possible. Ozone was suggested [Hirata 2011] as a diesel soot
oxidant that could enable regeneration at temperatures even lower than those possible with NO2. The use
of ozone regeneration would require an onboard ozone generator.
1.2 Oxidation by Oxygen

The oxidation of diesel soot, represented here as carbon, by oxygen can be described by one of the
following reactions:
C + O2 → CO2 (1)
C + ½O2 → CO (2)
where C (carbon) represents the combustible portion of diesel PM.
Carbon dioxide is the preferred product, but increased carbon monoxide emission may occur if oxygen is
depleted in the reaction zone.
The rate of thermal regeneration is limited by the kinetics of soot oxidation. The rate of soot oxidation is
significantly lower than that of the oxidation of gaseous exhaust pollutants, such as carbon monoxide. This is
one of the reasons why carbonaceous particulates are not oxidized in flow-through catalysts which provide
relatively short particle residence times. The oxidation of soot requires diesel filters which extend the
residence time by physically capturing the particulates.
100
600°C
80 500°C
Oxidation, %
60
40 400°C
20
360°C
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, h
Figure 1. Diesel Soot Oxidation
Laboratory measured oxidation rates of diesel soot by oxygen in air are shown in Figure 1 [Goldenberg
1983]. The mass fraction of soot which was oxidized is plotted against the oxidation time for different
temperatures. At low temperatures (360°C, 400°C) the oxidation rates are very slow and the regeneration
is incomplete. Only at temperatures of about 600°C the soot could be oxidized quickly and completely. At
any given temperature, the oxidation rate changes with the amount of soot in the sample. Fast oxidation
rates (i.e., steep curves in Figure 1) are observed at the beginning of each experiment. As the mass of soot
in the sample decreases, so does its oxidation rate. This behavior is also seen in diesel filters, which
regenerate faster when the soot loading is higher.
Researchers of Hino Motors have developed laboratory instruments that allowed to film diesel soot during
oxidation [Minamikawa 2005]. Soot samples were placed on a cordierite substrate, exposed to controlled
high temperature, and pictures were taken through an optical microscope. The dependence of soot
oxidation rate on temperature and on the soot mass was confirmed using this technique. For instance, soot
samples at a 3 g/dm3 loading in the particulate filter were oxidized very fast at 700°C, less rapidly at
600°C, and only slowly at 500°C. At 600°C, a soot sample of 7 g/dm3 loading could be oxidized
completely at a slightly shorter period of time than a sample at 3 g/dm3. These experiments are illustrated in
the following video.
Video can be viewed online
Video 1. Soot Oxidation at Different Temperatures and Loadings

(Courtesy of Hino Motors)
The oxidation of soot, as any other chemical process, has a reaction rate that depends on the temperature
and the concentration of reactants (these may also include water), which can be described as follows
[Yezerets 2003]:
r = k · [C] a · [O2] b · [H2O] c (3)

k = A · exp(-E/RT) (4)
where:
r - rate of reaction, mol/s

k - reaction rate constant
A - frequency factor
E - activation energy, J/mol
R = 8.3145 J/(mole · K)
T - temperature, K
[C] - amount of carbon (soot), mol

[O2], [H2O] - concentrations, mol/mol
a, b, c - reaction orders in the respective compounds
Laboratory determination of the activation energy for chemical reactions is performed by plotting
experimental data in the coordinates ln(k) vs. 1/T, known as the Arrhenius plot. According to Equation (4),
the points should form a straight line the slope of which is -E/R. Figure 4 shows three Arrhenius lines
determined in three consecutive experiments with the oxidation of the same sample of diesel soot [Yezerets
2003].
Figure 2. Arrhenius Plot for Consecutive Oxidations of Diesel Soot Sample

10% O2/He, soot collected from a particulate filter
Interestingly, it has been found out that the kinetic parameters describing the oxidation reactivity of diesel
soot change rapidly during the oxidation of the first 10-25% of the sample. The initial part of the sample—
represented by ramp 1 in Figure 2—oxidizes at higher rates (i.e., more easily) than the remaining portion of
the soot. The apparent activation energy for the initial fraction was 45-65 kJ/mol (even lower values of 20-
40 kJ/mol were recorded in the presence of SOF), compared to the final value of 125-145 kJ/mol. The
same study concluded that the oxidation of soot was a first order reaction with respect to carbon.
The initial changes in the soot oxidation kinetics are probably explained by preferential oxidation of certain
fractions of the soot (e.g., finer or larger particles), or by changes in the particle surface reactivity and/or
geometry. Considering the relatively large proportion of the initial fraction—up to about 25%—the
phenomenon might be important in the particulate filter regeneration. It is also an indication that the
structure of the collected soot might be modified, making it less reactive, during soot aging. If so, a
particulate filter that undergoes a series of incomplete regenerations will be filled with soot that is gradually
more difficult to regenerate.
Loss of oxidation reactivity in aged diesel soot making it more difficult to regenerate particulate filters was
also reported by other authors [Nakatani 2002]. The reduced reactivity was explained by changes in the
soot morphology: the micropore volume in fresh soot was found to be about 4 times higher than that in an
aged sample after 2 hours at 300°C.
1.3 Oxidation by Nitrogen Dioxide
The rate of soot oxidation can be increased, and the regeneration temperature decreased, if an oxidant
more active than oxygen could be introduced to the particulate filter. It was found that nitrogen dioxide can
oxidize diesel particulate at higher rates than oxygen [Cooper 1989][Cooper 1990]. Carbon in diesel soot is
oxidized by oxygen with noticeable reaction rates at temperatures above 550°C. With NO2, the process
occurs at temperatures as low as 250°C, as illustrated by the laboratory reactor data in Figure 3 [Allansson
2002].
Figure 3. Oxidation of PM by Oxygen and Nitrogen Dioxide

Laboratory reactor preloaded w ith controlled amount of soot from a diesel engine. Temperature of the sample
gradually increased at a steady flow of oxidizing gas. Outlet CO2 measured by a mass spectrometer.
NO2 is present in the native diesel exhaust in small quantities, but its concentration can be increased by
using an oxidation catalyst (or other methods, such as plasma). An effective configuration is to use a
dedicated NO2 forming catalyst positioned upstream of the filter. A diesel filter system utilizing this
approach was first introduced by Johnson Matthey under the trade name “CRT”. NO2-based regeneration
can also occur—sometimes in parallel with the oxygen mechanism—in any type of catalytic particulate filter
that uses a catalyst, such as platinum, that promotes NO oxidation.
NO2 Formation. The nitrogen dioxide necessary for filter regeneration is generated over the oxidation
catalyst from nitric oxide (NO) present in diesel exhaust, according to the following reaction:
NO + ½O2 ↔ NO2 (5)

Engine-out NOx emissions from diesel engines are typically composed in about 95-85% of NO and in 5-
15% of NO2. Under typical diesel exhaust temperatures, an active oxidation catalyst can increase the NO2
fraction to more than 50% of total NOx. The oxidation of NO to NO2, as indicated by the double-headed
arrow in Equation (5), is an equilibrium process. NO conversion rates are controlled by the reaction
kinetics at low temperatures, and by thermodynamic constrains at high temperatures, as illustrated in Figure
4 [Gieshoff 2000]. Four equilibrium lines shown in the graph were computed for different oxygen
concentrations. When operating at low temperatures, in the kinetically controlled regime, the conversion
rate increases with the catalyst activity and temperature. Thus, NO conversion can be increased by using a
more active catalyst or by increasing the catalyst size. At higher temperatures the NO/NO2 shift is
constrained thermodynamically. Increasing exhaust gas temperature in that region causes a decrease in NO
conversion. The highest NO conversion occurs at medium temperatures of about 250-350°C, where, with
the use of a sufficiently large and active catalyst, the NO2 fraction can be increased to 70-80% of total
NOx.
Figure 4. NO/NO2 Shift in Oxidation Catalyst

Catalyst: Pt, 50 g/ft3; Gas: 270 ppm NO, 6% O2, 10% H2O in N2
Platinum has been identified as the most effective catalyst for promoting the NO/NO2 shift. The Pt catalyst,
however, is sensitive to sulfur. High NO conversion rates are possible only with ultra-low sulfur fuels.
Reactions with Soot. Diesel particulate matter which is being trapped in the filter is oxidized by NO2, as
follows:
NO2 + C → NO + CO (6)
NO2 + C → ½N2 + CO2 (7)
Theoretically, in the process of PM oxidation NO2 may be reduced to both NO and N2 as shown by
Equation (6) and Equation (7), respectively. In practice, unchanged or almost unchanged total NOx
emissions are measured from NO2-regenerated filters, indicating that most of the consumed NO2 reacts
with carbon to re-create nitric oxide according to Equation (6). The oxidation of soot is further enhanced
by the exhaust water vapor, presumably due to the formation of HNO3 from NO2 and H2O, which also
reacts with carbon [Cooper 1990]. It is not clear from the existing literature reports if nitrous oxide, N2O,
can be also present among the reaction products.
The rate of filter regeneration increases with temperature and with the concentration of NO2. High
regeneration rates are made possible by providing an excess of NO2. Or, in other words, NO2 utilization
presents a challenge in the filter design. Hence, NO2-regenerated filters produce increased tailpipe
emissions of nitrogen dioxide (i.e., increased NO2/NO ratio in the total NOx), sometimes referred to as the
NO2 slip. The NO2 level at the filter outlet can vary from about 20% to as much as 60% of the total NOx.
In comparison to the oxygen regeneration mechanism, NO2-based regeneration is possible at lower

temperatures. However, while oxygen regeneration is limited only by temperature, NO2 regeneration has
additional application limits. If catalysts are used to generate NO2, ultra low sulfur fuel must be used in
systems that rely exclusively on nitrogen dioxide regeneration. The CRT filter, for instance, is very sensitive
to the fuel sulfur content—it cannot be used with fuels of more than 50 ppm S. With fuels of very low sulfur
content (3 ppm S), the filter was shown to regenerate at very low exhaust temperatures of about 275°C
[DECSE 2000]. Another important limitation of NO 2 regeneration is the requirement for a certain minimum
NOx/PM ratio in the exhaust gas. Obviously, if sufficient NOx is not available, the NO2 needed for filter
regeneration cannot be generated.
1.4 Soot Ignition Temperature

The temperature at which soot starts oxidizing at an appreciable rate is sometimes referred to as soot
ignition temperature. The soot ignition temperature is not a physical property of soot or carbon in the
sense as, for example, melting and boiling temperatures are physical properties of liquids. Rather, it
depends both on the properties of soot and on the particular apparatus which was used for the
measurement, as is the case with, for example, the flash point of combustible liquids. Therefore, soot
ignition temperatures measured using different methods or different equipment are not necessarily
comparable.
Two laboratory procedures may be used to determine the soot ignition temperature:
thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), or

differential thermal analysis (DTA).
In both methods an oven of controlled atmosphere and temperature is used. A diesel soot or graphite
sample to be analyzed, pure or mixed with a catalyst, is placed in the oven. Then, the oven temperature is
slowly increased. In the TGA, the sample is placed on a balance which is continuously recording its weight.
In the DTA, thermocouple placed inside the sample is monitoring the temperature difference between the
oven atmosphere and the sample. The oxidation rate of soot increases during the experiment until the
sample completely burns. The TGA analyzer shows a drop in the sample mass. The DTA recording
indicates a peak in the sample temperature due to the heat effect of combustion. The temperature
corresponding to the TGA mass drop or the DTA temperature peak is the soot ignition temperature.
The soot ignition temperature is an excellent gauge to compare, on a relative scale, the performance of
different catalysts. It may have, however, little relevance to the regeneration temperature of an actual diesel
particulate filter.
2. Regeneration as Equilibrium Process
The regeneration of a diesel particulate filter can be analyzed as a continuous, equilibrium process, the mass
balance of which is given by Equation (8) [Widdershoven 1986]. The first term in the equation, dM/dτ,
represents the accumulation of soot in the filter. The two remaining terms in Equation (8) describe the
oxidation of soot and the deposition of fresh soot on the filter, respectively.
dM/dτ + M·k(T) - eF·m = 0 (8)

where:
M - particulate mass on the filter, kg
τ - time, s
k(T) - reaction rate constant for particulate oxidation, 1/s
T - temperature
eF - filter collection efficiency, dimensionless

m - particulate mass flow from the engine, kg/s.
Depending on the sign of the accumulation term, the filter may be in one of the following operation modes,
as illustrated in Figure 5:
1. Accumulation (dM/dτ > 0)

2. Equilibrium (dM/dτ = 0)
3. Regeneration (dM/dτ < 0).
The plot represents a hypothetical engine dynamometer experiment, during which the filter is exposed to
stepwise temperature (T) changes at a constant mass flow of the exhaust gas. The exhaust gas pressure
drop across the filter (ΔP), which is plotted versus the time of experiment, can be considered a measure of
the filter soot load at any given moment.
1 2 3
T
ΔP
T ΔP
Time
Figure 5. Particulate Filter Operation Modes
The experiment starts with a new clean filter of low pressure drop. The filter is first exposed to a relatively
low exhaust temperature. During that phase (mode 1 in Figure 5), the oxidation rate of soot is very low and
the filter accumulates particulates. As a result, a steadily increasing pressure drop is recorded. If that
temperature was maintained for a prolonged time, the filter could become clogged with soot.
When the exhaust temperature is raised, the pressure drop increases in response to the increased
volumetric gas flow, as well as due to further accumulation of particulates. However, the rate of soot
oxidation is now much faster. Eventually, the filter reaches a mass equilibrium which is reflected by
flattening of the pressure drop profile (mode 2). At the equilibrium, the mass of soot captured on the filter
per unit of time is equal to the mass of soot oxidized in the filter, as described by Equation (9). The filter
operates with a constant soot loading and at a constant pressure drop. The temperature at which filter
reaches mass equilibrium is called the balance temperature.
M·k(T) = eF·m (9)

With a further increase of exhaust temperature the filter enters the regeneration mode (3 in Figure 5). The
temperature is so high that the amount of soot oxidized is higher than that captured in the filter per unit of
time. As a result, the filter soot loading and the pressure drop decrease.
The filter soot loading will not drop to zero during the regeneration phase, unless the filter is exposed to
extremely high temperatures. Due to the decreasing soot mass in the filter, the soot oxidation rate decreases
during the regeneration. Finally, another mass equilibrium condition will be reached at higher temperature,
lower pressure drop, and lower soot loading than those at the starting point.
According to this model, as well as in agreement with both common logic and practical experience, the
exhaust gas temperature is a key variable influencing particulate filter regeneration. However, the
temperature is not the only important variable. As shown in Equation (8), the rate of soot oxidation also
strongly depends on the particulate mass collected in the filter (M). Even though the reaction rate constant
for particulate oxidation, k(T), has been reported to decrease with increasing M [Tanaka 2001], the rate of
soot oxidation in kg/s expressed by the product M·k(T) increases with increasing M. As a consequence,
particulate filters can operate at a number of balance temperatures corresponding to different soot load
levels, as illustrated in Figure 6 [Jelles 1999]. If the exhaust temperature decreases, the filter will still
regenerate, but its soot load will increase to maintain the required soot oxidation rate. The increased soot
loads manifest themselves through increased pressure drop levels. In other words, particulate filters
operated at higher temperatures will be holding less soot and experience less pressure drop compared to
filters operated at lower temperatures.
“balance point”
temperature
ΔP
T
pressure drop
Time
Figure 6. Particulate Filter Balance Conditions
3. Determination of Balance Temperature
Since the balance temperature depends on engine emissions and a number of operational parameters, it is
not a universal property of a given particulate filter. Balance temperatures determined on different engines
or using different measuring procedures are in general not comparable. Nevertheless, there is a need for a
procedure to determine relative tendencies between balance temperatures of particulate filters. Such
determination is a common task in DPF catalyst development, catalyst durability work, or in research
aiming at comparisons between different filter technologies.
Repeatability of results is the major challenge in developing such a procedure. For example, since the filter
regeneration depends on the amount of accumulated soot, the balance temperature may change depending
on the “history” of the tested filter unit. To minimize this variability, balance temperature procedures must
include a filter pre-conditioning protocol which will ensure that the filter is pre-loaded to exactly the same
soot loading at the beginning of the test. Another common source of variability is the test engine itself. If, for
any reason, the engine PM emissions change from test to test, the determined balance temperatures will not
be repeatable.
The most simple version of the balance temperature test involves installing the filter in the engine exhaust line
and ramping the engine load. The engine torque is increased slowly, either continuously or in small (e.g., 1
minute) steps. Exhaust gas temperature at the filter inlet and the pressure differential across the filter are
recorded during the ramp. The exact timing (torque increase rate) must be selected experimentally for a
given engine and filter size, as to provide an easy to interpret pressure drop curve. Some tests are designed
for a fairly long duration of 4 - 6 hours and more. The results are plotted in the coordinates of pressure
drop versus temperature, as illustrated in Figure 7. At first, the ΔP line increases with temperature,
indicating accumulation of soot in the filter. At a certain time/temperature, the pressure drop stabilizes, and
then gradually decreases. Filter inlet temperature corresponding to the maximum of the ΔP(T) function is
considered the filter balance temperature.
ΔP balance
temperature
Temperature, Time
Figure 7. Laboratory Determination of Filter Balance Temperature
In order to achieve repeatable results, the filter starting condition must be always the same. Some authors
prefer to start the test with a clean filter, after completely regenerating the unit through a sufficiently long
exposure to high temperature [Bickel 1993]. This can be achieved by pre-conditioning the filter at a high
engine load condition. Others develop a standard pre-loading procedures and start the ramp with a filter of
relatively high, always the same soot load [Cooper 1989]. Pre-loading allows for a shorter ramp duration,
but it takes more effort to accurately reproduce the filter soot load than the clean filter condition.
A more precise balance point procedure was developed by the DECSE program [DECSE 1999]. The test
involves recording of the filter pressure drop while exposed to several (5 to 7) stepwise changed filter inlet
temperature levels, as shown in Figure 8. The filter is pre-loaded to a predetermined soot loading (pressure
drop) before the test.
Figure 8. DECSE 5-Mode Balance Point Test - Example Run Data
The filter balance temperature is determined as follows (for a 5 mode test):
i. Following stabilization of ΔP at each temperature, the least-square slopes of the ΔP versus time
curve are calculated for each of the five segments. Data is first reduced by selecting the linear portion
of each curve segment (generally, the 10-minute period beginning 5 minutes after each change in
exhaust temperature).
ii. The established slopes provide 5 points of the relationship between the ΔP slope (kPa/min) and the
filter inlet temperature, ΔPslope = f(t).
iii. Based on the 5 ΔPslope points, a regression model is fit to establish a functional relationship in the
form ΔPslope = a + bt +ct2.
iv. The balance point is determined as the filter inlet temperature at which the slope of ΔP equals zero.
The test was repeated and statistical analysis was performed to analyze run-to-run variability. It was also
found that the best repeatability was achieved when the same fixed test temperatures were used for all
measurements. Changing the temperature points for different measurements resulted in different “histories”
of the filters and, thus, in differences in the determined balance points.
4. Continuous Regeneration
Operation at a balance condition, or at a number of balance points of fluctuating temperatures and

corresponding pressure drop levels, is seen in continuously regenerating filters. The continuous regeneration
is characterized by approximately constant steady-state pressure drop readings. In transient operation,
pressure drop fluctuates with the engine speed and exhaust gas temperature, but the maximum ΔP peaks
reach an approximately constant level, as shown in Figure 9. The temperature and pressure traces shown in
the plot (both measured upstream of the particulate filter) correspond to the repeated duty cycle of a
heavy-duty truck in an underground mine.
Figure 9. Continuously Regenerating DPF—Exhaust Pressure and Temperature During Field Test
Such continuous operation mode requires a certain minimum exhaust temperature. If the temperature is too
low, the soot oxidation rate will become too slow to sustain an appreciable regeneration rate and the filter
will accumulate quantities of soot, as indicated by the increasing pressure drop line in Figure 6. This
condition could lead to either (1) clogging of the filter with soot or (2) a stochastic regeneration. Clogging
occurs when the pressure drop build-up in a soot-overloaded filter makes it impossible to operate the
engine. If no exhaust gas by-pass mechanism is provided in the filter system, this condition will effectively
immobilize the vehicle.
The stochastic regeneration involving a rapid oxidation, or burn-out, of the accumulated soot can be
considered the opposite of the continuous regeneration. The oxidation of large soot loads involves the
release of a significant quantity of heat, which makes the stochastic regeneration self-sustaining even if the
temperature of exhaust gas entering the filter is low. Stochastic regenerations can be induced under
laboratory conditions by loading filters to high soot loads, as shown in Figure 10 [Richards 1999]. A fuel
additive was used in this experiment, but the exhaust gas temperature was maintained at a low level which
was insufficient to support continuous regeneration. Rather, the filter was experiencing a series of soot
accumulation periods followed by very fast stochastic regenerations, resulting in the sawtooth pattern.
40 400
Pre-DPF pressure
Pre-DPF temperature
30 300
Temperature, °C
Pressure, kPa
20 200
10 100
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time, h
Figure 10. DPF Operation with Periodic Stochastic Regenerations
Steady-state engine operation, fuel borne catalyst
The term “run-away” or “uncontrolled” regeneration is frequently used when discussing particulate filter
systems. As the same physical phenomena are underlying the run-away and the stochastic regeneration,
these terms can be considered synonyms. A research worker trying to theoretically model filter
regeneration would use the term “stochastic regeneration” to emphasize its random, unpredictable
character. A filter system designer would use the term “run-away regeneration” to express the difficulties he
is experiencing in controlling the process.
In summary, the regeneration of diesel particulate filters strongly depends on (1) the temperature and (2)
the soot mass in the filter. At higher temperatures the rate of soot oxidation increases, the filter holds less
particulates and exhibits lower pressure drop. At lower temperatures the filter needs higher soot loadings to
reach mass equilibrium. There is a certain trade-off between the exhaust temperature and the filter soot
loading. Therefore, filters installed on hot engines work with lower pressure losses while colder exhaust
gases cause an increase in soot loading and pressure drop. Operating the filter at low temperatures and
high soot loads increases the chances for stochastic regenerations, involving rapid burn-out of the
accumulated particulates sustained by the released heat of reaction.
The discussion of continuous regeneration of diesel particulate filters would not be complete without
mentioning the time aspect of reaching a mass equilibrium state. As shown earlier (Figure 6), if the exhaust
temperature changes, the filter responds by reaching a new mass balance. In particular, if the temperature is
increased, the filter will lower its soot load and experience lower pressure drop. However, reaching the
new condition is not instantaneous and requires a certain period of time. Since the changes of soot mass in
the filter depend on the kinetics of soot oxidation, Equation (8), with reaction rates increasing with
temperature, increased temperatures will shorten the time period needed to reach equilibrium.
Figure 11 compares the time needed for a “complete” regeneration of filters preloaded with soot and
exposed to a constant exhaust temperature of 370°C and 450°C [Opris 2001]. The times are theoretical
extrapolations calculated based on laboratory measurement of the duration of incomplete regeneration (in a
regeneration experiment the soot mass in the filter, M in Equation (9), can never reach zero unless the
temperature is infinitely high). As seen in the graph, the filters regenerated quickly at 450°C, while changes
in the soot mass were very slow, especially when starting with higher soot loads, at 370°C. In practical
terms, if a passively regenerated filter becomes overloaded with soot (e.g., due to an extended engine idling
incident), it will quickly return to its normal operating conditions and lower the pressure drop in a high
temperature application. On cold engines, on the other hand, it may take a very long time (e.g., days of
operation) before the filter regains its normal pressure drop level.
Figure 11. Filter Regeneration Time at Different Soot Loads and Exhaust Temperatures
Engine: Cat 3126B, HEUI, 190 hp
Regeneration of diesel filters is also influenced by many other factors, including the following:
Engine-out PM emissions. Higher particulate emissions (m in Equation 2) require that more soot is
oxidized per unit of time, and requires higher temperatures for continuous regeneration. Very likely,
this is the most important reason why filters regenerate at lower temperatures when installed on
newer technology diesel engines of low PM emissions.
Engine-out PM composition. Particulates of different SOF content may exhibit different rates of
oxidation and different ignition temperatures. There are contradicting reports as to what is the effect
of increasing SOF levels on the balance temperature. A significant portion of SOF passes through
the filter as gas phase vapors, especially at higher temperatures. It is logical to assume that the SOF
that is bound to the solid particulates in the filter, be it as liquid or as adsorbed vapor, would have
more impact on the filter balance temperature than the gas phase SOF. In some soot oxidation
kinetics studies (without catalysts) SOF was found to increase the reactivity of particulates [Yezerets
2002]. In systems with catalysts, the impact of SOF may also depend on the type of catalyst or
additive used to facilitate regeneration.
Engine-out NOx emission. Regeneration of catalytic filters is enhanced by NO2 and, thus, higher
engine-out NOx. The presence of NO2 may also enhance the regeneration of fuel additive
regenerated filters [Jacquot 2004].
Fuel sulfur content. In catalytic filters, lower regeneration temperatures are observed with fuels of
lower sulfur content, due to the increased role of NO2 regeneration.
Exhaust gas flow rate. The exhaust gas flow rate has an influence on temperatures due to its
cooling or heating effect on the soot deposit and the filter body.
Oxygen content in the exhaust gas. Shortages of oxygen may slow down the soot oxidation rate
and negatively affect the regeneration process. However, there is no evidence that the variation of
oxygen levels which is typical for the diesel engine, with the minimum O2 concentration of no less
than 3%, can impair regeneration.
5. Periodic Regeneration
The continuous regeneration mode of diesel particulate filters is indeed very attractive. If there is no
significant soot build-up in the filter, there is no risk of uncontrolled regeneration, low pressure drop and
low fuel economy penalty. In reality, however, the exhaust gas temperature in the diesel engine is too low to
sustain continuous regeneration under all operating conditions.
As shown above (Figure 1), thermal regeneration of diesel particulate filters requires temperatures of
around 550-650°C. Such exhaust temperatures are rarely encountered in practical applications of the
diesel engine. Most heavy-duty diesel engines produce exhaust temperatures in the range of 300-450°C.
Exhaust temperatures in light-duty diesel applications may be as low as 200-300°C. The following
approaches are used, either separately or in combination, to facilitate diesel filter regeneration:
Decrease of soot ignition temperature: A catalyst may be introduced—either coated on the filter
media or else in the form of a fuel additive—that lowers the soot ignition temperature.
NO2-based regeneration: Further reduction of regeneration temperature may be achieved by
increasing the NO2 levels, such as by using NO2-forming catalyst (requires ultra low sulfur fuel)
upstream of the filter and/or coated on the filter media.
Increased exhaust gas temperature: The exhaust gas temperature may be increased by a combination
of engine management methods (EGR optimization, intake throttling, post-injection of fuel, and other
strategies [Lemaire 1994]) and exhaust heating (fuel burners, electric heaters,...).
Even if catalysts and NO2 regeneration are used, the filter balance temperature cannot be lowered to a
level that would ensure problem free regeneration under all engine operating conditions. To avoid excessive
soot accumulation and stochastic regeneration, advanced filter systems—especially those designed for new
engine applications—often utilize a combination of continuous regeneration under high exhaust temperature
conditions and periodic regeneration, triggered by increasing the exhaust gas temperature, under prolonged
light load driving conditions.
Under periodic regeneration regime, the particulate filter is operated in the accumulation mode resulting in a
steady increase of the soot load. Due to low temperatures, the carbon oxidation rate is very slow (it may
be practically zero) and the filter never enters the equilibrium mode. The soot is gradually filling the available
space in the filter media. In the commonly used wall-flow monoliths, soot forms a layer along the inside
channel walls, as schematically shown in Figure 12. With time, after many regenerations, ash—which
originates from incombustible portion of diesel PM (and, if used, fuel additive residue)—gradually
accumulates in the channels. Under the periodic regeneration regime, ash is deposited mostly in the end
portion of the channels (as shown in Figure 12 B), while continuous regeneration seems to produce more
uniform ash distribution along the entire channel length [Minamikawa 2005].
Figure 12. Soot Deposition in Single Channel of Wall-Flow Filter

A - fresh filter (no ash); B - filter w ith ash deposit
Once the temperature is increased, the soot becomes ignited and burns, often in rapidly propagating flame.
The biggest challenge is to control the heat release resulting from soot oxidation, to avoid damage to the
filter media. One can estimate what would be the increase of the wall-flow material temperature due to
adiabatic combustion of soot in the filter, as follows:
Assumptions:
Heat of combustion of soot equal to that of graphite: Uc = 393.5 kJ/mole = 32.76 kJ/g
[Perry 1984]
Material heat capacity (cordierite EX-80/100/17): Cp = 0.5 kJ/dm3K
Soot load per liter of filter volume: m = 10 g/dm3
Temperature increase:
ΔT = (m · Uc)/Cp = 10 · 32.76 / 0.5 = 655°C
A rapid increase of filter temperature by over 650°C would be indeed a risky exercise. In real applications,
filters are cooled during regeneration by the exhaust gas stream. Nevertheless, very demanding temperature
and thermal stress conditions may occur during periodic regeneration, which demand (1) high quality filter
substrate materials, and (2) filter system regeneration strategies with effective control of the maximum soot
load and other process parameters that impact filter temperature.
Filter temperatures during regeneration are further illustrated in Figure 13 [Young 2004]. In a laboratory
experiment, filters were preloaded with soot and (some of them) with ash. Then, in a regeneration
apparatus, filters were pre-soaked in hot nitrogen, followed by regeneration initiated by starting the flow of
oxygen (at 2000 s time in Figure 13).
Figure 13. Temperature Profiles During Filter Regeneration

5.66" × 6" cordierite filters preloaded w ith 8 g/dm3 of soot.
Peak temperatures up to almost 1100°C were measured by thermocouples positioned axially near the filter
inlet, in the middle, and near the outlet. The regeneration started at the filter inlet. In filters without ash,
highest temperatures were observed near the filter outlet (in consistence with the soot loading profile in
Figure 12). With ash-preloaded filters, the maximum temperature was measured in the middle of the filter.
With ash, the maximum temperatures were also higher than without ash. This is probably explained by the
fact that the local soot loadings (in gram/liter) might have been higher in ash pre-loaded filters.
Filters without adequate regeneration control may easily accumulate soot loads in excess of 10 g/dm3 and
experience very high temperatures in the event of stochastic regeneration. Figure 14 shows a cross-section
of a catalyzed filter that experienced severe melting during a field test on a medium-duty truck operated in
slow urban traffic. The exhaust temperatures were too low to sustain continuous regeneration, leading to an
uncontrolled regeneration (or more likely a series of uncontrolled regenerations). Filter temperatures
exceeded the melting point of the material (cordierite) of about 1400°C. The highest temperatures
occurred, as it is usually the case, in the outlet part of the filter. There was more melting near the perimeter
than in the center, probably due to higher gas flow and better cooling in the center area.
Figure 14. Melted Particulate Filter Monolith
Another laboratory study—which used the same laboratory setup as that used to generate data in Figure
13—found that increased exotherm temperatures during regeneration were caused by (1) increased soot
load, (2) decreased gas flow rate, and (3) increased oxygen level [Locker 2002].
Theoretical models are being developed to simulate the regeneration of diesel particulate filters. Some
models are quite sophisticated and describe a number of parameters and processes, such as pressure drop
on clean and loaded filters [Masoudi 2001][Suresh 2000], catalytic and NO2 assisted regeneration, transient
filter loading, aging effects of ash [Konstandopoulos 2000], or spatial non-uniformities in filter regeneration
[Konstandopoulos 2001]. If theoretical models are developed to reach practical applicability, they may
become very valuable tools to perform system level optimization and the integration of particulate filters
with powertrain management.
References
Allansson, R., Blakeman, P.G., Cooper, B.J., Hess, H., Silcock, P.J., Walker, A.P., 2002. “Optimising the Low Temperature
Performance and Regeneration Efficiency of the Continuously Regenerating Diesel Particulate Filter (CR-DPF) System”, SAE
Technical Paper 2002-01-0428, doi:10.4271/2002-01-0428
Bickel, K., W.A. M ajewski, 1993. “Evaluation of a Catalyzed Ceramic Diesel Particulate Filter and Catalytic Converter on an
Underground M ine Vehicle”, SAE Technical Paper 932493, doi:10.4271/932493
Cooper, B.J., H.J. Jung and J.E. Thoss, 1990. “Treatment of Diesel Exhaust Gases”, US Patent 4,902,487 (Johnson M atthey),
http://www.google.com/patents/US4902487
Cooper, B.J., J.E. Thoss, 1989. “Role of NO in Diesel Particulate Emission Control”, SAE Technical Paper 890404,
doi:10.4271/890404
DECSE, 1999. “Diesel Emission Control Sulfur Effects Program, Phase I Interim Report No. 1”, U.S. DOE, August 1999,
doi:10.2172/755348, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy00/interim1.pdf
DECSE, 2000. “Phase I Interim Data Report No. 4: Diesel Particulate Filters”, U.S. DOE, January 2000, doi:10.2172/755351,
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy00/interim4.pdf
Gieshoff, J., et al., 2000. “Improved SCR Systems for Heavy Duty Applications”, SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-0189,
doi:10.4271/2000-01-0189
Goldenberg, E., 1983. “Depollution des gaz d'echappement des moteurs Diesel au moyen de pots catalytiques”, Revue Inst. Franc. du
Petrole, 38, 793-805
Hirata, H., M . Kakinohaha, M . Ibe, 2011. “Exhaust gas purification system utilizing ozone”, US Patent 8,051,643,
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/8051643.html
Jacquot, F., J.F. Brilhac, 2004. “Soot Oxidation by O2 and/or NO2 in the Presence of Catalysts Under Lean-Burn and Rich
Atmospheres”, SAE Technical Paper 2004-01-1943, doi:10.4271/2004-01-1943
Jelles, S.J., M . M akkee, J.A. M oulijn, G.J.K. Ackres and J.D. Peter-Hoblyn, 1999. “Diesel Particulate Control: Application of an
Activated Particulate Trap in Combination with fuel Additives at an Ultra Low Dose Rate”, SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-
0113, doi:10.4271/1999-01-0113
Konstandopoulos, A.G., et al., 2000. “Fundamental Studies of Diesel Particulate Filters: Transient Loading, Regeneration, and
Ageing”, SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-1016, doi:10.4271/2000-01-1016
Konstandopoulos, A.G., et al., 2001. “Spatial Non-Uniformities in Diesel Particulate Trap Regeneration”, SAE Technical Paper
2001-01-0908, doi:10.4271/2001-01-0908
Lemaire, J., W. M ustel and P. Zelenka, 1994. “Fuel Additive Supported Particulate Trap Regeneration Possibilities by Engine
M anagement System M easures”, SAE Technical Paper 942069, doi:10.4271/942069
Locker, R.J., N. Gunasekaran and C. Sawyer, 2002. “Diesel Particulate Filter Test M ethods”, SAE Technical Paper 2002-01-1009,
doi:10.4271/2002-01-1009
M asoudi, M ., et al., 2001. “Validation of a M odel and Development of a Simulator for Predicting the Pressure Drop of Diesel
Particulate Filters”, SAE Technical Paper 2001-01-0911, doi:10.4271/2001-01-0911
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3rd AVL International Commercial Powertrain Conference, April 20-21, 2005, Graz, Austria, Paper number 3.5
Nakatani, K., et al., 2002. “Simultaneous PM and NOx Reduction System for Diesel Engines”, SAE Technical Paper 2002-01-0957,
doi:10.4271/2002-01-0957
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Workshop (DEER), Portsmouth, VA, August 2001
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Richards, P., Terry, B., Vincent, M .W., Cook, S.L., 1999. “Assessment of the Performance of Diesel Particulate Filter Systems with
Fuel Additives for Enhanced Regeneration Characteristics”, SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-0112, doi:10.4271/1999-01-0112
Suresh, A., Khan, A., Johnson, J.H., 2000. “An Experimental and M odeling Study of Cordierite Traps - Pressure Drop and
Permeability of Clean and Particulate Loaded Traps”, SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-0476, doi:10.4271/2000-01-0476
Tanaka, T., 2001. “Simultaneous Reduction of PM and NOx - A New After-Treatment System”, 22. Internationales Wiener
M otorsymposium, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, Reihe 12, Nr. 455, Band 2, 216-228
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M odeling Consequences”, SAE Technical Paper 2003-01-0833, doi:10.4271/2003-01-0833
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Process”, SAE Technical Paper 2002-01-1684, doi:10.4271/2002-01-1684
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###

Diesel Filter Regeneration

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7/1/13 Diesel Filter Regeneration

DieselNet Technology Guide » Diesel Particulate Filters

www.DieselNet.com. Copyright © Ecopoint Inc. Revision 2005.06b

Diesel Filter Regeneration

Oxidation of Diesel Soot

1. Oxidation of Diesel Soot

1.2 Oxidation by Oxygen

where C (carbon) represents the combustible portion of diesel PM.

Video can be viewed online

Video 1. Soot Oxidation at Different Temperatures and Loadings

r = k · [C] a · [O2] b · [H2O] c (3)

r - rate of reaction, mol/s

[C] - amount of carbon (soot), mol

Figure 2. Arrhenius Plot for Consecutive Oxidations of Diesel Soot Sample

1.3 Oxidation by Nitrogen Dioxide

Figure 3. Oxidation of PM by Oxygen and Nitrogen Dioxide

NO + ½O2 ↔ NO2 (5)

Figure 4. NO/NO2 Shift in Oxidation Catalyst

In comparison to the oxygen regeneration mechanism, NO2-based regeneration is possible at lower

1.4 Soot Ignition Temperature

thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), or

2. Regeneration as Equilibrium Process

dM/dτ + M·k(T) - eF·m = 0 (8)

eF - filter collection efficiency, dimensionless

1. Accumulation (dM/dτ > 0)

M·k(T) = eF·m (9)

3. Determination of Balance Temperature

Figure 8. DECSE 5-Mode Balance Point Test - Example Run Data

The filter balance temperature is determined as follows (for a 5 mode test):

Operation at a balance condition, or at a number of balance points of fluctuating temperatures and

Figure 12. Soot Deposition in Single Channel of Wall-Flow Filter

Material heat capacity (cordierite EX-80/100/17): Cp = 0.5 kJ/dm3K

Soot load per liter of filter volume: m = 10 g/dm3

ΔT = (m · Uc)/Cp = 10 · 32.76 / 0.5 = 655°C

Figure 13. Temperature Profiles During Filter Regeneration

Figure 14. Melted Particulate Filter Monolith

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