Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24

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Water Resources and Industry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wri

Dye sequestration using agricultural wastes as adsorbents

Kayode Adesina Adegoke, Olugbenga Solomon Bello n
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Color is a visible pollutant and the presence of even minute amounts of coloring substance makes it
Received 27 November 2014 undesirable due to its appearance. The removal of color from dye-bearing effluents is a major problem
Received in revised form due to the difficulty in treating such wastewaters by conventional treatment methods. The most com-
27 August 2015
monly used methods for color removal are biological oxidation and chemical precipitation. However,
Accepted 21 September 2015
these processes are effective and economic only in the case where the solute concentrations are rela-
tively high. Most industries use dyes and pigments to color their products. The presence of dyes in
Keywords: effluents is a major concern due to its adverse effect on various forms of life. The discharge of dyes in the
Agricultural wastes environment is a matter of concern for both toxicological and esthetical reasons. It is evident from a
Dyes
literature survey of about 283 recently published papers that low-cost adsorbents have demonstrated
Environment
outstanding removal capabilities for dye removal and the optimal equilibrium time of various dyes with
Pollutants
Removal different charcoal adsorbents from agricultural residues is between 4 and 5 h. Maximum adsorptions of
acidic dyes were obtained from the solutions with pH 8–10. The challenges and future prospects are
discussed to provide a better framework for a safer and cleaner environment.
& 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Available technologies for dye removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Production of acs from agricultural by-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1. Physical activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2. Chemical activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3. Adsorbent from lignin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4. Adsorbent from corncob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5. Adsorbent from sawdust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6. Adsorbent from wool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.1. Adsorbent from durian peel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.2. Adsorbent from sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.7. Adsorbent from rice husk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.8. Adsorbent palm oil ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.9. Adsorbent from cocoa (Theobroma cacao) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4. Other important agricultural solid wastes used as adsorbents for dyes sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5. Effect of operational parameters on dye sequestration using agricultural wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1. Effect of contact time and initial dye concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2. Effect of temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3. Effect of pH on dye uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.4. Adsorption mechanisms of dye-adsorbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: osbello06@gmail.com (O.S. Bello).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2015.09.002
2212-3717/& 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24 9

6. Challenges and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1. Introduction indication of the scale of the problem is given by the fact that 10–
15% of the dye is lost in the effluent during the dyeing process
Industrial developments in recent years have left their im- [29,30]. Dye molecules consists of two key components: the chro-
pression on the environmental society. Many industries like the mophores, which are largely responsible for producing the color,
textile industry used dyes to color their products and thus produce and the auxochromes, which not only supplement the chromo-
wastewater containing organics with a strong color, where in the phore but also render the molecule soluble in water and enhance its
dyeing processes the percentage of dye lost wastewater is 50% of affinity (to attach) toward the fibers [31]. Dyes may be classified in
the dye because of the low levels of dye-fiber fixation [1]. Dis- several ways, according to chemical constitution, application class,
charge of these dyes in to effluents affects the people who may use and end use. Dyes are here classified according to how they are
these effluents for living purposes such as washing, bathing and used in the dyeing process. Main dyes are grouped as acid dyes,
drinking [2]. Therefore it is very important to verify the water basic dyes, direct dyes, mordant dyes, vat dyes, reactive dyes, dis-
quality, especially when even just 1.0 mg/L of dye concentration in perse dyes, azo dyes, and sulfur dyes. Typical dyes used in textile
drinking water could impart a significant color, making it unfit for dyeing operations are given in Table 1 [32]. As a result of increas-
human consumption [3]. Furthermore dyes can affect aquatic ingly stringent restrictions on the organic content of industrial ef-
plants because they reduce sunlight transmission through water. fluents, it is necessary to eliminate dyes from wastewater before it is
Also dyes may impart toxicity to aquatic life and may be muta- discharged.
genic, carcinogenic and may cause severe damage to human Many of these dyes are also toxic and even carcinogenic [19,33].
beings, such as dysfunction of the kidneys, reproductive system, Besides this, they also interfere with the transmission of light and
liver, brain and central nervous system [4–6]. The removal of color upset the biological metabolism processes, which causes the de-
from waste effluents becomes environmentally important because struction of aquatic communities present in various ecosystems
even a small quantity of dye in water can be toxic and highly [34,35]. Furthermore, the dyes have a tendency to sequester metal
visible [7]. Since the removal of dyes from wastewater is con- and may cause microtoxicity to fish and other organisms [36].
sidered an environmental challenge and government legislation However, wastewater containing dyes is very difficult to treat
requires textile wastewater to be treated, therefore there is a because the dyes are recalcitrant organic molecules, which are
constant need to have an effective process that can efficiently re- resistant to aerobic digestion, and are stable to light, heat, and
move these dyes [8]. oxidizing agents [37–41]. So color is the first contaminant to be
Therefore adsorption by agricultural by-products used recently recognized in the wastewater [22].
as an economical and realistic method for removal of different In this article, the feasibility of agricultural wastes adsorbents
pollutants has proved to be an efficient at removing many types of for dye removal from contaminated water has been reviewed. The
pollutants such as heavy metals [9,10], COD [11,12], phenol [13,14], main goal of this review is to (i) presents a critical analysis of these
gasses [15] and dyes [16–18]. In order to increase the adsorption materials; (ii) describes their characteristics, advantages and lim-
capacity of the adsorbent, Researchers have followed different itations; and (iii) discusses various mechanisms involved. Re-
activation methods and they usually used the Langmuir isotherm ported adsorption capacities are presented to give some idea of
to indicate the effectiveness of the activation process. Activation their effectiveness. However, the reported adsorption capacities
methods involve physical activation such as carbonization of ma- must be taken as an example of values that can be achieved under
terial and chemical activation such as using chemical activating specific conditions since adsorption capacities of the adsorbents
agents. Real textile wastewater is a mixture of dyes, organic presented vary, depending on the characteristics of the material,
compounds, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, surfactants, salts, the experimental conditions, and also the extent of chemical
chlorinated compounds, chemical oxygen demand and biological modifications.
oxygen demand [19,36]. Therefore some studies tested the agri-
cultural wastes as adsorbents for these pollutants. Ahmad and
Hameed [12] studied the reduction of color and COD using bam- 2. Available technologies for dye removal
boo activated carbon, and they found that the maximum reduction
of color and COD were 91.84% and 75.21%, respectively. Methods of dye wastewater treatment have been reviewed
Many industries, such as dyestuffs, textile, paper, plastics, tan- recently [21,22,41–44]. There are several reported treatment
nery, and paint use dyes to color their products and also consume methods for the removal of dyes from effluents and these tech-
substantial volumes of water. As a result, they generate a con- nologies can be divided into three categories: biological methods,
siderable amount of colored wastewater [20]. The presence of very chemical methods, and physical methods [21]. However, all of
small amounts of dyes in water (less than 1 ppm for some dyes) is them have advantages and drawbacks. Because of the high cost
highly visible and undesirable [21,22]. According to Chakrabarti and disposal problems, many of these conventional methods for
et al. [23], nearly 40,000 dyes and pigments are listed, which consist treating dye wastewater have not been widely applied at large
of more than 7000 different chemical structures. Most of them are scale in the textile and paper industries [45]. At the present time,
completely resistant to biodegradation processes [24]. Over 100,000 there is no single process capable of adequate treatment, mainly
commercially available dyes exist and more than 7
105 t are pro- because of the complex nature of the effluents [46,47].
duced worldwide annually [25,26]. Recent studies indicate that In spite of the availability of many techniques to remove these
approximately 12% of produced synthetic dyes are lost during pollutants from wastewaters as legal requirements, such as coagulation,
manufacturing and processing operations. Approximately 20% of chemical oxidation, membrane separation process, electrochemical and
these lost dyes enter the industrial wastewaters [27,28]. An aerobic and anaerobic microbial degradation, these methods are not
 10
Table 1
Classification of dyes according to color index (C.I) application [32].

Class Principal substrates Method of application Chemical types Examples

K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
Acid Nylon, wool, silk, paper, inks, and Usually from neutral to acidic dye baths Azo (including premetalized), anthraquinone, triphe- Acid Yellow 36
leather nylmethane, azine, xanthene, nitro and nitroso
Azoic components and Cotton, rayon, cellulose acetate Fiber impregnated with coupling component and treated with Azo Bluish red azoic dye
compositions and polyester a solution of stabilized diazonium salt
Basic Paper, polyacrylonitrile, modified Applied from acidic dye baths. Cyanine, hemicyanine, diazahemicyanine, diphe- Basic Brown1, methylene blue
nylon, polyester and inks nylmethane, triarylmethane, azo, azine, xanthene, ac-
ridine, oxazine and anthraquinone
Direct Cotton, rayon, paper, leather and Applied from neutral or slightly alkaline baths containing ad- Azo, phthalocyanine, stilbene, and oxazine Direct Orange 26
nylon ditional electrolyte.
Disperse Polyester, polyamide, acetate, ac- Fine aqueous dispersion often applied by high temperature/ Azo, anthraquinone, styryl, nitro, and benzodifuranone Disperse Yellow 3, Disperse Red 4,
rylic and plastic pressure or lower temperature carrier methods; dye may be and Disperse Blue 27
padded on cloth and baked on or thermofixed
Flourescent brighteners Soaps and detergents, and all fi- From solution, dispersion or suspension in a mass. Stilbene, pyrazoles, coumarin, and Naphthalimides 4,4′-bis (ethoxycarbonylvinyl)
bers, oils, paints and plastics stilbene
Food, drug, and Foods, rugs, and cosmetics Azo, anthraquinone, carotenoid and triarylmethane Food Yellow 4, tartrazine
cosmetics
Mordant Wool, leather, and anodized Applied in conjunction with Cr salts Azo and anthraquinone Mordant Red 11
aluminum
Oxidation bases Hair, fur, and cotton Aromatic amines and phenols oxidized on the substrate Aniline black and indeterminate structures
Reactive Cotton, wool, silk, and nylon Reactive site on dye reacts with functional group on fiber to Azo, anthraquinone, phthalocyanine, formazan, ox- Reactive Blue 5
bind dye covalently under influence of heat and pH (alkaline) azine and basic
Solvent Plastics, gasoline, varnishes, lac- Dissolution in the substrate Azo, triphenylmethane, anthraquinone, and
quers, stains, inks, fats, oils, waxes phthalocyanine
Sulfur Cotton and rayon Aromatic substrate vatted with sodium sulfide and reoxidized Indeterminate structures
to insoluble sulfur-containing products on fiber
Vat Cotton, rayon and wool Water-insoluble dyes solubilized by reducing with sodium Anthraquinone (including polycyclic quinines) and Vat Blue 4 (indanthrene).
hydrogensulphite, then exhausted on fiber and reoxidized indigoids
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24 11

Table 2
Advantages and disadvantages of dyes removal methods [17].

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

Chemical treatment
Oxidative process Simplicity of application (H2O2) agent needs to activate by some means
H2O2 þ Fe (II) salts (Fenton's reagent) Fenton's reagent is a suitable chemical means Sludge generation
Ozonation Ozone can be applied in its gaseous state and does not increase the Short half-life (20 min)
volume of wastewater and sludge
Photochemical No sludge is produced and foul odors are produced Formation of by-products
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) Initiate and accelerates azo bond cleavage Release of aromatic amines
Electrochemical destruction No consumption of chemicals and no sludge build up Relatively high flow rates cause a direct decrease
in dye removal

Biological treatments
Decolorization by white rot fungi White-rot fungi are able to degrade dyes using enzymes Enzyme production has also been shown to be
unreliable
Other microbial cultures (mixed bacterial) Decolorized in 24–30 h Under aerobic conditions azo dyes are not readily
metabolized
Adsorption by living/dead microbial biomass Certain dyes have a particular affinity for binding with microbial Not effective for all dyes
species
Anaerobic textile – dye bioremediation Allows azo and other water soluble dyes to be decolorized Anaerobic breakdown yields methane and hydro-
systems gen sulfide

Physical treatments
Adsorption by activated carbon Good removal of wide variety of dyes Very expensive
Membrane filtration Removes all dye types Concentrated sludge production
Ion exchange Regeneration: no adsorbent loss Not effective for all dyes
Irradiation Effective oxidation at laboratory scale Requires a lot of dissolved O2
Electro-kinetic coagulation Economically feasible High sludge production

very successfully due to suffering from many restrictions [48]. Table 2
shows the advantages and disadvantages of different dye removal
methods [17,49–52]. Among all of these methods adsorption has been
preferred due to its cheapness and the high-quality of the treated ef-
fluents especially for well-designed sorption processes [49]. Adsorption
by activated carbon is an important way to clean up effluents and
wastewater [50], where it used to polish the influent before it is dis-
charged into the environment [51]. However adsorption by activated
carbon has some restrictions such as the cost of the activated carbon,
the need for regeneration after exhausting and the loss of adsorption
efficiency after regeneration [52].
3. Production of acs from agricultural by-products
Any cheap material, with a high carbon content and low in-
organics, can be used as a raw material for the production of AC
[53]. Agricultural byproducts are available in large quantities and
are one of the most abundant renewable resources in the world.
These waste materials have little or no economic value and often
present a disposal problem. Therefore, there is a need to valorize
these low cost byproducts. Thus, conversion of waste materials
into ACs would add considerable economic value, help reduce the
cost of waste disposal and most importantly provide a potentially
inexpensive alternative to the existing commercial ACs. These
waste materials have proved to be promising raw materials for the
production of AC with a high adsorption capacity, considerable
mechanical strength, and low ash content [54].
Adsorption methods employing solid sorbents are widely used
to remove certain classes of chemical pollutants from wastewater.
However, among all the sorbent materials proposed, activated
carbon (AC) is the most popular material for the removal of pol-
lutants from wastewater. AC is an amorphous carbon in which a
high degree of porosity has been developed during manufacture. It
is this porosity, which governs the way in which AC performs its
purifying role, and the very large surface area provides many sites
upon which the adsorption of impurity molecules can take place
[13,79–84]. The factors which favor the selection of agricultural
adsorbents are its low cost, widespread presence and organic
composition which shows strong affinity for some selected dyes.
Because of their low cost, after being expended, these materials
can be disposed of without expensive regeneration. A wide variety
of ACs have been prepared from agricultural byproducts such as
corn straw [55], wheat straw [55], rice straw [56,112], sawdust
[58,59,189], corn cob [60], bagasse [60,61], cotton stalk [62], co-
conut husk [276], rice husks [59,63,64], tobacco stem [65], nut
shells [66,67], soybean oil cake [68], oil palm shell [69], and oil
palm fiber [70]. Basically, there are two main steps for the pre-
paration and manufacture of AC: (1) the carbonization of the
carbonaceous raw material below 1000 °C, in an inert atmosphere,
and (2) the activation of the carbonized product (char), which is
either physical or chemical.
3.1. Physical activation
Physical activation is a process in which the precursor is de-
veloped into AC using gases and is generally carried out in a two-
step process [71]. Carbonization is the first stage and involves the
formation of a char, which is normally nonporous, by pyrolysis of
the precursor at temperatures in the range between 400 and
850 °C, and sometimes reaches 1000 °C, in an inert, usually ni-
trogen, atmosphere. Activation is the second stage and involves
contacting the char with an oxidizing gas, such as carbon dioxide,
steam, air or their mixtures, in the temperature range between
600 and 900 °C, which results in the removal of the more dis-
organized carbon and the formation of a well-developed micro-
pore structure. The activation gas is usually CO2, since it is clean,
easy to handle and it facilitates control of the activation process
because of the slow reaction rate at temperatures around 800 °C
[71]. It is worthwhile noting that the ACs produced by physical
activation did not have satisfactory characteristics to be used as
adsorbents or as filters [72].
3.2. Chemical activation
Chemical activation involves impregnation with chemicals such
as ZnCl2, KOH, NaOH, H3PO4, or K2CO3 followed by heating under a
nitrogen flow at temperatures in the range of 450–900 °C,
12 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24

Table 3 for removal of contaminants by researchers. A spherical sulfonic

Adsorption capacities of agricultural wastes for dye removal. lignin adsorbent was prepared by Liu and Huang [115] from a
bamboo pulp mill by-product. The adsorbent was investigated for
Dyes Adsorbents Equilibrium time qe (mg/g) Refs.
the removal and recovery of cationic dyes cationic red GTL, ca-
Rhodamine B Banana bark 40 min 40.161 [98] tionic turquoise GB, and cationic yellow X-5GL, from aqueous so-
Direct F. ScarletRice husk 90 min 4.35 [99] lutions. Authors found the adsorption to be initial concentration
Direct red-23 Mangrove bark 4h 21.55 [100] and temperature dependent, following both the Freundlich and
Malchite green Pandanus leaves 40 min 9.737 [101]
Reactive Red 23 P. oceanica leaf 10 h 0.31 [102]
the Langmuir isotherms. The process was found to be en-
sheath dothermic, and appreciable Langmuir adsorption capacities of
Methylene blue Rice husk 30 min 690 [103] 576.0, 582.4 and 640.8 mg g  1 were observed for cationic red GTL,
Red brown C4R Tapioca peel 45 min 121.47 [104] cationic turquoise GB, and cationic yellow X-5GL, respectively.
Acid Violet 17 Bagasse 4h 38.32 [105]
Various other studies [116] on dye removal, and review [117]
Acid Violet 17 Groundnut shell 100.57 [105]
Acid Red 119 Pea Shell 4h 44.48 [105] highlighting the utilization of lignin are also available.
Acid Blue15 Used tea leaves 4h 126.53 [105] Lignins are polymers of aromatic compounds. Lignin is a nat-
Acid Red 119 wheat straw 72.81 [105] ural polymer which together with hemicelluloses acts as a ce-
Malachite green Rice husk 40 min 63.85 [106] menting agent matrix of cellulose fibers in the structures of plants.
Malchite green Neem bark 7h 0.36 [107]
Malchite green Mango bark 7h 0.53 [107]
Their functions are to provide structural strength, provide sealing
Congo red Tamarind shell 4h 10.48 [108] of water conducting system that links roots with leaves, and
Congo red Neem leaf powder 5h 72 [109] protect plants against degradation [26]. Lignin is a macromolecule,
Reactive Blue 19 Grape fruit peel 45 min 12.53 [110] which consists of alkylphenols and has a complex three-dimen-
Methylene blue Teak tree bark 30 min 333.3 [111]
sional structure. Lignin is covalently linked with xylans in the case
Basic Yellow 21 Wheat straw 48 h 71.43 [112]
Methylene blue Sunflower seed husk 4h 45.25 [113] of hardwoods and with galactoglucomannans in softwoods [118].
Methylene blue Hazlenut shell 60 min 76.9 [114] The basic chemical phenylpropane units of lignin (primarily syr-
Acid blue Hazlenut shell 60 min 60.2 [114] ingyl, guaiacyl and p-hydroxy phenol) are bonded together by a set
Methylene blue Cherry saw dust 2h 39 [114] of linkages to form a very complex matrix. This matrix comprises a
Methylene blue Walnut saw dust 60 min 59.17 [114]
Acid blue Oak saw dust 60 min 29.5 [114]
variety of functional groups, such as hydroxyl,methoxyl and car-
Acid blue Pitch pine saw dust 60 min 27.5 [114] bonyl, which impart a high polarity to the lignin macromolecule
[119–124].

depending on the impregnant used. In the chemical activation
process, carbonization and activation are carried out simulta-
neously, with the precursor being mixed with chemical activating
agents, such as dehydrating agents and oxidants. Chemical acti-
vation offers several advantages as it is carried out in a single step,
performed at lower temperatures and, therefore, resulting in the
development of a better porous structure, although the environ-
mental concerns of using chemical agents for activation could be
developed. Besides, part of the added chemicals (such as zinc salts
and phosphoric acid), can be easily recovered [53,71,73].
However, a two-step process (an admixed method of physical
and chemical processes) can be applied [57]. It is to be noted that
there is also an additional one-step treatment route, denoted as
steam-pyrolysis as reported [54,74–78], where the raw agricultural
residue is either heated at moderate temperatures (500–700 °C)
under a flow of pure steam, or heated at 700–800 °C under a flow
of steam. Many agricultural residues such as straw, bagasse, apri-
cot stones, cherry stones, grape seeds, nutshells, almond shells, oat
hulls, corn stover, and peanut hulls have been studied with this
method. AC produced with this method will not be discussed here,
but more details are available [13,72,79–114]. The adsorption ca-
pacities of agricultural wastes for dye removal are summarized
briefly [98–114] (Table 3). From the recent literature reviewed it is
demonstrated that agricultural waste showed comparatively sig-
nificant removal efficiency than the commercial adsorbents. De-
colourisation process is not specific and depends upon many fac-
tors. Although there are lots of agricultural adsorbents which can
act as a substitute for the expensive commercial activated carbon
but complete replacement is not possible. The factors which favor
the selection of agricultural adsorbents are its low cost, wide-
spread presence and organic composition which shows strong
affinity for some selected dyes.
3.3. Adsorbent from lignin
Lignin a waste/by-product discharged from paper mills in large
quantities has been used in its raw state as well as modified state
3.4. Adsorbent from corncob
Corncob waste has been investigated as adsorbent for dyes
[60,125]. Activated carbons having surface area in the range of
538–943 m2 g  1 as prepared from corncob [60] were able to re-
move 230–1060 and 432–790 mg g  1 of Acid Blue 25 (astrazon
red) and Basic Red 22 (telon blue), respectively. Compared to AC
prepared from bagasse (surface area 607 m2 g  1) and plum kernel
(surface area 1162 m2 g  1) the removal capacity of AC from
corncob for acid blue 25 was the highest.
3.5. Adsorbent from sawdust
Batzias and Sidiras studied that beech saw dust as low cost
adsorbent for the removal of methylene blue and basic red 22.
Further, in order to know the effect of chemical treatment and to
improve its efficiency the authors also tested the potential of the
adsorbent by treating it with CaCl2 [126] and using mild acid hy-
drolysis [127] and found it to increase the adsorption capacity.
Besides this, the simulation studies for effect of pH were also
carried out by [128]. The authors determined the point of zero
charge p.z.c. (5.2) of the sawdust and suggested that increase of
the pH enhances the adsorption behavior. The low adsorption of
methylene blue at acidic pH was suggested to be due to the pre-
sence of excess H þ ions that compete with the dye cation for
adsorption sites. With the increase of the pH of the system, the
number of positively charged sites decreases while the number of
the negatively charged sites increases. It was also suggested that
the negatively charged sites favor the adsorption of dye (cationic
like methylene blue) due to electrostatic attraction. Namasivayam
et al. [129] investigated coir pith, an agricultural residue, as an
adsorbent for the adsorption of rhodamine B and acid violet dyes.
The source material was used after drying, sieving and carbonizing
at 700 °C. It was found that rhodamine B adsorption reached
equilibrium stage at 5, 7, 10, and 10 min for dye concentration 10,
20, 30 and 40 mg L  1, respectively while crystal violet was found
to have equilibration time of 40 min for all concentrations studied.
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
Though this material is freely available the low adsorption capa-
cities viz. 2.56 mg and 8.06 mg g  1 of the adsorbent for rhoda-
mine B and acid violet, respectively make it poor adsorbent for the
removal of dyes.
Sawdust is one of the most appealing materials among agri-
cultural waste materials, used for removing pollutants, such as,
dyes, salts and heavy metals from water and wastewater [130]. The
material consists of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose, with
polyphenolic groups playing important role for binding dyes
through different mechanisms. Generally the adsorption takes
place by complexation, ion exchange and hydrogen bonding.
Various fruitful studies have been done on the removal of dyes by
sawdust [131–133]. Sawdust (from Indian rosewood) easily avail-
able at zero or negligible price in India [131] was studied for the
removal of methylene blue. Authors studied the effects of different
system variables, like adsorbent dosage, initial dye concentration,
pH and contact time, and found that as the amount of the ad-
sorbent increased, the percentage of dye removal increased ac-
cordingly. Low concentrations of methylene blue favored higher
adsorption percentages, and optimum pH value for dye adsorption
was found to be 7.0. In a study on the removal of acid and basic
dyes by sawdust [132], reported the sorption capacity of basic dye
(basic blue 69) to be much higher than acid dye (acid blue 25),
which they suggested to be due to the ionic charges on the dyes
and the character of the biomaterials, also the sorption of dyes was
found to be exothermic in nature. Similar to other materials the
adsorption capacity of sawdust can also be improved using che-
mical treatment [126,134–137]. Hard wood (Mansonia wood)
sawdust was studied by Ofomaja and Ho [138] to know the effect
of temperature on the equilibrium biosorption of methyl violet dye
from aqueous solution onto the material. The equilibrium bio-
sorption data was analyzed using Langmuir, Freundlich and Red-
lich–Peterson isotherms. Best fits were yielded with Langmuir and
Redlich–Peterson isotherms. The process was found to be en-
dothermic in nature and the biosorption was strongly dependent
on solution pH and percentage dye removal became significant
above pH 7, which was slightly higher than the pHPZC of the
sawdust material. The dependency of dye sorption on sawdust has
also been noted by other workers too [137,139]. More about the
role of sawdust for the removal of unwanted materials from waters
can be found in a review by Shukla et al. [130].
3.6. Adsorbent from wool
Wool carbonizing waste obtained as a result of processing of
wool was investigated by Perineau et al. [140] for the adsorption of
dyes. They reported that the surface properties of the material are
such that they tend to adsorb solutes of ionic nature. The authors
observed that the adsorption of basic dyes is 6–10 times higher
than that of acid dyes. Wheat husk, an agricultural by-product,
was investigated by Gupta et al. [141] as an adsorbent for the
adsorption of reactofix golden yellow 3 RFN from aqueous solu-
tion. The authors suggested that adsorption process can be con-
sidered suitable for removing color, COD from wastewater. Besides
utilizing natural materials and/or materials obtained as agri-
cultural wastes as alternative adsorbents for the color removal a
number of wastes/by-products which are generated by many in-
dustries, such as thermal power plants, steel and metal, sugar and
fertilizer industries etc. have also been used.
3.6.1. Adsorbent from durian peel
Durian (Durio zibethinus), locally referred to as the “king of
fruits” is a dicotyledonous tropical seasonal plant species belong-
ing to the member of family Bombacaceae and genus of Durio
[142]. Its shape is typically ranging from ovoid to nearly round-
shaped, featured by a distinctive, strong, pungent and penetrating
13
odor. The edible aril is enveloped in a green to yellowish brown
semi-woody rind, with a spike-like spine and sharply pointed
pyramidal formidable thorns [142]. Durian tree (25–50 m in
height) thrive well in a warm and humid climate, ideally in the
temperature range from 25 to 30 °C and evenly distributed rainfall
rate between 1.5 and 2 months/year. Its flowers are produced in 3–
30 clusters, with each flower having a calyx (sepals) and five
(rarely four or six) petals [143]. Today, its growth has been phe-
nomenal in the global trade market, forecasted a total world’s
harvest of 1.4 Mt, dominated by its major producers, Thailand
(781 kt), Malaysia (376 kt), Indonesia (265 kt), followed by Phi-
lippines (Davao Region), Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, In-
dia, Sri Lanka, Florida, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Madagascar, and
Northern Australia. Meanwhile, China (65 kt), Singapore (40 kt)
and Taiwan (5 kt) are among the key importers accounting for 65%
of the total exports from the top supplying countries. Despite its
prolific implementations in food manufacturing industries, such
exertions are hampered by the massive generation of durian re-
sidues, chiefly in the form of durian shells, seeds, peels and rinds,
which constitute 70% of the entire fruit [144]. In the common
practice, durian residues are burned or sent to the landfills,
without taking care neither of the surrounding environment, nor
considering any precaution to prohibit the percolation of con-
taminants into the underlying water channels. Lately, environ-
mental rules and regulations concerning pollution from agri-
cultural waste streams by regulatory agencies are more stringent
and restrictive; inevitably affecting the design, planning, and op-
eration of the durian processing industry. This has inspired a de-
veloping exploration to establish a leading selective, reliable and
durable alternative for judicious utilization of these pollutants
called durian residues.
Mesoporous-activated carbon from durian seed (DSAC) was
prepared; it was used as adsorbent for the removal of methyl red
(MR) dye from aqueous solution [145]. Textural and adsorptive
characteristics of activated carbon prepared from raw durian seed
(DS), char durian seed (char DS) and activated durian seed (DSAC)
were studied using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier trans-
form infra red spectroscopy, proximate analysis and adsorption of
nitrogen techniques, respectively. Acidic condition favors the ad-
sorption of MR dye molecule by electrostatic attraction [145]. The
maximum dye removal was 92.52% at pH 6. Experimental data
were analyzed by eight model equations: Langmuir, Freundlich,
Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Radke–Prausnitz, Sips, Vieth–
Sladek and Brouers–Sotolongo isotherms and it was found that the
Freundlich isotherm model fitted the adsorption data most. Ad-
sorption rate constants were determined using pseudo-first-order,
pseudo-second-order, Elovich, intraparticle diffusion and Avrami
kinetic model equations. The results clearly showed that the ad-
sorption of MR dye onto DSAC followed pseudo-second-order ki-
netic model. Both intraparticle and film diffusion were involved in
the adsorption process. The mean energy of adsorption calculated
from D–R isotherm confirmed the involvement of physical ad-
sorption. Thermodynamic parameters were obtained and it was
found that the adsorption of MR dye onto DSAC was an en-
dothermic and spontaneous process at the temperatures under
investigation [145].
The use of durian shell for removal of methylene blue from
aqueous solutions which was prepared using chemical activation
method with potassium hydroxide as the activating agent [146].
The activation was conducted at 673.15 K for 1 h with mass ratio of
chemical activating agent to durian shell 1:2. Batch kinetics and
isotherm studies were conducted to evaluate the adsorption be-
havior of the activated carbon from durian shell. The adsorption
experiments were carried out isothermally at three different
temperatures. The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm model were
used to describe the equilibrium data. The Langmuir model agrees
14 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
with experimental data well. The Langmuir surface kinetics,
pseudo first order and pseudo second order models were used to
evaluate the kinetics data and the rate constant were also de-
termined. The experimental data fitted very well with the Lang-
muir surface kinetics and pseudo first order model [147].
Hameed and Hakimi [148] utilized durian peel (DP) for its
ability to remove acid dye from aqueous solutions. Adsorption
equilibrium and kinetics of acid green 25 (AG25) from aqueous
solutions at various initial dye concentrations (50–500 mg/L), pH
(2–10), and temperature (30–50 °C) on DP were studied in a batch
mode operation. Equilibrium isotherms were analyzed by Lang-
muir and Freundlich isotherm models. The equilibrium data were
best represented by Langmuir isotherm model with maximum
monolayer adsorption capacity of 63.29 mg/g at 30 °C. Kinetics
analyzes were conducted using pseudo-first- order, pseudo-sec-
ond-order and intraparticle diffusion models. It was found that the
adsorption kinetics of AG25 on DP obeyed pseudo-second-order
sorption kinetics. The results indicate the potential of DP as sor-
bent for the removal of acid dye from aqueous solution [148].
3.6.2. Adsorbent from sludge
By-products/wastes of steel plants viz. blast furnace sludge,
blast furnace dust and blast furnace slag were investigated for the
removal of acid (ethyl orange, metanil yellow, acid blue 113) and
basic dyes (chrysoidine G, crystal violet, meldola blue, methylene
blue) by Jain et al. [149–152], the adsorption capacities were also
reported [152–154]. The authors compared the materials with a
fertilizer industry waste and standard activated carbon. The ad-
sorption of dyes was reported to follow Langmuir adsorption
model and was first order in nature. Authors observed that com-
pared to standard activated charcoal the removal capacities were
less. Slag as an adsorbent for removal of various other dyes has
been investigated by other workers too [153–156]. A sludge ob-
tained by precipitation of metal ions in wastewater with calcium
hydroxide in electroplating industry has been investigated for the
removal of azo dyes [157]. The authors noted a maximum ad-
sorption capacity (48–62 mg g  1) for azo-reactive (anionic) dyes
and suggested that metal hydroxide sludge being a positively
charged adsorbent can remove azo-reactive (anionic) dyes and the
charge of the dyes is an important factor for the adsorption due to
the ion-exchange mechanism.
Fig. 1. a. Plot of Bt versus t (Boyd plot). Fig. 1b. Predicted q values for different initial dye concentrations (conditions: pH, 8; rpm, 800 rev min  1; temperature, 32 °C; V/X, 1 L/
4 g).
3.7. Adsorbent from rice husk
Rice husk is an agricultural waste and a by-product of the rice
milling industry to be about more than 100 million tonnes, 96% of
which is generated in the developing countries. The utilization of
this source of agricultural waste would solve both a disposal
problem as well as access to a cheaper material for adsorption in
water pollutants control system [158–160]. The maximum cost of
commercially available rice husk is approximately US$ 0.025/kg.
Since, the main components of rice husk are carbon and silica (15–
22% SiO2 in hydrated amorphous form like silica gel), it has the
potential to be used as an adsorbent [161]. Mckay et al. [162]
studied the use of rice husk in the removal of MB from aqueous
solutions then after Vadivelan and Kumar [163] used the rice husk
for the adsorption of MB. The operating variables studied were
initial solution pH, initial dye concentration, adsorbent con-
centration, and contact time. The amount of dye adsorbed was
found to vary with initial solution pH, adsorbent dose, and contact
time. The monolayer sorption capacity of rice husks for MB sorp-
tion was found to be 40.58 mg/g at room temperature (32 °C). The
dye uptake process was found to be controlled by external mass
transfer initially followed by intraparticle diffusion.
Rice husk as obtained from a local rice mill grounded, sieved,
washed and then dried at 80 °C was used for removal of two basic
dyes safranine and methylene blue and adsorption capacity of 838
and 312 mg g  1 was found [161]. Since disposal or regeneration of
spent adsorbent is one of the important economic factors in as-
sessing the feasibility of an adsorption system, authors suggested
that as the purchase costs of material is negligible and it is pri-
marily carbonaceous and cellulosic, the preferred disposal method
is by dewatering, drying and burning. Also it was suggested that
the heat of combustion can be recovered as waste heat and used
for adsorbent drying and steam generation.
Vadivelan and Kumar investigated the batch experiments for
the sorption of methylene blue onto rice husk particles [163]. The
operating variables studied were initial solution pH, initial dye
concentration (Fig. 1b), adsorbent concentration, and contact time.
Equilibrium data were fitted to the Freundlich and Langmuir iso-
therm equations and the equilibrium data were found to be well
represented by the Langmuir isotherm equation. The monolayer
sorption capacity of rice husks for methylene blue sorption was
found to be 40.5833 mg/g at room temperature (32 °C). The
sorption was analyzed using pseudo-first-order and pseudo-sec-
ond-order kinetic models and the sorption kinetics was found to
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
Fig. 2. Kinetic plot for the adsorption of RY2 onto CSAC (a) Pseudo-first order, (b) Pseudo-second order, (c) Elovich, and (d) Intraparticle diffusion [188].
follow a pseudo-second-order kinetic model (Fig. 2). Also the ap-
plicability of pseudo second order in modeling the kinetic data
was also discussed. The sorption process was found to be con-
trolled by both surface and pore diffusion with surface diffusion at
the earlier stages followed by pore diffusion at the later stages. The
average external mass transfer coefficient and intraparticle diffu-
sion coefficient was found to be 0.01133 min  1 and
0.695358 mg/gmin0.5. Analysis of sorption data using a Boyd plot
confirms that external mass transfer is the rate limiting step in the
sorption process (Fig. 1a). The effective diffusion coefficient, Di was
calculated using the Boyd constant and was found to be
5.05
10  4 cm2/s for an initial dye concentration of 50 mg/L. A
single-stage batch-adsorber design of the adsorption of methylene
blue onto rice husk has been studied based on the Langmuir iso-
therm equation [163] (Fig. 1).
Rice husk ash a waste from rice mills has been used as an ad-
sorbent for removal of acidic dyes namely acid violet 54, acid
violet 17, acid blue 15, acid violet 49 and acid red 119 and their
COD from aqueous solutions. The adsorption capacity was found to
vary from 99.4 to 155 mg g  1, making rice husk ash a good ma-
terial. Further, a time period of 30–120 min was found to be op-
timum for attaining equilibrium [164].
3.8. Adsorbent palm oil ash
Hasnain studied the possibility of using palm oil ash as a low-
cost adsorbent for the removal of the dyes disperse blue and dis-
perse red from aqueous solution [165]. Both batch as well as
continuous flow experiments were performed, and the effects of
different system variables, including pH, initial dye concentration
and agitation time, were studied in the batch tests. It was sug-
gested that acidic pH favoured dye removal, and the optimum pH
and agitation time for the removal of the two dyes were found to
be 2 and 60 min, respectively. Besides this the authors also sug-
gested that ash can be used in its natural form in batch processes
while pelletisation, due to cost implications, is not recommend-
able for industrial application. Shale oil ash, an inorganic residue,
15
obtained after the combustion of shale oil was used as adsorbent
[166] for dyes. The author reported that the material which is
obtained after a high temperature process possesses good porosity
and suggested that it can have good adsorptive behavior for both
organic and inorganic pollutants. A two resistance mass transfer
model based on the film resistance and homogeneous solid phase
diffusion was also developed. Red mud a by-product of aluminum
industry obtained from bauxite processing by Bayer process has
been investigated for the removal of dyes. Namasivayam and Ya-
muna [167] studied the adsorption of congo red from aqueous
solution and suggested the process to be economical since the
material is discarded waste. The removal capacity of the red mud
for the dye was 4.05 mg g  1. The process was found to follow first
rate expression and the adsorption data obeyed both Langmuir
and Freundlich isotherms. Authors noted the mechanism of ad-
sorption to be mostly ion exchange. Red mud has also been used
[168] who investigated it for the removal of basic dye, methylene
blue, from aqueous solutions and found the adsorption capacity
for raw red mud as 7.8
10  6 mol g  1. The effect of physical
(heat) and chemical treatment was also studied on as-received red
mud and was reported to have adverse effect on the adsorption
capacity. The acid treatment (by nitric acid) resulted in a decrease
of adsorption capacity of red mud (3.2
10  6 mol g  1). Some
other fruitful studies [169,170] have also been carried out on ad-
sorption of various dyes such as rhodamine B, fast green, methy-
lene blue and congo red on red mud.
Aerobically digested sludge [171] from an urban wastewater
was tested for producing activated carbons and further used for
dye removal in order to overcome the costs of ACs in water
treatment. The sludge based (SB) AC was mainly mesoporous in
nature, with a surface area of 253 m2 g  1 and an average pore
diameter of 2.3 nm. The ACs so produced were used for the re-
moval of three anionic dyes viz. acid brown 283, direct red 89 and
direct black 168 and a basic dye basic red 46 from aqueous solu-
tions. The SBAC was found to perform nearly as well as Chemviron,
AC which was mainly microporous with a surface area of
1026 m2 g  1 and an average diameter of 1.8 nm. The greater
16 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24

Table 4 Table 5
Pseudo-first-order model and pseudo-second-order model equation constants and Previous studies of the adsorption of dyes using adsorbents based on agricultural
correlation coefficients for adsorption of MB on CSAC at 30 °C [188]. solid wastes.

Initial concentra- Pseudo first-order kinetic Pseudo second-order ki- Adsorbents Dyes References
tion (mg/L) model netic model
Sugar beet pulp Gemazol turquoise blue-G [230]
Qe, cal K1 R2 Qe, cal K1 (g/ R2 Rice husk ash Indigo carmine [231]
(mg/g) (h  1) (mg/g) mgh) Chemically modified peanut Methylene blue, Brilliant cresyl
hull blue,
50 – – – 8.31 12.08 0.99 Neutral red, sunset yellow and fast [232]
100 5.37e þ 4 6.02 0.95 13.39 0.22 0.98 green
150 35.49 1.18 0.99 25.19 0.98 0.99 Peanut hull Methylene blue, brilliant cresyl [222]
200 120.23 0.022 0.76 33.33 9.00 0.99 blue, neutral red
250 3.39 2.6 0.82 41.67 5.76 0.99 Coir pith AC Reactive orange 12,
Reactive red 2 and Reactive blue 4 [233]
Coir pith AC Congo red [234]
capacity of AC sludge based compared with the commercial AC to Coir pith carbon Methylene blue [235]
Coir pith Acid violet [236]
remove acid and a direct dye from solution is attributed to its
Rice husks AC Malachite green [237]
wider pore size distribution. The authors also reported that the Rice husk-based porous Malachite green [238]
presence of acidic surface functional groups in SBAC also plays an carbon
important role in determining the extent of adsorption as a Rice husk Congo red [259]
Tea waste Methylene blue [239]
function of solution pH. Sewage sludge has also been used to
Coniferous pinus bark Crystal violet [240]
prepare carbonaceous materials using chemical activation [172]. powder
Carbonaceous sorbents so developed from sludge were used to Orange peel AC Direct N Blue-106 [241]
remove copper ion, phenol and dyes (Acid Red 18 and Basic Violet Neem sawdust Malachite green [242]
Guava seed carbon Acid blue 80 [243]
4) from aqueous solution as well as volatile organic compounds
Peanut hull Reactive Black 5 [244]
from the gas phase. Two experimental conditions were suggested Loofa AC Reactive orange [245]
by the authors but in order to have a high mass yield and to reduce Apricot stone AC Astrazon yellow (7GL) [246]
the energetic cost of the process, the optimal condition having Almond shells Direct red 80 [247]
1.5 g of H2SO4 g  1 of sludge, 700 °C and 145 min was suggested to Lemon peel Malachite green [248]
Bagasse fly ash Methyl violet [249]
be more appropriate. Waste carbon slurry generated during liquid Polygonum orientale Linn Malachite green [250]
fuel combustion in fertilizer plants has been converted into an AC
inexpensive activated carbon [152]. Authors prepared an activated
carbon and fruitfully employed it for a basic dye (malachite green)
removal, a 100% removal was observed at low concentrations.
as evident by high iodine (1310 mg g  1) and methylene blue
Presence of anionic surfactant (Manoxol-1B) was tested and found
number (326 mg g  1). Besides these various other materials such
not to affect the uptake of dye significantly. ( r5
10  5 M) and by
as waste tire rubber [176], layered double hydroxides [177], bot-
particle diffusion at The dye removal was suggested to take place
tom ash [178–181], de-oiled soya [179,182–184], black tea leaves,
through a film diffusion mechanism at lower concentrations
tree fern [185], pyrite and synthetic iron sulfide, alum-im-
higher concentrations (45
10  5 M). Authors found that the
pregnated activated alumina, sorel’s cement, calcined alunite [186]
adsorbent can be regenerated to quantitatively recover the dye
rosa canina seeds [187] etc. have also been explored as adsorbents.
with acetone and the developed adsorbent was cheaper than
commercially available carbons. A similar carbonaceous adsorbent
3.9. Adsorbent from cocoa (Theobroma cacao)
was investigated [173] who utilized it for the removal of dyes and
phenols. The authors compared the efficiencies of the carbonac-
The kinetics and equilibrium studies of Cocoa (Theobroma ca-
eous adsorbent with blast furnace slag, dust and sludge (steel in- cao) shell-based activated carbon by CO2 activation in removing of
dustry waste) and found the carbonaceous adsorbent to be the cationic dye from aqueous solution was investigated by Ahmad
best among them. Further, comparison of the carbonaceous ad- et al. [188] (Table 4). It was reported that the adsorption of 4-NP
sorbent with an activated carbon showed it to bew45% efficient for Cocoa shell based activated carbons followed the Freundlich,
acid dyes (ethyl orange, metanil yellow and Acid Blue 113) and 70– Temkin and Langmuir isotherm models (R2 4 0.9). The pseudo-
80% efficient for basic dyes (chrysoidine G, crystal violet, and second-order-rate model and Boyd model fits for the adsorption.
meldola blue) as compared to a commercial activated carbon. The monolayer adsorption (212.72 mg/g) capacity was comparable
Authors proposed that the carbonaceous adsorbent being a low- with other adsorbents. The pseudo-second-order-rate model fits
cost material need not be regenerated after being loaded with better for the adsorption kinetics as compared to the pseudo-first-
pollutants and can be disposed of by burning. order-rate model (Table 5).
Various other materials have also been put to use for preparing The adsorption kinetic models suggest the adsorption process
alternative adsorbents. An attempt to remove methylene blue and is complex, involving more than one mechanism. The adsorption
methyl orange by alginate beads containing magnetic nano- kinetic models suggest the adsorption process is complex, invol-
particles and activated carbon [174], so as to develop a low-cost ving more than one mechanism. The mechanism may involve
methodology having low impact on environment. The adsorption adsorption of dye at an active site on the surface, diffusion and
capacity of beadswas found to be higher than non-encapsulated adsorption into the interior pores of the AC particle. The results of
AC for methylene blue and was of same order of magnitude for this study show that the activated carbons derived from cocoa
methyl orange. In a study, Shimada et al. [175] used newspaper as shell can be used as potential adsorbent for MB in water or was-
raw material for the production of activated carbon. The raw tewater treatments [198]. Utilization of agricultural solid waste is
material mixed with 8% phenol resin resulted in activated carbons of great significance for the preparation of activated carbon [189]
having good surface area (1000 m2 g  1) and yield (40%). In view of and several researchers have been studying the use of alternative
its high surface area this product functioned as a good adsorbent, materials, which, although less efficient, involve lower costs
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24 17

[190,191]. The adsorption behavior of Reactive Yellow 2(RY2) from adsorbents based on agricultural solid wastes.
aqueous solution onto activated carbon prepared from Cocoa
(Theobroma cacao) shell was investigated under various experi-
mental conditions. To evaluate the adsorption capacity, initial dye
concentration and contact time, effect of solution pH and ad- 5. Effect of operational parameters on dye sequestration using
sorbent dosage were investigated in a batch mode. Experimental agricultural wastes
isotherm data was represented with Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin
and Harkins-Jura isotherm models. The adsorption data were 5.1. Effect of contact time and initial dye concentration
found to follow the Langmuir model better than the other models.
The data were also fitted to kinetic models such as pseudofirst The efficiency of dye removal was increased as the contact time
order, pseudo-second order, Elovich and intraparticle diffusion increased and lowers initial dye concentration [251]. Optimal
models. Results indicated that Cocoa shell activated carbon (CSAC) equilibrium time of various dyes with different charcoal ad-
could be a low cost adsorbent for the removal of RY2 from aqueous sorbents from agricultural residues (bagasse, groundnut shells, pea
solution [188]. shells, tea leaves and wheat straw) is between 4 and 5 h [252]. In
general, adsorption of dyes increased with increasing of sorbent
dosage. For acidic dyes the ratios of dyes sorbed had approached
4. Other important agricultural solid wastes used as ad-
maximum values when sorbent dose of 5 (g/L) was used [252]. The
sorbents for dyes sequestration
experimental results of adsorptions of Congo red (CR), Malachite
There have been many attempts to find inexpensive and easily green (MG) and Rhodamine B (RDB) on the activated carbon at
available adsorbents to remove the pollutants such as the agri- various initial concentrations (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mg/L) with
cultural solid wastes where according to their physical-chemical contact time are reported [27]. The percent adsorption decreases
characteristics and low cost they may be good potential ad- with the increase in initial dye concentration, but the actual
sorbents [192,193]. Agricultural productions are available in large amount of dye adsorbed per unit mass of carbon increased with
quantities around the world; thus big amount of wastes rejected. increase in dyes concentration. It means that the adsorption is
Agricultural wastes are lignocellulosic materials that consist of highly dependent on the initial concentration of dyes [27]. The
three main structural components which are lignin, cellulose and effect of initial concentration of Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao) Shell in
hemicelluloses. These components contribute mass and have high
the solution on the capacity of adsorption onto the adsorbent was
molecular weights. Lignocellulosic materials also contain ex-
also studied and shown in Fig. 3 [253]. The experiments were
tractive structural components which have a smaller molecular
size [194]. Different adsorbents derived from agricultural solid carried out using Reactive Yellow 2 (RY2) solution with initial
wastes have been used for dye removal from wastewater and concentrations 20, 40, 60 and 80 mg/L were agitated with 100 mg
many studies of dye adsorption by agricultural solid wastes have of Cocoa shell activated carbon (CSAC) at 35 °C. As shown in Fig. 3,
been published. Agricultural and industrial sectors dispose of large the adsorption at different dye concentrations was rapid at the
amounts of untreated waste, which may pollute the land, water initial stages and then gradually decreases with the progress of
and air, and as a result damage the ecosystem. On the other hand, adsorption until the equilibrium was reached. The rapid adsorp-
improper treatment of these wastes causes similar problems. tion at the initial contact time can be attributed to the availability
Therefore legislative control of pollutants should be enacted to of the positively charged surface of activated carbon [254]. The
prevent or to minimize the transfer of hazardous material to other contact time needed for RY2 solution to reach equilibrium was
areas [195]. Therefore within the last few years many ideas have
90 min. [253]. At lower concentration, the ratio of the initial
been introduced in order to properly dispose of these wastes, such
number of dye molecules to the available surface area is low,
as intensive use as adsorbents for pollutant removal especially for
subsequently, the fractional adsorption become independent on
dye removal where it showed high adsorption capacity [196].
Agricultural wastes are renewable, available in large amounts and the initial concentration [27]. In the process of dye adsorption
less expensive as compared to other materials used as adsorbents. initially dye molecules have to first encounter the boundary layer
Agricultural wastes are better than other adsorbents because the effect and then it has to diffuse from boundary layer film onto
agricultural wastes are usually used without or with a minimum of adsorbent surface and then finally, it has to diffuse into the porous
processing (washing, drying, grinding) and thus reduce production structure of the adsorbent [253].
costs by using a cheap raw material and eliminating energy costs
associated with thermal treatment [197].
Other agricultural solid wastes from cheap and readily available
resources such as papaya seeds [198], grass waste [199,200], po-
melo (Citrus grandis) peel [201], guava leaves [202,203], gulmohar
(Delonix regia) plant leaf powder [204], jackfruit peel [205], banana
waste [206,207], palm kernel fiber [208], rice straw [209], broad
bean peels [210], rubber seed shell [211], castor seed shell [212],
pumpkin seed hull [272], pineapple stem [213], dehydrated peanut
hull [214], coconut husk [221], coffee husks [215], Parthenium
hysterophorus [216], garlic peel [217], fallen phoenix tree’s leaves
[218], ground hazelnut shells [219,220], coconut bunch waste
[221], peanut hull [222], Luffa cylindrica fibers [223], yellow pas-
sion fruit waste [224] jute waste [225], cereal chaff [226], orange
peel [207], wheat shells [227], wheat straw [228], neem (Azadir-
achta indica) leaf powder [229] have also been successfully em-
ployed for the removal of dyes from wastewater. Table 5 also
present some previous studies of the adsorption of dyes using Fig. 3. Effect of initial concentration and contact time [253].
18 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
5.2. Effect of temperature
Some structural changes in the dyes and the adsorbent occur
during the adsorption. The adsorption capacity of the activated
carbon increases with the increase in experimental temperature
from 303 K to 333 K [27]. The adsorption capacity of adsorbent
depends on the thermodynamic parameters, such as ΔG°, ΔH° and
ΔS° [70]. The values ΔH° and ΔS° are obtained from the slope and
intercept of Van’t Hoff plots. The values are the range of 1 and
93 kJ/mol indicating the favorability of physisorption. The positive
values of ΔH° show the endothermic nature of adsorption and the
possibility of physical adsorption. In the case of physical adsorp-
tion, while increasing the temperature of the system, the extent of
dye adsorption
increases, this rules out the possibility of chemisorptions. The
negative values of ΔG° show that the adsorption is highly favor-
able for Congo red. The positive values of ΔS° show increased
disorder and randomness at the solid solution interface of the
adsorbent [27]. The effect of temperature on the methylene blue
removal on sawdust was investigated [255].
5.3. Effect of pH on dye uptake
The initial pH of solution can significantly influence adsorption
of dyes. Maximum adsorptions of acidic dyes were obtained from
the solutions with pH 8–10 [252]. For instance, Abbas [256] re-
ported that using adsorbent material, the percent removal of
Congo red was decreased when the pH of simulated synthetic
aqueous solution (SSAS) was increased at constant other variables,
while the percent removal of methylene blue, brilliant green and
crystal violet dyes were increased when the pH of SSAS was in-
creased at constant other variables (Fig. 4). It is well recognized
that the pH of the aqueous solution is an important parameter in
affecting adsorption of cationic dye [257]. High adsorption of
Congo red at low pH can be explained in both terms; the species of
Congo red and the adsorbent surface. For this case, at low pH, i.e.
acidic conditions, the surface of the adsorbent (RH) becomes
highly protonated and favors adsorb of above group of Congo red
dye in the anionic form. With increasing the pH of SSAS, the de-
gree of protonation of the RH surface reduces gradually and hence
adsorption is decreased [258]. Furthermore, as pH increases there
is competition between hydroxide ion (OH  )and species of Congo
red, the former being the dominant species at higher pH values.
The net positive surface potential of sorbent media decreases, re-
sulting in a reduction the electrostatic attraction between the
(sorbent) Congo red species and the (sorbate) adsorbent material
surface (RH), with a consequent reduced sorption capacity which
ultimately leads to decrease in percentage adsorption of Congo red
dye [259].
Fig. 4. Effect of pH on the percent removal of dyes @ C0 ¼ 1 mg/l, Tf ¼55 °C,
hb ¼1 m, t ¼60 min. and F¼ 5 ml/min [256].
On the other hand, the adsorption of methylene blue, brilliant
green and crystal violent dyes (each one alone) can be explained
by ion-exchange mechanism of sorption in which the important
role is played by functional groups that have cation exchange
properties. For this case at lower pH values, dyes removal was
inhibited, possibly as a result of the competition between hydro-
gen and dyes molecules on the sorption sites, with an apparent
preponderance of hydrogen ions, which restricts the approach of
metal cations as in consequence of the repulsive force. As the pH
increased, the ligand functional groups in adsorbent media (RH)
would be exposed, increasing the negative charge density on the
adsorbent material surface, increasing the attraction of dyes mo-
lecules with positive charge and allowing the sorption onto ad-
sorbent material surface [256].
5.4. Adsorption mechanisms of dye-adsorbent
The adsorption mechanism involves chemical bonding and ion
exchange. The adsorption mechanisms can be explained by the
presence of several interactions, such as complexation, ion ex-
change due to a surface ionization, and hydrogen bonds. One
problem with sawdust materials is that the adsorption results are
strongly pH-dependent [260]. There is a neutral pH beyond which
the sawdust will be either positively or negatively charged. Re-
active dyes attach to their substrates by a chemical reaction that
forms a covalent bond between the molecule of dye and that of the
fiber. Thus the dyestuff becomes a part of the fiber and is much
less likely to be removed by washing than are dyestuffs that ad-
here by adsorption. The most important characteristic of reactive
dyes is the formation of covalent bonds with the substrate to be
colored. Thus the dye forms a chemical bond with cellulose, which
is the main component of cotton fibers. Chemical pretreatment of
sawdust has been shown to improve the adsorption capacity and
to enhance the efficiency of sawdust adsorption [261,262]. An-
other waste product from the timber industry is bark, a poly-
phenol-rich material. Because of its low cost and high availability,
bark is very attractive as an adsorbent. Like sawdust, the cost of
forest wastes is only associated with the transport cost from the
storage place to the site where they will be utilized [263]. Bark is
an effective adsorbent because of its high tannin content [264].
The polyhydroxy polyphenol groups of tannin are thought to be
the active species in the adsorption process. Morais et al. [264]
studied adsorption of Remazol BB onto eucalyptus bark from Eu-
calyptus globulus. Tree fern, an agricultural by-product, has been
recently investigated to remove pollutants from aqueous solutions
[185]. Other agricultural solid wastes from cheap and readily
available resources such as cotton stalks [265], palm tree [265],
wood pulp [266], bagasse [267], date pits [243], corncob [268],
barley husk [268], wheat straw [269], wood chips [270], and many
others [34,39,69,97,182,271–283] have also been successfully
employed for the removal of dyes from aqueous solution.
The wheat husk has been activated and used as an adsorbent
for the adsorption of Reactofix golden yellow 3 RFN from aqueous
solution. The equilibrium adsorption level was determined to be a
function of the solution pH, adsorbent dosage, dye concentration
and contact time. The equilibrium adsorption capacities of wheat
husk and charcoal for dye removal were obtained using Freundlich
and Langmuir isotherms [282].
Conclusively, certain waste products from agricultural sources
have been tested and proposed for dye removal. The question now
is which low-cost adsorbent is better and satisfactory? To be frank,
there is no direct answer to this question because each low-cost
adsorbent has its own specific physical and chemical character-
istics such as porosity, surface area and physical strength, as well
as inherent advantages and disadvantages in wastewater treat-
ment that makes a better adsorbent for a particular type of dyes
 K.A. Adegoke, O.S. Bello / Water Resources and Industry 12 (2015) 8–24
(Table 1). In addition, adsorption capacities of sorbents also vary,
depending on the experimental conditions. Therefore, comparison
of sorption performance is difficult to make. However, it is clear
from the present literature survey that non-conventional ad-
sorbents have potential as readily available, inexpensive and ef-
fective sorbents. They also possess several other advantages that
actually make them excellent materials for environmental pur-
poses, such as high capacity and rate of adsorption, high selectivity
for different concentrations, equilibrium time and also rapid ki-
netics (Table 3).
6. Challenges and future prospects
This review has attempted to cover a wide range of in-
expensive, locally available and effective materials that could be
used in lieu of commercial activated carbon for the removal of
various classes of dyes from wastewater. Only little efforts have
been made to carry out a cost comparison between activated
carbon and various non-conventional adsorbents. This aspect
needs to be investigated further in order to promote large-scale
use of non-conventional adsorbents. In spite of the scarcity of
consistent cost information, the widespread uses of low-cost ad-
sorbents in industries for wastewater treatment applications today
are strongly recommended due to their local availability, technical
feasibility, engineering applicability, and cost effectiveness. If low-
cost adsorbents perform well in removing dyes at low cost, they
can be adopted and widely used in industries not only to minimize
cost, but also improve profitability with maximum output. Un-
doubtedly, low-cost adsorbents offer a lot of promising benefits for
commercial purposes in the future.
Further investigation on pore size distribution of adsorbent,
size of dye molecules, functional groups present on surface of
adsorbent, initial pH, batch or column conditions, temperature,
particle size of adsorbent, the furnace as well as sample holder size
(in case activation is performed) should be provided. The effects of
these parameters on the adsorption of dyes should be examined
by optimal experimental conditions. The adsorbent cost (raw
material, final product at laboratory scale) must also be made
available, so that other users can compare the materials with
commercially available ones.
Moreover, batch conditions, characterization of adsorbents,
adsorptive capacity, the uptake mechanism and immobilization of
the waste material for enhanced efficiency and recovery are highly
needed to design and carry out some pilot-plant scale in order to
study and check their feasibility at industrial level. As the dye ef-
fluents contain several other pollutants, attention is required to be
given to adsorption of dyes from mixtures and the low-cost al-
ternative adsorbents should further be investigated for their effi-
ciency using dye effluents from industries.
Research workers should be encouraged to work on real ef-
fluents at local level. Since a vast number of the low-cost ad-
sorbents are produced from locally available materials, the re-
searchers utilizing low-cost alternative adsorbents for dye removal
can work and promote the mantra ‘think globally, act locally’.
Combination of methodologies/system should also be encouraged
since one perfect method/system is practically difficult. Besides
these, strategies to minimize dye and related chemical effluent at
all levels and designing more environmentally friendly chemicals
are also needed to achieve a maximum removal process of various
pollutants such as dyes and other organic/or inorganic from
wastewater.
In spite of bright future of low cost adsorbents, there are some
issues related to their success in near future. The management of
the exhausted adsorbent is an important issue and has not been
not been taken care completely. Besides, there is no report
19
available on the issue related to the management of removed dyes.
In our views, the removed dyes should be recycled. The removed
dyes should be filled in steel containers and treated as in case of
nuclear wastes. Some adsorbents are not effective working under
natural conditions. Therefore, there is great need to develop such
adsorbent that can work at pH 7.0, ambient temperature with
short contact time. Normally, low cost adsorbents are effective for
removing dyes at mg/mL concentration. Attempts should be made
to module them for working at μg/mL concentration too. Besides,
these adsorbents should be prepared in an eco-friendly manner
and used under control to avoid any environmental hazards.
7. Conclusion
Recently, various low-cost adsorbents derived from agricultural
wastes have been investigated intensively for dye removal from
contaminated wastewater. Locally available agricultural wastes are
easily converted to charcoals which can be used as activated car-
bons. However, despite numerous papers published on low-cost
adsorbents, there is as yet little information containing a full study
of comparison between sorbents. Although much has been ac-
complished in the area of low-cost sorbents, much work is ne-
cessary (i) to predict the performance of the adsorption processes
for dye removal from wastewaters under a range of operating
conditions, (ii) to better understand adsorption mechanisms and
(iii) to demonstrate the use of inexpensive adsorbents in an in-
dustrial scale. Therefore removal of dye contaminants from was-
tewaters using agricultural based activated carbon has offered
promising results with maximum efficiency in the field of ad-
sorption technology because they show outstanding removal
capabilities for various class of dyes and could be used in place of
commercial activated carbon.
Acknowledgments
The authors thankfully acknowledge the support obtained from
Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) in form of Grant; Re-
search Grant number: 11-249 RG/CHE/AF/AC_1_UNESCO FR:
3240262674 given to the corresponding author.
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